LEARNING OUTCOMES

TOPIC ONE

The Nature, Types, and Significance of Educational Planning

Introduction

Welcome to this unit on the nature, types and Significance of educational planning.
You will be taken through what planning is, the types and significance of educational
planning and the history of educational planning. This unit is going to provide the
fundamentals of planning for an organization, county or society. The next important
question therefore to ask is what is planning. Why plan? And when do we plan? What
would happen if we had an education system that is not planned for? Lets therefore try
to answer all these questions in this topic

Topic Time

Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments & practice exercises [3 hours]

• Optional further reading [2 hours]

• Topic Learning Requirements

• Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)

• At least two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. You may also
start your own discussion thread.

• Timely submission of the assignments

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this topic you should be able to:

i) Define planning

ii) Explain the major types of planning

iii) Explain the significance of planning

iv) Explain the scope of planning

Topic Content

1.1 What is planning?

We shall start the topic by defining what we mean by the concept of Planning,. Planning
is the systematic process of establishing a need and then working out the best way to
meet the need, within a strategic framework that enables you to identify priorities and
determine your operational principals.

There are as many definitions of planning as there are experts in the field. For instance,
Teklemariam (2009:16) describes planning as a purposeful preparation in advance of
what is to be done in the future. It is getting ready for the future to avoid the frustrations
of doing things at the last minute. Marx (1981:208 cited in Westhuizen, 2004) defines
planning as: “a management task which is concerned with deliberately reflecting on the
objectives of the organisation, the resources, as well as the activities involved, and
drawing up the most suitable plan for effectively achieving these objectives”.

It is therefore a rational process of preparing a set of decisions for future action which
is aimed at achieving goals and objectives by optimum means. Planning in other words
is the action of deciding in advance what to do, when to do, how to do and who is to do
(Coombs, 1967).For instance you had to sit back and decide you wanted to study using
this e-learning mode. implying that you must make sure there is time in your busy
schedule to achieve this and again, there are good reasons why you decided on this
mode of e- learning.

Planning is therefore an indispensable concept in organizational studies. It is a process

by which managers and leaders establish objectives and specify how the objectives are
to be attained. It is the most important managerial task of managers since it is the
bedrock for other managerial functions. It is the first executive function of management.
It involves thought processes by means of which future activities are pre-enacted to
achieve certain objectives.

Planning involves deciding on what is to be done and devising the means for doing it.
According to Adentwi (2000) “planning is the work a manager does to master the
future”. It is thus the first and foremost duty of managers. It is a process of ‘thinking
before doing’ – a process of deciding in advance what is to be done, where, how and by
whom it is to be done.

It is future-oriented – the springboard for future decisions and actions. It is a process,

“concerned not only with where to go but how to get there and by what best route”
(Adentwi, 2000). Its work does not cease when the plan gets on paper or wins approval.
To be effective, planning must be concerned with its own implementation – with
progress made, unforeseen obstacles that arise and with how to overcome them.

Planning is preparing a sequence of steps to achieve some specific goal. A plan is a

map of the activities one intends to carry out or perform. In deed knowing where you are
is essential for making good decisions on where to go or what to do next. Planning is
thus the process of creating and maintaining a plan.

Furthermore, it is a process of thinking through the activities required to create a

desired goal. It usually follows from the identification of objectives. How to achieve the
objective or implement a decision is usually the focal point of planning. Thus planning
involves the determination of priorities or importance attached to matters. It involves
the listing of issues or the matters of concern in order of importance. Planning in this
sense, therefore, becomes a resource for effective allocation and utilisation of time.
With all these varied definitions, you understand what this topic is going to be all about.
Let’s then look at what were are consistently referring to as planning being futuristic
and time bound.

1.2 Time dimension in educational planning

Time is an important element in educational planning. The process of educational

planning from analysis and appraisal of statistical data to implementation takes time,
during which educational services are functioning or evolving (chesswas, 1968). In
education and other social services we plan ahead to prevent problems. This is done
through forecasts and projections. Understanding of the past and the present is
mandatory to present a convincing or futuristic prediction of the nature and the trend of
forthcoming events

There are three types of educational planning based on time frames/dimensions,

namely:

a. Long term e.g. Vision 2030 – set goals (forecasting)

b. Medium– setting specific objectives and developing strategies.

c. Short term – Set targets and allocate resources .-Annual planning (0-1 years) –
Set targets and have plans implemented.

Since resources are scarce i.e. No enough funds and qualified manpower there is need
for proper planning to actualize development. Through planning societies can be able to
maximize benefits from scarce resources by;

1.2.1 Long term planning

Long term planning covers a long period of time-5-10 years, and beyond. It varies from
country to another. The plan here focuses on broad problems and possible broader
solutions. Long term projections are necessary in education planning since an
education span takes a long time, for instance, approximately 20 years i.e from grade
one to university. Now can you give examples of such long term plans in different
countries?

Projections are done through extrapolation hence the term forecasts. The major
problem of long term planning is that it is not possible to predict the future with
accuracy. During the planned period, changes are bound to take place (economic
changes, social political and technological changes), such that what may look as a
serious problem 20 years ago, may not be due to innovations. Long term plan
establishes direction to medium term plans. Strategic planning is a good example here.

1.2.2 Medium Term Plans.

It originates from the long term plan which analyses issues in a general manner and
covers a period between 4-5years.during that period a given educational project can be
planned and completed. This period usually coincides with the countries development
plan which usually has a chapter on education the plan shows what will be achieved in
education within 5 years. Medium plans focus more closely on the problem. It makes
the general problems and solutions in the long term more specific and it provides
guidance to the short term plans

1.2.3. The short term plans

It is derived from the medium term plans. It breaks the medium term plans into specific
implementable projects. Its time span is between 6months to one year. It guides the
specific quantitative and qualitative details of the plan. It is the most specific and
focused of the three types of planning. Let’s look at a primary schools major objective.
It is to produce an all round pupil after eight years. Can you therefore come up with the
medium and short term plan? Short term plan will definitely be what should be achieved
at each given grade? Am i right?

The three types of plans are mutually dependent or interrelated. The yearly operational
plans are developed to achieve medium range objectives, while medium plans are
developed to achieve the long term plans. The specifity of the plan decreases as the
planning period increases and vice versa. This information now leads us to understand
the major types of plans which are strategic, tactical and action planning.

1.3 Types of planning

There are three main types of plans that a manager will use in his or her pursuit of
company goals and they correspond the time dimension just discussed, they include
operational, tactical and strategic.

1.2 Strategic Planning

Few of us would get in the car to take a trip without a road map, unless we know how to
get where we’re going. Strategic planning serves as a road map to help an organization
or business figure out how to get where it wants to go.This is sometimes called long-
term planning. It is usually executed by top level managers. It often stretches over a
long time period. It is planning that usually extends over 5 years. Strategic plans are
designed with the entire organization in mind and begin with an organization's mission.
Top-level managers, such as CEOs or presidents, will design and execute strategic plans
to paint a picture of the desired future and long-term goals of the organization.
Essentially, strategic plans look ahead to where the organization wants to be in three,
five, even ten years. Strategic plans, provided by top-level managers, serve as the
framework for lower-level planning that helps organization to determine priorities that
are likely to help it achieve the vision of the future. It establishes organization’s overall
goals, seek to position the organization in terms of its environment

Strategic planning, or developing a strategic framework, is about the bigger picture.

Organizations often get so caught up in everyday problems that they do not think about
the big picture. They are too busy planning “to do things”, something that falls under
action/operational planning. It is through strategic planning that an organisation
develops a strategic framework. This framework helps the organisation determine its
priorities and the strategies that are likely to help it achieve its vision of the future.

Strategic planners and managers ask the following important questions among others:

i. What are the most important issues to respond to?

ii. How should we respond?

iii. What are our strengths?

iv. What are our weaknesses?

v. What resources do we have in order to address the challenge?

vi. What time frame must we operate within?

vii. Who within the organization is most qualified to be assigned which tasks?

According to Shapiro(2006), Strategic planning enables a development organisation to:

_ analyse the situation or context in which it is operating (social, political and economic)
so that it understands the context and is able to formulate a vision (see also Elements
of a strategic framework);

_ identify the problem or problems within the situation that the organisation believes it
is well-placed to address (see also Elements of a strategic framework);

_ reflect on its value system in order to create parameters (a frame) for its activities
(see also Elements of a strategic framework);

_ set goals for itself (see Review strategy);

_ formulate a vision and mission statement based on its problem analysis and
identification (see Elements of a strategic framework);

_ analyse its strengths and weaknesses in addressing the identified problem (see the
section on doing a SWOT analysis for a method to use here);

_ identify opportunities and threats in the environment that may affect its work (both a
SWOT Analysis and a PEST Analysis will help you do this – see appropriate sections);

_ prioritise what it needs to do and review strategic options for achieving its goals and
select the most appropriate

1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF STRATEGIC PLANNING:

1. It is futuristic:

Strategic planning looks at how the world could be different 5 – 10+ years from now. It
is aimed at creating the future of the organization based on what this future is likely to
be or look like.
2. It is based on analysis of unforeseen or predicted trends and scenarios of the
possible alternative future as well as the analysis of internal and external data.

3. It is flexible and oriented towards the big picture: it aligns an organization with its
environment establishing a complex for accomplishing goals and providing a
framework and direction to achieve organization’s desired future.

4. Creates a framework for achieving competitive advantage by analyzing the

organization, its internal and external environment and its potential in order to respond
to the emerging trends, events, challenges and opportunities within the framework of its
vision and mission developed through the strategic planning process.

5. It is a qualitatively idea driven process. It integrates ‘soft’ data that are not always
supported quantitatively, such as experiences, institutions and ideas. It involves the
organization in the on-going dialogue and aims to provide a clear organizational vision
and focus.

6. Is an on-going, continuous learning process, an organizational dialogue which

extends beyond attaining a set of pre-determined goals. It aims at changing the way an
organization thinks and operates and creates a learning organization.

1.3 Limitations of strategic planning

• Its results are seriously wanting because drifting into the future without setting
proper outcomes of the action is reactive and hopeful relying on the luck to turn things
round

• It does not scan the current and future opportunities and realities

• Assumes as though things will continue to transform dramatically in future

1.4 Tactical Planning

This is also referred to as medium-term planning. It stretches over a shorter period than
other types of planning. Such planning usually ranges between one year to three years
and it is usually done once. it refers to ways and specified strategies and tactics to
achieve the objectives and make the strategic planning come trueaccording to Kaufman,
Herman (1996),as cited by Teklamariam, (2009), defines tactical planning as the
identification and selection of methods to meet previously specified objectives and
focuses on the macro level concerns to achieve.

Experienced planners may begin with tactical planning just after they have identified the
vision. This is also referred to as medium-term planning. It stretches over a shorter
period than other types of planning. Such planning usually ranges between one year to
three years and it is usually done once.

1.5 Action/Operational plans

These are the plans that are made by frontline, or low-level, managers. All operational
plans are focused on the specific procedures and processes that occur within the
lowest levels of the organization. It is the process of developing detailed strategies
about what needs to be done, who should do it and how it should be done. Managers
must plan the routine tasks of the department using a high level of detail. Operational
plans can be either single-use or ongoing plans. This planning completes the process of
long term planning as it is meant to identify the implementation of the strategic plans
and specify the details of how the overall goals are to be achieved. It tends to cover
short time periods

Once you have a strategic plan, the action plan answers the following questions:

_ What needs to be done?

_ How will it be done?

_ Who will do it?

_ By when must it be done?

_ What resources are needed to do it?

According to Shapiro (2006), answering these questions will give you the basis on which
to plan a budget and raise money or generate income.

This type of planning deals with the day-to-day activities of the organization. It is
sometimes known as short-term planning and accomplishes its objectives in the
shortest possible time – usually within one year or from one day to one year.
Operational planning is undertaken with reference to strategic and tactical planning. It is
associated with lower level management and deals with the actual execution of
operations.

The relationship between strategic, Tactical and action plan, Strategic Planning,
TacticalPlanning, ActionPlanning

Let’s look at an example here, assuming you are county’s education secretary, for
example, your vision may be that every child in the country has access to affordable
early childhood education. Your goal becomes ensuring that there are enough trained
teachers to make this possible. Your objective is to train a certain number of home-
based educate teachers in every region of the county, through running a certain number
of workshops in each region. Your action plan will answer the key questions by detailing
the “what” as follows:

_ The exact number of workshops and the targets for attendance at each (including a
profile of the kind of participants you want).

_ How participants will be recruited, who will be involved and by when this will take place.

_ What curriculum will be used, who will develop it and by when.

_ When the workshops will be held, where they will be held and who will be in charge of
organising this.

_ How, when and by whom the workshop strategy will be monitored and evaluated.

_ What resources will be needed to implement each step.

_ A detailed budget.

Once you have done your strategic planning and your action planning, you are well on
the way to implementation.

1.6 Other types of plans include:

These types of plans fall in any of the three categories discussed.

1.6.1 Formal and informal planning: A planning in black and white or written down in
pen and paper (blue print) is known as formal planning. Informal planning is only
thinking about it and nothing more.

1.6.2 Centralised planning – it is sometimes referred to as bureaucratic or top-down

planning. In this kind of planning, guidelines for planning are usually provided or passed
down from top management for grassroots implementation. Such planning usually
takes place at the top level and planning is concerned with the fixing of objectives.
Central authority or hierarchy is responsible for planning and coordinating policies and
procedures. This method allows for creating a specialized group to develop procedures
and principles for onward transmission to those at the bottom of the ladder. It provides
guidelines for operational planning.

1.6.3 Decentralised planning – this is also called bottom-up planning: In this type of
planning local level employees or subordinates are made responsible for developing
and implementing their own plans. Lower level members or employees in organisations
are made responsible for the planning and execution of its plans with or without the
assistance of top-level management.

1.6.4 Hybrid Planning or a mixture of top-down and bottom-up planning - With this
approach the planning and execution is done in collaboration with one and the other.
The policy frames or guidelines may be developed by top management but how
implementation goes through is the responsibility of lower level managers. Thus
general policy guidelines may be promulgated by top decision makers and then each
department develops its own policy in-line with these guidelines. Hence, each
department is responsible for developing and implementing its own plans and
procedures. This method offers a consistent approach and ensures that lower level
managers know the key facts for a successful operation. This is the philosophy
underpinning school based management.

1.6.4 Standing and ad hoc planning: Standing plans are somewhat permanent in nature
and are meant to be used over and over again. In contrast, Ad hoc plans are generally
for specific matters and are prepared only when some need arises – to solve a specific
problem or attend to a specific kind of need.

1.7 Significance of Planning

Planning is the bedrock of successful actions in most organisations. An organization

can achieve its aims only through systematic planning in view of the increasing
complexities of modern organisations. The importance and usefulness of planning can
then be understood with reference to the following benefits:

i) Minimizes uncertainty: The future is usually uncertain and things are likely to
change with the passage of time. Planning helps in minimizing the uncertainties of the
future as it anticipates future events.

ii) Emphasis on objectives: The first step in planning is to fix objectives. When this
is done, the execution of plans will be facilitated towards these objectives. It keeps us in
focus. It gives us sense of direction.

iii) Promotes coordination: Planning helps to promote the coordinated effort on

account of pre-determined goals.

iv) Facilitates control: Planning helps us to keep the system in check, focus.
Unplanned actions usually cannot be controlled. Control is nothing but making sure that
activities conform to the plans.

v) Economical: planning helps in proper utilization of resources and elimination of

unnecessary activities. This, in turn, leads to economical use of resources.

vi) Encourages innovation: Planning is basically the deciding function of

management. New ideas usually come up during planning. Thus planning brings about
creativity which creates innovativeness and foresightedness among the planners.

vii) Helps management to clarify, focus and research their business prospects. it
plays a vital role in helping avoiding mistakes or recognize hidden opportunities

viii) Provides a considered and logical framework within which a business can
develop and pursue business strategies over the next years. It offers benchmarks
against which actual performance can be measured and reviewed

ix) Planning helps in forecasting the future, makes it visible to some extent. It
bridges where we are and where we want to go. It reduces uncertainty and any risk
associated with the future and it is through planning that the manager influences what
happens in future

x) Effective performance of other functions of management process such as

directing, organizing etc. depends on good planning.

TOPIC ACTIVITIES

Activity

i) Discuss the relationship between Strategic, Tactical and Action planning giving
reasons for

Feedback/Hintyour answer

Look at the characteristics of each and how one type of planning is generated as a
result of the other types

Assignment

i) Covid 19 has led to the need for managers to be conversant of the

importance of Ad hoc Planning. Identify areas where the government has
resoughted to this in the fight against this pandemic?.

ii) Discuss reasons why such planning is significant to educational managers

iii)

TOPIC TWO STEPS IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

Planning makes extensive use of statistics (although a statistic is a shadow of a fact

which may be qualitative/quantitative) in making informed decisions. It can help the
decision makers at all levels, by helping them see the specific objectives in question, the
various options that are available for pursuing these objectives and the likely
implications of each. Before recommending anyone course of action, planners must see
first what room the decision makers have, right now for maneuver. This brings us to the
first stage of educational planning:

Topic Time•Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments & practice

exercises [2 hours]

•Optional further reading [2 hours]

•Total student input [4 hours]

Topic Learning Requirements

•Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)

•At least two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. You may also start your
own discussion thread.

•Timely submission of the assignments

Learning OutcomesBy the end of this topic you should be able to:

i)Discuss the educational planning process

ii)Explain why each of the steps in important in the whole process

iii)Using process, give their own example of a project where this steps were followed