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    BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW 4.1. INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS The term thermodynamics derived from Greek words. Therme means heat and dynamis means power. Thermodynamics can be defined as the study of relationship between work, heat and energy. The flow of energy is of a great importance to engineers involved in the design of equipment in power generation and process industries. Thermodynamics provides an understanding the nature and degree of energy transformations so that they-can be understood and suitably utilized. Today, the conversion of heat energy into power plays an important role in power generation, refrigeration, turbines, compressors, heat pumps, automobiles, jet propulsion systems, biomedical applications, etc. One of the important fundamental laws of nature is the energy conservation principle, It states that the energy can change from one form to another form without losses during energy interaction, It means, the energy cannot be created or destroyed. So, the first law of thermodynamics is simply an expression of the conservation of energy. It states that energy is a thermodynamic property. But, the second law of thermodynamics shows that the actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality of energy. Therefore, it states that the energy has both quantity as well as quality. For example, a cup of hot water left on a table eventually cools, but a cup of cold water in the same room never gets hot by itself. The high-temperature energy of the hot water is degraded once it is transferred to the surrounding air. Thermodynamics is a field of science which deals the: (a) energies possessed by gases and vapours, (b) interaction of a system and its surroundings & ical work, and od chanical > (©) conversion of energies in terms of heat a (@) relationship with properties of the system- Gases od trig But, thermal engineering deals the applications of ne en 4 and improving theiy . lucing devices, relative to the work absorbing and prodi performance. 1.2. THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES istics of a subs 5 ble characteristics of tance, Thermodynamic properties deseribe the measurab r The knowledge a oes properties is essential to the understanding op thermodynamics. The following are the thermodynamic properties. 1. Mass (rm) and Weight (W) Mass (m) of a body is the measure of the amount of material present in the same body. In S.I. unit, it is represented by kg. Weight (W) of a body is the force exerted by the body when its mass ig accelerated in a gravitational field. In S.1. unit, it is represented by N. Weight, W=m xg where m is the mass of the body, and g is the local gravitational acceleration, The mass of a body remains the same regardless of its location in the universe. However, its weight changes with a change in gravitational acceleration. For example, on earth an object has a certain mass and a certain weight. When the same object is Placed in outer space away from the earth's gravitational field, its mass is same but it is now in a “weightless”. 2. Density (p) Density is defined as the mass Per unit volume. It ot BSc) is denoted by ‘p’ (rho). In Sil unit, it is represented by ke/m?, Density, p =——Mass_ Mis also denoted by specific mass or mass density ry be considere | Engineering Thermodynamic, 2133.3. Nin? 1 Torr = Imm of Mercury (Hg) a 3 1 mm of water (#120) = 9.80665 N/ Atmospheric Pressure (Pam)? Itis the pressure exerted by the air on the level is 1.01325 bar. Atmospheric pressure = 1.01325 bar = 101.325 kN/m? or kPa = 101325 Nim? or Pa = 760 mm of Hg = 10.34 m of water = 14.696 Psi 1 atm refers to 1.03125 bar or 101.325 kPa or 101325 Pa. mosphere. Its value taken at mean Se, | at Gauge pressure (p,): It is the pressure recorded by the pressure gauge. All pressure gauges read ‘zero’ pressure at atmospheric level. Hence, they actually measure the difference of fluid pressure and atmospheric pressure. The gauge pressures are positive if they are above the atmospheric pressure and negative if they are below atmospheric pressure. Vacuum Pressure (pyac): The pressure below atmospheric pressure is called as vacuum pressure. It is also called as negative pressure. A perfect vacuum would correspond to absolute zero pressure. The pressure gauge which is used to measure the vacuum pressure is called vacuum gauge. Absolute Pressure (pass): ‘The pressure measured from absolute zero pressure is called as absolute pressure. Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Gauge Pressure Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure — Vacuum Pressure Pats = Paim + Dg . «Pots = Poin — Proc Pe Aeneas ey temperature of unit mass of the substance through one ¢ is expressed in We K or h/kg K é Specific heat capacity at constant volume (Co: It is defined as “the quantity of heat transfer required for raising or lowering the temperature of unit mass of the substance through one degree when the volume remains constant. When the gas is heated or cooled by constant volume process, Heat transfer, Q= mC, (Tz - 71) Specific heat capacity of constant pressure (Cy): It is defined as “the quantity of heat transfer required to raise or lower the temperature of unit mass of the substance through one degree when the pressure is kept as constant”. When the gas is heated or cooled at constant pressure process, Heat transfer, = m Cp (T2—-T1) : d Solids and gus bave only on spit cP Pi. e eal two specific heat capacities. C, and Cy are properties © a ‘They vary with pressure and temperature. For any gas, C, is always greater than Cy. ‘constant and is denoted by the symbol ‘y’ (gamma). = eae For air, C,= 1.005 kifkg K, Cy= 0.718 kilkg Kand y= 1.4. she ratio of two specific heats remain 4.3. MICROSCOPIC AND MACROSCOPIC APPROACHES Thermodynamically, the behaviour of any matter can be studied in two different points of view: 1. Microscopic approach or statistical thermodynamics 2. Macroscopic approach or classical thermodynamics 4.3.1. Microscopic Approach or Statistical Thermodynamics Any substance or matter consists of a large number of particles called molecules, The properties of the substance naturally depend on the behaviour of these molecules, From microscopic point of view, a matter consists of myriads of molecules. In this approach, the properties of matter such as pressure, velocity, position and energy of the individual molecule at a given instant or at a particular time are studied. This approach is known as statistical thermodynamics, For applications involving laset, plasma, high-speed gas flow, chemical kinetics, very low temperature (cryogenic) and others, the methods of statistical thermodynamics are essential, For example, to investigate the statistical machinery, all results of classical thermodynamics are essential plus a large number of other results which enable the macroscopic parameters of the system to be calculated from the knowledge of its microscopic constituents. This analysis is extremely powerful, The only drawback is more complexity in analyzing the parameters at molecular level, classical thermodynamics, For example, consider a system containing mixture of air tad petes cylinder of I.C. engine. The properties such as pressure, temperature and measured for each position of the piston in the cylinder. system i.e., mixture of air and petrol vapour can be mentioned properties. These properties are called a as macrosce properties describe the system condition in macroscopic poi cyl "seis A in lumes are conditions of the tee The different coordinates are used to describe the various systems in a macroscopic approach. But, all coordinates should have the following characteristics: No need of special assumptions for describing the matter in macroscopic co- ib ae 3m ordinates. There are easily measurable quantities. A few co-ordinates are enough to describe the system properly. We will elaborately discuss only the classical approach in this unit. 4.3.3. Comparison of Microscopic and Macroscopic Approaches ‘S.No. ‘Microscopic Approach Macroscopic Approach I. |In microscopic approach, the | In macroscopic approach, instead of properties of matter of the | studying parameters at molecular individual molecule at a given | level, the behaviour of the total instant or at a particular time are | system in terms of properties is studied. studied. 2. Special assumptions for describing | No need of special assumptions for the matter in macroscopic co- | describing the matter in macroscopic ordinates are required. co-ordinates. Engineering Thermodynamic, co-ordinates are enough to the system properly. Many co-ordinates are required to | A few describe the system proper describe be the ly. Me I thematical | It requires far fewer mathem; atical lore complex mat ir quations are used for the analysis. | complications. 1.4, THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS 1.4.1. System fs A thermodynamic system is defined as a definite space or area on which the study of energy transfer and energy conversions is made. A system could be the wate, within one side of a heat exchanger, the fluid inside a length of pipe or the entire lubricating oil system for a diesel engine. Boundary System ‘Surroundings Figure 1.2 System and surroundings 1.4.2. Surroundings Anything outside the system which affects the behaviour of the system is known as surroundings or environment, For example, a dryer may be the system but the Surroundings are air in the house + lawn + the universe, 1.4.3, Boundary surface which is shared by both the syste will not occupy any volume or mass in space, Permeable process boundaries allow the mass transfer to occur. The mass transfer cannot occur across impermeable boundaries, (b) Open system (©) Isolated system. ie a 5 4.5.1. Closed System CA closed system does not permit any mass transfer. But, only the energy transfer takes place. The system boundary is determined by the space that the matter occupies. Aclosed system is also known as control mass. Energy out Boundary ‘System Energy in No mass transfer @ Figure 1.3 Closed system J js supplied to the syst ; i 1.3,(b). Uheat ° 4 Consider the system shown in tee ofthe gas wil raise. Therefore, the hea, place. So, ins constan! piston movement. But, the mass of the system remains ¢O ») as a fer take place. The open system ig In open systems, both the mass and energy tals often called as control volume. Example: Air compressor, turbine, etc. Energy out Boundary Lh a ‘system Suroundings oe Mass in Figure 1.4 Open system || Aroschaic arn eae Ir a | . Roy Turbine = compressor High | HT a | Steam out (a) Rotary compressor (b) Turbine Figure 1.5 Examples for open system Consider an air compressor system as shown in Figure 1.5 (a). In this system, the low-pressure air is taken into the compressor and the ‘yj Sh continuously. Therefore, the mass transfer takes place in e es t transfer. The work is given to the system externally to run the comp: Hi mpressor ’ Control Volume Oi ‘A specified large number thermal device has the mass flow i in and out fa system called as control volume) Therefore, it is a properly selected region in the space: Generally, any arbitrary region in space can be selected as a control volume. There is no specific rule for selecting the control volume but a proper choice will make the analysis easier. . It usually encloses a device which involves the mass flow such as a compressor, turbine or nozzle, The flow through these devices is best studied by selecting the region within the device as the control volume. Both and ‘can cross the boundary of a control volume called control surface. The control volume may be fixed in size and shape. In addition to mass transfer, both work sransfer are involved. Mass => out Mass in, Figure 1.7 Control volume 4.6. INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES OFA SYSTEM atl Property is defined as any measurable or observable characteristics of the ibrium state. Any characteristic of a substance when the system remains in equili system is called property. Some familiar properties are pressure (p), temperature (7), volume (V), and mass (m). Example: pressure (p), temperature (7), volume (V), mass (m), etc. The properties are classified into the following two types: (a) Intensive or Intrinsic property, and (b) Extensive or Extrinsic property. (a) Intensive properties: Intensive properties are independent of the mass of the system. Tf a part of the system is considered, these properties remain same. Example: Pressure, temperature, specific volume, density etc. (b) Extensive properties: Extensive properties are dependent upon the mass of the system. If a part of the system is considered, these properties have lesser value. Example: Mass, volume, total energy, weight, kinetic energy, etc An easy way to determine whethera property is intensiv J € of extensive is to divide the system into two equal rit i i. SO i qual parts with an-imaginary partition as shown in Figure 1.8 Basic Concepts and First Law Each part will have the same value of intensive properties as the original system but half of the value of the extensive properties, Vs=Va+Ve extensive Ms=M,+Mg extensive Ts#T,+Tz intensive System Figure 1.8 Intensive and Extensive properties 1.7. STATE OF A SYSTEM State is the condition of the system at any particular moment. The state is identified by the properties of the system such as pressure, volume, temperature etc. At a given state, all properties of the system have fixed values. Even if the value of one property changes, the state will change to a different state called a change of state. 1.8. PATH The succession of states crossed through the control volume during the change of state in the thermodynamic system is called path. 1.9. THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS Process is the change of state undergone by a system from one equilibrium state to another equilibrium state. It consists of sufficient information about the thermodynamic properties at successive state: points. The path of the succession of states through which the system passes is called the thermodynamic process. An example of a thermodynamic process is, increasing the temperature of a fluid while maintaining a constant pressure. Another exam Pl © ‘confined gas while maintaining a constant tempera! A cS juril ‘The series of states through which a system Passes cecity the inital and fg of process. To describe a process completely, On€ States of the process as well as path it follows. 1.9.1. Quasi-Static Process eer ‘continuous equilibrium states ang fe i = ‘ginal eres js reversed. This process is called as quas;. attains the ori; state static process. a ‘A quasi-state process follows a successive thermodynamic equilibrium process, thus, it is reversible process. It is very slow process. 1.9.2. Reversible and Irreversible Processes . A system passes through an infinite number of continuous ae states, and it traces the same path when this process is reversed. This process is known as reversible process. When a fluid undergoes reversible process, both fluid and its surroundings can always be restored to their original state. In reality, there are no truly reversible processes, however, for analysis purposes, one uses the reversible process to make the analysis simpler and to determine the maximum theoretical efficiencies. Example: Constant volume, constant pressure, isothermal, adiabatic process, isentropic process, etc. A system passes through an infinite number of continuous non-equilibrium states, and it does not trace the same path when the process is reversed. This process is known as irreversible process. E.g., an automobile engine does not give back the fuel taken to drive up a hill as it coasts back down the hill. Example: Free expansion, throttling, and steady flow process. There are many factors that make a process irreversible. Four of the most common causes of irreversibility are friction, unrestrained expansion of a fluid, heat transfer through a finite temperature difference and mixing of two different ss 1.40, THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM es undergo any chan, heres meoo “a ‘State on its own accord. {A system is sai to bein thermodynamic equilibrium, "2 piensa following three conditions of equilibrium: (a) Mechanical equilibrium: A system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium, forces acting on it. when there are no unbalanceg (&) Thermal equilibrium: A system is said to be in thermal Seino, when there is no temperature difference throughout the system. (c) Chemical equilibrium: a ‘A system is said to be in chemical equilibrium, when there is no chemica] reaction throughout the system. 4.41, THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE A series of state changes such that the final state is identical with the initial state is known as cycle. If a thermodynamic system undergoes a series of processes and returns to its initial position, then the process is called cyclic process. ‘There are two types of cyclic processes. (a)Closed cycle | (b)Open cycle. 1.11.1. Closed Cycle In a closed system, the working substance is recirculated again and again within the system itself without taking any mass transfer. It is shown in Figure 1.10. 4.11.2. Open Cycle In an open cycle, the working substance is exhausted to atmosphere after completing the process. So, here both mass and energy transfers take place. It § shown in Figure 1.11. 4.12.1. Difference between Path and Point Functions Engineering. Thermodynamic, vo Figure 1.12 p-V diagram S.No. Path function iF Point function iz The magnitudes depend on the path followed during a process as well as the end states. They depend on the state only and not on how a system reaches that state: Ex. Work (W) and heat (Q). All properties are point function excluding both work and heat. Ex, pressure, volume and temperature. The total amount of both work and heat is the sum or cyclic integral of the path. The total amount of any point function property is the algebraic sum of the individual property of all processes in a cycle. It considers the direction of processes. It does not consider the direction of processes. The cyclic integral of a path function is non-zero. The cyclic integral of a point function is zero. 1.13. CONCEPT OF CONTINUUM A continuous homogenous medium is called as continuum. Continuum is based on the macroscopic approach. The continuum idealization allows us to treat the properties as point functions and assumes the Properties y; with no jump discontinuities. This idealization is valid ie arying continually in space as long as the size of the taneous velocity of the ¢ AY x say at ‘P? is i the same time, the fluid velocity at as volume 871 The volume 8p, of gravity of the smallest corresponding contin be significant. It s the sma contains enough particles for statistical averages t0 be ‘ d is normall Volume for which the matter can be considered @ FE calheee per unit veh enough that it can be considered a “point.” The density, OF as asystem 7 is an intensive property that may vary from point to point Wi Note: The concept of continuum is valid when the mean path of molecules approachs, the magnitude of the vessel dimensions as well as macroscopic approach, 1.44. CONCEPT OF TEMPERATURE AND THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM 1.14.1. Temperature Temperature is the measure of molecular velocity of fluid particles. The greater jg the movement of molecules, the higher will be the temperature. There is no exact definition for temperature. It is a property which is used to determine the degree of hotness or coldness or the level of heat intensity of a body. Based on physiological sensations only, the level of temperature is expressed qualitatively in words such as freezing cold, cold, warm, hot and red-hot. Several properties change with temperature such as viscosity, surface tension, density, etc., of materials change with temperature in a repeatable and predictable way and it forms the basis for accurate temperature measurement. Temperature is commonly measured by using a mercury-in glass thermometer. It can also be measured by using several other temperature dependent Properties. 1.14.2. Thermal Equilibrium A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium when there is no temperature difference throughout the system, It is a common experience that a cup of hot tea left on the table eventually cools abe ool ae Sreaially wanna ie ltimeans, whena body is brought i the heat is transferred rature until both bodies contact with another body which are at different temperatures, from the body at higher temperature to the one at lower Ce | Engineering Thermodynamics Fahrenheit (F and Celsius (6 scales: z suremeNt purpog, ‘The two temperature scales normally employed ee = a specification cel | Fahrenheit (F) and Celsius (C) scales. These scales are bas? ‘atmospheric pressure. The Celsius scale has 100 units between Bena os Fahrenheit scale has 180 units. The zero points on the scales Tic tunes of Celsius scale, the ice and steam points are originally assigned i e S lues of Q 100°C Tespectively. The corresponding values on the Fahrenheit scale are 32 ang 212°F. These are referred’ as two-point scales since the temperature values arg assigned at two different points. Thermodynamic temperature scale: In thermodynamics, i is necessary to have a temperature scale which is independent of the properties of any substance. Such.a temperature scale is calleq thermodynamic temperature scale. The absolute temperature scale in SI system is the Kelvin scale. The temperature unit on this scale is Kelvin which is designated by x (not °K). The lowest temperature on the Kelvin scale is absolute zero or 0 K. Absolute temperature scale: It is necessary to define an absolute temperature scale having only positive Values. Absolute zero temperature is the zero below which the temperature of any Substance cannot fall. It is taken as the value of -273.15°C (Approximately, 273°C), The temperature measured ftom the absolute zero temperature is called as absolute temperature. 1.14.4. Relationship between Temperature Scales The relationship between Celsius and Fahrenheit scales is Tepresented by the following equations: °F = 32.0 + (9/5) °C °C = CF - 32.0) (5/9) Celsius seale is converted into Kelvin scale as follows, T=1+273K Basic Concepts and First Law where T- Temperature on Kelvin scale. 1 = Temperature on Celsius scale. Figure 1.15 shows the relationships between Celsius (°C) scale and Kelvin (K) scale. Celsious scale Kelvin scale 100°C 373K oC 273K 273°C oK Figure 1.15 Temperature relationship The magnitudes of each division of 1 K and 1°C are identical. Therefore, the temperature interval on both scales is the same when the temperature differences AT are considered. Raising the temperature of a substance by 10°C is the same as raising it by 10 K. That is, AT (K) = ATCO) ‘Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP): The standard atmospheric conditions are: Standard temperature = 15°C Standard pressure = 760 mm of Hg = 101.325 kNim? Normal Temperature and pressure (NTP): The condition of temperature at 0°C and 760 mm of Hg is called as normal temperature and pressure. 1.14.5. New Temperature Scale The new temperature scale called International Temperature Scale was adopted by the International Committee of Weights and Measures in 1990 at the request of the Eighteenth General Conference on Weights and Measures. It is similar to its { ues of fixed tempei predecessors except that it ‘more refined with UP itis ic temy thermodynamic temperatur, ‘has an extended range, and conforms more closely t© oe js again Kelvin (K), tt jg ‘ nite : scale. On this scale, the unit of thermodynamic FET’ ture of the triple pong defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermod: of water. i Bt pi The unit of Celsius temperature isthe degree Celsius Fees ce ¥ be expressed j, P 7 : difference May in equal in magnitude to Kelvin (K). A tempera’ © oc (273.15°C) in both "i degree: . . i the a set old sak cea Cte oe point is 99.975°C in Internationa) ae ee i om = Temperature Scale (with an uncertainly of + 0.005°C) cs, = 100.000°C in old scale system. The change is due to precise eo thermometry by paying a particular attention to the effect of sorption- ts made by gag 4.45. ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Zeroth law of thermodynamics states, “When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body separately, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other”. As shown in Figure 1.16, let, a system X be in thermal equilibrium with another system Y. Also, let, another system Z is thermal equilibrium with the system Y. Then from Zeroth law of thermodynamics, the system X is in thermal equilibrium with the system Z. Hence, X and Z are at same temperatures. Figure 1.16 Zeroth law of thermodynamics hi 3 ee See i aiden 2k ee significant aspects of engineering analysis. nero i ined eae system to perform work or produce heat. ergy can exist in numerous forms such as chemical, thermal, mechanical magnetic, kinetic, potential, electric, and nuclear. Their sum constitutes the total energy (E) of a system. In a thermodynamic analysis, various forms of energy that make up the total energy of a system are grouped into: At a) Macroscopic forms of energies: b) Microscopic forms of energies ‘The macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as a whole with respect to some outside reference frame such as kinetic and potential energies. The macroscopic energy of a system is related to motion and the influence of some external effects such as gravity, magnetism, electricity, and surface tension. result of its motion relative to some The energy that a system possesses as 2 Kinetic energy is expressed by reference frame is called kinetic energy (K.E.). The KE.= ime? (UA) where _m be the mass of the system C be the velocity of the system ‘The energy that a system possesses as @ result of its elevation in a gravitational field is called potential energy (P-E.). Itis expressed by PE.=mgz (1.2) where _g be the acceleration due to gravity iter of gravity of a system relative to some z be the elevation of the cen arbitrarily selected reference level the velocity of the system s H Engineering Thermodynamics > the molecular structure a we a yy are independent of Outside Forms of energy are tose ated System and the degree of the molecular activity and the The sum of all microscopic forms of energy i8 called cere ae eh fa System and is denoted by the letter U. Internal energy is rel Fee ne Structure and degree of molecular activity and can be viewed as ast Kinetic aa ee eer Kinetic energies a oe molecules include Nanslational energy, vibrational Kinetic energy, rotational Kinetic energy, and pin energy. The portion of the intemal energy of a system associated with the kine energies of molecules is called sensible energy. The internal enerBy is also associatey with various binding forces between the molecules ofa substance. The gnternal energy associated with the phase of a system is called /atent energy. The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule is called chemical energy. The tremendous amount of energy associated with the strong bonds within the nucleus of the atom itself is called nuclear energy. None of these forms of energy can be measured or evaluated directly but techniques have been developed to evaluate the change in the total of all these microscopic forms of energy. These microscopic forms of energy are collectively called internal energy. ‘The magnetic, electric, and surface tension effects are only significant in some specialized cases and are usually ignored. Therefore, the total energy of a system consists of kinetic, potential, and internal energies and is expressed by E=KE.+P.E.+LE. = mc? +mge+u (1.3) 1.17. HEAT TRANSFER (Q) Heat is defined as the energy crossing the boundary of a system due to the temperature difference between system and surroundings. It is usual ly represented by Q and expressed in Joule or kJ. Heat exists only due to the heat transfer. For the transfer of heat, there should be temperature difference between two systems. Basic Concepts and First Law The amount of heat transferred depends upon the path and not simply on the initial and final conditions of the system. Also, it is important to distinguish between heat added to a system from its surroundings and heat removed from a system to its surroundings. A positive value of heat indicates that the heat is added to the system by its surroundings called heat addition. A negative value of heat indicates the transfer of heat out of a system to its surroundings called heat rejection. The best way to quantify the definition of heat is to consider the relationship between the amount of heat added to or removed from a system and the change in the temperature of the system. When a substance is heated, its temperature increases and when it is cooled, its temperature decreases. The heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in its temperature is called sensible heat. The units of heat are defined in terms of the change in temperature as it produces. Let m be the mass of the substance heated from temperature T; to temperature 7>, then, the heat transfer is given by Q=m.C.(Tp-T)=mCaT (1A) The unit of heat transfer is J (Joule) or KI where, ‘C’ be the specific heat of the substance. Sign Convention: If is positive, the heat is supplied or transferred to a system. If Q is negative, the heat is rejected or transferred from a system. ‘Surroundings Surroundings Q Q | t T System System Figure 1.17 Sign convention for heat transfer 4.18. WORK TRANSFER (W) Work is an energy interaction between a system and its surroundings. Usually, the y can cross the boundary of any system in the form of either heat or work. But, As with the amount of work done bY ve eth Na a lon the di Work is defined es the product of force and 1 Be ic aak : e oe ne Hoan fi : | Work = force x distance moved W=Fxx ? yy The work is expressed in terms of ‘N-mord called 1. The unit of power is kJls or kW. inthe direction of the force acting on im, When the boundary is moved s. Work done by the The work done per unit time is When a boundary of a closed system moves it, then the surroundings do work on the SYS outwards, the work is done by the system on its surroundings. system is taken as positive work and work done on the system 15 taken as negative work. In other words, it can be stated that the work output from any system is taken as positive work. Example: Heat engine, turbines, etc, the system is taken as negative work. Example: The work supplied to Compressor, fans, heat pump, etc. is a form of energy but it is energy in transit. Work is not a property ofa Work is ‘ona system but a system contains no work. system. Work is a process done by or Heat and work are both transitory energit energy possessed by a system. For example, is heated, the pressure and temperature of the gas inc! energy of the gas will also increase. The increase in internal energy has been caused by the heat flow to the system. ‘Another way in which the work may be transferred to a system is ill paddle wheel imparts a change in momentum to the fluid and @ work ies and must not be confused with internal when a gas contained in a rigid container’ rease, and hence, the intemal justrated it! Figure 1.18. The - ineoring Thermodynamic, ‘pe boundaries of @ system, jp z cross a) Both are recognized only as they A pheniomen?- - heat nd wos work. i.e heat and work om b) Systems possess energy put not heat or | transient phenomena. ' c) Both eat and work are ciat with @ process not a state. Unlike ing at a state- properties, heat or work has 10 meaning d) Both are path functions i» their magnitudes depend on the path followeq during a process as well asthe end states. 4.18.2. Modes of Work Transfer ermal sources, many other forms of work are In addition to work produced by th jnvolved during the energy transfer between system and surTo 1. Mechanical work 2. Non-mechanical work ndings. They are: I. Mechanical forms of work The mechanical work is again categorize Shaft work Paddle wheel work d into the following forms. Spring work Elastic solid bar work Gravitational work Acceleration work Flow work Moving boundary work eNaAnNR YN ES 9. Work associated with stretching of a liquid film 1. Shaft work Shaft is a rotating machine element which transmits power from one member to another 2 mber to member. It is one of the most common and basic machine elements which are used if h an mechanical equipments. It is used with power transmissi nsmission element: s such as gears, pulley® Engineering Thermodynamic, where Dg be the outer diameter of the shaft it ‘shaft in m. mand Di be the inner diameter OF the product of force applied, F an, he We know that the mechanical work is The distance moved, s = (ra, distance moved, sin the direction of foree applied for one revolution. The unit of distance is in™ (metre) The total distance covered by the shaft is given bY s=(nd)N_ for‘N’ revolutions For a particular constant torque, the work done in kJ for ‘N’ revolutions can, be calculated by : Wag = Fas = endN =" n(2r)N=24NT a e (1.8) But the shaft power can be expressed by _2nNT ee mCi st = Ey (1.9) where N be the revolutions per minute. 2. Paddle wheel work The rotating wheel called paddle wheel is connected at one end of the connecting member and the other end is connected with the rotating drum which has the rope with a weight as shown in Figure 1.21. The paddle is kept inside the fluid cylinder. When the weight is lowered from its initial position, the paddle wheel rotates by stirring the fluid in the eylinder. Since this cylinder rigid with constant volume, there is no work on or by the fluid, So, the work done on the fluid 2 learn e (0.10) But the weight ‘W” is lowered through a distance ‘s?, Therefore, the paddle wheel work done on the system can be expressed by Waste =W ae 0.1) Basic Concepts and First Law ZZ Weight Figure 1.21 Paddle wheel work Also, the paddle wheel is connected with the shaft which is rotating at a speed of Nwith torque, 7. This is similar to shaft work. Again the work done can be written as Wraage =W 8 =2NT + (1.12) The total work transfer in the integral form is given by [+40 betheangular distance] 3. Spring work Spring is an elastic member which deflects under the action of load and regains its original shape after the load is removed. Springs are quite commonly used in automobiles, railway wagons, valves, watches etc. When the force is applied on a spring, the length of the spring changes. The elongation of the spring is dx distance for the applied force . The spring work can be calculated by Weying =F XX So, the total spring can be expressed by Wag =| Fe sash We know that the force of spring is & + (1g) FaKxx Sin . stiffness 7 where K’be the spring constant oF SPFin ey Substituting on (1.14) inequation the equation ( yf [° =3K(#-*).- (15) ag =| R= =[K (ot hile apph = t of the spring wl PPlying sos final displacemen where x; and xz are the initial and the force, F. Force, F Figure 1.22 Spring work 4. Work done on elastic solid bar Solid bars are similar to linear springs because it may contract or elongate under the action of applied force. The nature of elastic bodies is that when the force is withdrawn, they return to their original lengths, like ag Spring. Therefi tions given for a linear spring can also be used for elastic soli i. Therefore, the equati lid bars. : ., Figure 1.23 —— S.Gravitational work ae If the work is done by or against the gravitatio “rove Belt called as gravitational work. It is indirectly performed at the expense of potential the potential energy of the body increases when a body is raised in a gravitational field. Therefore, the work transfer needed to raise a body is equal to the change in the potential energy of the body, So, the force acting on the body ha the mass, m is given by Ratha solvbae airs F=mg ] nab ea) where ; : g be the acceleration due to gravity in m/s? : 3 hie) mal ‘Assume, the body is raised from elevation (height) 21 to 22 7 So, the gravitational work can be written as : 2 Ww, =| Faz = me (22-4) 6. Acceleration work 2 : ssesene ‘When a body is accelerated, its kinetic energy i . The acceleration work is mainly used in elevators, escalators, conveyor belts, and ski lifts. It also plays a ineoring Thermody nam. ; ines. The work pllmacy tole in We Gasign of eutamatve a0 Bey oC ike bail shang in the Kine? body, | needed to accelerate a body is equal to the By Newton's second law pe “(L1g) where ; pe Lis the mass ofthe body and abe the acceleration due to gravity. Fae scaly tat te eters te ee of velocity and velocity is 4, 7 itten as rate of change on displacement. So, the acceleration can be wr dc =— Cale and C= a where C be the velocity of the body, 1 be the time for the distance travelled and 5 be the displacement of the body Force, en «+-(1.20) dt and distance, ds = Cdt ++(1.21), So, the acceleration work, Wq in kJ can be calculated by 2 3 dC 2 1 =] Fas =| m2 |(cat) ={mcac =— m(C; -C? a m=] ris-(mfhJea)-Incie=m(-G) 0.29 7. Flow work This work is only possible in open system under flow process. It is the work transfer across the boundary of the system. For example, the energy transfer in compressor, blower, turbine etc. The force acting on the fluid is associated with fluid pressure, p and contact area, A of the moving body with the fluid. As per the earlier discussion, the work done in k/is calculated by W, 2 2 3 [Fas] Ads =| pa¥ [+ Volume,¥ = Area, Axdistance,s] | — the: performed by the movement of boundary 4v¢ © Similar to flow work, the work done by uid °22: y= Area, Axdistance, s] W.,=|Fds={pads=| par [e Youn® So, it can be written as_ Ws = P(%z-N) 9. Work done associated with stretching ofa liquid fm Pes, Consider a liquid film such as a soap film suspended ona wire frame. Some fore is needed to stretch this film by a movable portion of the wire ere: Actually, the force applied overcomes the bonding between molecules at a liquid-air interface, j, is similar to the binding energy of atoms in @ nuclear. This energy of molecules depends on the surface tension, o (Nim) of liguid film. So, the work associated with the stretching of a film is also called surface tension work. Wire frame Solid wire +-(1.24) Figure 1.26 Stretching of a liquid film It can be calculated by 2 2 Wy =| Fés=| dA =| 260d 1 1 jual to the electrical energy can be calculated by Figure 1.27 Electrical work 2. Magnetic work f It is the work performed in a system where the generalized force is the magnetic field strength and the generalized displacement is the total magnetic dipole moment. 3. Electrical polarization work b It is the work performed in a system where the generalized force is the electric field strength and the generalized displacement is the polarization of the medium (the sum of the electric dipole rotation moments of the molecules). In any thermal equipments, usually the above mentioned mechanical work transfer will occur due to concemed moving parts. When these equipments are operated or actuated mainly by electric supply. Due to this, electrical work, magnetic work and polarization work are produced by magnetic field created between rotor and stator of electric motor. ing. Thermodynamic, 4.49, CONCEPT OF IDEAL AND REAL GASES 1. Ideal gas a Bey ite relation PY = RT. So, the ‘An ideal gas is an imaginary s00S100°% © ion, At JW pressures and hig, state equation is also known as ideal gas time, the 835 behaves as an idea temperatures, the density of a gas of ideal £28 behaviour known ‘A factor is introduced to account the deviation © 1 gas behaviour. 7 gas. wr is intro aie ideal 22 , compressibility factor. It is a measure of the deviation on 2. Real gas : ‘At high pressures, the gases start t0 deville deviation should be accounted. For accounting from jdeal 228 behaviour. So, the this deviation, 4 factor call, ed compressibility is introduced. The state equation for real gases 1S pV=2RT a ---(1.27) where, Z - Compressibility factor =, The compressibility factor, Z 2 ++(1.28) ‘The compressibility factor can also be expressed by 7: a ++(1.29) eal where, Vaca! => Specific volume of real gases Vent <> Specific volume of ideal gases For ideal gases, Z= 1. But, for real gases, Z is greater than or less than unity. The graph is plotted between pressure, temperature and compressibility to account deviation of ideal gas behaviour. 4.20. CHARACTERISTIC GAS EQUATION The general gas equation for ideal gas is given by Vv a = constant where p be the pressure in N/m? gineering Thermedynamie, Figure 1.28 4 As per the first law of thermodynamics, for path A Q,=W,+U, For path B, Q, =W, +AU, For path C, Qe =We +AU For the cycle 1-A-2-B-1, we know that GW =$0 Wa+Wa = OrtOn Q4— Wa=Wa-On AU, =-AU, (1.34) Similarly, for the cycle 1-A-2-C-1, we know that $7 -$0 WatWe= QOxtOc Qa - Wa = We-Qc AU, =-AU,, From equations (1.34) and (1.35), we can write AU, = AU, Limitations of First Law of thermodynamics: (1) First law of thermodynamics does not specify the direction of flow of heat and work. i.e., whether the heat flows from a hot body to a cold body or from a cold body to a hot body. : (2) The heat and work are mutually convertible. The work can be converted fully into heat energy but the heat energy cannot be converted fully into mechanical work. It violates the foresaid statements. A machine which violates the first law of thermodynamics is known as perpetual Motion machine (PMM-1) of the first kind which is impossible. PMM-1 is a machine which delivers work continuously without any input. Thus, the machine violates first law of thermodynamics. 1.23. SOLVED PROBLEMS Bern) During a flow process 5 kW paddle wheel work is supplied while the internal energy of the system increases in one minute as 200 kJ. Find the heat transfer when there is no other form of energy transfer. Given data: Work done, W7=-5 kW (Since work is supplied to the system) Internal energy, AU = 200 kJ/ min = a“ =3.33 ks To find: Heat transfer, (OQ) © Solution: From first law of Thermodynamics, O=W+au Ans, Q=-S+3.33 =-1.67 kW ferred from the system.) (Note: —ve sign indicates thatthe heat is trans A liquid of mass 18 kg is heated from 25°C to 85°C. How much heat transfer j, required? Assume C, for water is 4.2 kJ (kg K. Given data: m=18kg T, = 25°C = 254273 = 298 K Ty = 85°C = 854273 = 358 K To find: Heat transfer, Q © Solution: Heat transfer, Q = m Cp(T2—-T;) Q=18 x 4.2 x (358 - 298) = 4536 kJ Ans. Bor A closed system receives an input heat of 450 kJ and increases the internal energy of the system for 325 kJ. Determine the work done by the system. Given data: Heat received, Q = 450 kJ AU=325 kJ To find: Heat loss, 0 Basic Concepts and First Law © Solution: " Ont cater w Figure 1.29 By First law of thermodynamics, Q=W+ aU 450 = W+ 325 W = 450-325 = 125 kT Ans. © Benen During the compression stroke of a reciprocating compressor, the work done to the air in the cylinder is 95kI/kg and 43kJ/kg of heat is rejected to the surroundings. Determine the change in internal energy. Given data: W=~95 ki/kg (ve sign indicates that the work is done on the system) Q=~43 kilkg (Since the heat is rejected from the system) To find: Change in Internal energy, (AU) © Solution: By first law of Thermodynamics Q=W+ AU —43 =-95 + AU. AU=— 43 -(-95) AU =52 ki/kg Ans. -© 9 wen mere i. = ey fipon ‘consuming 2 tonne Of eg, | 5 a ir oal gas then ; hn ase id ms mee me coal 18 converted into coal gas then j o eat generated | mined ws s0Nzonne Of dead MASS of 4, mechanical work. The tractive effort rea 500 tones. Assume I ky q locomotive where the dead mass of the loeomal”™ coal liberating 35000 kJ of heat on burning. Given data: Mass of coal, Q = 2 tonne = 2000 kg Available mechanical work = 10% Q Tractive effort = 30 N/tonne Mass of the locomotive = 2500 fonnes Forl kg of coal, 35000 k/ of heat is generated =, Calorific value of coal, CV = 35000 ki/kg To find: Distance moved by a locomotive, x © Solution: Heat generated, = mex CV = 2000x3500 = 70x1 Ook Available mechanical work, W= apr TOx10" =70x 10° kJ=70 x 10° J The total force required to move the locomotive, F = tractive effort/tonne x dead mass in tonnes = 30 x 2500 = 75000 N. We know that, Work done = Force x distance where The work done is nothing but available mechanical work 70 x 10° x 10° = 75000 xx x =93333.3 m=93.3 km The following data refer to a closed system which undergoes a thermodynamics cpele consisting of four processes. Process Heat transfer kI/min work transfer kI/min a-b 50,000 = b-c — 5,000 34,200 c-d —16,000 —2,200 d-a - -3,000 ‘Show that the data is consistent with the first law of Thermodynamics and calculate: (a) Net rate of work output as MW (b) Efficiency of the cycle Given data: Qa-s= 50,000 K/min Que =-5,000 k/min Qe. = 16,000 kiimin 0s.=0 Wos= Wre= 34,200 kJ/min Wea =—2,200 kilmin Wag=-3,000 kiimin To find: §W and y © Solution: The cyclic heat transfer of the cycle, §5Q = 50000 — 5000 — 16000 + 0 = 29000 kK//min Similarly, the cyclic work transfer of the cycle, $81 = 0 + 34200 — 2200 — 3000 = 29000 ki/min «. From first law of thermodynamics $50 = $37 ©. The given data is consistent with the first law of thermodynamics. gineering Thermodynamics | Ans. ~ sane Tyan 04s (Taki Net work output, W= 222" . ing the positive heat only) Heat supplied, Q, = ae kJlmin +-Efficiency of the cycle, en eee ss | ADS ne ree s 0 Te reesei OO ir rd hol A paddle wheel fixed to the shaft of an engine revolves in a close low vessel ft and containing water. This closed vessel is freely connected 0” nS i is ree its turning moment is proved by a mass atta ached to its side. Find the temperature rise for the following observations. Engine rpm = 650 Load applied = 60 kg at a leverage of 1.2m Quantity of water = 200 kg Duration of test = 20 minutes Given data: Speed, N= 650 rpm Load, W = 60 kg Leverage, 1= 1.2 m Mass of water, m, = 200 kg Time, t = 20 minutes. To find: Rise in temperature, At, © Solution: Torque = Wx 1=60 x 10x 12= 720 N ee = 10.NI Brake power or work done, : =2aNTxt +2 2x 650 x 720 x 20 = 58810614.48 J Heat gained by the water in 20 min, ia Q= My Cow ty Basic Concepts and First Law” $8810614.48 = 200x 4.18x10?xAty [Cw = 4.18 kilkg K= 4. Owe Aty = 70.35°C Ans. -© Fi ‘igure 1.30 Paddle wheel re) During a non-flow process, the temperature of the system changes from 15°C to 50°C. The work done by the system and heat transfer/C rise in temperature at each temperature reached are given by bw 8a o' = (60.0657) kI/C and = =1.00: : SC T) and 7 SKIP. Determine change in internal energy of the system during the process. Given data: T= 15°C = 15 + 273 = 288 K Tp = 50°C = 50 + 273 = 323 K SW _ (60.0657) KIC ar Oe 1.005 KPC aT To find: Change in internal energy, AU © Solution: Au=fso-Ssw s (1.36) 80 = 1.005 dT .. (137) 8W =(6-0.065T)dT --» HSB) ‘Substituting (1.37) and (1- b y au= [so-[a" Fi i = 1.005 in-ni- [0 i MOes ya2 aR = 1,005 ps a1n (603-200 a) Ans. = 520.188 kJ ik of water. The tank contains 15kg of 'ALKW string motor is applied to a tam water and the string action is applied for 1/2 hr, If the tank is perfectly insulated, te the change in internal energy of the water, assuming that the process id C, of water may be taken as 4.18 kJ/kgK. Also calcula occurs at constant pressure an’ calculate rise in temperature. Given data: Power P=1 kW Time, (= 1/2 hr Mass of water, 1™y = 15 kg For perfect insulation, Q=0 C,=4.18 klk K To find: Change in internal energy, AU Basic Concepts and First Law © Solution: oe Figure 1.31 Paddle wheel with insulation By First law of Thermodynamics, Q=W+au W=-AU [+ Q= 0 for perfect insulation] But. work done, W= 1x ; 3600= 1800 kJ [+ 1 hr =3600 5] AU =-1800 kJ Ans. © (ve sign indicates that the internal energy is decreased.) For calculation, we can consider only magnitude, AU= my Cr» At 1800 = 15 x 4.18 x Ar Ar = 28.708°C Ans. -~ Geren During summer season a room measuring 10 x 13 x 6 m? is cooled electrically ‘from initial temperature 28°C to 2C. The air pressure inside the room is same as that of surroundings and is equal to 72 cm of Hg. The pressure remains constant during the cooling process. The cooling capacity of furniture and wall is 35 kI/K. The specific heat of air is 1.005 ki/kgK. Calculate the amount of electric energy needed for cooling the room. How much air comes out through gaps and windows during cooling period? Given data: Votume of air=10 x 13 x 6m

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