CHILD BEHAVIOR • Protects children from harm by teaching what is safe

- Any observable response or action of a child • Is ongoing - long-term focus

• Form of communication - Verbal & nonverbal • Protects children from harm by teaching what is safe
•Conduct, actions, words children use to express thoughts, feelings, needs, impulses
•Judged whether it meets social, cultural, developmental, & age appropriate standards PUNISHMENT
•Can be positive/negative, impulsive/planned, predictable/unpredictable, consistent/ • Use of an unpleasant experience to try to change or eliminate behavior
inconsistent • Physical or emotional means to cause pain, humiliation, denial of freedom, and/or
• Can elicit wide range of positive or negative responses from others isolation
• Does not occur in isolation • An arbitrary penalty
• Influenced by: • May stop bad behavior
• child’s desires, temperament, & ability to adapt for the moment but does not teach expected good behavior
• parenting style, family situation, various stresses and transitions • Often builds anger & resentment
• Inhibits development of self-discipline
SELF-REGULATION
Self-control • Child’s ability to contain PHYSICAL/CORPORAL PUNISHMENT
and manage his/her own behavior without relying on caregivers to guide him/her • Physical force with the intention of causing the child to experience bodily pain or
•Gradually internalizing an understanding of what behaviors are acceptable/non- discomfort so as to correct or punish the child’s behavior
acceptable, right/wrong, meeting social standards • Physical restraint – use of physical force to protect the child or others from physical
•Long process pain or harm

COMPLIANCE ABUSE
- Child’s ability and willingness to adjust behavior to meet the expectations and limits RA 9262: the Anti-Violence Against Women and their Children Act of 2004
of caregivers - It refers to any act or a series of acts committed by an intimate partner (husband, ex-
• Compliant when following a caregiver’s request or direction husband, live-in partner, boyfriend/girlfriend, fiance, who the woman had
CONSCIENCE & MORAL DEVELOPMENT sexual/dating relationship):
-against a woman who is his wife, former wife;
• Internal voice or system of moral values -against a woman with whom the person has or had a sexual or dating relationship,
•Judge right/wrong -against a women with whom he has a common child;
•Feelings of guilt or discomfort -against her child whether legitimate or illegitimate within or without the family
•Not innate – built gradually from relationships abode,
•Internalize standards of behavior taught by caregivers -Of which results in or is likely to result in physical, sexual, psychological harm or
• Process of norms, rules, and values of family and society become an internal suffering or economic abuse including threats of such acts, battery, assault, coercion,
motivator even in absence of external authority harassment or arbitrary deprivation of liberty.
• Values → beliefs
GUIDANCE
DISCIPLINE • A constant ongoing process of learning
•Teach, lead, educate • Emphasis is on guiding & teaching
•Does not imply punishment or scolding •Teaches what behavior is appropriate in • Self-discipline, not control, is the goal
which circumstance, or how to interact in a socially acceptable manner • Shapes behaviors with love, respect
•Process of guiding in ways that supports development of self-control • In context of relationship, each person influences and is influenced by the other -
•Used to set reasonable limits in a consistent manner while still allowing some choice may require changes in behavior of both the adult & child
among acceptable alternatives • Influenced by many factors – our origins, teaching experiences,
• Teaches responsibility and right from wrong cultural beliefs & values, family beliefs and values, & societal expectations
• Shows how to get along and respect rights and feelings of others
• Encourages independence and self-direction SOCIALIZATION
• Enhances self-worth, sense of competence • Process of imparting competencies, values, and expectations of society to children
• Process by which children learn to behave according to social expectations and
standards.
LESSON 2: THEORIES AND FRAMEWORKS
Theories and frameworks
 Schools of thought, paradigms, perspectives
 Grow out of efforts to make sense of scientific observations
 Research tests and supports hypotheses
Some Major Differences Between Theories
 Emphasis on various ways to encourage compliance in children.
 Some focus on training by modeling and reinforcement
 Some focus on self & interactions with others
 Emphasis on the emotional quality of the parent-child relationship
PSYCHOANALYTIC (FREUD)
 Natural instincts, innate drives
 Parents (esp. mothers) are the most important socializing agents
 Children internalize their parents’ values which form a superego or conscience -
occurs in first 5 years
 Early influences are very important for children’s development
 Harsh parenting methods are detrimental to children’s well-being
BEHAVIORISM (WATSON, SKINNER)
 Child is a blank slate at birth - filled in over time by experiences in environment
 Based on stimulus-response relationships; stimuli → predict behavior
 Behavioral changes occur when certain consequences are contingent on (related
to) the performance of desired behavior
 Classical & operant conditioning
 Shape child’s development and control behavior in desired direction with
rewards, praise, reinforcement, modeling, etc.
ATTACHMENT (BOWLBY, AINSWORTH)
 Emotional bond that develops between an infant and a caregiver (only a few)
 Mutual, reciprocal interactions (partnership)
 Gradually develops in early months & years
 Leads to organizational changes in infant’s behavior and brain function.
 Infant develops expectations about care giving. Sense whether caregiver is
predictable, responsive, and available to meet needs.
 Early experiences influence sense of control, security, self-worth.
SOCIAL LEARNING (BANDURA)
 Behavior is largely a social process learned through observation & imitation
 Likely to imitate the behavior of a model seen as being rewarded
 Importance of cognition, thinking – ability to listen, remember, and abstract
general rules from complex sets of observed behavior affects imitation and
learning
 Strong emphasis on how children think about themselves and other people
 Gradually more selective in what they imitate.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT (KOHLBERG)
 Stages based on cognitive development
 3 levels of moral orientation:
a. Preconventional – punishment & obedience
b. Conventional - role-conformity, expectations
c. Postconventional - self-accepted principles
 Cognitive disequilibrium and role-taking are processes involved in progressing
through the stages
MORAL SOCIALIZATION (HOFFMAN)
 Emphasizes society’s transmission of moral norms through internalization and
development of conscience
 Appropriate types of discipline lead to acceptance of standards and moral norms
 Success of internalization depends on development of empathy within child
(considering the needs of others)
ATTRIBUTION (BUGENTAL, DIX)
 Emphasizes importance of parents’ view
 Attributions and expectations of the child on parent behavior and child
development
 Parental beliefs filter the child’s behavioral acts, determine meaning for the
caregiver, and influence how parent reacts
 When a parent believes he/she has little power or competence and cannot control
child, discipline becomes ineffective
COERCION (PATTERSON)
 Parents and children train each other through sequences of interactions
 Behavior problems more likely when child is reinforced for responding with
negative behavior to parental requests or demands
 Child tries to ‘coerce’ parent into terminating undesired requests
 Parents’ repeated attempts to obtain compliance are met with increasingly
difficult behavior
 Parent’s withdrawal of request negatively reinforces child’s aversive behaviors
IMPORTANCE OF THEORIES, FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES
 Effective guidance & discipline practices are based on child development theory
 Makes program objectives, educational activities, parenting recommendations,
and educators more powerful and effective
 Check assumptions and theories used within various child development and
parenting programs or resources
 Identify concepts and actions that may indicate your own, parents’ or other
caregivers’ orientation and personal frameworks
 Find practices consistent with values & philosophies
 Understand how different frameworks may be used to address different issues
LESSON 3: MORAL DEVELOPMENT
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Lawrence Kohlberg
 Professor of Education and Social Psychology at Harvard University
 He began as a developmental psychologist and then moved to the field of
education.
 He was particularly well known for his theory of moral development which
he developed through his extensive research on the topic at Harvard
 Kohlberg's theory of moral development is a theory that focuses on how
children develop morality and moral reasoning. Kohlberg's theory suggests
that moral development occurs in a series of six stages and that moral logic is
primarily focused on seeking and maintaining justice.
What is Moral Development?
 Moral development is the process by which people develop the distinction
between right and wrong (morality) and engage in reasoning between the two
(moral reasoning).
Stages of Moral Development?
 Kohlberg's theory is broken down into three primary levels. At each level of
moral development, there are two stages. Similar to how Piaget believed that
not all people reach the highest levels of cognitive development, Kohlberg
believed not everyone progresses to the highest stages of moral development.
LEVEL 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL
 Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts
until around the age of 9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily
shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences of breaking the
rules. There are two stages within this level:
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment - The earliest
stages of moral development, obedience and punishment are especially common in
young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning.
According to Kohlberg, people at this
stage see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a way
to avoid punishment.
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange - At the individualism and exchange stage of
moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions
based on how they serve
individual needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral
development, but only if it serves one's own interests.
LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL
● The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social rules
regarding what is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and adults internalize
the moral standards they have learned from their role models and from society.
Stage 3: Developing Good Interpersonal
Relationships - Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of
the interpersonal relationship of moral development is
focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on
conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order - This stage is focused on ensuring that social
order is maintained. At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider
society as a whole when making judgments.
The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty,
and respecting authority.
LEVEL 3: POST CONVENTIONAL
● At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of abstract
principles of morality.
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights - The
ideas of a social contract and individual rights cause
people in the next stage to begin to account for the
differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people.
Rules of law are important for maintaining a society,
but members of the society should agree upon these
standards.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation -
Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on
universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At
this stage, people follow these internalized principles
of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.
APPLICATION OF KOHLBERG’S THEORY
● Teachers and other educators can also apply Kohlberg's theory in the classroom,
providing additional moral guidance.
● A kindergarten teacher could help enhance moral development by setting clear rules
for the classroom, and the consequences for violating them. This helps kids at stage
one of moral development.
● A teacher in high school might focus more on the development that occurs in stage
three (developing good interpersonal relationships) and stage four (maintaining social
order).
HOW DO CHILDREN LEARN IN THE MORAL DOMAIN?
5 Stages of Moral Growth of Children
● Children go through moral development stages, yet
unlike physical growth, moral growth doesn’t happen
without some input from parents. To develop into a
morally solid person, a child must be given a solid
foundation at each stage.
Stage 1: Infancy - The moral growth of children starts at
infancy. An infant does not have the capacity to moralize, other
than having a sense of rightness or wrongness as those
feelings apply to himself. After being nurtured in the womb for
nine months, a baby enters the world, expecting that nurturing
will continue. Never having been hungry, the baby concludes
that hunger is wrong; it hurts.
Stage 2: Toddlerhood - During this stage of moral growth,
children’s sense of “otherness” begins. Toddlers learn that
others share their world; others have needs and rights, too.
The house he lives in has “rules” that he must learn to live by,
which is frustrating. The child does not yet have the ability to
judge something as “right” or “wrong.”
Stage 3: Preschoolers (3 to 7 years) - A major turning point
in moral growth and development in children occurs: the child
begins to internalize family values. What’s important to the
parents becomes important to him. The six-year-old may say to
a friend, “In our family, we do…” These are the child’s norms.
Once these norms are incorporated in a child’s self, the child’s
behavior can be directed by these inner rules — of course, with
frequent reminding and reinforcing from parents.
Stage 4: Seven to Ten Years - Authority is not threatening to
the child but necessary for social living. They believe that
children should obey their parents. And, school-age children
believe that if they break a rule, they should be corrected. This
strong sense of “should do” and “should not do” sets some
children up to tattle.
- The moral growth of children ages seven-to-ten-year-olds has
a strong sense of fairness, understands the necessity of rules,
and wants to participate in making the rules. They begin to
believe that children have opinions too, and they begin to sort
out which values profit them most — a sort of “what’s in it for
me” stage.
Stage 5: Preteens and Teens - This child is more capable of
abstract reasoning about moral values and becomes interested
in what’s good for society. During this stage of moral growth,
children may view parents more as consultants than as
powerful authority figures.
What can adults do to influence moral development?
● Like most aspects of development, influencing factors are multifaceted. Moral
development is strongly influenced by interpersonal factors, such as family, peers, and
culture. Intrapersonal factors also impact moral development, such as cognitive
changes, emotions, and even neurodevelopment.
A. Interpersonal Influence - Researchers have addressed the
influence of interpersonal interactions on children’s moral development from two
primary perspectives: socialization/internalization (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994;
Kochanska & Askan, 1995; Kochanska, Askan, & Koenig, 1995) and social domain
theory (Turiel, 1983; Smetana 2006).
Research from the social domain theory perspective focuses on how children actively
distinguish moral from conventional behavior based in part based on the responses of
parents, teachers, and peers (Smetana, 1997).
B. Moral Development in the Family -In the formation of children’s morals, no
outside influence is greater than that of the family. Through punishment,
reinforcement, and both direct and indirect teaching, families instill morals in children
and help them to develop beliefs that reflect the values of their culture.
C. Justice - Families establish rules for right and wrong behavior, which are
maintained through positive reinforcement and punishment. Positive reinforcement is
the reward for good behavior and helps children learn that certain actions are
encouraged above others. Punishment, by contrast, helps to deter children from
engaging in bad behaviors, and from an early age helps children to understand that
actions have consequences.
D. Fairness - Families set boundaries on the distribution of
resources, such as food and living spaces, and allow members
different privileges based on age, gender, and employment.
The way in which a family determines what is fair affects
children’s development of ideas about rights and entitlements,
and also influences their notions of sharing, reciprocity, and
respect
E. Personal Balance - By placing limits on their desires, children benefit from a
greater sense of love, security, and shared identity. At the same time, this
connectedness helps children to refine their own moral system by providing them with
a reference for understanding right and wrong.
F. Social Roles - Children learn the value of social support from their families and
develop motivations based on kindness, generosity, and empathy, rather than on only
personal need and desires. By learning to care for the interests and well-being of their
family, children develop concern for society as a whole.
G. Morality and Culture - The expectation is that if morality exists, it has to do with
those values that are generalizable across groups and cultures. Alternatively,
relativistic cultural positions have been put forth mostly by socialization theories that
focus on how cultures transmit values rather than what values are applied across
groups and individuals.
H. Intrapersonal Influences - Moral questions tend to be emotionally charged issues
that evoke strong affective responses. Consequently, emotions likely play an important
role in moral development.
What is a Moral Community?
● The moral community is characterized by social integration (extensive and intimate
attachments) and by moral integration (a set of shared beliefs about morality and
behaviour). In modern usage, any small
group with these qualities, such as a religious sect or military unit, may be termed a
moral community.
● The idea that the community of which one is a member is a moral community is
appealing, though most likely relative to one’s standards of reference, unpersuasive to
others, or even hopelessly vague,
such as notions of the moral community of all living creatures or all God’s children.
● The term “moral community” can be used descriptively to indicate a community
believed actually to exist, or deployed as an aspiration, pointing to a type of
community believed by some to be morally
good, to have a quality of moral goodness to which we ought to aim. In both cases,
there is a defining normative component.
LESSON 4: WHAT DOES CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT INVOLVE?
1. How is the word ‘culture’ used?
● The word 'culture' comes from the Latin cultus, which
means 'care', and from the French colere which
means 'to till' as in 'till the ground'.
● Another word is ‘cultura,’ related to worship. In its
broadest sense, the term refers to the result of human
interaction.
There are three words ‘culture’ used?
1. The first, culture as identity, or belonging, comes from the tending of natural
growth, as in agriculture o horticulture, and one’s roots. This involves children
understanding the groups to which they belong, and
similarities and differences of those in other groups, and their associated beliefs and
practices.
2. A second meaning, based on culture as ‘the best that has been thought and said’,
contrasts ‘high culture’ (such as opera, classical music or literature) with ‘low culture’
(such as TV soap operas, pop music or Mills and Boon), designed more for
entertainment.
● High - Highest or Elite class
● Low - Lowest class
● Popular - trends
➔ High culture encompasses cultural objects of aesthetic value. Events considered
high culture can be expensive, formal, and exclusive – attending a ballet, seeing a play,
listening to a live symphony performance, or attending a prestigious university.
➔ Low culture identifies the forms of popular culture that have mass appeal, often
broadly appealing to the middle or lower cultures of
any given society. Examples are fast food, football culture, cheap beverages and fast
fashion.
➔ Popular culture events might include a parade, a baseball game, or the season finale
of a television show. Examples are Music, anime, cosplay, clothing and technology. It
is everything that everyday
people are interested in or are talking about.
All our Futures (NACCCE, 1999, p48) describes the four central roles for
education in cultural development as:
➢ to enable young people to recognise, explore and understand their own cultural
assumptions and values;
➢ to enable young people to embrace and understand cultural diversity by bringing
them into contact with attitudes, values and traditions of other cultures;
➢ to encourage an historical perspective by relating contemporary values to the
processes and events that have shaped them;
➢ to enable young people to understand the evolutionary nature of culture and the
processes and potential for change. Culture is not only what we live by. It is, also, in
great measure, what we live for. Affection, relationship, memory, kinship, place,
community, emotional fulfillment, intellectual enjoyment, a
sense of ultimate meaning.
2. How is identity related to culture?
There are different aspects and factors that contribute to our personal identity such as:
● Family
● Blood group
● Experiences
Modern science has made it possible to change central aspects of our identity such as:
● Gender
● Ability to have a child
This may be controversial but it highlights that our identities are not always fixed or
predetermined; it would change due to
various factors.
The choices we make may seem unimportant but can actually
have a significant impact on how we relate to others and how
we feel part of a group such as:
● The football team you support
● The style of your hair
● The fashion that you like
● The tv series you support
TV and fashion, sport and music affect how we relate to each
other and how we feel part of a group. We may choose to
emphasize, or play down, our Welshness, our political
affiliation or our religious faith.
Cultural Development
● Involves understanding where and how we do and do
not belong
● The sort of people we are is intimately tied in with the
groups to which we do, or do not, belong.
● Culture both bonds those who do fit in and excludes
those who do not. This is in some respects, but only
some, a matter of choice.
Groups that you might feel at home
● Club
● Society
● Faith group
● Local community
Groups or context where you might not feel at home
maybe because:
● You speak differently
● Your skin color
● Gender makes you stand out
Belonging provides a framework for security, based on
shared expectations. This may be evident in:
● Visible symbols (brand of clothes)
● Cars
● Religious symbols (e.g., crosses, crescents, starts)
● Showing support for a social movement (e.g, shirt
with “BLACK LIVES MATTER”, Car with a rainbow
flag of LGBTQ)
These are common examples of how one can show support for
certain social movement.
How does expressing ourselves indicates our identity?
● When going into an unfamiliar environment, we have
to work out what is expected to know whether we
belong or not.
● A sign of friendliness in one cultural setting may be
seen as hostile in another, a mark of respect in one
understood as insolence elsewhere.
● How we express appreciation depends on where we
come from and where we are, with the wild banging of
feet or cheering appropriate in a club or a children’s
party, but usually out of place at a wedding or a
university graduation.
How does familiarity is important in new environment?
● Without someone or something familiar it is difficult to
feel comfortable or that we belong. A more permanent
feeling of being excluded is frightening and
debilitating – worth remembering as you consider
young children’s cultural development.
3. What is cultural capital?
● All children bring a wealth of experience and
expectations accumulated both from their cultural
inheritance and since birth, often described as
‘cultural capital’. This is like money, where
currency acceptable in one country is not in
another. In this context, children cannot use it to
gain access to what school has to offer.
4. Why is cultural development so important?
● For young children, the most important influence is
their family, which gradually expands to include the
wider community, class, school and even global
citizenship.
● Cultural development is crucial because it shapes
how we perceive and interact with the world around
us. Through cultural experiences within our families,
communities, and wider society, we form our
understanding of ourselves and others.
● Cultural development influences how children
navigate social situations, respond to challenges, and
make choices. By fostering cultural development,
educators can help children build a strong sense of
identity, belonging, and global citizenship, contributing
to their overall well-being and success in life.
● It helps us understand and appreciate different
cultures, and promotes acceptance and respect to
diversity.
5. Is there a common culture to which children should be
introduced?
● One’s own culture cannot be properly understood
without knowing the historical influences which shape
it.
● An appeal to common culture can easily become a
code for dislike of unfamiliar people or practices, and
at times for racism.
● Culturally and ethnically diverse schools are in a
privileged position
● In rural schools or those in homogeneous areas,
extending the range of children’s cultural awareness
is even more important, but potentially more difficult,
because children may have never, or only rarely, seen
people from other ethnic backgrounds and faiths.
● Be sensitive to the culture of the school and
community you teach in – but remember that you can
also help to shape it
6. To what extent does cultural development
involve introducing children to ‘high’ culture?
● Schools operate within a social and political context.
We have considered the influences and values of the
family and the peer group.However, many of the
strongest cultural influences come from advertising,
television, the Internet and video games.
● The electronic media rarely require children to be
critical of what they see or, when they are physically
and mentally active, as in a video game, offer little
control of, or the opportunity to question, the material
presented ( as adults we must be observant to
what children sees online. )
● Part of education’s role is to introduce young children
to elements of culture which do not offer immediate
and easily accessible gratification. This is both to
balance the entertainment that occupies a large
part of most children’s lives 5 to sow the seeds
for children to learn to appreciate, and engage
with, a wider range of cultural activities.
● Cultural development involves introducing children to
experiences which, when worked at, extend our
understanding and enjoyment and enrich us in ways
that are hard to work out, let alone measure.
● High Culture, needs to be discussed and be part
of our education setting, since this will give the
student a new information that they may use and
adapt in the real life settings
7. How is culture linked to creativity?
Creativity
● Imaginative activity - imagination
Example: giving children with materials such as two
papers and 1 scissors
● The end of product has originality and value can
varies depending on the creator of one’s ideas, arts,
or innovation
Creativity has three implications
First Implication
● When we are creative, we start imagining
(imagination) that imagination is linked with originality.
● Originality - represents not only the intellectual
capacity but it goes beyond that.
Types of Originality
1. Historic originality
● refers to groundbreaking innovations or discoveries
made by exceptionally creative individuals, often
considered geniuses in their field.
● Ex: Engineer John logie Baird (colored television)
● Ex: Maria Ylagan Orosa (banana ketchup)
● Their creativity benefits the society (explain)
● In children: This originality is not common in children,
why? But can happens at some time (gifted learners)
2. Relative originality
● occurs when a child's approach or outcome is
considered original compared to that of their peers.
● Ex: draw something that reminds your mom
● Praise children who have create something special
but do not forget as well other children’s work as this
also their creativity
3. Individual originality
● relates to a child's personal exploration and discovery,
where their work is considered original based on their
own previous experiences and knowledge.
● “considered original to the child because it represents
their personal expression and exploration of artistic
possibilities”.
● Ex: Children with autism or down syndrome who
create arts (explain the views of other people vs.
those who are educated enough about their situation)
● This originality, stand-out the most as this focus on
one’s individual that every individual has capability to
create something using their creativity with their own
kind of originality
These types of originality provide a framework for
understanding the different ways in which children demonstrate
creativity and innovation
Recognizing and nurturing these different types of originality
can encourage children to embrace their unique strengths and
perspectives, fostering a culture of creativity and innovation in
educational settings.
2nd Implication
● Might just copy exactly what the teacher shows them
or what they've seen before. They follow all the
rules exactly, but they don't really create anything
new. They might not even make anything at all.
● But being creative means doing something different,
something that's not just following what everyone else
does.
● When you're creative, you're not just following the
same old rules. You're making something special and
original.
● When you finish your picture, you've made
something valuable because it's unique and it
shows your imagination.
● People think being creative means just doing
whatever you want without thinking. But that's not
true. Being truly creative means both having fun
and focusing your mind to make something great.
● Being creative: your picture or whatever you make
doesn't have to look exactly like what you first thought
of. Sometimes, as you work on it, you might get
new ideas and change things around. That's part
of being creative too—being open to new ideas and
making your creation even better as you go along!
3rd Implication
● Creativity requires effort and active engagement,
as indicated by the emphasis on "activity" and the
term "fashioned".
● Involves challenging existing beliefs and
knowledge.
● Creativity is inherent in children but is shaped by
cultural influences and the knowledge and
techniques of others.
● Meaningful creative activity for children involves
experimentation and organizing experiences in a
meaningful manner.
● It's not merely about giving children materials and
observing, but about guiding them to experiment and
organize their experiences in a way that draws upon
previous knowledge without being overly restricted by
it.
Teaching Creatively
● Imagine a teacher who uses interactive games and
colorful visuals to explain math concepts.
● While this approach makes the lesson fun and
engaging, it might not necessarily encourage
students to come up with their own creative
solutions to math problems.
● Ex: The teacher might teach multiplication tables
through a lively song or a game of bingo, but the
students may not be encouraged to think critically or
invent their own multiplication strategies.
Teaching for Creativity
● Now, consider a teacher who designs a project
where students have to create their own inventions
using recycled materials.
● This approach not only teaches creatively by
engaging students in hands-on activities.
● It also fosters creativity by encouraging them to
think outside the box and come up with innovative
solutions.
● Ex: a student might design a solar-powered backpack
that charges electronic devices while walking to
school, demonstrating both creative thinking and
practical problem-solving skills.
In summary, teaching creatively involves presenting
lessons in engaging ways, while teaching for creativity
goes beyond that by providing opportunities for students
to develop their own creative abilities and think critically.
How is culture linked to creativity?
● The connection between culture and creativity goes
beyond the arts.
● Creative process wherein individuals continually
make sense of their experiences by forming new
understandings.
● Culture is the big box of tools and ideas we all
have around us. When we're creative, we use these
tools and ideas to make something new or solve
problems.
● Ex: let's say you want to make a painting. You might
get inspired by the stories, music, and art you've
grown up with—those are all part of your culture.
So, culture gives you the materials and inspiration
to be creative.
● When you're creative, you're also adding your own
ideas and changing things up.
● And it's not just a solo adventure either. “it's also
about how we share and build on those ideas
together”.
So, culture and creativity go hand in hand. Culture gives us
the tools and inspiration to be creative, and creativity lets us
add our own twists and make something special.
8. What are the essential features of cultural
development?
● Cultural development helps children to experience
and understand: where they belong, and the
similarities and differences between themselves and
other people; the influences that shape their own and
other cultures; how to understand themselves and
make sense of experience; how they can actively
create and alter how they understand the world. This
is achieved through a process of habituation,
reflection and change, so reaching beyond the
boundaries of their prior experience and learning to
be critical of, and see beyond, the framework of
beliefs, values and practices in which they grow up.
LESSON 3: MORAL DEVELOPMENT
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Lawrence Kohlberg
 Professor of Education and Social Psychology at Harvard University
 He began as a developmental psychologist and then moved to the field of education.
 He was particularly well known for his theory of moral development which he
developed through his extensive research on the topic at Harvard
 Kohlberg's theory of moral development is a theory that focuses on how children
develop morality and moral reasoning. Kohlberg's theory suggests that moral
development occurs in a series of six stages and that moral logic is primarily focused
on seeking and maintaining justice.
What is Moral Development?
 Moral development is the process by which people develop the distinction between
right and wrong (morality) and engage in reasoning between the two (moral
reasoning).
Stages of Moral Development?
 Kohlberg's theory is broken down into three primary levels. At each level of moral
development, there are two stages. Similar to how Piaget believed that not all people
reach the highest levels of cognitive development, Kohlberg believed not everyone
progresses to the highest stages of moral development.
LEVEL 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL
 Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts until
around the age of 9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily shaped by the
expectations of adults and the consequences of breaking the rules. There are two
stages within this level:
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment - The earliest
stages of moral development, obedience and punishment are especially common in young
children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. According to
Kohlberg, people at this
stage see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to avoid
punishment.
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange - At the individualism and exchange stage of moral
development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how
they serve
individual needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral
development, but only if it serves one's own interests.
LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL
● The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social rules regarding
what is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and adults internalize the moral standards
they have learned from their role models and from society.
Stage 3: Developing Good Interpersonal
Relationships - Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of the
interpersonal relationship of moral development is
focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being
"nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order - This stage is focused on ensuring that social order is
maintained. At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole
when making judgments.
The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and
respecting authority.
LEVEL 3: POST CONVENTIONAL
● At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of abstract principles of
morality.
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights – The ideas of a social contract and individual
rights cause people in the next stage to begin to account for the
differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for
maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these
standards.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation - Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning
is based on universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At
this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws
and rules.
APPLICATION OF KOHLBERG’S THEORY
● Teachers and other educators can also apply Kohlberg's theory in the classroom, providing
additional moral guidance.
● A kindergarten teacher could help enhance moral development by setting clear rules for the
classroom, and the consequences for violating them. This helps kids at stage one of moral
development.
● A teacher in high school might focus more on the development that occurs in stage three
(developing good interpersonal relationships) and stage four (maintaining social order).
HOW DO CHILDREN LEARN IN THE MORAL DOMAIN?
5 Stages of Moral Growth of Children
● Children go through moral development stages, yet unlike physical growth, moral growth
doesn’t happen without some input from parents. To develop into a morally solid person, a child
must be given a solid foundation at each stage.
Stage 1: Infancy - The moral growth of children starts at infancy. An infant does not have the
capacity to moralize, other than having a sense of rightness or wrongness as those feelings apply
to himself. After being nurtured in the womb for nine months, a baby enters the world, expecting
that nurturing will continue. Never having been hungry, the baby concludes that hunger is
wrong; it hurts.
Stage 2: Toddlerhood - During this stage of moral growth, children’s sense of “otherness”
begins. Toddlers learn that others share their world; others have needs and rights, too. The house
he lives in has “rules” that he must learn to live by, which is frustrating. The child does not yet
have the ability to judge something as “right” or “wrong.”
Stage 3: Preschoolers (3 to 7 years) - A major turning point in moral growth and development
in children occurs: the child begins to internalize family values. What’s important to the parents
becomes important to him. The six-year-old may say to a friend, “In our family, we do…” These
are the child’s norms.
Once these norms are incorporated in a child’s self, the child’s behavior can be directed by these
inner rules — of course, with frequent reminding and reinforcing from parents.
Stage 4: Seven to Ten Years - Authority is not threatening to the child but necessary for social
living. They believe that children should obey their parents. And, school-age children believe
that if they break a rule, they should be corrected. This strong sense of “should do” and “should
not do” sets some
children up to tattle.
- The moral growth of children ages seven-to-ten-year-olds has a strong sense of fairness,
understands the necessity of rules, and wants to participate in making the rules. They begin to
believe that children have opinions too, and they begin to sort out which values profit them most
— a sort of “what’s in it for
me” stage.
Stage 5: Preteens and Teens - This child is more capable of abstract reasoning about moral
values and becomes interested in what’s good for society. During this stage of moral growth,
children may view parents more as consultants than as powerful authority figures.
What can adults do to influence moral development?
● Like most aspects of development, influencing factors are multifaceted. Moral development is
strongly influenced by interpersonal factors, such as family, peers, and culture. Intrapersonal
factors also impact moral development, such as cognitive changes, emotions, and even
neurodevelopment.
A. Interpersonal Influence - Researchers have addressed the influence of interpersonal
interactions on children’s moral development from two primary perspectives:
socialization/internalization (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994; Kochanska & Askan, 1995;
Kochanska, Askan, & Koenig, 1995) and social domain theory (Turiel, 1983; Smetana 2006).
Research from the social domain theory perspective focuses on how children actively
distinguish moral from conventional behavior based in part based on the responses of parents,
teachers, and peers (Smetana, 1997).
B. Moral Development in the Family -In the formation of children’s morals, no outside
influence is greater than that of the family. Through punishment, reinforcement, and both direct
and indirect teaching, families instill morals in children and help them to develop beliefs that
reflect the values of their culture.
C. Justice - Families establish rules for right and wrong behavior, which are maintained through
positive reinforcement and punishment. Positive reinforcement is the reward for good behavior
and helps children learn that certain actions are encouraged above others. Punishment, by
contrast, helps to deter children from engaging in bad behaviors, and from an early age helps
children to understand that actions have consequences.
D. Fairness - Families set boundaries on the distribution of resources, such as food and living
spaces, and allow members different privileges based on age, gender, and employment. The way
in which a family determines what is fair affects children’s development of ideas about rights
and entitlements,
and also influences their notions of sharing, reciprocity, and respect
E. Personal Balance - By placing limits on their desires, children benefit from a greater sense of
love, security, and shared identity. At the same time, this connectedness helps children to refine
their own moral system by providing them with a reference for understanding right and wrong.
F. Social Roles - Children learn the value of social support from their families and develop
motivations based on kindness, generosity, and empathy, rather than on only personal need and
desires. By learning to care for the interests and well-being of their family, children develop
concern for society as a whole.
G. Morality and Culture - The expectation is that if morality exists, it has to do with those
values that are generalizable across groups and cultures. Alternatively, relativistic cultural
positions have been put forth mostly by socialization theories that focus on how cultures
transmit values rather than what values are applied across groups and individuals.
H. Intrapersonal Influences - Moral questions tend to be emotionally charged issues that evoke
strong affective responses. Consequently, emotions likely play an important role in moral
development.
What is a Moral Community?
● The moral community is characterized by social integration (extensive and intimate
attachments) and by moral integration (a set of shared beliefs about morality and behaviour). In
modern usage, any small group with these qualities, such as a religious sect or military unit, may
be termed a moral community.
● The idea that the community of which one is a member is a moral community is appealing,
though most likely relative to one’s standards of reference, unpersuasive to others, or even
hopelessly vague, such as notions of the moral community of all living creatures or all God’s
children.
● The term “moral community” can be used descriptively to indicate a community believed
actually to exist, or deployed as an aspiration, pointing to a type of community believed by some
to be morally good, to have a quality of moral goodness to which we ought to aim. In both cases,
there is a defining normative component.