Experiment -1

Object: To make some observations about the reaction of various fibers to an

open flame.

Material Required: Match-box, Candle, Fibers, Tweezers

Procedure: Obtain 1–2 cm lengths or tufts of the various fibers or yarns to be

tested from the samples provided.

1. Hold the individual fiber samples to be tested in tweezers or tongs and

bring the fibers slowly to the side of a Bunsen burner flame. Make
observations. What is the initial reaction? Does the fiber shrink? Melt?
Anything else?

2. Place the fiber in the flame and slowly withdraw it. Does the fiber burn?

3. If burning occurs, describe the flame. Color? Sooty?

4. Does burning continue or is fiber self-extinguishing?

5. If burning continues, extinguish it and carefully smell the smoke.

Describe the smell.

6. Observe the remains of the ash (burn) product. Color? Black? Pale
brown? Does it crumble? Is it hard? Bead-like?

Result:
Fibre Burning characteristics
Burns with a flame. Has an
Cotton afterglow
Melts and burns with a
sputtering flame. Gives off
Polyester thick black smoke.
Melts and burns with steady
flame. Clear flame, no smoke.
Looks like melting glass
Polypropylene Melted portion is clear.
Melts and burns with
sputtering flame. Gives off
Nylon white smoke
Very slow to ignite. Will not
support combustion. No
melting. Material chars and
Nomex curls up.
Melts and burns rapidly
Sputtering flame. Thick black Faintly sweet, slight
Acrylic smoke.
Odour Ash
Burning paper,
Black and powdery
Faintly sweet, slight Hard, black round and
geranium odour shiny.
Very little odour.
Slight celery odour. Hard, turns, opaque.
Hard, round, gray or
Burning garbage brown shiny.
Black, dull finish
crushes into black
Faintly sweet powder.
Resembles burned head
of wooden match,
crucibles into black or
‘hot iron’ odour brownish orange powder
 Experiment- 2

Object: To study the microscopical view of different fibers using microscope

Material Required: Tweezer, fibers, microscope

Theory:

The microscopic test is a technical test that involves identifying the fabric with
the help of a microscope with a magnification of minimum 100 power. The test
can easily distinguish between fibres.
The test identifies the natural fibres more easily as compared to man-made ones.
Synthetic fibres are very similar in appearance and the increase in the number of
varieties makes it a little tough to distinguish the fibres even under a
microscope.

Different kinds of optical and electron microscopes are used to identify and
distinguish between individual fibers used in samples of fabric. This method can
detect natural and synthetic fibers.
Optical Light Microscopy uses light and conventional microscopes to
determine different types of fibers that may be combined to produce fabrics
with particular characteristics.
Infrared Spectroscopy is used for qualitative and quantitative analyses of fiber
orientation and crystalline structure to identify the properties of individual
fibers.
Atomic Force Microscopy or electron microscopy is used to identify specific
characteristics of synthetic fibers such as stiffness, light absorption,
conductivity and heat resistance.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) gives flawless quality analysis with
high-resolution images of the elements in a fabric. Thousands of fibers can be
checked in a short time using this method.
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) examines the structure of natural
fibers on a cellular level to determine their quality and durability.
Method:

1. Clean the lens slide and cover-glass.

2. Place a drop of water on the slide.

3. Untwist a yarn and place the loosened fibers on the slide cover with the
cover-glass and press down to eliminate air bubbles.

4. Place the slide on the stage of the microscope and focus. The fibers should be
well loosened such an to enable focusing of a single fiber.

5. If the fabric contains more than one kind of fiber test each, be sure to check
warp and filling yarns.

6. Observe both cross sectionally and longitudinally.

Observation:
Each of the natural fibers has its own structural shape which is different from
the other.

i. Cotton:
It resembles a collapsed spirally twisted tube with a rough surface. The thin cell
wall of the fiber has from 200 to 400 turns of natural twist. The fiber appears
flat twisted and ribbon like, with a wide inner canal (the lumen) and a granular
effect.

ii. Linen:
The hair like flax fiber shows a thick cell well with a narrow central canal.
There are workings or nodes at intervals of the filament. Due to these nodes, the
fiber resembles a straight smooth bamboo sticks.
iii. Wool:
Wool fiber is irregular and roughly cylindrical. It has multi-cellular structure. A
cross section shows three layers, epidermis, cortex and medulla. The outer layer
consists of overlapping scales in longitudinal section. It is a rod like structure
with rough surface of overlapping horny scales.

iv. Silk:
Both cultivated and wild silk present different picture under the microscope.
Under microscope, raw silk appears elliptical in shape. Wild or tusser silk
appears flattened. It has a double rod like structure which is covered with lumps
of gum, the sericin.

v. Rayon:
This fiber has a glass like luster under the microscope. It appears to have a
uniform diameter. The cup ammonium shows round filaments of a bright lustre.

vi. Acetate:
The cross sectional view of acetate fiber is less irregular than Rayon. It has a
bulb like appearance with indentations.

vii. Nylon:
Fibers are very fine, round and smooth. It is highly lustrous.

viii. Dacron:
Dacron fibers are straight, smooth and perfectly round.

ix. Orion:
It is flat, smooth and semi-dull.

x. Polyester:
Polyester fibers are smooth and straight. The cross section is round.
 SAMPLING
Sampling:

It is not possible or desirable to test all the raw material or all the final output from a
production process because of time and cost constraints.

Many tests are destructive so that there would not be any material left after it had been
tested. Because of this, representative samples of the material are tested.

Terms used in sampling:

Consignment:

This is the quantity of material delivered at the same time. Each consignment may
consist of one or several lots.

Test lot or batch:

This consists of all the containers of a textile material of one defined type and quality,
delivered to one customer according to one dispatch note. The material is presumed to
be uniform so that this is the whole of the material whose properties are to be
characterised by one set of tests. It can be considered to be equivalent to the statistical
population.

Laboratory sample:

This is the material that will be used as a basis for carrying out the measurement in the
laboratory. This is derived by appropriate random sampling methods from the test lot.

Test specimen:

This is the one that is actually used for the individual measurement and is derived from
the laboratory sample. Normally, measurements are made from several test specimens.

Package:

Elementary units (which can be unwound) within each container in the consignment.
They might be bump top, hanks, skeins, bobbins, cones or other support on to which
have been wound tow, top, sliver, roving or yarn.

Container or case:

A shipping unit identified on the dispatch note, usually a carton, box, bale or other
container which may or may not contain packages.

Sample:
It is a relatively small fraction which is selected to represent a population.

Reasons for sampling:

To minimize time requirement for testing.

Design nature of many of the tests.

For example :
1) Only 20mg of cotton sample is used from 250kg of cotton:
2) 10 random sample of cones from one container of 15ton of yarns :

Aim of sampling:
To produce an unbiased sample in which the population of the different fibre length in the
sample are same as those in the bulk or through sampling systems of each fibre in the
bale should have equal chance of being chosen for the sample.
Sampling methods are governed by:
1. Form of the material (fibre/yarn/fabric).
2. Amount of material available.
3. Nature of the test.
4. Type of testing instruments.
5. Information required.
6. Degree of accuracy required.

TYPES OF SAMPLE:

RANDOM SAMPLE:

In this type of sample every individual in the population has an equal chance of being included in
it. It is free from bias, therefore truly representative of the population.
NUMERICAL SAMPLE:

A sample in which the proportion by number of, say, long, medium, and short fibers would be the
same in sample as in the population.
BIASED SAMPLE:
When the selection of an individual is influenced by factors other than chance, a sample ceases to
be truly representative of the bulk and a biased sample results.
Causes of bias in sampling:

Bias due to physical characteristics:

Longer fibers always have a greater chance of being selected.
Position relative to the person:
Lab assistant may pick bobbins from top layer of a case of yarn (whether to save himself the task
of digging down into the case or because he has never been told otherwise, we do not know), but
the bobbin chosen will be biased due to their position.
Subconscious bias:
Person selecting cones will pick the best looking ones free from ridges, cubwebbed ends, etc.,
without thinking about it.
FIBRE SAMPLING FROM BULK:
1.ZONING TECHNIQUE:
Handful of samples from at least 40 zones.(x: no. of original handfuls)

Take a quarter from each tuft to make the final sample looking ones free from any damages, etc.

From the bulk, a sample of about 2oz is prepared by selecting about eighty large tufts chosen, so
far as possible, over the bulk.

Divide this sample into four quarters.

Take 16 small tufts at random from each quarter, the size approximately 20mg.

Each tuft shall be halved four times, discarded alternately with right and left hands and turning
the tuft through a right angle between successive halvings. 16 'wisps' are thus produced from each
quarter sample.
Combine each set of wisps into a tuft.

Mix each tuft in turn by doubling and drawing between the fingers.

Divide each tuft into four parts.

Obtain four new tufts by combining a part of each of former tufts.

Mix each new tuft again by doubling and drawing.

Take a quater from each tuft to make the final sample.

2.CORE SAMPLING:

It is used for assessing the proportion of grease, vegetable matter in samples taken from
unopened bales of raw wool.

It means half way into the bale i.e. samples from centre. The tube enters in the direction of
compression, so perpendicular to the layers of fleece.

Cutting tip dia is lesser than coring tube.

helps sliding the core upside the tube penetrates.

 helps retaining the core as it is withdrawn.

No. of cores are extracted and combined.

Different sizes of tube 14, 15, and 18mm.

After removal cores are kept in air tight container immediately.

Hydraulic coring machine for large number of samples.

Fiber Sampling from Combed Slivers/Rovings/Yarns:

Very difficult to obtain “unbiased” samples, because unless special precaution
are taken, the longer fibres are more likely to be taken by the sampling
procedures, leading to length-biased sample.

Two ways of dealing with this problem:

Prepare a numerical sample (unbiased).

Prepare a length-biased sample in such way that the bias can be allowed for
in any calculation (based on some assumptions).

Remove all fibres which are started left of A (X zone) .The green
fibres will be unaffected.

Again remove fibres, the fibre will be unchanged.

 SAMPLING
Fiber Sampling from Combed
Slivers/Rovings/Yarns:
Very difficult to obtain “unbiased” samples, because unless special
precaution are taken, the longer fibres are more likely to be taken
by the sampling procedures, leading to length-biased sample.

Two ways of dealing with this problem:

Prepare a numerical sample (unbiased).

Prepare a length-biased sample in such way that the bias can

be allowed for in any calculation (based on some assumptions).

Remove all fibres which are started left of A (X

zone) .The green fibres will be unaffected.

Again remove fibres, the fibre will be unchanged.

If the removal of one sample does not affect the composition of

the remaining samples, then it can be considered as “ numerical
sample” and each segment is representative of the whole.

LENGTH-BIASED SAMPLE:
 In sample the ratio of proportion of 10mm, 20mm, and 30mm
would be 1:2:3.

Removal of length biased sample will change the proportion of

fibres in the remaining bulk as longer fibres will be removed at
higher proportion.

In the earlier figure chance of fibre crossing the lines A and B

is proportion to its length. If by some way the fibres crossing this
area (between A and B are selected ) then the longer fibres will
preferentially selected.

Random/tuft sample:

RANDOM DRAW METHOD:

 Take out fibre (2mm at each stage) and discard until a
distance equal to that of the longest fibre in the sliver has
removed. After that each draw will be of numerical samples.

CUT SQUARE METHOD:

Cut all the projected fibres and discarded. The glass plate is then moved back few mm, exposing
more fibres with “natural length” without cut. In each case projected fibre ends must be removed.
YARN SAMPLING:
1. Use of random numbers:

Table of random sampling number are normally used a small number of yarn bobbins
are to be selected from comparatively small bulk size.

Total 10 package are to be selected at random from the consignment.

2. a) If consignment contains more than five cases, they are selected at random from
it.& then two packages are selected at random from each case.

b) If no. of cases <5, then 10 packages are selected at random approximately, equal
from each package.

2. Count of yarn removed from fabric:

Rectangular strips two for warp and five for weft.

Normal size = 20'' width at least 50 threads.

Different warp or weft in each rectangle.

3. Twist in yarn in package form:

Specimens in equal no. of from 10 packages.

No specimen from within 1yard of the end of package.

Minimum 1yard distance between consecutive specimens.

4. Lea strength of spun yarns:

20 complete leas, one each from 20 packages.

If no. of packages is less than 20, then 20 leas are selected at random
approximately equal from each packages.

FABRIC SAMPLING:

Fabric samples from warp and weft are taken separately.

Warp direction should be marked before it is cut out.

No two specimens should contain same warp or weft threads.

Samples should not be from within 50mm of selvedge.

Experiment- 3

Object: To study the measurement of moisture by Oven Dry Method.

Method:

1. A conditioning oven, as shown in figure, is a large oven which contains the fiber
sample in a mesh container. The container is suspended inside the oven from one
pan
of balance, the mechanism of which is outside the oven.

2. This ensures that the weight of the sample can be monitored without
disturbing
the system.

3. A continual flow of air at the correct relative humidity is passed

through the oven
which is maintained at 105o C.

4. The main advantage of using a conditioning oven for carrying our regain
 determinations is that all the weighing is carried out inside the oven.
The use of the conditioning oven to dry a sample is correct standard procedure;
any other method of sample drying has to be checked for accuracy against it.
5. The method is based on the assumption that the air drawn into the oven is at
the standard atmospheric condition. If this is not the case the correction has to be made

Percentage correction = 0.5 (1 - 6.48 x 104 x E x R) %

Where R = relative humidity % / 100, and E = Saturation vapour pressure in pascals at

the temperature of the air enter the oven (taken from a table of values)

Experiment No
Objective : To prepare comb
sorter diagram
By using comb diagram determine the following:-
1. Mean length
2. Effective length
3. Short fiber percentage
4. Dispersion percentage

Fiber diagram

Operating Device :- Comb sorter

Material Used :- Cotton

Introduction :- Comb sorter is the device in which we can place the fiber tuft which is
selected from different or same type of fiber and also these fiber are oriented thorough
comber and after this we can obtained the actual length and graph between different fiber
length.

1. Mean length :- It is estimated quantity which signifies the arithmetic mean of length of
all fibrees present in sample of cotton.

2. Effective length :- It is defined as length of main bulk of longer fibres.

American staple = 0.91 X effective length.

3.Short fiber length :- A quantity which, the raw material is characterised. It is the average
length of spinnable fibers.
4. Dipersion percentage :- It represent the variation in the length of fibers. It is the inter
quartile range expressed as a percentage of effective length.

Comb sorter

Procedure :-
1.Fiber sample is condition by 65% R.H (20 + 2 C) for 24 hours.

2.Tuft of fiber are straighten by hand, until fibres get aligned.

3.Both the top and bottom combs are 6mm apart.

4.Comb sorter is placed with back toward the operator and top comb is lifted.

5.By using the clamping device all loose fiber are removed until straight edge of fiber is
formed.

6. Fibers are now pulled out from right side to left side.

7.After placing all the fibers samples i present down into bottom comb with the help of
depress and top comb.

8.The sorter is turned around so that it faces the operator.

9.Bottom Combs are dropped one by one successively till the longest fiber tip is
expressed.

10.The exposed fibers are pulled out with the help of clamping device and placed on
velvet board.

11.Rest of the combs are dropped in succession so, that the fiber are removed in
decreasing order of length and this will give comb sorter diagram.
 Diagram on graph paper

Analysis of Comb sorter diagram :-

Effective length can be determine by tracing the graph with following instruction :-

1.Half the maximum length OA at Q and determine the position P such that the
perpendicular

OQ =PP'

2. Mark OK= OP/4 and draw perpendicular KK' cutting the curve at K'.

3.Half the KK' at S and determine the position of R such that the perpendicular RR'=KS.

4. Mark OL=OR/4 and draw perpendicular LL' cutting the 4 curve at L'.

5.The length represented by LL' is effective length.

6. Half the LL' at P and determine the position of U such that the perpendicular UU'=TL.

Practical Importance :-

Length is essential property of fiber is use in carry out various setting of spinning the
machine.

Example:- Setting b/w beatter & grid bars at below room temp. Setting between feed roller
and licker-in, cylinder &doffer ,cylinder & grid bars in carding machine , Drafting zone
setting in drawframe , speed frame and ring frame.