Lesson 10 The A toms,

Molecules, and Ions ccuracy

and
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to :
1. state the basic laws of matter
2. explain how the basic laws of matter led to the formulation of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
3. describe Dalton’s Atomic Theory

T he single most important entity in chemistry is the atom. The concept of atom was born in
Greece about 450 B.C. Atoms were believed to be the smallest particle of an element that has
the chemical properties of an element. Democritus was the first to argue that matter is
discontinuous and could not be infinitely divided. After a century, Aristotle, was the most
influential scientist in his time, argued for continuity of Universe. Aristotle’s point of view
prevailed for 21 centuries.

Basic Laws of Matter and Dalton’s Theory

The Atomic Theory
As early as 400-300 BC, some Greek philosophers has already ideas
about the composition of matter. Aristotle, the greatest scientist of
antiquity, proposed that matter is continuous and can be divided infinitely.
Another group of early Greek philosophers had a different idea about the
nature of matter. Leusippus, Democritus and Epicum had proposed that
matter is made up of tiny, discrete, invisible and indivisible particles
possessing shape, size and mass, and capable of motion in empty space.
These particles were called atoms (from the Greek word “atomos” meaning
indivisible). The ideas of Democritus, et.al. were rejected for centuries, but
began to gain acceptance in the late eighteenth century. Aristotle
In 1803, an English schoolteacher named John Dalton published the first
modern ideas about the existence and nature of atoms. He summarized and
expanded the hazy concepts of early philosophers and scientists. Taken
together, these ideas form the core of Dalton’s Atomic Theory. In condensed
John form, Dalton’s postulates may be stated as follows:
Dalton
1. An element is made up of extremely small indivisible particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element have identical properties, which differ from those of
other elements.
3. Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or transformed into atoms of another element.
4. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine with each other
in small whole-numbered ratios.
5. The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.

38
 The Law of Conservation of Matter and the Law of Definite
Proportions were known in Dalton’s time and were the basis for his
atomic theory. Even with their shortcomings Dalton’s postulates
provided the framework that could be modified and expanded by later
scientists. Thus, John Dalton is the father of modern atomic theory. This
was proposed Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, a French chemist of 1743-
Antoine Laurent 1794 also known as the Father of modern chemistry.
Lavoisier
The smallest particle of an element that maintains its chemical identify through all chemical and
physical changes is called an atom. Atoms are the components of molecules, and molecules are the
components of some elements and most compounds. A molecules is a tightly bound combination of
atoms that acts as a single particle. Molecules can be combinations of atoms of the same element or
combinations of atoms of different elements forming compounds. In terms of their atomic make-up, an
element is matter which is composed of one kind of atom, a compound is matter which is composed of
different kinds of atoms chemically combined in simple, whole-number ratios, and mixture is matter
which is a physical combination of the particles of elements or compounds.

Law of Constant Composition

The Law of Constant Composition was discovered by the French
chemist, Joseph Proust (1754-1826), best known for the discovery of
this law. This law states that all the samples of chemical compound
contain all the elements in the same proportion.

Joseph Proust
Law of Multiple Proportion
The Law of Multiple proportion was formulated by John Dalton (1766-1844), an English chemist
and meteorologist that has many contribution to science. The Law states that the elements in a
compound have proportion of those chemical compounds that can be expressed in small whole number
ratio. The basic laws of matter served as the basis for Dalton to formulate Dalton‘s Atomic Theory and
its considered as the modern atomic theory.
Many studies have been undertaken in the 19th century about the atom. Some of the persons
who contributed are the following:
Joseph J. Thomson. In 1904, he made the first attempt to
account for the presence of electrons in atoms. He proposed that an
atom is composed of a uniform, positively charged sphere in which are
embedded a number of electrons equal to the positive charge (the plum
pudding model of the atom). He determined the ratio of the charge (e)
of the electron to its mass (m).
e/m = 1.759 x 108 coulombs/gram
Joseph J. Thomson
Because of his work on electrons. Thomson was hailed as the
discoverer of the first subatomic particle, the electron.

39
 R.A. Millikan. In 1913, he showed that the charge of an
electron is 1.602 x 10-19 coulombs. The mass of the electrons is
therefore equal to 1.602 x 10-19 / 1.759 x 108 or
9.109 x 10-28.

R.A. Millikan
Ernest Rutherford. In 1910, he performed a series of experiments in
which he bombarded a very thin gold foil with alpha particles (He 11) from a
radioactive source. He observed that almost all of the alpha particles passed
through the foil with no deflection. A very few particles, however, were
deflected through wide angles. These observations led him to propose, in
1911, the Nuclear Model or Nuclear Theory of the atom. He postulated that
an atom contains a tiny positively charged massive center called the nucleus.
Distributed about the nucleus at relatively large distances are electrons
Ernest Rutherford sufficient in number to balance the positive charge in the nucleus.
Further experiments led him to identify, in 1919, the positive particle in the nucleus which he
called the proton. It carries a positive charge equal in magnitude to that of an electron but opposite in
sign. Its mass was found to be 1836 times the mass of an electron.

Niels Bohr. In 1913, he proposed the planetary model of the atom,

that is, the atom is like a miniature solar system consisting of a very dense
central core or nucleus which corresponds to the sun, and electrons
revolving in definite circular orbits about the nucleus which correspond to
the planets. Bohr postulated the existence of energy states in terms of
electron orbits. An electron in a large orbit is in a high-energy state, an
electron in a small orbit is in a low energy state and closer to the nucleus. He
further postulated that an electron revolves around the nucleus with a
definite fixed energy in a fixed path, without emitting or absorbing energy. Niels Bohr
When an electron is promoted from a lower energy state to a higher one, it absorbs a definite
amount of energy. When it falls back to the original energy level, it emits exactly the same amount of
energy it absorbed in moving from the lower to the higher energy level. The emission and absorption of
energy explains the origin of spectral lines.

Arnold Sommerfield. The atomic model of Bohr was modified

in 1916 by Sommerfield, who assumed elliptical orbits rather than
circular orbits. He also explained the existence of sub-energy levels.

Louis de Broglie. In 1923, he proposed that very small particles,

such as electrons, exhibit both the properties of a particle and a wave.
Arnold Sommerfield This is known as the Wave Particle Theory or Dualistic Theory of
Electrons.

40
 Werner Heisenberg. He introduced the “Uncertainty Principle”
in 1927 which states that it is impossible to determine accurately both
the momentum or velocity and position of an electron simultaneously
or at any one time.

Louis de Broglie Erwin Schrodinger. He proposed the “Quantum Mechanical

Model” or the “Wave Mechanics Model” of the atom. Schrondinger’s
Werner Wave Mechanics resulted in the derivation of the probability equation
Heisenberg to determine the area around the nucleus where the probability of
finding the electron is greatest. This is called the atomic orbital . In each
energy state, the atom or molecule has a definite energy. The allowed
energy states of atoms and molecules can be described by sets of
members called quantum numbers. These quantum numbers describe
Erwin the energy levels of electrons and the shapes of the orbitals which
Schrodinger describes the distributions of electrons in space.

James Chadwick. He discovered the neutrons in 1932. He

James established that a neutron has no charge but has mass which is nearly
Chadwick equal to that of a proton.

EXERCISES
Answer the following questions.
1. Explain how the basic laws led tom the discovery of Dalton’s Atomic Theory.

2. What are some flaws in Dalton’s atomic theory ? Hos postulates that are not accepted
nowadays ?

3. Will the Law of Conservation of Mass still be true if the sample is an open system? Why ?

41
Atomic Structure
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to :
1. describe the atomic structure
2. illustrate the subatomic particles
3. differentiate among atomic number, mass number, and isotopes, and which of these
distinguishes one element from another.
4. write isotopic symbols
5. recognize common isotopes and their uses

A tom is a small individual particle considered as the basic unit of matter. An atom consists of
three main subatomic particles namely, proton, neutron, and the electrons. The atom
contains the nucleus, the part of the atom that is the center. The nucleus consist of the proton an
neutron. The size of the electron is much smaller compared to the sizes of the neutrons and protons.
Atomic Structure
The smallest unit of an element, which can take part in a chemical reaction, is called atom.
Atoms are themselves composed of still smaller units called subatomic particles. There are three
principal subatomic particles: protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons and neutrons are found
together in a very tiny, extremely dense positive core called the nucleus. Located in the center of the
atom. Because they are found in the nucleus, protons and neutrons are sometimes called nucleons.
Moving around the nucleus and a relatively large distance from it are the negative electrons.

Subatomic Particles
Electrons are small negatively charged particles that spin
around the nucleus, staying in their orbits (also called shells or
energy levels). The shells are numbered, depending on how close
they are tom the nucleus. the level closest to the nucleus is
numbered 1; the next level further the nucleus is 2, etc.
electrons in the lowest energy level are the ones most tightly
bound, and therefore hardest to expel.
Protons were discovered by Eugene Goldstein using
Crooke’s tube, with holes in the cathode. He observed that there
is another kind of ray originating from the anode, passing through
the holes in the cathode.
The charge to mass ratio was much smaller than that of electrons, and it varies with the kind of
gas used in the tube. The charge of this particle was shown to be positive.
Neutrons are found in the nucleus. James Chadwick showed that uncharged particles are
emitted when atoms of Beryllium and other elements are bombarded with high velocity Helium particles
( particles). It has a mass slightly greater the that of a proton and has NO CHARGE.

The relative masses and electrical charges of the three subatomic particles are summarized
below. Because the actual masses are extremely small, these have been recalculated on the basis of
another unit of mass called atomic mass unit (amu) where 1 amu = 1.660 x 10-24 g:

42
 In an uncombined atom, the number of electrons equals the number of protons, hence, the
atom is electrically neutral. This number is known as the atomic number. Since the chemical properties
of an element are greatly influenced by the extranuclear electrons. The atomic number forms an
important basis for the chemical classification of the elements. Thus, an element is identified by its
atomic number.
For a neutral atom :

Atomic number (Z) = No. of Protons = No. of Electrons

The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is known as the mass
number. Usually the mass number is the atomic mass rounded off to the nearest whole number.
Mass number (A) = No. of Protons + No. of Neutrons = No. of Nucleons

No. of Neutrons = Mass Number – Atomic Number

Atoms of the same element may vary in their atomic masses. Isotopes are atoms of the
same element having the same atomic number but different atomic masses or mass numbers. Isotopes
have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. For instance, there are three
isotopes of hydrogen, namely: protium ( 11H ), deuterium (21H), and tritium ( 11H).

43
 Isobars are atoms of different elements having the
same mass number but different atomic numbers.

40 40
Examples are: 18 Ar and 20 Ca

Isotones are atoms of different elements having

the same number of neutrons but differ in
atomic numbers and mass numbers.

23 24
Examples are: 11 Na and 12 Mg

A nuclide refers to a particular atomic specie characterized by its atomic number and mass
number.
12 20
Examples are: 6 C and 10 Ne
Atomic mass (or atomic weight) is the average relative mass of an element’s naturally occurring
isotopes on a scale that uses atoms of C – 12 as the reference. It is a number that tells us how heavy an
atom is relative to a C- 12 atom In 1961 carbon – 12 was assigned a mass of 12 atomic mass unit (amu).

44
Other Common Isotopes and their Uses
There are other isotopic elements that can be useful to
us. Here are some of them. Carbon has 3 naturally occurring
isotopes that of Carbon -12 which has 6 protons and 6
neutrons, Carbon-13 has 6 proton and 7 neutron and Carbon-
14 has 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Carbon-12 is the most
common isotope of carbon. It is considered as the reference
isotope for measuring all the other element’s atomic weights.
Carbon-13 is commonly used in studying the structure of
organic compounds using nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy. Carbon-14 is radioactive isotope that is used in
carbon dating to determine the age of materials like fossils and
artifacts.
Cs-137 an isotope of Cesium having 55 protons and 82 neutrons, used mainly in medicine for
treating cancer in the form of radiation therapy devices.
Cu-64 an isotope of Copper having 29 protons and 35 neutrons, used for studying brain tumors
Fe-55 an isotope of Iron with 26 protons and 29 neutrons, used as an X-ray source for different
methods of scientific analysis.
Na-24 an isotope of Sodium with 11 protons and 13 neutrons, used in detecting blood clots and
tumors

LET’S DO THIS
+
Elements Symbol Atomic No. (Z) Mass No. (A) #p #e- neutrons
Potassium K 19 39
Phosphorous P 15
Magnesium Mg 12
Argon Ar 18 40
Silicon Si 14 14
Write the Isotopes of the following elements;
1. Br
+ -
Bromine - 79 p = n0 = e=
+ -
Bromine - 81 p = n0 = e=
2. Ag
+ -
Silver - 107 p = n0 = e=
+ -
Silver - 109 p = n0 = e=

Atomic Structure
45
A. Identify the following element being described in each statement.
__________ 1. an element with 26 protons and 30 neutrons
_
__________ 2. has a mass number of 11 and an atomic number of 5
_
__________ 3. has 117 number of neutrons and an atomic number of 78
_
__________ 4. has 69 number of neutrons and 50 protons
_
__________ 5. has 125neutrons and atomic number of 85
_
B. What will be the electron of the following elements with given atomic number
and mass number ?
__________ 1. Antimony ; p+ = 51 ; n0 = 71
_
+ 0
__________ 2. Uranium ; p = 92 ; n = 146
_
__________ 3. Gold ; p+ = 79 ; n0 = 118
_
+ 0
__________ 4. Tungsten ; p = 74 ; n = 110
_
+ 0
__________ 5. Bromine ; p = 35 ; n = 45
_
C. How many electrons, protons and neutrons are there in each of the following ATOM?

D. How many electrons, protons and electrons are there in each of the following IONS?

46
 Date Performed : _____________________________________ Score : _________________
Date Submitted : _____________________________________

Molecules and Ions

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to :
1. differentiate among atoms , molecules and ions and give examples
2. not all matter is atomic in nature
3. most matter is in the form of molecules , ions , and compounds in nature

M olecules are made of atoms that are chemically bonded together. They can be a
combination of atoms of the same element or different elements. Molecules can be
diatomic or polyatomic.
Diatomic molecules occur in nature and contain only two atoms. It can be atoms of the
same element called homonuclear or different elements called heteronuclear. Examples of
diatomic molecules with the same elements are H 2 (hydrogen molecule), Cl2 (chlorine molecule),
and Br2 (bromine molecule). Examples of diatomic molecules having different elements are HF
(hydrogen fluoride), HCl ( hydrogen chloride), and NO (nitric oxide). On the other hand, a
polyatomic molecule contains three or more atoms. Examples of polyatomic molecules are O 3
(ozone), CO2 (carbon dioxide), and C2H2 (acetylene).

I ons are atoms or molecules that have a charge, meaning the number of protons is not equal
to the number of electrons, giving the atom either a positive or negative net charge. Ions with
positive charges are called the cations while ions with negative charges are called the anions.

EXERCISE
Describe whether the following is an atom, a molecule, or an ion. Write your answer on the blanks

__________ 1. H2O2 __________ 6. HPO42-

__________ 2. Ar __________ 7. K+
__________ 3. CO __________ 8. O2-
47
 __________ 4. O2 __________ 9. NO3
__________ 5. N2 __________ 10. Ne

Development of the Periodic Table

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to :
1. describe the development of the periodic table
2. identify the scientists involved in the development of periodic table; and
3. describe the arrangement of the elements in the periodic table

T he Periodic Table began with a search for numerical relationships among the atomic masses of
similar elements. In 1815, Prout recognized that atomic masses approximated whole numbered
multiples of the atomic mass of hydrogen having an atomic mass of 1 amu.

In 1829, the German chemist Johann Dobereiner called attention

to several sets of three elements (triads) which are similar in properties,
which form similar compounds, and for which the atomic mass of one is
approximately the average of the atomic masses of the other two (e.g. the
average mass of Cl and 1 is 81 and the mass of Br is 80). Dobereiner drew
the conclusion that the properties of an element depend upon its atomic
mass.
Dobereiner
In 1864, the English chemist, John Newlands, noticed that when
the known elements were arranged in order of atomic mass, every eighth
element has similar properties. He called this peculiar relationship as the
“Law of Octaves” and set up a table to illustrate it.

48
 In 1869, the Russian Chemist Dmitri Mendeleev and the German
Newlands
chemist Julius Luther Meyer independently proposed a more extensive
tabulation of the elements based on atomic mass. Mendeleev noticed, just
as Newlands has, that the chemical properties of the elements recur at
definite intervals. Therefore, he concluded that the chemical properties of
the elements are periodic functions of their atomic weights. This
statement is called the Mendeleev’s Periodic Law.
Mendeleev

Mendeleev was given most of the credit because it was he who

showed how useful the table could be in predicting the existence and
properties of still unknown elements. For example, in 1872 when
Mendeleev published his table, the elements, gallium, scandium, and
germanium were unknown. Mendeleev correctly predicted the existence
and properties of these elements from gaps in the periodic table.
Meyer
Mendeleev’s version of the periodic table, however, has some
inconsistencies. For example, if iodine (determined atomic weight in 1869
128) is placed before tellurium (at wt. in 1869 : 128) , iodine appears in the
group with sulfur and selenium, and tellurium finds itself in the company of
chlorine and bromine. However, iodine resembles chlorine and bromine
does not resemble sulfur and selenium. Tellurium is similar to sulfur and
selenium and not similar to chlorine and bromine.
Moseley
These difficulties were resolved when Henry Moseley found that the atomic number rather
than the atomic mass, is the fundamental basis for the arrangement of the elements. As a result of
Moseley’s work, the Periodic Law is now stated as. “The properties of the elements are periodic
functions of their atomic numbers.”
The current version of the periodic table differs from that of Mendeleev’s in that it lists the
elements in order by atomic numbers rather than by atomic weight.

Parts of the Periodic Table

The Periodic Table is a tabular arrangement of elements in the order of increasing atomic
numbers. The number above the symbol is the atomic number and that which appears below the
symbol is the average atomic weight.
The Periodic Table is composed of vertical
columns called groups or families and horizontal rows
called periods or series. Elements appearing in the
same vertical columns have similar physical and
chemical properties.
Elements in the vertical column can be divided
into categories according to the type of subenergy
levels being filled: the noble gases, the representative
elements, the transition elements, and the inner
transition elements (the lanthanides and the
actinides).
The representative elements (also called Main group elements) are the elements in IA through
VIIA, all of which have incompletely filled outermost s and p subshells. The families of the elements in
the main groups are:

49
 Group 1A = Alkali metals
Group IIA = Alkaline Earth Metals
Group IIIA = Boron Family
Group IVA = Carbon Family
Group VA = Nitrogen Family
Group VIA = Oxygen Family or Chalcogens
Group VIIA = Halogens

The noble gases (Group VIIA elements), with the exception of helium, have completely filled
outermost p subshells or subenergy levels.
The transition elements are the elements in IB and IIIB through VIIB, which have incompletely
filled d subshells. These elements are sometimes referred to as the d-block transition elements. The IIB
elements are Zn, Cd, Hg , which are neither representative nor transition elements. The lanthanides and
actinides are sometimes called the ƒ –block transition elements because they have incompletely filled ƒ
subshells. They are also called inner transition elements.

Electronically, hydrogen belongs to Group IA, but chemically it has no congeners (elements
residing in the same group). Electronic properties place helium in Group IIA but chemically it belongs
to the noble gas group.
Periods are numbered to the left of each row. The first period contains only hydrogen and
helium. The second period begins with lithium in Group IA and end with neon in Group VIIIA. The
third period begins with sodium in IA and terminates with argon in VIIIA.
As of 1995, there are 109 elements that have been identified. Of these, seventeen are
nonmetals, seven are semimetals, and the rest are metals. One nonmetal is liquid at room temperature
(Br), five are solids ( C, P, Si, Se, and I ) and eleven are gases ( H, N, O, F, Cl, and the six noble gases).
Among the metals, four are liquids ( Cs, Ra, Ga, Hg) and the rest are solids.
Of the 109 elements, nineteen are artificially prepared. These are: Tc (43), Pm (61), and the elements
with atomic numbers 93 and 109 elements 104 to 109 were given IUPAC names by the IUPAC
Commission on Nomenclature of Inorganic Compounds to settle Soviet-US dispute on who was the first
to synthesize the element. But lately they were given names derived from names of scientists. The
symbols and names of these elements are given below:
Elements IUPAC name Given name
104 Unnilquadium (Unq) Dubnium (Db)
105 Unnilpentium (Unp) Joliolnium (Jl)
106 Unnilthexium (Unh) Rutherfordium (Rt)
107 Unnilseptium (Uns) Bohrium (Bh)
108 Unniloctium (Uno) Hahnium (Hn)
109 Unnilennium (Une) Meitnerium (Mt)

50
 Periodic Table
A.
Development
Identify the following element being described in each statement.
__________ 1. the most stable group in periodic table mostly gases and has
_ completely filled outer shell
__________ 2. the most reactive metal in Group I
_
__________ 3. the only liquid element in Halogen family
_
__________ 4. the only liquid element in the Transition group
_
__________ 5. the only solid element in Halogen family
_
B. What group do these elements belong?
__________ 1. known as alkali metals and highly reactive with water and oxygen
_
__________ 2. known as alkali earth metals but not as soft or reactive as the Group I
_
__________ 3. these are the transition metals and do not have uniform properties
_
__________ 4. known as the representative elements
_
__________ 5. the halogens and noble gases
_
C. Answer the following questionaires ;
1. Name the group to which each of the following elements belong :
a) K __________ b) Mg __________ c) Ar _________ d) Br __________
2. Classify the following elements as metals (A), non-metal (B), or metalloid (C)
a) Si _____ b) Zn _____ c) B ____ d) N ____ e) K _____ f) S _______

D. Questions and Problems

1. How does Mendeleev’ s work improve on the earlier works of Dobereiner and Newlands ?

51
 2. What is the difference between Newland’s table and Mendeleev’s table ?

3. Explain how Moseley’s work contributed to the development of the recent periodic table.

Date Performed : _____________________________________ Score : _________________

Date Submitted : _____________________________________

Naming Compounds and Chemical Formulas

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to :
1. represent compounds using chemical formulas, structural formulas, and models
2. give the similarities and differences between the empirical formula and molecular
formula of a compound
3. know the symbols of the elements and write formulas of compounds.
4. classify chemical reactions and represent them with balanced chemical equations.
5. write the chemical formulas and name of ionic compounds from the formulas

F or brevity, convenience, and international uniformity in referring to elements, each element

is represented by a symbol.

Chemical Symbol
A chemical symbol usually consists of the first letter (capitalized) followed by a second or third
appropriate letter (not capitalized). Thus, carbon is represented by C, chlorine by Cl, unnilpentium with
Unp etc. Symbols of some elements are derived from their Latin names: Fe (from the Latin ferrum) is
the symbol for iron, Cu (Cuprum) for copper, Au (Aurum) for gold, and Ag (Argentum) for silver. The
symbol W (Wolfram) for tungsten is derived from the German name.
At the present point in our study, these symbols may be regarded as nothing more than mere
shorthand method of representing the elements. We shall find later, however, several important
additional meanings implicit in the symbol of each element.

Nomenclature can be defined as the terminology of

chemical compounds. It represents the basic "language of
chemistry" and, just as the student who is studying
English or Mathematics must learn the terminology of
those languages, so must the chemistry student learn the
basic terminology of the discipline.
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 Chemical Formula
A chemical formula is a shorthand representation of a chemical
compound or a molecule of an element. Writing chemical formula is
a way of expressing the elements present in a compound in symbols,
as well as the number of atoms of each element there are in the
compound. Thus, the formula, NaCl, stands for sodium chloride, H2O
for water, and H2 for hydrogen molecule.

There are three different types of chemical formulas. These are empirical, molecular, and structural.
The empirical formula is one, which shows the simplest ratio of the atoms in a compound. It is
generally used to represent ionic compounds but not covalent molecules. Most of the inorganic
compounds are ionic and are represented by their empirical formulas.

Examples:

The molecular formula is used to represent compounds or elements which exist as covalent
molecules. It shows the actual number of atoms of each element present in a molecule of a compound
or an element. Thus, the molecular formula for water is H2O because a molecule of water contains two
atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. A molecule of hydrogen contains two atoms of the
element, hence, its molecular formula is H2. Hydrogen peroxide is represented by the molecular
formula, H2O2. Its empirical formula is HO, however, it is not normally used.

Examples:

For some compounds, the molecular formula is also the simplest formula. In this case, the
empirical formula is the same as the molecular formula. For instance, H2O which is the molecular
formula of water is also its empirical formula.
The structural formula is used for complex covalent molecules such as those found in organic
chemistry. It shows not only the actual number of atoms of each element present, but also the
arrangement of these atoms in the molecule. For example, the structural formula for the organic
compound ethane is CH3-CH3. It means a molecule of ethane consists of two atoms of carbon and six
atoms of hydrogen that, the two carbon are bonded together by a covalent bond, and each carbon is
bonded to three hydrogen atoms, also by covalent bonds.

53
 To summarize, ionic compounds are represented only by their empirical formulas, while
covalent molecules may be represented by their empirical, molecular or structural formulas. Of the
three, the structural formula gives us the most number of informations about the molecule.
Example: CH3-CH3 is the structural formula for ethane. Its molecular formula is C2H6 and its
empirical formula is CH3.

Writing of Formulas for Inorganic Compounds from Known Valences

Steps :
1. Write the symbols of the elements or formulas of the radicals that constitute the compound.
2. Determine the valence number of each (from memory)
3. Write the appropriate subscript to each element or radical observing the following rules :

a) If the valence numbers of the positive and negative ions are numerically equal, combine
them atom (or radical) for atom (or radical).

54
 Examples : sodium chloride : sodium ion = Na+ chloride ion = Cl -
Na+ Cl = NaCl
magnesium sulfide : magnesium ion = Mg++ sulfide ion = S=
Mg++ S= = MgS
ammonium nitrate: ammonium ion: = NH4+ nitrate = NO3-
NH4+ NO3 = NH4NO3

b) If the valences are not numerically equal, make the valence number of one the subscript
of the other, and vice versa. In other words cross multiply the numerical values of the
ions. Then, reduce the subscripts to the lowest terms.

Examples: sodium phosphate : sodium = Na + phosphate = PO4 -3

Na+1 PO-34 = Na3PO4
cadmium ferrocyanide : cadmium = Cd+2 ferrocyanide = Fe(CN)6-4
Cd+2 Fe(CN)-46 = Cd2Fe (CN)6
c) If the radical occurs more than once in the formula, enclose it in parenthesis and indicate,
with a subscript, the number of times it is supposed to be taken.

Example: ferric acetate = Fe+3 C2H3O2-1

Cross multiply the numerical values of the ions, we need to take the ferric ion once and the
acetate ion three times. To write the formula, only the C2H3O2 is enclosed in parenthesis, thus,
the correct formula of ferric acetate is;
Fe(C2H3O2)3

4. Check that the total positive valence equals the total negative valence.

Nomenclature of Inorganic Compounds

1. Binary Compounds. Compounds that contain only two elements are called binary compound.

55
 General Rule of Nomenclature: The cation is named first and the anion second. The anion is
named by taking the first part of the name of the element and adding –ide. Thus, Cl- ion is
called chloride.

a) Binary Acids. These are binary compounds consisting of hydrogen combined with a
nonmetal. Following the rules given above, the following binary acids are named as:

HCl hydrogen chloride

HBr hydrogen bromide
HI hydrogen iodide
H2S hydrogen sulfide

In solution, however, binary acids are named as hydroacids. The name is formed by adding the
prefix hydro and the suffix ic to the first part of the name of the element followed by the word acid.
Thus, the above binary acids are named as:

HCl hydrochloric acid

HBr hydrobromic acid
HI hydroiodic acid
H 2S hydrosulfuric acid
The exception is HCN which is not a binary acid. The name of the acid is hydrogen cyanide or
hydrocyanic acid.
b ) Binary Salts. Compounds consisting of a metal combined with a nonmetal are called binary
salts. The following are examples:

NaCl sodium chloride

CaBr2 calcium bromide
Al2S3 aluminum sulfide
If the metal exists in more than one valence or oxidation state, the name of the metal is
followed by its valence number in Roman numeral enclosed in parenthesis. Or the last few letters in the
name are dropped and the suffix “ous” or “ic” is added, depending on whether the element is in the
lower or higher valence state.

Examples: FeCl3 iron(III) chloride or ferric chloride

FeCl2 iron (II) chloride or ferrous chloride
CuS copper (II) sulfide or cupric sulfide

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 Cu2S copper (I) sulfide or cuprous sulfide

c) Metallic Oxides. A metal combined with oxygen forms a metallic oxide. The same rules of
nomenclature applied to binary salts are applied here.

Examples: MgO magnesium oxide

Al2O3 aluminum oxide
CuO cupric oxide or copper (II) oxide
FeO ferrous oxide or iron (II) oxide
Fe2O3 ferric oxide or iron (III) oxide

d) Binary Covalent Compounds. These are compounds of two nonmetals. In naming these
compounds, the name of each element is preceded by a numerical prefix (di, tri, tera, penta)
indicating the number of atoms of each element in the molecule.

Examples:
CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
PCl3 phosphorus trichloride
PCl5 phosphorus pentachloride
CCl4 carbon tetrachloride
P2O5 diphosphorus pentoxide
P2O3 diphosphorus trioxide

Sometimes in common usage, the prefix preceding the name of the first element is omitted or
the number is followed by its valence number in Roman Numeral enclosed in parentheses.
Examples:
P2O3 - phosphorus trioxide or phosphorus (III) oxide
P2O5 - phosphorus pentoxide or phosphorus (V) oxide
2. Ternary Compounds. Much more numerous than the binary compounds are the ternary
compounds, which contain three different elements. In many ternary compounds the negative
ion consists of a group of atoms which, as a unit, behaves in many ways like a single atom. Such
a group of atoms is called a radical.

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 Example: SO4= sulfate ion
a) Ternary acids or Oxyacids. These are ternary compounds in which hydrogen is combined
with an oxygen-containing negative radical. All ternary acids contain both hydrogen and
oxygen, and a third element which forms the central portion of the compound. To name
the acid , the suffix ous or ic is added to the significant letters of the name of the central
element and the word acid is added.
If the central element forms only one acid with hydrogen and oxygen, the name of
the acid end in ic.

Example: H2CO3 carbonic acid

If the central element forms two ternary acids with hydrogen and oxygen, the name of the
acid containing the smaller number of oxygen atoms ends in – ous and the other acid containing
the greater number of oxygen atoms ends in - ic.
Examples: HNO2 nitrous acid
HNO3 nitric acid
H2SO3 sulfurous acid
H2SO4 sulfuric acid
In instances where the number of oxygen is less than the normal number needed to
maintain the common valence state of the central element, the prefix hypo – is used and suffix
– ous acid is added. When the number of oxygen atom is more, the prefix – per is used and suffix
– ic is added. The following are common:
Examples: HClO hypochlorus acid
HClO2 chlorous acid
HClO3 chloric acid
HClO4 perchloric acid
b) Salts of Oxyacids. Salts of oxyacids are formed when all or some of the hydrogens of
the oxyacid have been replaced with a metal or positive radical. If all the hydrogens are
replaced, the result is a normal salt. This is named by giving the name of the metal or
positive ion followed by the name of the anion.
Examples: Na2SO3 sodium sulfite
Na2SO4 sodium sulfate
NH4NO3 ammonium nitrate
Ca3(PO4)2 calcium phosphate
If not all the hydrogens in the acid are replaced, the result is an acid salt. The naming is
somewhat the same as for normal salt except that to the second word, the prefix bi or acid is
used.
Examples:
NaHCO3 sodium bicarbonate or sodium acid carbonate

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 NaH2PO4 sodium diacid phosphate or monosodium biphosphate
Na2HPO4 sodium monoacid phosphate or disodium biphosphate

Some salts, in the form obtained by crystallization from aqueous solutions, contain a
definite quantity of water. They are called hydrates. Thus, magnesium chloride crystallizes with
six moles of water per mole of the salt giving MgCl 2.6H2O. Hydrates are named by giving the
name of the salt followed by the word hydrate which is preceded by a numerical prefix indicating
the number of moles of water.
Examples:
MgCl2.6H2O magnesium chloride hexahydrate
CuSO4.5H2O cupric sulfate pentahydrate
c) Bases. These are compounds in which the anion is a hydroxide ion (OH-). They are named by
giving the name of the cation followed by the word hydroxide.
Examples:
NaOH sodium hydroxide
NH4OH ammonium hydroxide
Fe(OH)3 iron (III) hydroxide or ferric hydroxide

Chemical Reactions
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to :
1. write equations for chemical reactions and balance the equations
2. interpret the meaning of a balanced chemical reaction in terms of the law of
conservation of mass
3. describe evidences that a chemical reaction has occurred
4. construct mole or mass ratios for the reaction in order to calculate the amount
of reactant needed or amount of product formed in terms of moles or mass

A chemical reaction is a process by which one or more chemical substances are converted
into one or more different substances. A chemical equation is the representation of
reaction in formulas which specifies each reactant, each product and the relative number of
molecules and quantities of each. It tells in shorthand language, what substances react and
what products are formed.

Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

If we are given two or more substances which are know will react with each other
under certain conditions, and if we know what products result from the reaction, we may
write an equation to represent the chemical reaction in the following manner:

1. On the left side of the equation write the symbols or formulas of the reactants.
2. On the right side of the equation write the symbols or formulas of the products.
3. Balance the equation by writing coefficients (the smallest whole number) before
the symbols or formulas, if necessary, to give the same number of atoms of each
element on both sides of the equation. When balancing equations, the formulas of the
substances must not be changed.

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 Symbols Used in Chemical Equations:
Symbol Meaning
+ reacts with
yields or produces
(s) solid reactant or product
(l) liquid reactant or product
(g) gaseous reactant or product
(aq) reactant or product in water
(aqueous) solution
(up arrow) gaseous product
(down arrow) solid product (precipitate)
(delta sign) heat
formula catalyst
electricity

Types of Simple Chemical Reactions:

1. Direct Combination or Synthesis: In this type of reaction, two or more substances
combine to form a compound. The reaction may involve (1) the combination of two
elements to form a compound, (2) the combination of an element and a compound to
form a single new compound, or (3) the combination of two compounds to form a single new
compound.

Type Reaction: A + B AB

Examples: 4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3 (rusting of iron)

S + O2 SO2
2SO2 + O2 2SO2
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
2. Decomposition or Analysis: This reaction involves the breaking down of a compound into
two or more substances.

Type Reaction: AB A + B

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 Examples: CaCO3 heat CaO + CO2
2H2O2 light 2H2O + O2
2H2O electricity 2H2 + 2O2
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O

3. Single Displacement Reaction: This is a reaction between an active element and a

compound to form a new compound and release of the less active element. For this
type of reaction, the activity series or electromotive series of metals, and the
FCBOIS series for nonmetals are applied.

Type Reactions:

a) M + BA MA + B
(active metal) (less active metal)

b) A + BE BA + E
(active metal) (less active nonmetal)

Examples: 3Zn + 2NiCl3 3ZnCl2 + 2Ni

Br2 + MgI2 MgBr2 + I2
Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2
Activity Series of Metals. It is the arrangement of metals from the most
reactive to the least reactive.

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 Li
K Displace hydrogen
Ca from cold water
Na Displace hydrogen
Mg from steam
Al
Mn
Zn
Cr Displace hydrogen
Fe from acids
Cd
Co
Ni
Sn
Pb
H

Sb
Cu
B
Hg do not displace hydrogen
Ag from water, steam or acid
Pt
Au

Activity Series of Nonmetals (FCBOS Series): It is the arrangement of nonmetals

from the most reactive to the least reactive.

F2, Cl2, Br2, O2, I2, S

4. Double Decomposition Reaction or Metathesis (or Ion-Exchange Reaction):
This is a reaction in which two compounds react to form two new compounds react
to form two new compounds and no changes in oxidation number occur. This
reaction involves the exchange of positive and negative parts of the reactants.
Type Reaction:

DA + ME DE + MA

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Examples:
NaCl + AgNO3 AgCl + NaNO3
2KOH + H2SO4 K2SO4 + 2H2
In all of these types of reactions, there are indications that a reaction is taking place .
Some of these indications are: the evolution or absorption of heat , the formation of a precipitate,
dissolution of a solid, the formation of a gas that bubbles out of the solution, the appearance or
disappearance of a color in a solution, and the development of a characteristic odor.

Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

Balancing equations : MgO
• The law of conservation of mass states that matter can neither be created or destroyed
• Thus, atoms are neither created or destroyed, only rearranged in a chemical reaction
• Thus, the number of a particular atom is the same on both sides of a chemical equation
Example 1 : Magnesium + Oxygen (from lab)
Mg + O2  MgO

• However, this is not balanced

Left : Mg = 1, O = 2
Right : Mg = 1, O = 1
From : Mg + O2  MgO
2Mg + O2  2MgO is correct
Mg + ½O2  MgO is incorrect
Mg2 + O2  2MgO is incorrect

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Hints : Start with elements that occur in one compound on each side.
Treat polyatomic ions that repeat as if they were a single entity.
Example 2 : Al + S  Al2S3 Not Balanced
2Al + 3S  Al2S3 Balanced

EXERCISES
1. Which of the following does not describe Dalton’s theory ?
a. The atom is an individual particle which maintains its identity in physical and chemical changes.
b. The atoms of the same element have the same mass.
c. Compounds are combinations of two different elements.
d. Chemical reaction involves rearrangement of the atoms of a compound.

2. Which of the following is not true about electrons ?

a. Electrons are negatively charged particles.
b. The number of electrons is always equal to the number of neutrons.
c. Electrons surround the nucleus of an atom.
d. Electrons are small in size compared to protons and neutrons.

3. Which of the following is equal to the mass number of an element when combined ?
a. proton b. neutron c. electron d. ion

4. Name the following compounds.

A. Chemical formula _________________ B. Chemical name ____________
1. K2SO4 _________________ 1. calcium bicarbonate ____________
2. H2SO4 (acid) _________________ 2. sodium iodide ____________
3. CuSO410H2O _________________ 3. copper sulfide ____________
4. Na2CO3 _________________ 4. magnesium oxide ____________
5. Mg(OH)2 _________________ 5. magnesium chloride ____________
hexahydrate
5. Balance these skeleton equations :

a) Mg + HCl  MgCl2 + H2
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 b) Ca + N2  Ca3N2
c) NH4NO3  N2O + H2O
d) BiCl3 + H2S  Bi2S3 + HCl
e) C4H10 + O2  CO2 + H2O
f) O2 + C6H12O6  CO2 + H2O
g) NO2 + H2O  HNO3 + NO
h) Cr2(SO4)3 + NaOH  Cr(OH)3 + Na2SO4
i) Al4C3 + H2O  CH4 + Al(OH)3
Don’t worry, there is no formula to follow, no new technique to learn. You do not
do anything but to open yourself to God, and to trust the outcome”
Ephesians 1:22-23

Chemical Formula and

Naming of Compounds
A. Determine the empirical formulas of the following compounds given their molecular formulas.
_________ 1. Benzene (C6H6) _________ 6. Mercurous chloride (HgCl2)
_________ 2. Ascorbic acid (C6H8O6) _________ 7. Nicotine (C5H7N)
_________ 3. Sucrose (C12H22O11) _________ 8. Methyl benzoate (C4H4O)
_________ 4. Naphthalene (C10H4 ) _________ 9. Hexane (C6H14 )
_________ 5. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) _________ 10. Mesitylene (C9H12)
B. Given the chemical formula of the compound/s what will NAME of the compounds?

C. Given the name of each compound, what is the CHEMICAL FORMULA ?

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D. Predict what kind of chemical reaction does each equation represent ?
A = Synthesis B = Metathesis C = Decomposition D = Single replacement
______ 1. NaCl + LiNO3 LiCl + NaNO3
______ 2. 2NaOH + H SO Na2SO4 + 2H2O
2 4
______ 3. Br2 + MgI2 MgBr2 + I2
______ 4. Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2
______ 5. 2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
______ 6. CuSO4·5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O
______ 7. 2SO2 + O2 2SO2
______ 8. CO2 + H2O H2CO3
______ 9. Ca + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2
______ 10. H2O2 3 H2 + O2
Date Performed : _____________________________________ Score : _________________
Date Submitted : _____________________________________

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