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Entailment and Presupposition in Linguistics

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 Entailment and Presupposition in Linguistics

Mohammed Jasim Betti

Department of English , College of Education for Humanities,

University of Thi-Qar

1. Entailment in Linguistics

Linguistic entailments are entailments which arise in natural language.

If a sentence A entails a sentence B, sentence A cannot be true without B
being true as well (Beth, 1955; Al-Seady, 1998a: 82-89; and Betti,
(1993: 34).
For instance, the English sentence "Pat is a fluffy cat" entails the
sentence "Pat is a cat" since one cannot be a fluffy cat without being a
cat. On the other hand, this sentence does not entail "Pat chases mice"
since it is possible (if unlikely) for a cat to not chase mice (Beth, 1955;
Algburi, and Igaab, 2021: 32; Betti, 1990: 2).

Entailments arise from the semantics of linguistic expressions

(Murphy, 2010: 31–40; Al-Seady, 1998b: 63; and Betti, 1995: 9).
Entailment contrasts with the pragmatic notion of implicature. While
implicatures are fallible inferences, entailments are enforced by lexical
meanings plus the laws of logic (Sauerland, 2007; Betti, and AlFartoosy,
2019: 98; and Betti, 2020b: 9).

Entailments also differ from presuppositions, whose truth is taken for

granted. The classic example of a presupposition is the existence
 presupposition which arises from definite descriptions (Sauerland, 2007;
Betti, 2021t: 8; and Igaab, 2010: 3) For instance, the sentence "The king
of France is bald" presupposes that there is a king of France. Unlike an
entailment, presuppositions survive when the sentence is negated. For
instance, "The king of France is not bald" likewise presupposes that there
is a king of France (Sauerland, 2007; Betti, 2015b: 39; and Betti, and
Ulaiwi, 2018: 88).

2. Presupposition in Linguistics

In the branch of linguistics known as pragmatics, a presupposition (or

PSP) is an implicit assumption about the world or background belief
relating to an utterance whose truth is taken for granted in discourse.
Examples of presuppositions include (Sauerland, 2007; Al-Seady, 2002b:
17; and Betti, 2002a: 9):

 Jane no longer writes fiction.

o Presupposition: Jane once wrote fiction.
 Have you stopped eating meat?
o Presupposition: you had once eaten meat.
 Have you talked to Hans?
o Presupposition: Hans exists.

A presupposition must be mutually known or assumed by the speaker and

addressee for the utterance to be considered appropriate in context (Betti,
2021aa: 7; and Betti, 2021bb: 1). It will generally remain a necessary
assumption whether the utterance is placed in the form of an assertion, denial,
or question, and can be associated with a specific lexical item or grammatical
feature (presupposition trigger) in the utterance (Karttunen, 1991: 408; Betti,
2015a: 82; and Betti, and Igaab, 2018: 39).
 Crucially, negation of an expression does not change its
presuppositions: I want to do it again and I don't want to do it again both
presuppose that the subject has done it already one or more times; My
wife is pregnant and My wife is not pregnant both presuppose that the
subject has a wife. In this respect, presupposition is distinguished from
entailment and implicature. For example, The president was assassinated
entails that The president is dead, but if the expression is negated, the
entailment is not necessarily true (Sauerland, 2007; Al-Seady, and Al-
Sehlani, 2002: 41; and Betti, 2002b: 23).

2.1 Negation of a sentence containing a presupposition

If presuppositions of a sentence are not consistent with the actual state of

affairs, then one of two approaches can be taken. Given the sentences My
wife is pregnant and My wife is not pregnant when one has no wife, then
either (Karttunen, 1991: 408; Al-Sheikh, 2006a: 82; and Betti, 2002c:
95).):

1. Both the sentence and its negation are false; or

2. Strawson's approach: Both "my wife is pregnant" and "my wife is
not pregnant" use a wrong presupposition (i.e. that there exists a
referent which can be described with the noun phrase my wife) and
therefore can not be assigned truth values.

Bertrand Russell tries to solve this dilemma with two interpretations of

the negated sentence (cited in Karttunen, 1991; Betti, 2021l: 6; and Igaab,
2015: 64) :

1. "There exists exactly one person, who is my wife and who is not
pregnant"
 2. "There does not exist exactly one person, who is my wife and who
is pregnant."

For the first phrase, Russell would claim that it is false, whereas the
second would be true according to him.

2.2 Projection of presuppositions

A presupposition of a part of an utterance is sometimes also a

presupposition of the whole utterance, and sometimes not. For instance,
the phrase my wife triggers the presupposition that I have a wife. The first
sentence below carries that presupposition, even though the phrase occurs
inside an embedded clause. In the second sentence, however, it does not.
John might be mistaken about his belief that I have a wife, or he might be
deliberately trying to misinform his audience, and this has an effect on
the meaning of the second sentence, but, perhaps surprisingly, not on the
first one.

1. John thinks that my wife is beautiful.

2. John said that my wife is beautiful.

Thus, this seems to be a property of the main verbs of the sentences, think
and say, respectively. After work by Lauri Karttunen, (Karttunen, 1991:
408; Al-Seady, 1998c: 75; and Betti, 1996: 24). Verbs that allow
presuppositions to "pass up" to the whole sentence ("project") are called
holes, and verbs that block such passing up, or projection of
presuppositions are called plugs. Some linguistic environments are
intermediate between plugs and holes: They block some presuppositions
and allow others to project. These are called filters. An example of such
an environment are indicative conditionals ("If-then" clauses). A
conditional sentence contains an antecedent and a consequent. The
antecedent is the part preceded by the word "if," and the consequent is the
part that is (or could be) preceded by "then." If the consequent contains a
presupposition trigger, and the triggered presupposition is explicitly
stated in the antecedent of the conditional, then the presupposition is
blocked. Otherwise, it is allowed to project up to the entire conditional
(Karttunen, 1991: 408; Betti, 2021x: 7; and Salman, and Betti, 2020:
229). Here is an example:

If I have a wife, then my wife is blonde.

Here, the presupposition (that I have a wife) triggered by the expression

my wife is blocked, because it is stated in the antecedent of the
conditional: That sentence doesn't imply that I have a wife. In the
following example, it is not stated in the antecedent, so it is allowed to
project, i.e. the sentence does imply that I have a wife.

If it's already 4am, then my wife is probably angry.

Hence, conditional sentences act as filters for presuppositions that are

triggered by expressions in their consequent. A significant amount of
current work in semantics and pragmatics is devoted to a proper
understanding of when and how presuppositions project (Karttunen,
1991: 408; Al-Sheikh, 2006b: 83; and Betti, 2002d: 48).

2.3 Presupposition triggers

A presupposition trigger is a lexical item or linguistic construction which

is responsible for the presupposition, and thus "triggers" it (Kadmon,
2001: 10; Betti, 2002e: 56; and Betti, and Al-Jubouri, 2015c: 37). The
following is a selection of presuppositional triggers following Stephen C.
Levinson's classic textbook on Pragmatics, which in turn draws on a list
produced by Lauri Karttunen. As is customary, the presuppositional
triggers themselves are italicized, and the symbol » stands for
'presupposes' (Levinson, 1983: 181; Betti, 2003: 34; and Betti, and Igaab
(2015: 129). (eds).

2.4 Definite descriptions

Definite descriptions are phrases of the form "the X" where X

represents a noun phrase. The description is said to be proper when the
phrase applies to exactly one object, and conversely, it is said to be
improper when either there exist more than one potential referents, as in
"the senator from Ohio", or none at all, as in "the king of France". In
conventional speech, definite descriptions are implicitly assumed to be
proper, hence such phrases trigger the presupposition that the referent is
unique and existent (Pinker, 2007: 6–9; Betti, 2007: 407; and Betti, and
Al-Jubouri, 2009: 377).

 John saw the man with two heads.

»there exists a man with two heads.

2.5 Factive verbs

In Western epistemology, there is a tradition originating with Plato of
defining knowledge as justified true belief. On this definition, for
someone to know X, it is required that X be true (Kadmon, 2001: 10;
Betti, 2021k: 1).
A linguistic question thus arises regarding the usage of such phrases:
does a person who states "John knows X" implicitly claim the truth of X?
Steven Pinker explored this question in a popular science format in a
2007 book on language and cognition, using a widely publicized example
from a speech by a U.S. president (Pinker, 2007: 6–9; Betti, 2006: 136-7;
Betti, and Mugeer, 2016: 16-7). A 2003 speech by George W. Bush
included the line, "British Intelligence has learned that Saddam Hussein
recently sought significant quantities of uranium from Africa. (Bush,
2003). Over the next few years, it became apparent that this intelligence
lead was incorrect. But the way the speech was phrased, using a factive
verb, implicitly framed the lead as truth rather than hypothesis. There is
however a strong alternative view that factivity thesis, the proposition
that relational predicates having to do with knowledge, such as knows,
learn, remembers, and realized, presuppose the factual truth of their
object, is incorrect (Hazlett, 2010: 498-9; Pinker, 2007: 6–9; Betti, 2013:
34; and Betti, and Hashim, 2018: 276-7):

 Martha regrets drinking John's home brew.

o Presupposition: Martha did in fact drink John's home brew.
 Frankenstein was aware that Dracula was there.
o Presupposition: Dracula was in fact there.
 John realized that he was in debt.
o Presupposition: John was in fact in debt.
 It was odd how proud he was.
o Presupposition: He was in fact proud.

Some further factive predicates: know; be sorry that; be proud that; be

indifferent that; be glad that; be sad that (Betti, 2021v: 3).

2.6 Implicative verbs

 John managed to open the door.

»John tried to open the door.
 John forgot to lock the door.
»John ought to have locked, or intended to lock, the door.
 Some further implicative predicates: X happened to V»X didn't plan or
intend to V; X avoided Ving»X was expected to, or usually did, or ought
to V, etc (Betti, 2021w:4).

2.7 Change of state or continuation of state verbs

With these presupposition triggers, the current unfolding situation is

considered presupposed information (Sedivy and Carlson, 2011: 104-5;
Betti, 2020c: 2; and Betti, and Igaab, 2019: 229-230):

 John stopped teasing his wife.

»John had been teasing his wife.
 Joan began teasing her husband.
»Joan hadn't been teasing her husband.

Some further change of state verbs: start; finish; carry on; cease; take (as
in X took Y from Z » Y was at/in/with Z); leave; enter; come; go; arrive;
etc.

2.8 Iteratives
These types of triggers presuppose the existence of a previous state of
affairs (Hazlett, 2010: 498-9; Betti, and Yaseen, 2020: 48; and Betti,
2020d: 66).

 The flying saucer came again.

»The flying saucer came before.
 You can't get gobstoppers anymore.
»You once could get gobstoppers.
 Carter returned to power.
»Carter held power before.
Further iteratives: another time; to come back; restore; repeat; for the nth
time.

2.9 Temporal clauses

The situation explained in a clause that begins with a temporal clause
constructor is typically considered backgrounded information (Kripke,
2009: 367-386; Betti, and Hasan, 2020: 41-3; and Betti, 2021a: 2).

Before Strawson was even born, Frege noticed presuppositions.

»Strawson was born.

 While Chomsky was revolutionizing linguistics, the rest of social

science was asleep.
»Chomsky was revolutionizing linguistics.
 Since Churchill died, we've lacked a leader.
»Churchill died.

Further temporal clause constructors: after; during; whenever; as (as in

As John was getting up, he slipped) (Sedivy, 2011: 104-105; Betti, and
Mahdi, 2021: 54; and Betti, 2021d: 5).

2.10 Cleft sentences

Cleft sentence structures highlight particular aspects of a sentence and
consider the surrounding information to be backgrounded knowledge.
These sentences are typically not spoken to strangers, but rather to
addressees who are aware of the ongoing situation (Sedivy, 2011: 104-
105; Betti, and Ghadhab, 2020: 73; and Betti, 2021b: 2).

 Cleft construction: It was Henry that kissed Rosie.

»Someone kissed Rosie.
  Pseudo-cleft construction: What John lost was his wallet.
»John lost something.

2.11 Comparisons and contrasts

Comparisons and contrasts may be marked by stress (or by other prosodic

means), by particles like "too", or by comparatives constructions (Kripke,
2009: 367-386; Betti, 2021g: 1; and Dehham, , Betti, and Hussein, 2021:
111).

 Marianne called Adolph a male chauvinist, and then HE insulted

HER.
»For Marianne to call Adolph a male chauvinist would be to insult
him.

Carol is a better linguist than Barbara.

»Barbara is a linguist. (Betti, 2021y: 2).
2.12 Counterfactual conditionals

 If the notice had only said 'mine-field' in Welsh as well as in

English, we would never have lost poor Llewellyn.
»The notice didn't say 'mine-field' in Welsh.

2.13 Questions
Questions often presuppose what the assertive part of the question
presupposes, but interrogative parts might introduce further
presuppositions. There are three different types of questions: yes/no
questions, alternative questions and WH-questions (Betti, 2021f: 2; and
Betti, and Hashim, 2021: 69).

 Is there a professor of linguistics at MIT?

»Either there is a professor of linguistics at MIT or there isn't.
  Is Newcastle in England or in Australia?
»Newcastle is in England or Newcastle is in Australia.
 Who is the professor of linguistics at MIT?
»Someone is the professor of linguistics at MIT.

2.14 Accommodation of presuppositions

A presupposition of a sentence must normally be part of the common
ground of the utterance context (the shared knowledge of the
interlocutors) in order for the sentence to be felicitous. Sometimes,
however, sentences may carry presuppositions that are not part of the
common ground and nevertheless be felicitous (Kripke, 2009: 367-386;
Betti, 2021h: 12; and Hashim, and Betti, 2020: 307) .). For example, I
can, upon being introduced to someone, out of the blue explain that my
wife is a dentist, this without my addressee having ever heard, or having
any reason to believe that I have a wife. In order to be able to interpret
my utterance, the addressee must assume that I have a wife. This process
of an addressee assuming that a presupposition is true, even in the
absence of explicit information that it is, is usually called presupposition
accommodation. We have just seen that presupposition triggers like my
wife (definite descriptions) allow for such accommodation. In
"Presupposition and Anaphora: Remarks on the Formulation of the
Projection Problem" (Kripke, 2009: 367-386; Betti, 2021e: 6-7; and
Betti, and Khalaf , 2021: 19).

the philosopher Saul Kripke noted that some presupposition triggers

do not seem to permit such accommodation. An example of that is the
presupposition trigger too. This word triggers the presupposition that,
roughly, something parallel to what is stated has happened. For example,
if pronounced with emphasis on John, the following sentence triggers the
presupposition that somebody other than John had dinner in New York
last night Kripke, 2009: 367-8; Betti, 2021i: 2; and Igaab, 2010b: 171).

John had dinner in New York last night, too.

But that presupposition, as stated, is completely trivial, given what we

know about New York. Several million people had dinner in New York
last night, and that in itself doesn't satisfy the presupposition of the
sentence (Schiffrin, et al. 2003: 370-1; and Betti, 2021z: 2).

What is needed for the sentence to be felicitous is really that

somebody relevant to the interlocutors had dinner in New York last night,
and that this has been mentioned in the previous discourse, or that this
information can be recovered from it. Presupposition triggers that
disallow accommodation are called anaphoric presupposition triggers
(Schiffrin, et al. 2003: 370-1; Igaab, 2010a: 14; and Betti, 2021j: 5).

2.15 Presupposition in critical discourse analysis

Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is a broad study belonging to not

one research category. It focuses on identifying presuppositions of an
abstract nature from varying perspectives. CDA is considered critical, not
only in the sense of being analytical, but also in the ideological sense
(Schiffrin, et al. 2003: 352–371; Betti, 2021r: 3; and Igaab, and
Abdulhasan , 2018: 93).
Through the analysis of written texts and verbal speech, Teun A. van
Dijk, 2003; Betti, 2021m: 7; and Igaab, and Al-Manhalawey, 2010: 52).
says CDA studies power imbalances existing in both the conversational
and political spectrum (Schiffrin, et al. 2003: 352–371; Betti, 2021n: 8;
and Igaab, 2015a: 141).). With the purpose of first identifying and then
tackling inequality in society, van Dijk describes CDA as a
nonconformist piece of work (Schiffrin, et al. 2003: 356; Igaab, and
Tarrad, 2019: 67; and Betti, 2021u: 1). One notable feature of ideological
presuppositions researched in CDA is a concept termed synthetic
personalisation ("Synthetic personalisation", Wikipedia, 2017-07-29;
Betti, 2021p: 5; and Igaab, and Al-Bdeary, 2016: 36).

2.16 Logical construct

To describe a presupposition in the context of propositional calculus

and truth-bearers, Belnap (1966: 611; Igaab, 2015b: 21; and Betti, 2021o:
7) defines "A sentence is a presupposition of a question if the truth of the
sentence is a necessary condition of the question's having some true
answer." Then referring to the semantic theory of truth, interpretations are
used to formulate a presupposition: "Every interpretation which makes
the question truly answerable is an interpretation which makes the
presupposed sentence true as well." (Wikipedia, 2017-07-29; Betti,
2021q: 8; and Igaab, and Kareem, 2018: 98).
A sentence that expresses a presupposition in a question may be
characterized as follows: the question has some true answer if and only if
the sentence is true (Belnap, 1966: 609–11; Betti, 2021s: 5; and Igaab,
and Altai, 2018: 291).

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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349054695_An_Operational_Analysis_
of_the_Department_of_English_in_Iraq

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021e). An Input-Process-Output Analysis of

the Department of English in the Colleges of Education in Iraq.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349054602_An_Input-Process-
Output_Analysis_of_the_Department_of_English_in_the_Colleges_of_Education_i
n_Iraq

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021f). Applied Linguistics vs Theoretical

Linguistics.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349336695_Applied_Linguistics_vs_Th
eoretical_Linguistics

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021g). The English Used in the Department of

Arabic.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351229469_The_English_Used_in_the_
Department_of_Arabic

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021h). English for Literary Purposes: A Case

Study.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350487483_English_for_Literary_Purp
oses_A_Case_Study

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021i). Sentence Patterns in English.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350975244_Sentence_Patterns_in_Eng
lish

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021j). ESP and ELP.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351657343_ESP_and_ELP
Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021k). Language Alternation.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351938765_Language_Alternation

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021l). Stress in English with Pedagogical

Implications.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352248961_Stress_in_English_with_Pe
dagogical_Implications

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021m). Intonation in English with

Pedagogical Implications.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352313269_Intonation_in_English_wit
h_pedagogical_Implications#fullTextFileContent

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021n). Needs Analysis.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352780645_Needs_Analysis

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021o). Slips of the Tongue and Other Slips.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352837551_Slips_of_the_Tongue_and_Other_Sli
ps

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021p). Contrastive Linguistics and Other

Related Fields.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353052851_Contrastive_Linguistics_an
d_Other_Related_Fields

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021q). Types of Verbs.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353072360_Types_of_
Verbs#fullTextFileContent
Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021r). Aims and Objectives of Teaching
Language and Literature.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353143615_Aims_and_Objectives_of_
Teaching_Language_and_Literature

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021s). Complement and Complementation.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021t). Politeness Principle.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353581192_Politeness_Principl
e

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021u). Semantics.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353719736_Semantics
Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021v). Semantics in Linguistics.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353719736_Semantics

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021w). Pragmatics in Linguistics.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354471737_Pragmatics_in_Lin
guistics

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021x). Gender and Sex in Linguistics.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021y). Grice's Maxims.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021z). Stylistics.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021aa). Conversation Analysis.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021bb). Mitigation and Euphemism.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim and Khalaf , Noor Sattar (2021). A Pragma-

Stylistic Study of Implicature in Shakespeare's Hamlet and Twelfth

Night. International Linguistics Research, Vol. 4, No. 3, 12-31.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim and Hashim, Zainab Kadhim (2021). The Effect

of Gender on the Bilingual and Bicultural Identity of the Iraqi EFL

Learners' Recognition and Production of Request. International

Linguistics Research, Vol. 4, No. 3, 32-71.

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Press, 1991.

Deborah Schiffrin, Deborah Tannen and Heidi E. Hamilton (eds.), The

Handbook of Discourse Analysis, (Wiley-Blackwell, 2003): pp. 352–371.
Dehham, Sabeeha Hamza, Betti, Mohammed Jasim and Hussein, Nadia
Majeed (2021). The Effect of Using Estafet Writing Technique to
Enhance Students’ Compositional Efficiency. Education, Language
and Sociology Research, 2, 1, 1-13.

Hashim, Ahmed Mohammed and Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2020).

Language Performance and Impairment of Iraqi Patients with
Alzheimer’s: A Case Study. Glossa, 3, 8, 291-309 .

Hazlett, A. (2011). "The Myth of Factive Verbs". Philosophy and

Phenomenological Research. 80 (3): 497–522.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim (2010a) Reduplication in English and Arabic: A

Contrastive Study. Journals Education for Girls, 1, 1, 3-24.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim (2010b). A Contrastive Study of Metathesis in

English and Arabic. Wasit: Journal of College of Education, 1, 7,
152-172.
Igaab, Zainab Kadim and Al-Manhalawey, Manahil Salman Owaid.
(2010). Case in English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study. Journal
of University of Thi-Qar, College of Arts, 1, 1, 1-54.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim (2015a). Apposition in English and Arabic: A

Contrastive Study. University of Thi-Qar, College of Education
for Humanities, 5, 4, 110-143.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim (2015b). Modification in English and Arabic: A

Contrastive Study. Journal of University of Thi-Qar, College of
Arts, 2, 1, 1-23.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim and Al-Bdeary, D. R. T. (2016). Substitution in

English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study. An Unpublished MA
Thesis, College of Education, University of Thi-Qar.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim and Israa Kareem (2018). Affixation in English and
Arabic: A Contrastive Study. English Language and Literature
Studies, 8, 1, 92-103.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim and Hanan Abdulhasan (2018). Collocation in

English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study. English Language and
Literature Studies, 8, 4, 89-103.
Igaab, Zainab Kadim and Altai, Saja Mohammed Magrood.(2018).
Concord in English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study. International
Journal of English Linguistics, 8, 2, 288-297.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim and Tarrad, Intisar Raham (2019). Pronouns in

English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study. English Language and
Literature Studies, 9, 1, 53-69.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim (2010). The Iraqi Undergraduates' Ability to Use

and Find Correspondence between Lexical and Sentential
Relations. University of Thi-Qar: College of Arts Journal.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim (2015): A Contrastive Study of Acronymy in English

and Arabic. Diwaniya: Dar Nippur.

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presupposition, and focus. Great Britain: Wiley-Blackwell.

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Formulation of the Projection Problem," Linguistic Inquiry, Vol. 40, No.
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Press, 1983, pp. 181-184.

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Textbooks in Semantics. pp. 31–40.

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The Journal of Philosophy 63(20): 609–11, American Philosophical
Association Eastern Division Sixty-Third Annual Meeting.

Pinker, Steven (2007), The stuff of thought: language as a window into

human nature, Penguin Books.

Salman, Hussien Salah and Mohammed Jasim Betti (2020). Politeness

and Face Threatening Acts in Iraqi EFL learners’ Conversations.
GLOSSA, 3, 8, 221-233.

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Semantics. Pelgrave.
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Advertisers Talk to You and What This Says About You," Wiley-
Blackwell.

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