Chapter One

DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING EEng-3206
CHAPTER -1
DISCRETE-TIME SIGNAL AND SYSTEM ANALYSIS IN
TIME DOMAIN
1.1 Introduction
Signal: It is a function of one or more independent variables that conveys information.
We have different signals
Continuous time signal:
• It is a signal which is defined at each and every instant of time.
• The signal amplitude is continuous
• It is denoted by x(t)
Discrete time signal:
• It is a signal which is defined only at discrete time instances.
• The signal amplitude may be either continuous or discrete.
• These signals may arise by sampling a continuous signal or they may be generated directly by
some discrete time process.
• It is denoted by x[n] or x(n)
Digital signal
• Digital signals are those for which both time and amplitude are discrete
• These signals are quantized form of discrete time signals
Digital Signal Processing deals with the transformation of signals that are discrete in both
time and amplitudes.
Digital Signal Processing is used in several areas including the following
Telecommunications
Speech processing
Image processing
Consumer electronics
Biomedical systems
Military electronics
Industrial electronics
It seems clear that in many ways the importance and role of digital signal processing is
accelerating and expanding.
In this chapter we begin our study of digital signal processing by developing the notation of a
discrete-time signal and a discrete-time system. We will concentrate on solving problems related to
signal representations, signal manipulations, properties of signals, system classification, and
system properties.
ELECTRICAL & COMPUTER ENG. DEPT.,SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, ASTU, ADAMA Page 1

1.2 DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS

A discrete-time signal is an indexed sequence of real or complex numbers. Thus, a discrete-time
signal is a function of an integer-valued variable, n, that is denoted by x [n]. Although the
independent variable n need not necessarily represent "time" (n may, for example, correspond to a
spatial coordinate or distance), x[n] is generally referred to as a function of time. A discrete-time
signal is undefined for non integer values of n. Therefore, a real-valued signal x[n] will be
represented graphically in the form of a lollipop plot as shown in Fig. 1-1.
Besides the graphical representation of a discrete – time signal or sequence as illustrated in fig. 1.1
there are some alternative representations that are often more convenient to use. These are:
An infinite-duration signal or sequence with the time origin (n = 0) indicated by the symbol
is represented as:
A sequence x (n) , which is zero for n < 0. can be represented as:

A finite-duration sequence can be represented as
Some problems and applications it is convenient to view x[n] as a vector. Thus, the sequence
values x[0] to x[N – 1] may often be considered to be the elements of a column vector as follows:
= 0], 1], … … … … , − 1]]
Discrete-time signals are often derived by sampling a continuous-time signal, such as speech, with
an analog to digital (A/D) converter.' For example, a continuous-time signal xa(t) that is sampled
at a rate of fs = l/Ts samples per second produces the sampled signal x[n], which is related to xa(t)
as follows:
] = ( )
Not all discrete-time signals, however, are obtained in this manner. Some signals may be
considered to be naturally occurring discrete-time sequences because there is no physical analog-
to-digital converter that is converting an analog signal into a discrete-time signal.
1.2.1 Complex Sequences

In general, a discrete-time signal may be complex-valued. In fact, in a number of important
applications such as digital communications, complex signals arise naturally. A complex signal
may be expressed either in terms of its real and imaginary parts,
] = ] + ] = ] + ]
The magnitude may be derived from the real and imaginary parts as follows
| !]| = "#$% (!) + &'% (!)
Where as the phase may be found using
&' !]
(!) !] = *+,-.
#$ !]
If z[n] is a complex sequence, the complex conjugate, denoted by z*[n], is formed by

changing the sign on the imaginary part of z(n):
z ∗ n] = an] − jbn] = Rezn] − jImzn]
1.2.2 Some Fundamental Sequences/Basic Discrete-Time Signals

Although most information-bearing signals of practical interest are complicated functions of time,
there are three simple, yet important, discrete-time signals that are frequently used in the
representation and description of more complicated signals. These are the unit sample, the unit
step, and the exponential.

i. The Unit Impulse Sequence:

The unit impulse (or unit sample) sequence δ[n] is defined as
9!] = { .: !=:
!≠:
which is shown in figure 1.2 (a). Similarly, the shifted unit impulse (or sample) sequence
δ[n - k] is defined as
9! − <] = { .: !=<

!≠<
which is shown in figure (b).
Figure 1.2 (a).Unit impulse(sample) Sequence (b) shifted unit impulse sequence
ii. The Unit Step Sequence:

The unit step sequence u[n] is defined as
=!] = {.: !≥:

!<0
which is shown in Fig.1.3 (a). Note that the value of u[n] at n = 0 is defined and equals unity.
Similarly, the shifted unit step sequence u[n - k] is defined as
=! − <] = {.: !≥<

!<@
which is shown in Fig. (b).
Figure 1.3 (a) Unit step sequence (b) shifted unit step sequence

iii. Exponential Sequences:

The general form of an exponential sequence is
A!] = BC!
If A and α are real numbers, then the sequence is real.

P |Q| > 1 then the sequence grows in magnitude as n increases as shown in figure (a).
If 1 > Q > 0 and A is positive then the sequence values are positive and decrease with n, as shown
figure (b).
Figure 1.4 Real exponential sequences. (a) C > 1 (b) 1> C > 0
iv. General Complex Exponential Sequences:

The most general complex exponential sequence is often defined as:
A!] = BC!
where A and α are in general complex numbers

In this case, C = YZ[\ where ωo is a real number.
v. Sinusoidal Signals
The discrete-time version of a sinusoidal signal, in its most general form, may be written as
A!] = B]^_(`! + a)
where A is the amplitude, ` is the frequency in radians per second, and a is the phase angle in
radians.
Relation between unit impulse and unit step sequence

The unit step is related to the unit sample by
! ∞
=!] = b 9<] ^c =!] = b 9! − <]

<d-∞ <d:
If unit step is expressed in terms of sum of delayed impulses.
Conversely, a unit sample can be expressed in terms of unit step sequence is given by
9!] = =!] − =! − .]

1.2.3 Signal Manipulations / Basic Operations

These manipulations are generally compositions of a few basic signal transformations.
The most common transformations include shifting, reversal, and scaling, which are defined
below.
i. Shifting : If e!] = A! – !^], x(n) is shifted to the right by no samples if no is positive (this is
referred to as a delay), and it is shifted to the left by no samples if no is negative (referred to as an
advance).
ii. Reversal : If e!] = A−!], x(n) is inverted about vertical axis. This transformation involves
"flipping" the signal x(n) with respect to the index n.
j
iii. Time Scaling : This transformation is defined by (g) hi (k) where M and N are positive
integers.
If l] = g] (the sequence x(Mn) is formed by taking every Mth sample of x(n)), then this
operation is known as down sampling.
j
If l() = (k), then this operation is known as up sampling and is defined as follows
!
Am] ! = :, ±m, ±%m, ±om, … … … … …
e!] = { : ^pq$crs_$
Example: Consider a discrete time signal x[n] as shown in figure. For the given signal perform the
following operations. 1. − 2] (shifting) 2. −] (reversal)
j
3. 2] (time scaling-down sampling) 4. u] (time scaling- up sampling)
Ans:-

Addition, Multiplication, and Scaling

The most common types of amplitude transformations are addition, multiplication, and scaling.
Addition: The sum of two signals is formed by the point wise addition of the signal values.
e!] = A. !] + A% !] −∞ <<∞
Multiplication: The multiplication of two signals is formed by the pointwise product of the signal
values.
e!] = A. !]A% !] −∞ <<∞
Scaling: Amplitude scaling of a signal x(n) by a constant c is accomplished by multiplying every

signal value by c:
e!] = ]A! ] −∞ <<∞
1.2.4 Signal Decomposition
The unit sample may be used to decompose an arbitrary signal x(n) into a sum of weighted and
shifted unit samples as follows:
A!] = ⋯ + A!]9! + .] + A:]9!] + A(.)9! − .] + A%]9! − %] + ⋯
This decomposition may be written concisely as

∞
A!] = b A<]9! − <]

<d-∞
1.2.5 Periodic and Aperiodic Sequences
A discrete-time signal may always be classified as either being periodic or aperiodic. A signal
x(n) is said to be periodic if, for some positive real integer N,
A!] = A! + m] w^c (xx !.
This is equivalent to saying that the sequence repeats itself every N samples.
Note: If x1(n) is a sequence that is periodic with a period N1, and x2(n) is another sequence that is
periodic with a period N2,the sum
A!] = A. !] + A% !]

will always be periodic and the fundamental period is
z u
=
{|}( z, u)
where gcd(N1, N2) means the greatest common divisor of N1 and N2.
Example:- Determine whether the given signal is periodic or aperiodic. If it is periodic then find
its fundamental period? () = cos (0.125)
Ans:-
Because 0.125 = / , and

\ ! = \ (! + .)

u
x[n] is periodic with period N = = 16

1.2.6 Symmetric Sequences
A discrete-time signal will often possess some form of symmetry that may be exploited in solving
problems. Two symmetries of interest are as follows:
There are two symmetric sequences
Even signal : A real-valued signal is said to be even if, for all n,
A!] = A−!]
Odd signal : A real-valued signal is said to be odd if, for all n,
A−!] = −A!]
Any signal x[n] may be decomposed into a sum of its even part, xe[n], and its odd part, xo[n], as
follows:
A!] = A$ !] + A^ !]
To find the even part of x[n] we form the sum
.
A$ !] = A!] + A−!]
%
Whereas to find the odd part we take the difference
.
A^ !] = A!] − A−!]
%
Example:- Find the even and odd parts of the following signal x[n] = u[n].
Ans:-
Let ] = ]

.
The even part of u[n] is = =!] + =−!] =
%
{. .
%
!=:
!≠:
. .
which is written as A$ (!) = + 9!]
% %
1/2 > 0
.
The odd part of u[n] is = % =!] + =−!] = { 0 =0
−1/2 < 0
.
which is written as A^ !] = _)!(!)
%
For complex sequences the symmetries of interest are slightly different.
Definition: A complex signal is said to be conjugate symmetric if, for all n,
] = ∗ −]
and a signal is said to be conjugate antisymmetric if, for all n,
] = − ∗ −]
Any complex signal may always be decomposed into a sum of a conjugate symmetric signal and a
conjugate anti-symmetric signal.
1.3 DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS

A discrete-time system is defined mathematically as a transformation or operator that maps an
input sequence with values x[n] into an output sequence with values y[n]. This can be denoted as
l] = ]
Figure 1.5. Representation of discrete-time system
1.4 . CLASSIFICATION OF DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEM
1. Memoryless Systems
A system is referred to as memoryless if the output y[n] at every value of n depends only on the
input x[n] at the same value of n.
Example. e!] = A!], e!] = (A!])% ---- memoryless system
e!] = A!] + A! − .] --------------non memoryless system(with memory)

2. Linear Systems
A system that is both additive and homogeneous is said to be linear.
An additive system is one for which the response to a sum of inputs is equal to the sum of the inputs
individually.
A system is said to be homogeneous if scaling the input by a constant results in a scaling of the output by
the same amount.
If yl [n] and y2[n] are the responses of a system when xl[n] and x2[n] are the respective inputs,
then the system is linear if and only if
and
These two properties can be combined into the principle of superposition, stated as
for arbitrary constants a and b.

3. Time-Invariant Systems
A time-invariant system (often referred to equivalently as a shift-invariant system) is a system
for which a time shifts or delay of the input sequence causes a corresponding shift in the output
sequence.
Let y[n] be the response of a system to an arbitrary input x[n]. The system is said to be shift-
invariant if, for any delay no, the response to – h] is l – h]. A system that is not shift-
invariant is said to be shift-varying.
Example: l] = ] − + 3] − − − − − i
l] = ] − − − − − − − − − h i
4. Causality
A system is causal if, for every choice of no, the output sequence value at the index n = no
depends only on the input sequence values for n ≤ no.
Example. l] = ] + − 2] -- ------- causal
l] = ] + + 1] --------- non causal
5. Stability
A system is said to be stable in the bounded input-bounded output sense if, for any input that is
bounded, |]| ≤ < ∞, the output will be bounded,
|l]| ≤ < ∞,
Example. l] = ] + + 1] − − − − − l
l] = ] − − − − − − − − − l
For a linear shift-invariant system, stability is guaranteed if the unit sample response is absolutely
summable:

b |ℎ]| < ∞
jd-

1.5. CONVOLUTION
The relationship between the input to a linear shift-invariant system, x[n],and the output, y[n], is
given by the convolution sum:

l] = ] ∗ ℎ] = b @]ℎ − @]

d-
Convolution Properties:
i. Commutative Property: ] ∗ ℎ] = ℎ] ∗ ]
ii. Associative Property: ] ∗ ℎz ] ∗ ℎu ] = ] ∗ ℎz ] ∗ ℎu ]
iii. Distributive Property: ] ∗ ℎz ] + ℎu ] = ] ∗ ℎz ] + ] ∗ ℎu ]
Block Diagram Representation of Discrete-Time Systems
i. Constant multiplier:
ii. Adder :
iii. Signal multiplier :
iv. Unit delay :
Performing Convolutions
There are several different approaches that may be used, and the one that is the easiest will depend
upon the form and type of sequences that are to be convolved.
Direct Evaluation:
In performing convolutions directly, it is usually necessary to evaluate finite or infinite
sums involving terms of the form Q j or Q j .
Example:

Graphical Approach:
The steps involved in using the graphical approach are as follows:
1. Plot both sequences, @] and ℎ@], as functions of k.
2. Choose one of the sequences, say ℎ@], and time-reverse it to form the sequence ℎ@].
3. Shift the time-reversed sequence by n. [Note: If n > 0, this corresponds to a shift to
the right (delay), whereas if n < 0, this corresponds to a shift to the left (advance).]
4. Multiply the two sequences xk] and hn – k] and sum the product for all values of k.
The resulting value will be equal to l]. This process is repeated for all possible
shifts, n.
A useful fact to remember in performing the convolution of two finite-length sequences is that if
x(n) is of length L1 and h [ n] is of length L2, yn] = xn] ∗ hn] will be of length L1 + L2 − 1.
Slide Rule Method:

The steps involved in the slide rule method are as follows:
1. Write the values of @] along the top of a piece of paper, and the values of ℎ−@] along
the top of another piece of paper
2. Line up the two sequence values 0] and ℎ0], multiply each pair of numbers, and add
the products to form the value of l0].
3. Slide the paper with the time-reversed sequence h[k] to the right by one, multiply each
pair of numbers, sum the products to find the value l] , and repeat for all shifts to the
right by > 0. Do the same, shifting the time-reversed sequence to the left, to find the
values of y[n] for < 0.
Example: Find the convolution of the two finite-length sequences:

j
] = 0.5] − − 5] } ℎ] = 2 sin + 3] − − 4]]
u

1.6. DIFFERENCE EQUATION

Linear constant-coefficient difference equations provide another representation for the input-output
characteristics of LTI discrete-time systems. The general form of a linear constant-coefficient
difference equation is:
k £
b l − @] = b − @]
d¢ d¢
Where the coefficients ak (¢ ≠ 0) and bk are constants and that define the system. If the
difference equation has one or more terms ak that are nonzero for @ ≥ 1, the difference equation is
said to be recursive. On the other hand, if all of the coefficients ak are equal to zero for @ ≥ 1 , the
difference equation is said to be non recursive.
1.7 Solving Difference Equation

The output of a system described by a difference equation may be expressed as the sum of two
components, homogenous solution and particular solution.
Thus, the complete solution is:
l] = l¤ ] + l¥ ]
Where, l¤ ] ℎhh{h hh } l¥ ] ¦i|i hh.
i. Homogeneous solution
The homogeneous form of a differential or difference equation is obtained by setting all
terms involving the input to zero.
k
b l¤ − @] = 0
d¢
and
k
l¤ ] = b §¨ i¨j
¨dz
Where the ri are the N roots of the discrete-time system's characteristic equation.
b i k- = 0
d¢
ii. The Particular Solution

The particular solution yp[n] represents any solution of the difference equation for the given
input. Thus, yp[n] is not unique. A particular solution is usually obtained by assuming an
output of the same general form as the input.

iii. The Complete Solution:
1. Find the form of the homogeneous solution y[n] from the roots of the characteristic
equation.
2. Find a particular solution yp[n] by assuming that it is of the same form as the input,
yet is independent of all terms in the homogeneous solution.
3. Determine the coefficients in the homogeneous solution so that the complete solution
l] = l¤ ] + l¥ ] satisfies the initial conditions.
Example: Determine the output of the systems described by the following difference equations
with input and initial conditions as specified:
© z
l] − ª l − 1] + « l − 2] = 2], l−1] = 1, l−2] = −1, ] = 2]

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DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING EEng-3206

ELECTRICAL & COMPUTER ENG. DEPT.,SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, ASTU, ADAMA Page 1

1.2 DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS

A sequence x (n) , which is zero for n < 0. can be represented as:

ELECTRICAL & COMPUTER ENG. DEPT.,SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, ASTU, ADAMA Page 2

A finite-duration sequence can be represented as

= 0], 1], … … … … ,  − 1]]

1.2.1 Complex Sequences

] = ] + ] = ] + ]

| !]| = "#$%  (!) + &'%  (!)

Where as the phase may be found using

If z[n] is a complex sequence, the complex conjugate, denoted by z*[n], is formed by

z ∗ n] = an] − jbn] = Rezn] − jImzn]

1.2.2 Some Fundamental Sequences/Basic Discrete-Time Signals

ELECTRICAL & COMPUTER ENG. DEPT.,SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, ASTU, ADAMA Page 3

i. The Unit Impulse Sequence:

9! − <] = { .: !=<

which is shown in figure (b).

ii. The Unit Step Sequence:

=!] = {.: !≥:

=! − <] = {.: !≥<

which is shown in Fig. (b).

ELECTRICAL & COMPUTER ENG. DEPT.,SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, ASTU, ADAMA Page 4

iii. Exponential Sequences:

If A and α are real numbers, then the sequence is real.

iv. General Complex Exponential Sequences:

where A and α are in general complex numbers

Relation between unit impulse and unit step sequence

=!] = b 9<] ^c =!] = b 9! − <]

If unit step is expressed in terms of sum of delayed impulses.

9!] = =!] − =! − .]

ELECTRICAL & COMPUTER ENG. DEPT.,SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, ASTU, ADAMA Page 5

1.2.3 Signal Manipulations / Basic Operations

ELECTRICAL & COMPUTER ENG. DEPT.,SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, ASTU, ADAMA Page 6

Addition, Multiplication, and Scaling

Scaling: Amplitude scaling of a signal x(n) by a constant c is accomplished by multiplying every

e!] = ]A! ] −∞ <<∞

1.2.4 Signal Decomposition

A!] = ⋯ + A!]9! + .] + A:]9!] + A(.)9! − .] + A%]9! − %] + ⋯

This decomposition may be written concisely as

A!] = b A<]9! − <]

1.2.5 Periodic and Aperiodic Sequences

A!] = A! + m] w^c (xx !.

A!] = A. !] + A% !]

ELECTRICAL & COMPUTER ENG. DEPT.,SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, ASTU, ADAMA Page 7

will always be periodic and the fundamental period is

1.2.6 Symmetric Sequences

Even signal : A real-valued signal is said to be even if, for all n,

Odd signal : A real-valued signal is said to be odd if, for all n,

Whereas to find the odd part we take the difference

ELECTRICAL & COMPUTER ENG. DEPT.,SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, ASTU, ADAMA Page 8

For complex sequences the symmetries of interest are slightly different.

Definition: A complex signal is said to be conjugate symmetric if, for all n,

1.3 DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS

Figure 1.5. Representation of discrete-time system

1.4 . CLASSIFICATION OF DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEM

ELECTRICAL & COMPUTER ENG. DEPT.,SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, ASTU, ADAMA Page 9

for arbitrary constants a and b.

= 0], 1], … … … … , − 1]]

] = ] + ] = ] + ]

| !]| = "#$% (!) + &'% (!)

z ∗ n] = an] − jbn] = Rezn] − jImzn]

e!] = ]A! ] −∞ <<∞

l] = ] ∗ ℎ] = b @]ℎ − @]