CHAPTER-I 1.CONDUCTION 1.1 HEAT TRANSFER Heat transfer can be defined as the transmission of energy from eneregion-to-anothertegion duc to temperature difference. 1.1.1 Modes of Heat Transfer * Conduction * Convection * Radiation Conduction Heat conduction is a mechanism of heat transfer from a region of ffi temperature to a region of iye-temperature within a medium (solid, liquid or gases) or between different medium in direct physical contact. In conduction, energy exchange takes place by the kinematic motion or direct impact of molecules. Pure conduction is found only in solids. Convection Convection is a process of heat transfer that will occur between a solid surface and a slit medium when they are at different temperatures. Convection is possible only in the presence of fluid medium. Radiation The heat transfer from one body to another without any transmitting medium is known as radiation. It is an electromagnetic wave phenomenon.1.2 Heat and Mass transfer 1.1.2Pourier@Ww o§Gonduction Rate of heat conduction is proportional to the area measured normal to the direction of heat flow and to the temperature gradient in that direction. dT A Qu a A - Area in m2 where a — Temperature gradient in k/m k — Thermal conductivity in W/mK Thermal conductivity is defined as the ability of axgiegeaitite to conduct heat. [The negative sign indicates that the heat flows ina direction along which there is a decrease in temperature] 1.3 General heat conduction equation in “ cartesian coordinates Consider a small rectangular element of sides dx, dy and as shown in Fig.1.1. tote taadElements of Heat Transfer 19.1 INTRODUCTION So far in our discussion of thermodynamics, we have been dealing with energy balances in a variety of physical situations. Basically, thermodynamics deals with systems in equilibrium. It muy be used to predict the amount of energy required to change a system from one equilibrium state to another. But it cannot predict how fast a change will take place, since the system is not tn equilibrium during the process. For example, consider the cooling of a hot metallic bar placed in a water bath. Thermodynamics may be used to predict the final equilibrium temperature of the metallic-bar-water combination. But thermodynamics cannot answer the question: how Jong will the process take to reach this equilibrium? Or, what the temperature of the bar will be after a certain time interval before the equilibrium is attained? The science of heat transfer can provide the answers to these questions. That is, the heat transfer may be used to predict the temperature of both the metal bar and water as a function of time. In this chapter, we will briefly discuss the science of heat transfer, highlighting the basic Principles and the three modes of heat transfer—Conduction, Conveetion, and Radiation 19.2 DRIVING POTENTIAL We know that in an electric circuit the current that flows through a wit Potential difference across the two ends of the wire, ie. ¢ depends upon the pol ference Current flow = P° ! stance In a similar manner, we can write that in a heat transfer process, 1 potential differ thermal resistance Heat flow 523BBA Fundamentals of Engincering Thermodnamles - From the above observations, we may define heat transfer in a simple, but general, manner that heat transfer is the process of energy transfer owing to temperature difference. Whenever there exists a temperature difference in a medium or between media, heat transfer occurs. Examine the heat transfer processes illustrated in Fig. 19.1. These processes may be defined as below: * When a temperature gradient exists in a stationary medium, which may be a solid or a fluid, the heat transfer which occurs across the medium is referred to as conduction (Fig. 19.1(a)). * The heat transfer that occurs between a surface and a moving fluid when they are at different temperatures is called convection (Fig. 19.1(b)). * The third mode of heat transfer shown in Fig. 19.1(c) is termed thermal radiation. All surfaces of finite temperatures emit energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. Hence, in the absence of an intervening medium, there is net heat transfer by radiation between two surfaces at different temperatures. T, eh Te Surface T, Moving fluid, T., < + = 4 LN ° ne f % XY % (a) (b) (c) Figure 19.1 Conduction, convection, and radiation heat transfer modes: (a) conduction through a solid or a stationary fluid, (b) convection through a surface to a moving fluid, (c) net radiation exchange between two surfaces. 19.3 CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER When a temperature gradient exists in a body, experience has shown that there is an enerey transfer from the high-temperature region to the low-temperature region, We say that the energy is transferred by conduction and that the rate of heat transfer per unit area is proportional to the normal temperature gradient. That is, the heat flux q is given by ipa Ix Ox « a (19.1)Elements of Heat Transfe where K is the proportionality constant, q, is the heat flux and J7/dv is the temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow. The positive constant Kis called the thermal conductivity of the material, and the minus sign indicates that the heat must flow from a higher-temperature to a Jower-temperature region. Equation (19.1) is called Fourier § law of heat conduction. The thermal conductivity has the units of watts per metre kelvin [W/m K)] Consider a solid slab of thickness } and extending to infinity in the other two directions as shown in Fig. 19.2. y tincreasing Final steady state temp. profile ° To Ts Figure 19.2 Heat conduction through a slab. Let the initial temperature of the slab be uniform at Tp, throughout. Let at time = 0 th temperature of the surface at y = 0 be raised to 7, and held constant at that level. The surface y= bis held at temperature 7y throughout. Because of the temperature gradient between T, and To, the heat flows in the positive y-direction. Some heat is retained by intermediate layers in the slab, thereby raising their temperature, while the remaining heat flows on. The temperature pattern across the slab changes with time, as shown in Fig. 19.2, till finally a steady state linear distribution of temperature is established. At the steady state, the heat flux across all surfaces in the slab is the same since the energy retained by all surfaces is also the same. This steady state heat flux is given by Fourier’s law as yok or in the differential form e ay = - Ke oy where the subscript y refers to the direction of heat flow. For isotropic mediums (whose material properties a fluxes along x- and z-direction are given, respectively, by e the same in all directions) the heat526 Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics Recognizing that the heat flux is a vector quantity, we can write a more general statement of the heat conduction rate equation (Fourier’s law) as follows: or +k 2) (19.2) where V is the three-dimensional del operator and 7(x, is the scalar temperature field. Equation (19.2) is the differential form of Fourier’s law of heat conduction. It is implicit in Eq. (19.2) that the heat flux is in a direction perpendicular to the isothermal surface. An alternative form of Fourier’s law is therefore, g= -KVT In on (193) where g, is the heat flux in a direction n, which is normal to an isotherm, as shown for the ‘two-dimensional case in Fig. 19.3. Isotherm Figure 19.3. The heat flux vector normal to an isotherm in a two-dimensional coordinate system. EXAMPLE 19.1 Temperatures of 300°C and 100°C are maintained on opposite faces of an aluminium plate of 5 mm thickness. Compute the heat flux through the plate. [Take K = 215 W/m °C) at the mean temperature of 200°C.] Solution By Fourier’s law, ‘This may be integrated to give ays 100-300 Ar 5x10ells gy: Elements of Heat Transfer 527 EXAMPLE 19.2 In an experiment, two identical cylindrical rods of 4 cm diameter and 9 cm length are used in an clectric heater. In cach rod, two differential thermocouples are placed 4.2 cm apart. After initial transient, the electric heater is observed to draw 0.4 ampere at 220 volts, and both the thermocouples read a temperature difference of 13°C. Determine the thermal conductivity of the rod material, assuming that the rods are generating equal amount of heat and the heat conduction in the rods is one-dimensional. Solution The electrical power consumed by the cylindrical rods and converted to heat 1s Wy, = VI = 220x 0.4 =88 W The heat flow rate through each rod is 1 sg-44W 1 =F We 2 since only half of the heat generated is flowing through each rod. The heat transfer area is the area normal to the direction of heat flow, which is the cross-sectional area 4 of the cy! this problem. Thus, mn 1.26% 10° m* ae 710.04) 4 4 ‘Noting that the temperature drops by 13°C within 4.2 cm in the direction of heat flow, the thermal conductivity can be obtained from T Q=KA ‘Thus, the thermal conductivity of the rod material is QL ADT 4 O42 1.26* 10 * x13 112.8 Wim °C)] 19.4 CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER ‘The convection heat transfer mode consists of Mo mechanisms random motion (dittuswa) of the molecules, and bulk or macroscopic moon of the Muid Thus Hut motion oy due lo the fact that, at any instant, a large number of molecules are moving collectively or as aggregales Such motion, in the presence of a temperature gradient, will give tise to heat wanaler Since the molecules in the aggregate retain their random motion, the total heat wanster ts, then, due to superposition of the energy transports by the random motion of the molecules and by the bulk motion of the fluid. It is a common practice 10 use the term convection when reterrung to this528 Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics cumulative transport and the term advection when referring to transport owing to bulk fluid motion only transfer which occurs between a fluid in motion We are concemed with convection heat and a solid boundary surface when the two are at different temperatures. Examine the fluid flow over a heated surface shown in Fig, 19.4. As a result of fluid-surface interaction, there is a thin region just adjacent to the surface where the flow velocity varies from zero at the surface to a finite value u associated with the flow. This region of the fluid is termed the hydrodynamic, or In the same manner when the surface and flow temperatures differ. which the temperature varies from 7, at y = 0 to, T_ in his region is called the thermal boundary layer. The velocity boundary layer there will be a region of the fluid through the outer flow, as shown in Fig. 19.4. TI Flow T. Temperature distribution Ty) Ts é Le uly) Heated surface L___» ry) Velocity distribution Figure 19.4 Boundary layer development in convection heat transfer. thermal boundary layer may be thinner or thicker than the hydrodynamic boundary layer, or of the same size as the hydrodynamic boundary layer. In any case, as long as T, > 7. convecnon heat transfer will take place between the surface and the outer flow. ‘The convection heat transfer is due to both the random motion of the molecules and the bulk motion of the fluid within the boundary layer. The contribution of the random molecular motion (diffusion) is usually dominant near the surface where the fluid velocity is low. In fact, at the interface between the surface and the fluid (y = 0), heat is transferred by this mechamsm only. The contribution of the bulk fluid motion is due to the growth of the velocity boundary layer as the flow progresses in the x-direction, A clear understanding of the phenomenon of boundary layer is essential to understand the convection heat transfer. Thus, Muid mechanics plays a vital role in the study of convection heat transfer. Based on the nature of the flow, the convection heat transfer may be classified as * forced convection when the flow is caused by some external means, such as a [4 2 pump, or atmospheric winds + free (or natural) convection when the flow is induced by buoyaney forces in the tut ature variations in the ‘The buoyancy forces arise from density variations caused by tempel ona still fluid, For example, the heat transfer that occurs from a hot pavement to the atmosphere day is a free convection. In this case, air that is in contact with the hot pavement has borer density than that of the cooler air above the pavement. Therefore, a circulation pattern a which the warm air moves up from the pavement and the .s downwards. aes “ when atmospheric winds are present, heat transfer from " likely dominated by force! convection, even though the free convection mos cooler air move 7 the pavement to the air is I de still existsElements of Heat Transfer 529 ate that the convection heat transfer mode is an energy i transfer 5 that occurs within a fluid because of the combined effect of conduction and bulk 4} 1 oe tt ope energy transferred is the sensible, or itera thenmal,errgy of he He mong. iete are convertion processes where in addition to sensible energy exchange, the Jatent heat exchange is also present. The latent heat exchange is generally associated with a hase change between the liquid and vapour states of the fluid. For example, the energy Manges associated with boiling and condensation are the latent heat ones. Irrespective of the nature of the convection heat transfer mode, the appropriate rate equation is of the form —_ In general, we can sti q =h(T,- 7.) (19.4) where is the convective heat flux (W/m’), and is proportional to the difference between the surface and fluid temperatures, T, and T.., respectively. Equation (19.4) is known as Newton law ofcooling, and the proportionality constant A[W/(m’ K)] is called the convection heat transfer coefficient, the film conductance, or the film coefficient. It depends on conditions in the toundary layer, which are influenced by surface geometry, the nature of the fluid motion, and a umber of fluid, thermodynamic and transport properties. Some typical values of / associated with the various convection processes are given in Table. 19.1. Table 19.1 Typical values of the convection heat transfer coefficient Process {Wine K)] 5-25 Free convection Forced convection Gases 5 Liquids 50~20,000 Convection with the phase change—boiling and condensation 2500—100,000 EXAMPLE 193. Air at 25°C blows over a hot plate of size 1m by I m which is maintained at 121 convection heat transfer coefficient is 22 ‘W/(m? °C). Determine the heat transfer associated with this process. Solution By Newton's law of cooling Q= Ag ~hAT,~ T-) = (22 x 1)(120 ~ 25) = EXAMPLE 194 diameter and 30 cm long is immersed in li ‘er § min ih mmersed in Ii ‘An electric heaven is supplied until heater boils. For this situation pressure, 208 ure of water is 100°C. Compute the elect the Boilie ("Ctra the wire surface femperature at 120°C. the heatef quid water at atmospheric 3 h = 5200 W/m? °C), and Power required to be supplied toMT A110 1110 00 ners me 0 Engineering Thermodynamics 530 _ Fundamentals Solution ‘The total convection loss is given by O =hAT, ~ 7.) where 4 is the surface area of the heater wire. A= mall. = 2(5 x 10)( 30 x 10) = 4.71 x 10° m? The heat transfer becomes O = (5200)(4.71 x 107)(120 — 100) awl 489.84 W | That is, 489.84 W of electrical power is required to be supplied to the heater. EXAMPLE 195 ‘A metallic ball of 12 cm diameter is to be heated from 30°C to an average temperature of 100°C in 10 minutes. Taking the average density and specific heat of the metal in this temperature range to be p = 2700 kg/m? and C,, = 0.90 kii(kg °C), respectively, determine (a) the total amount of heat transferred to the metallic ball, (b) the average rate of heat transfer to the ball, and (c) the average heat flux. Solution (a) The amount of heat transferred to the ball is equal to the change in its intemal energy and can be determined from Q= AU = mass x specific heat x change in temperature =mC,(T, = 1) = PVG (Ty 7) xd? =p Cyl(hh-T pe (%-T) 3 = 7700 x 2012). 0,90 x (100 - 30) = [153.9 kg] ‘That is, 153.9 kJ of heat has to be transferred to the metallic ball to raise its temperature from 30°C to 100°C. (b) The average rate of heat transfer is given byElements of Heat Transfer 5341. {c) The heat flux is defined as the heat transfer per unit time per unit area, or the rate of heat transfer per unit area, Thus, the average heat flux is given by 5669.9 Wim’ | 19.5 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER In contrast to the mechanisms of conduction and convection, where energy transfer through a material medium is involved, heat can also be transferred into regions where a perfect vacuum exists. The mechanism in this case is electromagnetic radiation. When electromagnetic radiation is propagated as a result of temperature difference, the radiation is termed thermal radiation. In our discussion here, we will be dealing with thermal radiation only. Thermal radiation is the energy emitted by matter that is at a finite temperature. Although we focus primarily on radiation from solid surfaces, emission may also occur from liquids and gases. Regardless of the form of matter, the emission may be attributed to changes in the electron configurations of the constituent atoms or molecules. The energy of the radiation field is transported by electromagnetic waves (or alternatively, photons). While the transfer of energy by conduction or convection requires the presence of a material medium, radiation does not necessarily need such a medium. In fact, radiation transfer occurs most efficiently in a vacuum. The maximum flux (W/m’) at which radiation may be emitted from a surface is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law qz=ot! (195) where T, is the absolute temperature (K) of the surface and ois the Stefan-Boltzmann constant [o= 5.67 x 10 * Wim? K*)]. A surface emitting this much radiation is called an ideal radiator or blackbody. The heat flux emitted by a real surface is less than that emitted by an ideal radiator and is given by q=eoTs (19.6) where ¢ is a radiation property of the surface known as the emissivity, This property indicates how efficiently a real surface emits heat flux compared to an ideal radiator, Equation (19.6) determines the rate at which energy is emitted by a surface. Determination of the nef rate at which radiation is exchanged between surfaces is generally a ditficult task However, a special case that occurs very frequently in practice involves the net exchange between a small surface and a much larger surface that completely surrouncts the smaller one, as shown in Fig. 19.5. As seen from the figure, the surface and the surroundings are separated by a gas that has no effect on the radiation transfer. The net rate of radiation heat exchange between the surface and its surroundings, expressed per unit area of the surface, is q= cots ~ 13 97LALLY A 1 1 ee Net radiation exchange Surroundings 3 Convection alan Surface of het transfer emissivity and area A at temperature T, Figure 19.8 Radiation exchange between a surface and its surroundings. ‘There are many applications for which it is convenient to express the net radiation heat exchange in the form Qua = Gat = AT ~ Toure) where, from Eq, (19.7), the radiation heat transfer coefficient k, can be expressed as hy, = £0 (Ty + Tay Me + Tear) Here the radiation mode is modelled in a manner similar to convection. In this sense we have linearized the radiation rate equation, making the heat rate proportional to the temperature difference rather than to the difference between two temperatures to the fourth power. However, note that fi, strongly depends on the temperature, while the temperature dependence of the convection heat transfer coefficient / is generally weak. ‘The surface within the surroundings may also simultaneously transfer heat by convection to the adjoining gas. The total rate of heat transfer from the surface is then the sum of the heat rates emanating from the two modes. That is, 9 = Feow + Gna or q= MT, ~T,.) + €0(T3 -Ten) From our discussion here on the modes of heat transfer, it is evident that the subject matters of thermodynamics and heat transfer are highly complementary. For example, heat transfer is an extension of thermodynamics in that it considers the rae at which energy 'S transported EXAMPLE 19.6 ‘Two infinitely large blackbodies at 600°C and 400°C exchange heat by heat transfer per unit area. radiation. Calculate theSolution ‘The radiation heat transfer for the given situation, given by Eq. (19.7) is q= oe(T! -T3) = (5.67 x 10°") (1)(873.154 — 673 154) = [21 31 kWh Note that € = 1 for a blackbody EXAMPLE 19.7 ‘A copper plate of 1 m x 2 m size and 30 cm thickness is maintained hot at 200°C. Air at 22°C blows over the plate and 500 W of heat energy is lost from the surface by radiation. Calculate the inside temperature of the plate, [Take K = 375 Wi(m °C) and h = 22 Wim? °C).] Solution For energy balance, the heat conducted through the plate must be equal to the sum of the convection and radiation heat losses. That is, Geond = Foon * Ind or KASD = har, - 7.) + 500 Ax or AT _ 22(1 x 2)(200 ~ 22) +500 _ iy y 03 (=375)(1 x 2) or AT = ~3.33C Therefore 7, = 200 + 3.33 = | 203.33°C 19.6 CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER IN A STATIONARY MEDIUM Consider conduction of heat in a stationary medium or in a medium moving with uniform velocity. A solid necessarily satisfies this criterion, In such a case, the system and control volume approaches are similar, since no mass crosses a surface fixed in a coordinate frame moving with the same velocity as the control volume or system under consideration. Consider an infinitesimally small element in a stationary medium, as shown in Fig. 19.6, a8 the control volume. Let P(x, y, 2) be a corner of the element with faces parallel to the coordinates planes, as shown. The volume chosen is infinitesimally small and hence the properties in the Volume can be approximated by their values at (x, », Now, by the law of the conservation of energy, the rate of change of thermal energyS200 a 534 Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics Zz Figure 19.6 Differential control volume, dxdydz, for conduction analysis in Cartesian coordinates. contained within the elemental volume will be equal to the rate of transfer of energy into the volume by conduction plus the rate of production of energy within the element. The rate of change of thermal energy contained within the system ar or = (mass)(specific heat)(rate of change of temperature) =pdxdydzC where p is the density and C the specific heat. 19.6.1 Energy Flux by Conduction Consider the face PQRS, in Fig. 19.6, with its normal in the negative x-direction. By Fourier's law of heat conduction, the heat flux in the x-direction is - KOT/Ax, and the rate of heat transfer in the control volume is (- K 07/0x)dy6z, where K is the thermal conductivity and is independent of direction for isotropic materials. The heat flux across the face TUVW is or 0 ( Or Ke? Kel [«5 “a x) | ‘Therefore, the rate of heat transfer from the control volume is -[«Z 8 («20x aeElements of Heat Transfer 535 Thus, the net energy added to the volume in the x-direction is given by = [(heat energy). ~ (heat energy), } = ( Kot Jaxdy0e ax a Therefore, the total heat conducted into the elemental volume is or )|oe bz That is, [V (KV 1] bxdy6z When there is heat generation or absorption within the elemental volume, their contribution must also be taken into account in the energy balance. In most cases such heat sources or sinks may be specified as volumetric sources or sinks, i.e. their strengths may be specified per unit volume. If & represents a source strength, with units W/m’, the total contribution from the volume element is $, 6x6y5z. Usually g, is taken as +ve for source and ~ve for sink. There for conservation of energy, ————————————— pbx8y620L = [V-(KVT)] x8 y5z + &,5xSy5z | (198 po ae That is, pF =v -(KVT) + by «a9 Equation (19.9) is the general form of the heat diffusion equation. This equation usually known as the heat equation, provides the basic tool for analysis of the heat conduction processes From its solution, we can obtain the temperature distribution 7(x, y, 2) as a function of time The thermal conductivity K is a material property, which depends on temperature and other physical properties of a material. Even though K varies significantly when the temperature interval is large, as an approximation in many cases it is treated as a constant. In our discussion, K will be taken as a constant evaluated at some mean temperature of the problem, With & as a constant, Eq, (19.9) becomes (19.10) is in Cartesian coordinates. In cylindrical coordinates536 Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics In spherical coordinates v [E( 19.7 BOUNDARY AND INITIAL CONDITIONS Equation (19.10) is valid for a homogeneous medium. But in heat conduction concerning composite media in which the thermophysical properties of one homogeneous region may differ significantly from those of others, the problem has to be solved by patching solutions of the equation for a homogeneous medium in different regions. To do this patching, the problem must satisfy certain specified conditions at the interfaces. They are: 1. The temperatures in two adjoining regions should be identical. 2. The heat in one medium at the interface should be the same as that in the other. The second condition is obliviously satisfied since the heat which is conducted to an interface from one region must be conducted away from the interface into the other region. Thus, at an interface rl=T" and g'= 4" (19.11) where the superscripts I and II refer to region 1 and 2, respectively. With Fourier’s law, the second condition in Eq. (19-11) becomes ar} a -[«Z] -{«2] (912) én én where n is the normal to the interface. In addition to the conditions given by Eqs. (19.11) and (19.12) at the interface, we need the conditions at the boundaries of the region of interest, to solve the diffusion equation. One type of boundary conditions specify the temperature at the whole boundary. This occurs when there is boiling or condensation at the boundary. In the other type of boundary conditions, heat flux at the boundary is specified, such that 4 or In > 19.13) 7 ‘at boundary . For insulated boundaries, q,=0. We can also use O7/dn = 0 at the plane of symmetry in 2 problem. a solid ‘At the solid-liquid interface, we can specify one more boundary condition. When a liquid bath, the boundary condition is obtained by equating heat flux given by is immersed in of the solid. That is, at Fourier’s law to heat flux from Newton’s law of cooling at the boundary di the boundary i ar = WT To) on or (19.14) f-wr-7,)=0 K ai )Elemems of Heat Transfer_ 537 where T is the temperature of the solid at the surface and 7., is the fluid temperature at that jocation. The film heat transfer coefficient, /1 is to be determined from the theory of convection. In the unsteady heat conduction problems, we have to also specify the initial temperature throughout the region of interest. 19.8 ONE-DIMENSIONAL, STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION We will now examine the application of Fourier’s law of heat conduction to calculations of heat flow in some simple one-dimensional systems. The term “one-dimensional” refers to the fact that only one coordinate is needed to describe the spatial variation of the dependent variables Several physical shapes may fall in the category of one-dimensional systems. For instance, * cylindrical and spherical systems can be treated as one-dimensional when the temperature in the body is a functiort of only the radial distance and is independent of azimuth angle or axial distance. * In some two-dimensional problems, the effect of one of the space coordinates may be so small that it may be treated negligible, and the two-dimensional heat-flow problem may be approximated with a one-dimensional analysis. In these cases, the differential equations are simplified, and we are led to much easier solutions as a result of this simplification. 19.8.1 Steady-State Conduction through a Plane Wall Consider the heat conduction in the x-direction in the plane wall shown in Fig. 19.7. Figure 19.7 Heat transfer through a plane wall.538 Fundamentals of Engineering Thermod In the steady state, the temperature Tin the plane wall is a function of x only. Therefore, the heat equation . WK apy bw a pC po reduces to =0 (19.15) for 0 | Water ~ 100» 1000 =0.251(m? KW The heat flux through the wall B is G = (2000 x 10°) x (0.05) = 100 x 10° W Therefore, g=100x10 2-2 0251 _T,-20 or 0251 T, = 100 «10° x 0.251 + 20 =[45.1°C) The cooled surface will be at 45.1°C. For constant K's, the governing equation becomes where q is the heat generated. The general solution for this equation is ee nrererey aK? are integration constants, For the given conditions, ditions, the constants become we have T-L) = To and where C, and Co TL) = T;. With these coTherefore, T(x)= ‘The heat flux at any point in the wall can be determined using this relation and the Fourier’s law. However. with heat generation the heat flux is no longer independent of x This result gets simplified when both surfaces are maintained at a common temperature T) = T; = Twig. The temperature distribution is then symmetrical about the mid-plane and is given by T(x)= ef 3 2 _ 2000 x 10° x (0.05)? | 45. 2«70 (s0.8°C] = 35.7445. The insulated surface will be in thermal equilibrium at steady state, thus, Ty = 80.8°C. 1 19.9 HEAT CONDUCTION ACROSS A CYLINDRICAL SHELL Cylindrical and spherical systems often experience temperature gradients in the radial direction only and may therefore be treated as one-dimensional. Also under steady-state conditions with no heat generation, such systems may be analysed by using the standard method, which begins with the appropriate form of the heat conduction equation. Consider a cylindrical shell shown in Fig. 19.11. For a sufficiently long cylinder (ie. length is much larger than the radius), the end effects are negligible and the temperature is a function of radius alone. For steady-state radial conduction in the absence of heat sources, and with constant material properties, the heat equation becomes (19.27) In cylindrical coordinates548 Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics Hot fluid alo hy Cold tluid Too hy Th Figure 19.11 Hollow cylinder. ‘Therefore, for the present problem, Eq. (19.27) in cylindrical coordinates, becomes Pr eae =0 Es or 2 aT A 1 dT dr or dr a (rZ)-0 re That is, The boundary conditions are and at ry THT, decreases with increase 1" For the present problem, the heat flux q, is not constant and is constant in the because of increase in area, but the heat current or the heat transfer rate Oy radial direction Equation (19.28) may be integrated twice to obtain the general solution 2) Ty) = Cy Inr+ 9. and with the boundary conditions, we get T= Cin +QElements of Heat Transfer 549 T= Cnn + Solving these two equations, we obtain and 7 Q=h-2— ny ann) Substituting C, and C} into Eq. (19.29), we get Bat yy Tan (1930) In@) "on Note that the temperature distribution associated with radial conduction through a cylinder is logarithmic, not linear, as it is for the plane wall under the same conditions. The heat flux at any radius r is given by ett ar Using Eq, (19.30) into the above, we get | KG-1) 4 tn ln) and the heat current as (1931) for a cylinder of length L. The thermal resistance is thus given by (1932) Note that since the value of Q, in Eq. (19.31) is independent of 7, the foregoing result could have been obtained by simply integrating the equation 0,=-Ka dr Consider now the composite cylindrical shell, shown in Fig. 19.12. For a convective film on a cylindrical surface of temperature 7, and radius r, the heat current is given by 2 T.) where 7. is the ambient fluid temperature and L is the length of the cylinder. Therefore, the film resistance (QnrLy(T, l © Qnrlh RoFigure 19.12 ‘Temperature variation across a composite cylindrical shell. Hence, the total resistance is given by In (s/n), In (sh 1 jh, 2#LKy MLK, 2yLhy 2m, We can also define an overall film transfer coefficient U, as Om = VA(Ty~ Ty) But because of the varying area in the r-direction, the area on which the U is based has to be specified. Thus, Ow = Vindin( Ty ~ Ta) = Youtoul Try ~ Tr (94) and Un = (19.35) You = (1930) where the subscripts “in” and “out” refer to inner and outer surface of the cylinder, respectively EXAMPLE 19.12 ‘A 150 m long steam pipe is of 100 mm outer diameter: It conveys 1500 kg of steam per hour atElements of Heat Transfer 551 a pressure of 2 MPa. The steam enters the pipe with a dryness fraction of 0.98 and has to exit with a minimum dryness fraction of 0.96. This is to be accomplished by suitably lagging the pipe, the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the lagging being 0.075 W/(m K). Assuring that the temperature drop across the steam pipe is negligible, determine the minimum thickness of lagging required to meet the specified condition. Take the temperature of the outside surface of the lagging as 30°C. Solution At 2 MPa, the specific enthalpy of evaporation (from steam tables) is Inge = 1890.7 kikg Therefore, the heat loss per hour per kg of steam passing through the pipe becomes © = (0.98 - 0.96) x 1890.7 = 37.814 KI Heat loss per second through the pipe is, therefore, = 37814 1500 = 15.756 KI By Eq. (19.31), 2aLK(T, ~ 1) In (9/7) This gives, j In (/n) = A= @) Saturation temperature at 2 MPa (from steam tables) = 212.42°C. Therefore, 2m x 150 x 0.075 (212.42 - 30) In (lh) = = 0.8184 @i) 15.756 x 10° (or 2 =2267 i " | Hence, | ry = 2.2677, } = 2.267 x * = 113.35 mm ‘Therefore, the minimum thickness of lagging required is ry ~ ry = 113.35 ~ 50 = [63.35 mm | EXAMPLE 19.13 A.1.5 kW resistance heater wire of 5 mm diameter, length 0.7 m and thermal conductivity K = 15 Wi(m °C) is used to boil water. If the outer surface temperature of the resistance wire is 110°C, determine the temperature at the centre of the wire.552_ Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics Solution ady since there is no the heat generated by is dissipated to the water. Thus, the heat generated within the wire 4 through the outer surface of the wire. That is, ar KAS =9=4qV dr 1 we can assume the following. (1) Heat transfer is ste For this problem >) Heat transfer is one-dimensional, At steady state, change with time. ( the resistance Wit Qsey must be equal to the heat conducte where 4 = 2arL and V = 71. Thus, Kem = q(ar?L) ar ye Integrating from wire centre where r = 0 and 7(0) = To to wire surface where r ~ ro and Thro) = Te. we get _ Geen ___1500x4 Voie 10(0.005)? (0.7) = 1.092 x 10° W/m? Thus, the temperature at the centre of the wire becomes 1,092 x 108 Ty = 110 + (0.0025)? = ° 4x15 (0.0025)? =[121.4°C 19.9.1 Critical Thickness of Insulation Let us consider @ layer of insulation which might be installed around a circular pipe, as shown in Fig. 19.13. The inner temperature of the insulation is fixed at Ti, and the outer surface 's exposed to a convection environment at 7. From the thermal network shown in Fig, 19.13, the heat transfer is given by uh, - (2a g = Ted a Figure 19.13 Insulation around a circular pipe.Elements of Heat Transfer 553 __—_— ahere Mex iS the outer radius of insulation for which the heat transfer is the maximum, i.¢. the jesistance is minimum. The condition to be satisfied for maximum Oy is That is, o 11. Kreg es which gives K oaks (1938) et The radius 1.x is called the critical radius of insulation. If the outer radius is less than the value given by the Eq. (19.38), then the heat transfer will be increased by adding more insulation. For outer radii greater than the critical value, an increase in insulation thickness will cause @ decrease in heat transfer. The central concept is that for sufficiently small values of /, the convection heat loss may actually increase with the addition of insulation because of increased surface area. 19.10 STEADY CONDUCTION THROUGH A SPHERICAL SHELL Consider the conduction in a hollow sphere, shown in Fig. 19.14, If the inner and outer surfaces of the spherical shell are maintained at two different constant temperatures, the symmetry dictates that the temperature will be a function of the radius alone and that the heat flow will be in the radial direction. Figure 19.14 Conduction in a spherical shell.55: 7 4 Fundamentals of | Engineering Thermodynamics The steady-constant-property heat conduction equation in the absence of volumetric heat source becomes d 2) er dr (1939) This gives. on integration, the temperature profile as Guc Ta-— +Cy (19.40) That is, under boundary condi steady state, the heat current at any radial location must be the same. The at ren, T= and at r=m, Toh Inserting the values of the constants C, and C, into Eq. (19.40), evaluated with the boundary conditions, the temperature profile becomes pone B2h(1_t Lol\y or At (19.41) on and the heat current across the spherical shell is given by 0, =~ (nr?) 2 RGB) ar (1942) ‘The thermal resistance of the shell becomes 1(14 Ry =——|+-+ 3 ih GK (: 1) (19.43) If there is a convective film at a spherical surface of radius r, the heat current should be O, = 4mP WT, To) where 7, and 7, are the temperature of the solid surface and the ambient fluid, respectively. Thus, the film resistance is given by Be a (9.44) * The heat transfer problems of composite shells can be tackled in a fashion analogous to the earlier problems, by considering the thermal resistances in series and drawing the appropriate thermal circuit. + The formulae for thermal conduction in spheres and spherical shells are very useful in the simplified analysis of many practical problems.Elements of Heat Transfer 555 * Three-dimensional flow of heat from small three-dimensional objects can quite often be reasonably approximated by a simple one-dimensional flow from a sphere. * The radius of the idealized sphere is taken so as to equal the surface area of the object under study. * The formula for spherical shells can also be used to estimate the lower bound on convective film transfer coefficients. As has been indicated, small objects can be approximated as spheres, in such applications. * Thus, the surroundings fluid will resemble a spherical shell of inner diameter r and infinite outer diameter. Neglecting any motion of the fluid, the only mechanism of heat transfer will be conduction and the resistance of this shell to heat flow will be just 1/(42rk), which is obtained with r = r and r; = «in Eq. (19.43). In an actual case, the thermal resistance will be less than this value because of the reinforcing effect of the fluid motion. Thus, 1/(477K) is the upper bound on the resistance of the surrounding fluid. If T, and 7, are the surrounding and ambient temperatures, respectively, the heat current is given by O, = 4ark(T, - 7.) The heat current is also alternatively given by introducing the film transfer coefficient /, as ° From the above two equations, we get = (42P)i(T, - T.) (19.45) ae F The heat transfer coefficient is usually expressed as a dimensionless number, (L)/K, called the Nusselt number, Nu, where L is the characteristic length of the body. Therefore, for spheres Nup = a (19.46) With A/K = 1/r, from Eq, (19.45), for spheres, Nup = 2, which is the minimum value of Nusselt number for the fluid film. Note that Nu = 2 is only a lower bound on the Nusselt number for heat transfer about three-dimensional objects. The actual value in most cases will be higher EXAMPLE 19.14 brick 100 mm thick, and s al A small hemispherical oven is built with an inner layer of insulating fh an outer covering of 85 per cent magnesia 50 mm thick. The inner surface of the over 1000°C, the heat transfer coefficient for the outside surface is 12 Wi(m? K) and the room temperature is 25°C. Calculate the rate of heat loss through the hemisphere if the ™ner radius is 1.5 m, Take the thermal conductivities of firebrick and 85 per cent magnesia as 0.3 and 0.06 Wi(m K), respectively.556 Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics Solution For the insulating firebrick From Eq, (19.43), for a hemisphere For 85 per cent magnesia: Reragnesia = 2m x 0.06 For the outside air film: — 1 2n(1.65)? (12) Ram =r = 0.00487 KW Qar The total resistance Ry, = 0.0221 + 0.0502 + 0.00487 = 0.07717 K/W. Thus, the rate of heat loss through the hemisphere is given by Se = | 12.634 kW 2 Rey 0.07717 19.11 HEAT TRANSFER FROM AN EXTENDED SURFACE The term extended surface is commonly used with reference to a solid that experiences energy transfer by conduction within its boundaries, as well as energy transfer by convection (and/or radiation) between its boundaries and the surroundings. Although there are many different situations that involve combined conduction-convection effects, the most frequent application is one in which an extended surface is used spherically to enhance the heat transfer rate between a solid and an adjoining fluid. Such an extended surface is called a fin. 19.11.1 Fins The heat which is conducted through a body must frequently be removed (or delivered) by some convection process. For example, the heat lost by conduction through a furnace wall must be dissipated to the surroundings through convection, In heat-exchanger applications, a finned- tube arrangement might be used to remove heat from a hot liquid. The heat transfer from the liquid to the finned tube is by convection, Thus, an analysis of combined conduction- convection systems is important from the practical point of view. A fin is one such practical system involving a combined conduction-convection process of heat transfer. Since increased surface area results in increased heat transfer, fins are designed to have more surface area. As seen above, basically, fins are extended-surfaces from the mainElements of Heat Transfer 557 sody fiom which heat is to be removed. Fins are designed to have different types of geomet ‘¢ upon the application. Some of the popular types of fins are shown in Fig, 19.15 dimensional fin exposed to a surrounding fluid at a temy der an el gepensli 5 Consider the or | gown in Fig, 19.16, The temperature at the base of the fin is 7), Cons of thickness: dv (b) $oeegd (9) Figure 19.15 Different types of finned surfaces: (a) longitudinal fin of rectangular profile (b) cylindrical tube equipped with fins of rectangular profile, (c) longitudina’ fin of trapezoidal profile, (d) cylindrical tube equipped with a radial fin of rectangular profile, (e) cylindrical spine (pin fins), (f) truncated conical spine, an¢ (g) parabolic spine qgony = hPdX(T— T.) Figure 19.16 One-dimensional conduction-convection through a rectangular fin.558 Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics For energy balance on the element considered: Energy inflow through the left face = energy outflow through the right face + energy lost by convection through its surface area iT Energy inflow into the left face = KA dx Energy going out at the right face = Kae Ix x de 2 =-KA{ 20447 oy ae" de Energy lost by convection = AP dx(T— T.) where P is the perimeter of the clement under consideration, and 4 is the cross-sectional area of the fin. Here the differential area for convection is the product of the perimeter of the fin and the differential length dx. Therefore, for energy balance, we have 2 Kal © ae |4npaur-T,) dx dx? (1947) (19.48) we can express Eq. (19.47) as #0 z= mO=0 (1949) where > _ AP 5 m= AP (19.50) Equation (19.49) is a linear, homogeneous, second-order differential equation with constant coefficients. Its general solution is of the form x) = Ce" + Gem (9sd) To evaluate the constants C, and C) of Eq. (19.51), it is necessary to specify the appropriate boundary conditions. One such boundary condition may be specified in terms of the temperature at the base of the fin (x = 0). At x=0, 0=1with T= 7, The second boundary condition, specified at the fin tip (x = L), may be compared to the physical situation, as follows: * Case 1: The fin is very long, and the temperature at the end of the fin is essentially that of the surrounding fluid.Elements of Heat Transfer 559 + Case 2: The fin is of finite length and looses heat by convection from its end. + Case 3: The end of the fin is insulated so that a 0. For Case I above, the boundary conditions are at x=0, O=1 at x=, 0=0 Using the first boundary condition into Eq. (19.51), we get C+Q=1 For Case 3 above, the boundary conditions are at x=0, O=1 at x=L, a =0 Using the second boundary condition into Eq. (19.51), we get Cyme"” — Cyme™" = 0 Solving the above two relations for C, and C>, we get 1 Oy mm and 1 GO" Ty gar Therefore, @ becomes om cosh [m(L — x)] 92) r+ em p+ em cosh mL. The total heat dissipated by the fin can be calculated by integrating the convective heat loss over the fin, Thus, | On = f PHT -T,,) dx = (T;, ~To) f PhO dx (19.53) The total heat dissipated from the fin may also be obtained using the equation for the temperature distribution, since | | Gy =-KA Substituting for (d6/dx),— 9 from Eq. (19.52), we get Ow = KAm(Ty— 7.) tanh mL