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1
UNIT 1
Discovering
Drafting
Fundamentals
CHAPTER
Drafting Careers
Design and Sketching
Drafting Equipment
Basic Drafting
Techniques
Geometry for
Drafting
Drive to Succeed Consider

times in your life when you tackled
a challenging project or learned
a new skill. What attitudes,
approaches, or habits helped you
accomplish your goal?
2
pbpgalleries/Alamy
UNIT
Hands-On Math Project
Preview
Create a Logo
When you have completed reading this
unit, you will create a set of technical
drawings for a logo for your own business.
Project Checklist
As you read this unit, use this checklist
to prepare for your unit project:
✓ Begin to think about your career
goals and how you can organize your
education and work experience onto
a résumé.
✓ Keep notes on industries of inter-
est to you that employ drafters and
designers.
✓ Jot down ideas for technical drawings
you would like to produce.
✓ Practice your board and CAD draw-
ing skills.
✓ Use geometry to construct drawings
and solve technical problems.
Internet Project
Go to glencoe.com for this book’s

Online Learning Center (OLC). Find the
WebQuest Internet Project for Unit 1
called Becoming a Certified Drafter.
Go to glencoe.com for this book’s OLC

for Unit 1 Practice Tests, Skills Reviews,
and Study Guides.
3
1 Drafting Careers
Section 1.1
Identifying Drafting
Careers
Section 1.2
Preparing for a Career
in Drafting
Chapter Objectives
• Identify drafting-
related careers.
• Describe the advan-
tages and disadvan-
tages of being an
entrepreneur.
• Explain purposes
of board drafting
and computer-aided
drafting.
• Develop an individ-
ual career plan.
• Explain how to
prepare for a drafting
career.
• Demonstrate skills
and techniques for
finding and adapting
to a new job.
• Identify work-
place rights and
responsibilities.
Screams and Thrills, but

Safety First Stengel designs
rides that he says “will keep going
higher and faster.” What safety
issues do you think he considers?
4
Andre Jenny/Alamy
Drafting Career
Werner Stengel, Designer and Engineer
A great roller coaster ride is both exhilarating and

terrifying—and Werner Stengel, designer and engi-
neer, has created some of the best. His Millennium
Force at Cedar Point in Ohio took second place for
‶Best Steel Roller Coaster in the World.″ It reaches an
incredible 310 feet above the ground and a top speed
of 93 mph.
Stengel says the most important factor in coaster

design is ‶to keep the element of surprise.″ While the
ride is designed to be ‶thrilling,″ hard numbers and
applications of the laws of physics must be applied
to create a safe foundation for this kind of rush.
Academic Skills and Abilities

• Math
• Physics
• Creativity and intellectual curiosity
• Computer science
• Creative thinking
• Problem solving
• Maintaining and troubleshooting
technology
Career Pathways
Employers like to hire people who have training
in drafting after high school. Trade schools, com-
munity colleges, and some four-year colleges offer
such training.
Go to glencoe.com for this book’s OLC to learn more

about Werner Stengel.
5
1.1 Identifying Drafting Careers
Preview The field of drafting offers a wide range of challenging and fulfilling careers. What
education and training do you think you would need to get an entry-level drafting job?
Content Vocabulary
• career • board drafting
• engineering • computer-aided
• entrepreneur drafting (CAD)
Academic Vocabulary
Learning these words while you read this section will also help you in your other subjects and
tests.
• license • technique
Graphic Organizer
On a table like the one below, list the advantages and disadvantages of computer-aided drafting
Advantages of CAD Disadvantages of CAD

Go to glencoe.com for this
book’s OLC for a downloadable
version of this graphic organizer
Academic Standards
English Language Arts NCTE National Council of
Teachers of English
Apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and appreciate texts (NCTE) NCTM National Council
of Teachers of
Mathematics Mathematics
Geometry Use visualization, spatial reasoning, and geometric modeling to solve problems (NCTM)
6 Chapter 1 Drafting Careers

and experience. During your career, you will
NorthWind Pictures Archive, Ausloeser/Zefa/Corbis

Career Opportunities probably work at many jobs. A career in draft-
What should you consider when choosing ing may progress from the position of junior
and planning a career? drafter to drafting technician to a specialty
such as mechanical designer. Drafters pro-
Before computers, craftspeople sketched
vide support for engineers, architects, and
drawings of items they wanted to make. As
designers. This is the traditional mainstay
technology grew, so did the need to turn these
of drafting. Both large and small companies
design sketches into drawings that someone
maintain drafting departments of varying
else could use to make the product. The draft-
sizes. This section discusses some specialized
ing profession was born.
drafting careers.
The introduction of computers has radically
changed the drafting profession. However, Engineering
the ties between drafting and other careers
Because of its need for detailed, accurate
such as mechanical design, engineering, and
drawings, engineering is a logical specializa-
architecture are stronger than ever. New tech-
tion for a drafter. Engineering is the design
nologies have expanded the role of drafting in
and manufacture of complex products. An
today’s workforce such that new drafting and
engineer is a person who has at least a four-
drafting-related careers have developed.
year degree in an engineering specialty. Engi-
Specialized Career Paths neers must be granted a license by the states
A career is a series of related jobs built on in which they operate.
a foundation of interest, knowledge, training, Engineering has evolved into many spe-
cialized branches. These include aerospace,
agriculture, architecture, chemical, civil, elec-
trical, industrial, mechanical, mining and
metallurgy, nuclear, petroleum, plastics, and
safety. See Figure 1-2. Each type of engineer-
ing uses technical drawings to communicate
ideas and products for manufacturing or
construction.
To help prepare for engineering studies, stu-
dents should take math courses such as alge-
bra, trigonometry, and calculus. Science and
technology courses are also helpful.
Figure 1-1 Figure 1-2

A drawing created by Leonardo da Vinci to record Aeronautical engineering is one of many logical
an idea for a movable derrick extensions of the drafting field.
Section 1.1 Identifying Drafting Careers 7

Most major corporations employ a com- • Project engineer A person who coordinates
plete engineering design team. Large offices all of the specialized areas of engineering
may assign more than 100 people to a team, and design for production or construction
while teams in small offices may have five to projects.
ten members. A typical engineering design • Design engineer An engineer who applies
team may include: mathematical, scientific, and technological
• Research and development personnel People principles to solve problems for production
who propose concepts for the applica- and construction processes.
tion of new technologies through cre- • Technical illustrator A specialized drafter who
ative sketches and the use of science and can create a picturelike, or pictorial, drawing,
mathematics. or a 3D computer-generated model from the
• Development engineer An engineer who details of an engineering drawing.
designs research projects and collects data In addition, the design team includes draft-
that can be applied to the development of ers, designers, design drafting technicians,
new products. and senior detailers. See Table 1-1 for a
description of these positions.
Basic Drafting Jobs

Job Description Qualifications
Drafter Trainee Assists with drawing preparation Some companies require high school
and performs support tasks such as graduates who have taken drafting courses.
drawing storage and retrieval. Others allow trainees to learn in apprentice-
ship settings while they are still enrolled in high
school.
Junior Drafter Prepares drawings under the direc- Requires at least one year of high school draft-
tion of a drafting technician or ing and an associate degree in drafting from a
senior detailer. technical or community college.
Drafting Technician Prepares drawings under the Requires an associate degree in drafting tech-
(Drafter) direction of a drafting technician nology from a technical or community college
or senior detailer, but requires less and at least one year of drafting experience.
supervision than a junior drafter.
Design Drafting Capable of combining design skills Requires an associate degree in drafting tech-
Technician with drafting skills. This requires nology from a technical or community college
the interpretation of the designer's and at least one year of drafting experience.
sketches and the engineer's details
so that the design drawings can be
prepared accurately for the senior
detailer.
Designer Works with the engineers and draft- Requires an associate degree and at least five
ers to turn a concept design into years industrial experience. Knowledge of the
usable production drawings and design process and drawing requirements is
specifications. essential.
Checker An experienced drafter who checks Requires an associate degree and at least five
the drawings created by draft- years industrial experience. Detailed knowledge
ing technicians for accuracy and of the design process and drawing require-
completeness. ments is essential.
Senior Detailer A person who is especially skilled in Requires an associate degree and at least five
understanding the details of how years industrial experience. Knowledge of draw-
things work and go together. Senior ing requirements is essential.
detailers are capable of making
detailed drawings of complex parts.

Architecture show how the product will look and function,
If your interests lie more in building and so that the client can understand easily.
construction, you might consider a career as To provide an accurate picture of the prod-
an architect or architectural designer. The uct, pictorial drawings must be true to the
architect’s job is critical in the design and designer’s or engineer’s specifications. There-
construction of new residential and commer- fore, the illustrator must understand draft-
cial buildings. Architects and their employees ing principles and how to interpret technical
create original designs that are pleasing to the drawings. Illustrators must also have a good
eye. However, the buildings they design must imagination, because the products they are
also be functional and meet their clients’ needs. drawing usually have not yet been created.
Architectural drawings include floor plans, For example, if a metal has been proposed,
foundation plans, site plans, elevations, and the illustrator must be able to make the object
many specialty plans for different kinds of in the drawing look metallic.
building contractors. If these plans are not Classes in illustration and graphic arts will
accurate, the building cannot be constructed. help prepare you for a career as a technical
Therefore, architects must have at least some illustrator. You may also want to take math,
education and experience in drafting. science, and other courses, depending on your
In addition to a four-year degree, archi- area of interest.
tects must be licensed by the states in which
they operate. Many architects take additional
courses of study to specialize in various fields.
Examples of architecture specialties include List Name the different types of people that
landscape architects, city planners, and make up an engineering design team.
interior designers. Students who are interested
in becoming architects can prepare them-
selves by taking geometry and other math
courses as well as business courses. Entrepreneurship
An entrepreneur is someone who orga-
Mechanical Design nizes and then runs a business. An entrepre-
The field of mechanical design is similar neur is self-employed and accepts individual
to engineering, but it places more emphasis projects that fit his or her skills and interests.
on the drafter’s creative abilities. Mechanical Important entreneurial skills include self-moti-
designers work from sketches or sometimes vation, insight, and the ability to make good
even just a company memo describing a new business decisions. Entrepreneurs also require
product idea. Some of these ideas may turn out a basic understanding of profit and loss as it
to be much more practical than others. Part of applies to their business.
the mechanical designer’s job is to determine Entrepreneurs play an important role in
whether an idea will work, and if so, how. The the U.S. economy. As the nation has matured,
designer then provides accurate drawings and entrepreneurs have discovered many new ave-
specifications to describe the proposed product. nues for success, though they still face risks.
Providing drawings and specifications of a Opportunities for the drafting entrepreneur
new product requires a great deal of creativity, can come from large companies that have
ingenuity, and technical knowledge. He or she their own drafting departments but some-
must have the imagination to develop details times subcontract specialized jobs. Likewise,
from a rough idea and have a solid grasp of small companies may not have a full-time
manufacturing materials. drafting department or employees with the
skills to perform certain jobs. These compa-
Technical Illustration nies look for outside people to fill these needs.
Companies often rely on technical illustra- Many new businesses have been developed
tors to provide pictorial drawings of proposed with an idea and a computer. The personal
products or constructions. These illustrations computer has helped to open up opportunities

for many who prefer self-employment. It which a computer and specialized software
Daniel Allan/Getty Images

allows them the flexibility to work at home, replace the board-drafting instruments. Com-
set their own hours, and work around their puter-aided drafting has taken over almost
desired schedule and lifestyle. exclusively in industry. This is because it
Being self-employed has both positive and allows drafters to work more quickly and
negative aspects. On the positive side, it allows accurately by eliminating time-consuming
greater control and job satisfaction. It can also and repetitive tasks.
lead to a good income. On the negative side,
there is a financial risk and long hours are Computer-Aided Drafting
often required. Also, there is no guarantee of Though CAD has greatly streamlined the
success. Fluctuations in demand for drafters drafter’s work, it relies on the user’s knowl-
in your area may result in periods of frantic edge of basic drafting principles. Drafting soft-
activity followed by almost no activity at all. ware is not able to make drafting decisions,
Entrepreneurs must have characteristics and it cannot teach basic drafting skills. That
that enable them to handle a variety of situa- is why it is essential for a good drafter to learn
tions including: drafting principles through traditional board
• self-reliance technique.
• enthusiasm
• the ability to think calmly and clearly Advantages of CAD Use
under stressful circumstances Because of its electronic nature, CAD can
• the ability to perform many tasks essential do much more than board drafting. It is flex-
to the operation of a business ible enough to assist all phases of the design
• the ability to get along with clients process. It can drive the manufacturing stage
• personnel management skills as well. Many companies use the acronym
CADD (computer-aided design and drafting) to
Staying current in the field is a must for any
describe this software because it helps them
entrepreneur. Doing business in accordance
in both the drafting and design phases of
with established guidelines, specifications, or
development.
legislation, known as compliance, can be com-
plicated. Laws and business practices change
continuously. An entrepreneur has a responsi-
bility to know all new codes, regulations, and
laws that apply to the business.
List What benefits does entrepreneurship

offer?
Board and Computer-

Aided Drafting
How has technology impacted the drafting
industry?
Traditional drafting involves drawing

by hand using a drawing board and preci- Figure 1-3
sion instruments. This is known as board Board drafting involves drawing by hand, using
drafting. See Figure 1-3. Computer-aided precision instruments.
drafting (CAD) is a system of drafting in

Drafting software can create two-dimensional the diameter of a specific hole should be.
drawings as well as three-dimensional (3D) The two-dimensional drawings must be
models. Models are made as virtual 3D solids consulted for such purposes. Most CAD pro-
that can be assigned material properties. If grams have the ability to extract two-dimen-
such a model is created with extreme care and sional drawings from a 3D model when
precision, it can be used to: needed.
• provide the input necessary to drive pro- When using 3D CAD modeler programs
duction machines such as SolidWorks® and Autodesk® Inven-
• show clients a realistic example of how a tor™, the 2D drawings created from a 3D
finished product will look model remain electronically linked to the
• perform various structural and engineering model. So if a change is made to the model,
tests it is reflected automatically in the drawings.
• extract two-dimensional drawings for Likewise, a change made to the drawings also
manufacturing or construction purposes appears on the model. The change need only
be made once.
Production Input
With the help of CAD, computers now con-
trol many production processes. Computer- Disadvantages of CAD Use
aided drafting/computer-aided manufacturing Using CAD does have a few disadvantages.
(CAD/CAM) and Computer-integrated manu- One of the most common problems has
facturing (CIM) systems interface a computer nothing to do with the software. Instead, it
with the production machinery that makes concerns how people perceive the CAD sys-
the product. The machine produces a finished tem. People who are new to CAD often rely
product according to the specifications in the on the software to make drafting decisions
CAD file. Computer numerical control (CNC) is that only a drafter can make. However, the
a computerized version of the old numerical software can only do what the drafter tells
control (NC) system used in manufacturing. it to do. Therefore, drafting software is not a
All these systems use CAD files directly on the substitute for basic drafting knowledge and
production floor. skill.
Another disadvantage of using a CAD sys-
Plan Extraction tem is the initial, or startup, cost. The equip-
A virtual solid model does not do some ment and software needed for a functional
things well. For example, it cannot tell a CAD system can run into thousands of
quality control inspector at a glance what dollars.
Section 1.1 Assessment Academic Integration

English Language Arts
After You Read
4. Write a one-page paper comparing and
contrasting board-based drafting with
Self-Check computer-aided drafting. Detail at least
1. List and describe four drafting careers. three similarities and differences between
2. Describe the advantages and disadvan- the two.
tages of entrepreneurship.
3. Define board drafting and computer-
aided drafting.

1.2 Preparing for a Career in
Drafting
Connect What should you know about yourself before making a career choice?
Content Vocabulary
• career plan • short-term • long-term • lifelong • portfolio
• résumé goals goals learning • employability
skills
Academic Vocabulary
tests
• implement • team
Graphic Organizer
On a chart like the one below, list your short-term and long-term career goals.
Short-Term Goals Long-Term Goals

Academic Standards
Teachers of English
Students use spoken, written, and visual language to accomplish their own purposes (e.g., for NCTM National Council
learning, enjoyment, persuasion, and the exchange of information) (NCTE) of Teachers of
Mathematics
Mathematics
Numbers and Operations Compute fluently and make reasonable estimates (NCTM)
Problem Solving Build new mathematical knowledge through problem solving (NCTM)

Look at all of the options, compare them, and
Making a Career Plan determine what will happen if you make vari-
How should your interests influence your ous decisions.
career path? Some of the first things you should con-
An individual career plan is a plan you sider when making your career plan are
form when you start thinking about and your personal interests and aptitudes. Are
recording your career goals. It is like a road you interested in drawing and illustration
map to your future. Where do you want to techniques? Do you enjoy detailed work such
go? How do you want to get there? A career is as model building? Could any of your inter-
a series of related jobs built on a foundation of ests be compatible with a career in drafting?
interest, knowledge, training, and experience. What are your aptitudes? Do you have draw-
With this in mind, evaluate your choices. ing abilities?
CAREER PROFILE Date:

Career :
Evaluate the “match” between the personal and career information. Write a number from 1 to 10, where
the worst match is a 1, and the closest match is a 10.
Personal Information Career Information
❖ Values ❖ Values
List values that are important to you. List values that might be necessary for the career you are
profiling.
❖ Interests ❖ Responsibilities
List your interest and hobbies. List the responsibilities normally assigned to people who
work in this field.
❖ Personality ❖ Personality Needed
List your personal traits. Be honest, and list Describe the personality traits needed by a person who
both favorable and unfavorable character- works in this field.
istics.
❖ Personal Relationships ❖ Professional Relationships
Do you prefer to work with other people or Describe the social characteristics needed by some-
alone? How important is contact with one working in this field. Is a “people person” mentality
others? required?
❖ Skills and Aptitudes ❖ Skill and Aptitudes
Make a complete list of your skills and apti- What skills and aptitudes are needed by people on this
tudes. career path?
❖ Education/Training Preferences ❖ Education/Training required
What kind of education or training experi- List the education and training requirements for people
ence do you want (or can you afford)? who work in this field.
Figure 1-5
Completing a career profile for each career that interests you is a good way to compare the characteristics of
each objectively.
Section 1.2 Preparing for a Career in Drafting 13

Evaluating Choices have already been trained in the company’s
practices, they become productive in less time.
After you have narrowed the choices,
The other advantage to having experience
you should research the careers that seem
in the drafting field is that it creates a valuable
most interesting to you. Pursue detailed
addition to your résumé. A résumé is a docu-
information such as potential earnings and
ment you present to potential employers that
benefits, job availability, locations of employ-
summarizes your education, experience, and
ment, working conditions, and educational
accomplishments. From the experience listed
requirements.
on your résumé, employers can see that you are
Preparing for a serious about a career in drafting. They know
that you understand what is involved in draft-
Drafting-Related Career ing and have decided to pursue it as a career.
If you choose a career in drafting or a
related area, you need to do specific things to Setting Your Goals
prepare yourself. Like careers in other areas, One of the most important aspects of your
drafting careers have minimum requirements personal career plan is your goals. By setting
for education, experience, and in some cases, goals for yourself, you can plan what you
certification. want to accomplish in a certain period of time.
Goals also provide a benchmark, or standard,
Education against which to check your progress.
The education required for different
jobs within the drafting field varies (see Short-Term Goals
Table 1-1). Regardless of the specific job you As you develop your career plan, start with
want, you should lay a good foundation for your immediate future. Short-term goals
it. Take related courses in high school and, if are generally considered to be goals that you
you choose, continue on to a college or other can achieve in less than five years. In the next
learning program. Drafting classes are not the five years, what do you expect to accomplish?
only requirement. Find out from area busi- What do you want to be doing at the end of
nesses what classes are needed for entry-level five years? Short-term goals can often be built
employment. You might be surprised at some around existing knowledge and training. Be
of them. It is better to know this and take careful to keep your goals realistic, though.
classes when they are offered than to think Unrealistic goals are not only unhelpful; they
later, “I wish I had taken that class!” can damage your self-esteem.
Experience
Although education is necessary, there is
no substitute for experience. In many cases,
Connect What are some important things
drafters gain experience on the job as junior
to think about when developing your short-
drafters. In addition, many companies coop- term goals?
erate with high schools and community
colleges to help students get on-the-job, or
work-based, experience while they are still in
Long-Term Goals
school. Other opportunities include job shad- Project short-term goals into the future to
owing, mentoring, and cooperative education form your long-term goals. Long-term goals
programs. are goals which may take a long time to accom-
Getting an early start on experience has two plish. What is your ultimate goal? When you
advantages. First, a company that provides on- approach retirement, where do you expect to be?
the-job experience for students is often eager There are actually three sides to this question:
to hire those students after they have finished • Where do you want to be professionally?
their education. This is partly because the com- • Where do you want to be financially?
pany becomes familiar with the students and • Where do you want to be emotionally and
their individual work ethics. Since the students socially?

All of these need to be considered, but the
James Woodson/Getty Images

professional aspect is of immediate concern.
In many cases, your professional future will
help determine your financial future. If you
are considering drafting as a career, look at all
of the positives and negatives. Evaluate your
interests and abilities, then go for the training
and experience.
Lifelong Learning
What kinds of learning activities can you
do after you graduate?
Figure 1-6
We live in a world of dynamic change, and Trade magazines and journals are available for
it is important to keep up with new devel- almost every drafting-related career. You can
opments. Lifelong learning takes place subscribe to one or more of these, or check with
throughout your career. It can be achieved as local libraries to see whether they carry any that
are of interest to you.
formal educational credits, informal courses,
or participation in work-related associations.
With some career areas, such as teaching, nurs-
ing, or electrical engineering, lifelong learning for drafting certification. Because many
is a job requirement. With other careers, the employers have their own set of company-
individual must take responsibility for his or wide standards, they do not usually requ-
her own learning. Whatever the case may be, ire employees to follow national standards.
learning does not end with graduation from However, knowing ADDA standards is an
high school or college. To progress in your advantage.
career, you must stay aware of change. Other organizations have set standards for
You can pursue knowledge throughout specific drafting procedures. The American
your life and career in many ways. Some com- National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the
panies provide courses of interest to employ- International Standards Organization (ISO)
ees. Others pay part or all of employee costs are nationally and internationally recognized
for continuing education. For busy career peo- sources of standards. Standards allow all draft-
ple, Internet courses are also available. ers, regardless of nationality, to read produc-
Not all knowledge comes from formal tion drawings. As global operations become
schooling and coursework. It is up to you to more common, ISO standards are becoming
identify the many opportunities for personal popular in the United States. However, ANSI
and career growth. Trade journals can keep standards (U.S. customary and metric) are still
you informed of changes in your industry and in widespread use.
provide information and additional educa- Depending on the specific career path you
tion. See Figure 1-6. Search the Internet peri- choose, you may need to acquire a license or
odically for news that might affect your career permit prior to employment. For example,
or ongoing education. architects must be licensed by the states in
which they work, and construction supervi-
Certification, Licenses, and sors and building inspectors may need per-
Permits mits or licenses, depending on the region.
Certification shows potential employers
that you have a certain level of drafting skill.
Many employers do not require certification,
but it can help if you are looking for a posi-
Explain What is the difference between
tion as a drafter. The American Design Draft- formal and informal education?
ing Association (ADDA) has set up a program

keep any work you do for companies through
Searching and Applying cooperative education arrangements, appren-
for a Job ticeships, and so on. You may also include
your résumé, cover letter, and other useful
What are the best ways to present yourself
career resources.
to prospective employers?
A portfolio presentation should be kept in
You can begin your job search by listing a binder or portfolio case. This protects your
employment resources. Check the ads in work from getting folded, bent, or otherwise
professional journals and newspapers. If you damaged.
want to move out of the area, read newspa-
pers from areas of interest. If you are look- Creating Your Résumé
ing locally, knock on doors. Companies A résumé is the heart of the application
often have unadvertised openings available. process. Through it, you present yourself as a
Employment agencies can put you in con- qualified applicant for employment. A résumé
tact with local and distant employers. These should be job specific. That is, it should
agencies also can be an excellent resource emphasize skills and experiences that are
for specialized, professional, and managerial important to the job for which you are apply-
positions. ing. Do not necessarily omit nonrelevant
One method that is often overlooked is a data, because employers are usually looking
direct reference from relatives and friends. for well-rounded employees, but match the
This is called networking. Ask people you know emphasis with the position.
about potential job openings where they Your school guidance department can
work. A recommendation from a respected provide you with a traditional résumé for-
employee may give you an advantage. mat, but feel free to vary it to suit your skills
One of the easiest ways to research job and needs. Also, many word processing pro-
openings is to use the Internet. Web sites grams provide résumé templates. The basic
are available to help employers find suitable parts of a résumé are shown in Figure 1-7.
employees and vice versa. The following strat-
egies can be helpful: Electronic formats
Many companies require you to submit your
• Use a search engine to find listings in your
résumé and other information in an electronic
area of interest.
format. You can either e-mail it or post it to
• Newspapers in many cities have online
a Web site. If you know how to create a Web
classified sections with job openings.
page, you can make one specifically for poten-
• Many national and international drafting
tial employers to view. Set it up so that they
organizations and trade unions have Web
can download your résumé from there. You
sites that list jobs and sometimes even post
can also post your portfolio on the Web page.
résumés for job applicants.
Assembling Your Portfolio

A portfolio is a collection of your best
work, which you can present to potential Contrast How do the purposes of a résumé
employers. If you are seeking a drafting job, a and a cover letter differ?
portfolio can showcase your skills much more
efficiently than words.
What should you put into your portfolio? Writing the Cover Letter
As you take classes related to drafting, be sure If you apply for a job by mail or e-mail,
to keep a clean copy of your work. If you have you must introduce yourself. The cover let-
used computer-aided drafting software to cre- ter that accompanies your résumé is often as
ate drawings, back up the files that contain important as the résumé itself. Your cover let-
your best work. Keep your drawings and files ter should give the prospective employer the
together, so that you can find them later. Also right impression, but it should not restate

your résumé. The letter should make the Attending the Interview
employer want to read your résumé; it should When the time arrives for the interview,
not replace it. See Figure 1-8 for an example relax! If you have prepared yourself thor-
of a well-written cover letter. oughly, you can face the interviewer confi-
dently. Dress appropriately and bring at least
Interviewing
two copies of your résumé with you as well as
Companies usually conduct one or more
any questions you have about the company
meetings, or interviews, with the job can-
or the position.
didates they find most promising. They call
Most interviews have several distinct parts.
those applicants to request an interview, but
In the first part, the interviewer introduces
you do not have to depend on them to call
him- or herself. This person may also tell you
you. It is good practice to contact the com-
a little bit about the company and the job
pany to follow up after your initial applica-
for which the company is hiring. Next, the
tion. Take an active approach. Express your
interviewer asks questions designed to help
continuing interest in working for the com-
the company understand your qualifications
pany, and ask for an interview.
Jeremy Williams
555 North Selmington Place
Dubuque, Iowa 52003
555-417-4598
Objective To gain experience as a drafting technician. Desire position with

opportunity for career growth.
Education ADDA drafter certification, March 2009

High School Diploma, Fairfield High School, Dubuque, Iowa, 2009
Courses in mechanical drawing, AutoCAD design, and technology.
Mathematics club member, 2008-2009
Experience Junior Drafter, Benjamin Design & Drafting, Dubuque, Iowa,

July 2008-present
Responsible for creating original drawings under direct supervision.
Used both board and computer-aided drafting systems.
Drafting Trainee at Johnson & Co., September 2006-June 2008

In association with cooperative education program at Fairfield High School.
Skills Computer proficient including word processing and CAD software; proficient
with board-drafting instruments; proficient with basic CAD functions;
advanced finite math; beginning calculus.
Figure 1-7
A typical résumé

for the job. If you have not already done You may also be required to complete a job
so, this is an appropriate time to present application. This is a standard form that asks
your résumé and portfolio. Then you will be about your skills, work experience, education,
invited to ask any questions you have. Finish and interests. You should always fill out the job
the interview on a positive note, reaffirming application completely, even if the required
your interest. information already appears in your résumé.
Jeremy Williams
555 North Selmington Place
Dubuque, Iowa 52003
555-417-4598
July 21, 20--
Ms. Carol Albiner

Director, Drafting Department
Dubuque Drafting Specialties, Inc.
1667 West Jefferson Street
Dubuque, IA 52012
Dear Ms. Albinger:
Bob Schottland, senior drafter at Hughes Drafting, suggested that I contact you about the position
of drafting technician that is open with your company. Please consider me as an applicant for this
position.
In my current position as junior drafter at Benjamin Drafting & Design, I have had the opportunity
to develop skills in both board drafting and computer-aided drafting. Please review my résumé,
which is enclosed. It provides more details about my experience and the skills I can bring to your
company.
I am especially interested in pursuing a career with Dubuque Drafting Specialties because of your
reputation for cutting-edge CAD work. I believe employment with your company would offer me a
wonderful opportunity to use my skills and advance my career.
I would like to request an interview. I would be glad to meet with you at your convenience.
Sincerely,
Jeremy Williams
Figure 1-8
A typical cover letter.

Following Up after the Interview In general, employers want employees who
After any interview, you should write a cor- follow policies and procedures, including dress
dial letter or e-mail to the interviewer. Thank code, attendance, and promptness. You can
the interviewer for the time he or she spent get a head start by making it a habit to comply
with you. Once again, state your interest in with your school or vocational center’s policies
the job and reinforce how your skills can help and procedures. By forming good habits while
the company. you are still in school, you will find that you
If you do not hear anything from the com- don’t have to think about these details later.
pany for a few weeks but are still interested,
Professional Relationships
you may choose to call the company to
Take care to maintain good relationships
inquire about the status of the hiring proce-
with your employer and coworkers. Most
dure. Some companies move more quickly
workplaces can be hectic at times. Abrupt
than others. In any case, you can determine
changes in schedules, job assignments, and
whether the position has been filled. If it has,
supervisors can take a toll even on the calm-
you will know to concentrate on other possi-
est employee. If you become frustrated, try to
bilities. If not, then you may decide to write
understand that your coworkers, and possibly
another letter to the interviewer to keep your
your supervisor, are under as much pressure as
name fresh in his or her mind. Be active but
you are, and act accordingly.
not pushy in your approach.
Take a genuine interest in the people who
work around you. Try to understand what
Adapting to a New Job they do and help when you can. You may be
Allow yourself time to become comfort-
surprised at how willing your coworkers are to
able in your new job. Do not expect every-
return the favor when you need help.
thing to be done exactly the same way it was
It is also important not to expect everyone
done in your previous job. There is often
to share your views and opinions. In a typi-
more than one way to perform a task cor-
cal office, people come from a variety of back-
rectly, and different companies have differ-
grounds and cultures. Individual preferences
ent preferences.
and beliefs can affect the way that people
within a group interact. Maintain your own
beliefs, but allow others to maintain theirs
too. If you build good working relation-
ships, then differences involving projects and
Connect What information could an approaches to assigned tasks can usually be
interviewer find out about you by looking at solved to everyone’s satisfaction.
your portfolio?
Attitude
Your attitude plays an important role in
Demonstrating your value to the company. Maintain a posi-
tive, enthusiastic attitude, and nurture your
Workplace Skills self-esteem. If you make an effort and do your
How can aspects of your character or work to the best of your ability, you can build
personality affect your career success? your self-confidence as you grow with the
company. If the work does not go as expected,
Being a good employee involves more than keep trying, and be sure to ask for help when
just technical skill. You also need to be able you need it.
to get along with other people and work well Seeing yourself through other people’s eyes
with them. These workplace skills are often can reveal ways in which you can improve
called employability skills, or soft skills. your general attitude as well as your self-
Your continued employment or promotion esteem. Do you take initiatives to help the
sometimes depends on these as much as on company provide a better product? Do you
your technical skill. take responsibility for your choices and the

work you do? How do you react to feedback The term communication includes many dif-
and constructive criticism? ferent skills, including:
Being willing to learn is another important • listening carefully
characteristic of employees with positive atti- • understanding spoken and written instruc-
tudes. If you are asked to do something you tions from other people
do not know how to do, say so, but be sure • giving clear verbal and written instructions
your supervisor understands that you are will- • explaining potential problems effectively
ing to learn the new skills as necessary. to supervisors, both verbally and in writing
Communication Skills • using appropriate body language
Every job requires good communication
• demonstrating good telephone etiquette
(manners and presentation)
skills. In a drafting career, the ability to con-
vey your ideas on paper to a potential cli-
• using good e-mail etiquette
ent strongly enhances your value. However,
• using language that is positive, diplomatic,
and sensitive to individuals from different
interpersonal communication skills are also
backgrounds
important. Whether you are interacting with
customers or coworkers, you must be able to
To be able to speak and write effectively,
communicate clearly and precisely. You also
you must understand basic grammar and pre-
need to to listen and ask the right questions
sentation techniques.
in order to determine their needs.
Estimated Living Expenses Interest on savings ⫹ 6.50

Total $2,225.48
As you consider your options and explore
Expected Monthly Expenses
the career paths that interest you, you
Car insurance 82.00
should take into consideration your living
Car loan 254.00
expenses.
Clothing 75.00
Will the career path you are considering
Entertainment 100.00
support your preferred lifestyle?
Food 220.00
1. Determine the estimated monthly
Gifts and contributions 230.00
income of your career choice.
Medical and dental care 50.00
2. Prepare a list of expected monthly
Miscellaneous 150.00
expenses.
Rent 725.00
3. Prepare a statement of income &
Transportation 110.00
expenses.
Total $1,996.00
4. Does this career choice support your
preferred lifestyle? Explain.
Example: In the example given here,
the total monthly income is expected to be
Estimated Income and Expenses $229.48 higher than the monthly expenses.
Gross salary: Drafting This is a comfortable range, which allows
Technician $32,364.80 a little extra for emergencies or savings. If
Less withheld taxes ⫺5,737.00 your expected monthly expenses exceed the
Net yearly earnings $26,627.80 expected monthly income, you may
Expected Monthly Income want to reconsider your expenses or
26,627.80
Net monthly earnings: ________ ⫽ $2,218.98 consider a different career path.
12

Self-Management • keeping company information confidential
Employees who can manage their work
• maintaining your personal integrity while
honoring the values of others
with minimal supervision are in great demand
among employers. You may have heard these In the workplace, ethical behavior is impor-
employees referred to as “self-starters.” In tant both for you and for the company.
addition to having the skills necessary to per- The company counts on its employees
form their jobs, these employees are problem to help maintain its good name. Unethical
solvers. They have the ability to recognize behavior can ruin a company’s reputation. On
problems related to their work and iden- a more personal level, unethical behavior can
tify the causes before the problems become also ruin your reputation, which can affect
serious. Then those employees proceed to your entire career. Would you hire someone
develop and implement solutions, obtain- who had a reputation for dishonesty or other
ing permission from supervisors when neces- unethical behaviors?
sary, and evaluate the results.
Time Management Leadership

For any business to be successful, it needs
Another important skill is time manage-
good leaders. A leader is someone who moti-
ment. In the business world, time really
vates others to work toward a goal. Many dif-
is money, in the sense that wasted time
ferent kinds of people can be effective leaders,
decreases output, which decreases profits.
but it takes some practice. The best leaders
With drafting, accuracy is of prime impor-
learn leadership by participating and trying
tance; however, an accurate drawing must be
to exemplify the right attitude for the people
made within a reasonable period of time. You
around them.
may be responsible for more than one project
Not all leaders have the same style. Some
or drawing at a time. In some cases, supervi-
prefer to direct others, while others feel more
sors may tell you which is most important. In
comfortable sharing the leadership respon-
other cases, you may need to make that deci-
sibilities. A person’s leadership style may
sion. As a responsible employee, you must
depend on his or her personality, background,
manage your time to minimize waste and fin-
and even culture. For example, someone who
ish each project in an acceptable time frame.
enjoys sports might prefer to lead by coach-
One way to help ensure that you meet
ing, while someone who grew up with young
deadlines is to develop a work schedule. Spend
siblings may take a nurturing approach. A
a few minutes each day with a calendar and
good leader will think about what style of
a list of projects and deadlines. Determine as
leadership will work best with the group of
realistically as possible how much time each
people he or she is leading. Whatever the
project will take, and pencil it in on your cal-
style, leadership requires people skills. Be sen-
endar. Then refer to the calendar often to help
sitive to the wants and needs of others. Work
stay on schedule.
with people, not against them, and do not try
to do everything yourself. Those you work
with will respond better if they can make their
own decisions after you give them guidelines.
Analyze Why is entering information on a While you are in school, learn responsibil-
calendar a good time management habit? ity by joining organizations and becoming a
worker. Organizations such as SkillsUSA-VICA
provide opportunities for students to become
Ethical Behavior concerned citizens and patriots who can assess,
The principles of conduct that govern any predict, control, and adapt to the impact of
group or society are known as ethics. Ethical various technologies on people, society, and
behavior includes: the environment. See Figure 1-9. By joining
• dealing honestly with colleagues a student organization, you can also learn the
• respecting company property basic principles of parliamentary procedure,

Blend Images/Alamy, Ulrik Tofte/Getty Images
Figure 1-9
Appropriate dress is much different for the building inspector in
the photo on the left than for the office worker in the photo on
the right, even though both work for the same company.
which teaches the leadership skills needed to must cooperate with the other members of
reach an agreement in an orderly manner. your team to achieve a common goal, and
Leaders must also be aware of any codes, you must communicate with them so that the
laws, standards, or regulations that apply work goes smoothly. If members cooperate
to their work and require their followers or and share their knowledge and skills within
employees to follow them. Part of being a the group, they achieve a higher quality of
leader is accepting responsibility for following work, and both the individuals and the com-
all applicable regulations. pany benefit.
Teamwork
The concept of teamwork is closely related
to leadership. Every team needs a leader, but
List What are some important qualities for a
the leader must work closely with other team
good leader?
members to achieve positive results. In fact,
being a team leader and being a team member
require many of the same characteristics.
In today’s workforce, the ability to work as
Recognizing Rights and
part of a team is a critical employability skill. Responsibilities
Few people work in isolation. Other people How does an employee show respect for
within a company depend on the work of work and the workplace?
each individual. For example, if you are a
computer programmer, you are responsible As an employee of any company, you have
for how your part of a program operates. You both rights and responsibilities. Depending
are also responsible for how your part works on the industry, rights may be governed by
with everyone else’s parts. If there is a prob- federal, state, and local laws; trade unions and
lem, you may have to make changes or com- organizations, and other associations. You
promises for the good of the product. should become familiar with the organiza-
Teamwork involves two important con- tions and institutions that govern your rights
cepts: cooperation and communication. You as an employee.

Basic Employee Rights Workplace Safety
All employees in this country have certain Both employers and employees have a
basic rights. These include the right to be free responsibility to ensure safety in the work-
from harassment and discrimination in the place. Employers must provide safe working
workplace. Harassment is defined as continued, conditions for their employees. In all indus-
unwanted attention. When such attention tries, employees have a right to know about
becomes excessive, the employee should ask dangers and hazards relative to their place
the person to stop. If the unwanted attention of work. The federal government established
continues, it becomes harassment. the Occupational Safety and Health Admin-
Workplace discrimination involves the iso- istration (OSHA) to monitor standards in the
lation of a person or group of people so that workplace. For details of the OSHA standards
they cannot function effectively on the job. relating to employee right-to-know, refer to
Federal law prohibits companies from dis- the OSHA standards for General Industry (29
criminating against employees on the basis CFR Part 1910) and Construction (29 CFR Part
of race, gender, disability, and many other 1926). Some states, such as Florida, have right-
factors. Employees must be treated with to-know laws that exceed those of the federal
equality, receiving equal opportunities and requirements. As an employee, you need to
equal pay for equal work. be aware of the state and federal standards.
You should also question any infractions that
Employee Responsibilities come to your attention.
As an employee, you also have certain Employees have a responsibility to main-
responsibilities. You are responsible for uphold- tain safety standards on the job. The actual
ing the company’s good name and for fulfill- rules and regulations vary by industry and by
ing the job you have been hired to do. The individual company. In general, drafters must
company depends on you. Your employer maintain a clean, orderly work area. Board
pays you an agreed-upon wage, and in return, drafters must handle and store sharp instru-
you should be loyal to the company and do ments safely to avoid accidents. CAD users
your best work. Your work ethic should reflect must be careful to keep the work area free of
well on you and on your employer. power cords that may cause trips and falls.

Mathematics
After You Read
5. Increasing Salary Natalia currently
makes $36,000 per year. She discovers
Self-Check that she is qualified for a job that pays
1. Explain how to develop an individual $50,400 per year. If she were to get this
career plan. new job, what would be her percent
2. Explain how to prepare for a drafting increase in salary?
career.
3. Describe skills and techniques for Percent Increase
finding a new job. To calculate percent increase, you can
4. Identify workplace rights and respon- divide, but remember that an increase is
sibilities. only the part greater than 1. Divide the
new salary by the current one: $50,400
÷ $36,000. Remember, this is the new
salary’s percent of the current one. To
figure out the percent increase only,
subtract 1.0 (100%).

1 Review and Assessment
Chapter Summary
Section 1.1 Section 1.2
• A drafting career may involve engineer- • Career plans should identify skills and
ing, architecture, mechanical design, or interests, explore careers and their
technical illustration. educational requirements, and include
• Requirements for a career in drafting vary short- and long-term goals.
from obtaining a high school diploma to • Finding a job includes using employment
a four-year college degree, and can require resources, creating a résumé, writing a
licensing. cover letter, assembling a portfolio, and
• An entrepreneur organizes a business and interviewing.
then runs it. • Necessary workplace skills include main-
• Computer-aided drafting has revolution- taining good professional relationships,
ized the field of drafting. having the proper attitude and enthusi-
• Learning traditional board-drafting tech- asm, developing good communication,
nique is necessary to fully understanding leadership, time management, and team-
and using CAD. work skills, and behaving ethically.
• Employees have responsibilities and rights.
Review Content Vocabulary and Academic Vocabulary

1. Use each of these content and academic vocabulary terms in a sentence or drawing.
Content Vocabulary • career plan (p. 13) Academic Vocabulary
• career (p. 7) • résumé (p. 14) • license (p. 7)
• engineering (p. 7) • short-term goals (p. 14) • technique (p. 10)
• entrepreneur (p. 9) • long-term goals (p. 14) • implement (p. 21)
• board drafting (p. 10) • lifelong learning (p. 15) • team (p. 22)
• computer-aided drafting • portfolio (p. 16)
(p. 10) • employability skills (p. 19)
Review Key Concepts

2. List and describe four drafting careers.
3. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of entrepreneurship.
4. Explain the uses of board drafting and CAD.
5. List the steps to develop an individual career plan.
6. Explain how to prepare for a drafting career.
7. Describe skills and techniques for finding a new job.
8. Identify workplace rights and responsibilities.

Technology Prep
9. The Computer Revolution Multiple Choice Question For
Technology is defined as the application of Directions Choose the letter
knowledge to develop systems, solve problems, of the best answer. Write the
and extend capabilities. More simply stated, letter for the answer on a
technology employs knowledge and tools separate piece of paper.
for doing new things or doing old things in a 12. A short-term goal can generally be
new way. Think of a way that technology has achieved in less than
changed some part of your life. An example a. one week
might involve transportation, an electronic b. one year
game or gadget, or a medical advancement. c. five years
Write a one-page report explaining the tech- d. ten years
nology and giving examples of how it has
TEST-TAKING TIP
changed your life.
Analyze multiple-choice questions very
carefully. Note key terms. Use your
knowledge and anticipate what the answer
should be. Find an answer choice that looks
10. Work Ethic like the one you have predicted.
Work ethic refers to the beliefs, values, and
principles that guide the way individuals see
their job responsibilities within the work
context. Create a presentation—for exam-
ple, a three-minute oral report, a PowerPoint Win
display, or a brochure—that explains your Competitive
work ethic. You might include such ethical
traits as honesty, diligence, reliability, and Events
self-management. 13. Job Interview
Organizations such as SkillsUSA offer a
variety of architectural, career, and drafting
Mathematics competitions. Completing activities such
as the one below will help you prepare for
11. Calculate Average Work Time
these events.
Three restaurant workers spend a total of
Activity The best way to prepare for
four hours working together to prepare veg-
an interview—is to practice answering
etables for the salad bar. What is the average
interview questions with another person.
number of minutes each worker spends to
Team with a partner and give each other
keep it filled?
mock interviews. Take turns being the
Use Variables and Operations interviewer and the person being inter-
Translating words into algebraic expressions viewed. Each partner should ask and
requires knowledge of the meaning of the answer five typical interview questions.
verbal descriptions. In algebra, a variable is a
symbol used to represent a number. Arithme- Go to glencoe.com for this book’s
tic operations include addition, subtraction, OLC for more information about
multiplication, and division. If x equals the competitive events.
average number of hours each worker spends
to keep the bar filled, the algebraic expression
for the problem is 3x = (4 × 60). Solve for x.
Review and Assessment 25

2 Design and Sketching
Section 2.1
Design and Freehand
Sketching
Section 2.2
Computer-Aided
Sketching
Chapter Objectives
• Describe the three
basic aspects of design.
• Describe the tradi-
tional and concurrent
engineering design
models.
• Explain how sketch-
ing is used to commu-
nicate design ideas.
• Create freehand
multiview and pictorial
sketches.
• Develop techniques
for sketching in correct
proportion.
• Letter clear, neat free-
hand notes and dimen-
sions on a sketch.
• Explain the concept of
sketching from the CAD
operator’s point of view.
• Create text in CAD.
Glass Plus Glass blower

Chihuly worked with architect
Arthur Adersson to create this
pedestrian bridge. How many
ways can you think of how glass
is used?
26
Drafting Career
Dale Chihuly, Glass Blower
The Museum of Glass in Tacoma, Washington

commissioned Dale Chihuly to help create a 500-foot
pedestrian bridge connecting downtown Tacoma
with its waterfront. Upon its completion, Chihuly
said, “This will be the gateway that welcomes peo-
ple to Tacoma. We wanted something unique in the
world, something that has a lot of color, a joyous
experience, night or day.” Chihuly worked with an
architect, Arthur Andersson. They created a walkway
in three sections.
Entering the Seaform Pavilion with its ceiling

made of 2,364 colorful glass objects is like walking
underwater. Crystal Towers mark the central section
of the bridge. Made of Polyvitro, stacked monumen-
tal pieces that look as if they are cut from a frozen
alpine lake soar 40-feet above the walkway. The third
section, the Venetian Wall, contains a display of 109
Chihuly sculptures. According to Chihuly, “You can
sit and view the Venetians on concrete benches . . .
and be enveloped in color and shape.”

• Art
• Science
• Industrial Technology
• Eye-hand Coordination
Career Pathways
A four-year college degree in not required to
pursue a career as a craftsperson in a field such as
glassblowing. Some postsecondary schools and
craft schools offer a certificate or associates degree
in scientific glass technology. Apprenticeship pro-
grams and on-the-job training is available.

about Dale Chihuly.
27
WorldFoto/Alamy
2.1 Design and Freehand Sketching
Preview Different types of sketches serve different purposes. As you read this section, examine
the benefit to the design process of using each type of sketch.
Content Vocabulary
• design • multiview sketch • oblique sketch • isometric • isometric line
• creativity • pictorial sketch sketch • nonisometric
• sketch line
Academic Vocabulary
• concurrent • comprehensive
Graphic Organizer
Use a chart like the one below to organize the facts you learn about freehand sketching.
Types of Sketches Go to glencoe.com for this

version of this graphic organizer.
Multiview Pictorial
One 3 or
2 - View ? ?
View More
? ?
Academic Standards
Teachers of English
Read texts to acquire new information (NCTE) NCTM National Council
of Teachers of
Number and Operations Computer fluency and make reasonable estimates (NCTM)
28 Chapter 2 Design and Sketching

build tools and machines that make their work
Maximillian Stock, Ltd./Science Photo Library

Aspects of Design easier. As time went on, refinements made the
How are new design ideas initiated? tools and machines more efficient and the lives
of the people who used them more pleasant.
The words design and creativity are
The design of products need not be entirely
often used interchangeably. This is because
original. Rather, ongoing improvements tend
creativity is the key to good design. Creativ-
to build on one another, and the design
ity is the combination of imagination, knowl-
evolves. Critical thinking is an important part
edge, and curiosity. Design is the conception
of the design process. It involves analyzing
of an idea and its development, through
and evaluating concepts, statements, and
graphic communication, into a practical, pro-
propositions that are considered to be true
ducible, and usable product or process.
and accurate and applying them to the design
Designers are concerned with three basic
problem being considered. In the design pro-
issues:
cess, critical thinkers use existing proven
• aesthetics the look and feel of the final design elements around which they build new
product ideas and eventually arrive at a workable solu-
• function the successful operation of the tion to the design problem.
final product For example, the design, or invention, of
• feasibility the manufacturing process and the wheel led to the design and development
choice of materials of carts and wagons. Over a very long period
Bringing new ideas to life is the essence of a of time, with many intermediate steps, it led to
designer’s work. When you learn to use draw- the development of modern automobiles like
ings to bring new ideas to life, you will know the one shown in Figure 2-1. Carefully and
that the saying “ideas are born in the mind and methodically brainstorming each step in the
brought into being at the point of a pencil,” is process builds upon the creative efforts of indi-
true. This reinforces the importance of learning viduals who developed earlier models. Design-
to sketch. A sketch is simply a rough drawers do not find it necessary to “reinvent the
ing that shows the main features of an object. wheel” continually.
Freehand sketching, or sketching by hand with
pencil and paper, is only one way of commu-
nicating ideas graphically. Another way is with
the use of a computer using graphics software
that allows you to transform ideas quickly into
graphic representations. In this chapter you
will learn to use both freehand and computer-
aided sketching techniques to capture, analyze,
and solidify basic graphic thoughts as well as
more complex design concepts.
Identify What three qualities must a design

have?
Refinement in Design
How does refinement play an important
Figure 2-1
role in the design of new products?
The design of the modern automobile began with
Since the beginning of civilization, men the invention of the wheel and evolved into an
and women have used their imagination, efficient, practical, aesthetically-designed machine.
knowledge, and curiosity in creative ways to
Section 2.1 Design and Freehand Sketching 29

1
STATE DESIGN
PROBLEM
Contrast What do function and aesthetics
contribute to design?
2
ANALYZE
NEED
The Design Process
How do the traditional and concurrent
engineering design models differ? 3
SET
Many models for the design process are OBJECTIVES
used throughout different industries. Design-
ers and engineers tend to work from a basic
design model and modify it to suit their own 4
particular interests and needs. Two basic CREATE
ALTERNATIVES
approaches are traditional engineering design
and concurrent engineering design.
Traditional Engineering Design 5

CHECK FOR
The traditional engineering design model FEASIBILITY
uses a linear approach. In this method, a
design engineer takes the design of a product
from the initial design problem or idea stage 6 SELECT
and carries it through, step by step, until it is
SOLUTION
turned over to the production division.
The basic steps of the design process are DEVELOP
PROTOTYPE
shown in Figure 2-2. Each step is described
more fully here:
Step 1 The basic design idea is conceived by 7
FEEDBACK
or assigned to the design engineer. The con-
MARKET
ception phase usually includes brainstorming, RESPONSE
which is collaboration among the team to
arrive at the best ideas, and research. All the
possibilites for the new design are explored. 8
DRAW THE
Step 2 The design engineer carefully ana- DESIGN
lyzes the need for the product to determine if
it is practical and marketable.
Step 3 General and specific objectives are Figure 2-2
set for the design. At this point, a proposal
Steps in the linear design process.
must be written which explains the problem
to be solved, the design concept including
specifications, and estimated costs needed to will want to know which concepts best meet
make the design. the design objectives, which will be most mar-
Step 4 Serious consideration is given to the ketable, etc. Notice in Figure 2-2 that a loop
physical design of the product. Constraints appears to develop between steps 4 and 5. This
and criteria for the new design are calculated is the method used to optimize the design
and specified. Generally, several alternative solutions.
designs are conceived and sketched or gener- Step 6 The best and most feasible solution
ated on a CAD system. is carefully selected and a prototype is con-
Step 5 The various design concepts are structed to test and evaluate the design using
checked for feasibility. The design engineer specifications. The prototype can be a physical

model or a computer-generated model of the While many models show the process of
design. concurrent engineering, the one shown in
Step 7 The prototype is generally submit- Figure 2-4 is one of the most common. Ide-
ted to a select group of consumers for market ation, refinement, and implementation over-
response before final drawings and specifica- lap throughout the process to guarantee total
tions are prepared. If changes are needed based integration of the three phases. Notice that a
on this feedback, the design process loops back 3D CAD database becomes the nucleus of the
through step 4. process. Each of the three phases is further
Step 8 Final drawings are prepared, along broken down, as shown in Figure 2-4. As you
with specifications and all other documenta- review each of these items, can you imagine
tion required for manufacture. how the drafter fits into the process?
Since concurrent engineering design is
Concurrent Engineering Design nonlinear, it is difficult to outline the pro-
While the traditional design model uses a cess in a step-by-step manner. However, it
linear approach, with the concurrent engineer- is acceptable to view the three areas in the
ing design model, all the design phases take order that they fall into the design process.
place at the same time. Because of this, concur- It all begins with ideation. In this phase, the
rent design must function within a compre- design problem is identified, preliminary
hensive team environment. Figure 2-3 shows solutions are developed, and the preliminary
a model for concurrent engineering design. The design is agreed upon. Remember that all
team consists of designers, engineers, drafters, members of the team are involved in every
and others associated with the overall design, phase. Following ideation comes refinement,
manufacturing, marketing, and servicing of the which includes:
product. In addition to the basic functions and • preparation of models and prototypes
concepts, the team considers important issues • thorough physical, production, and legal
such as manufacturability, quality, life cycle, analysis of the design
cost, and whether the finished product will • design visualization, or analysis of the
meet the original design objectives. The entire aesthetics
team meets regularly and considers all of these
issues as the need arises. When the design is
complete, the manufacturing and marketing
IDEATION
departments are prepared to move quickly to • PROBLEM
their part of the project. There are few delays, IDENTIFICATION
• PRELIMINARY IDEAS
and there is seldom a need for redesign. • PRELIMINARY DESIGN
LINES OF
COMMUNICATION
DESIGN MANUFACTURING REFINEMENT IMPLEMENTATION
ENGINEERING ENGINEERING • MODELING • SERVICING
• DESIGN ANALYSIS • FINANCING
• DESIGN VISUALIZATION • MARKETING
• PRODUCING
• PLANNING
• DOCUMENTING
MARKETING COMPUTERIZED CONSUMERS

DATABASE
3D CAD DATABASE
SUPPORT MATERIAL
PERSONNEL SUPPLIERS
Figure 2-4
Figure 2-3 Each of the three areas of concurrent engineering
Concurrent engineering design model can be broken down into specific tasks.

Finally, the implementation phase takes Multiview projection will be discussed in full
place. This involves a careful analysis of pro- in Chapter 6. However, you need to know
duction, financing, servicing, documenting, some basic things about views and how they
final planning, and life cycle issues. Again, are placed in order to create good multiview
while there appear to be three distinct phases sketches.
in concurrent engineering design, they all A multiview sketch, as the name
overlap, and the entire team is involved in implies, presents an object in more than one
every step of the process. As a result, con- view. This is done by drawing side views of
current engineering design gives significant the object and relating them to each other, as
improvement in overall quality, as much shown in Figure 2-5. The system by which
as a 40% reduction in project time and cost, the views are arranged in relation to each
and as much as an 80% reduction in design other is known as multiview projection, or
change during production. For these reasons, orthographic projection.
the concurrent engineering design process is
now used in most industrial applications. One-View Sketches
If an object can be described in two dimen-
sions (height and width, for example), a one-
view drawing is generally sufficient. Objects
Explain What happens at the feedback stage shown in one-view drawings generally have a
in the traditional engineering design model? depth or thickness that is uniform (the same-
throughout). In these cases, drafters may
give the depth in a note rather than drawing
Freehand Sketching
Why do most objects require more than TOP
one view to describe them?
Throughout the design process, there are

many opportunities to use good sketching
techniques to capture initial design ideas. You
can also use sketches to refine these ideas and
to communicate technical information. Here
you will learn more about the various types of
sketches, how they are used, and how they are
made.
FRONT
The language of sketching has five basic
visual symbols: a point, a line, a surface,
a plane, and texture. A point is a symbol
that describes a location in space. The path TWO-VIEW DRAWING
between two points, straight or curved, is
called a line. A flat or nonflat element created
from curved lines defines a surface. If the sur-
face is flat, such as a circle, triangle, or square,
it is referred to as a plane. Texture refers to TOP
the surface quality of an object. Any idea, no
matter how simple or complicated, plain or
spectacular, can be sketched using these five
visual symbols. FRONT SIDE
Multiview Sketches Figure 2-5

There are two types of drawings that you Typical multiview drawings
can sketch easily: multiview and pictorial.

Figure 2-6
For typical one-
view drawings, the
thickness is shown
in a note. STOCK
THICKNESS
MATERIAL: .50 CRS MATL: 28 GA (.016) HALF HARD BRASS
A B
HEIGHT
WIDTH
Ø DEPTH

A cylindrical object may require only one view.
A vacation residence in pictorial, showing three
dimensions
This can help simplify the drawing if you are

careful to select two views that describe the
object well.
SWING LATCH Sketches with Three or More Views

A pictorial drawing shows how the object
Figure 2-8
looks in three-dimensional form. Three direc-
A two-view sketch tions are suggested for viewing the residence
in Figure 2-9. From the front, you can see the
width and height. This is the front view. From
the side, you can see the depth and height.
an extra view. Typical one-view drawings are
This is the right-side view. From above, the
shown in Figure 2-6. The thickness of the
depth and width show. This is the top view.
stamping is shown by a note on the sketch.
However, a three-view pictorial does not fully
Many objects that are shaped like cylinders
describe this residence. Some of the lines and
can also be shown in single views if the diam-
details are not entirely visible.
eter of the cylindrical part is noted, as shown
in Figure 2-7.
Two-View Sketches
Recall When can a one-view sketch be used
Many objects, such as the one shown in
to describe an object?
Figure 2-8, can be described in two views.

The Glass Box The front view is usually considered the
To get an idea of how many views are main view of an object. As you may remem-
required to describe an object, many draft- ber, the front view shows the width and
ers imagine that the object is inside a glass height of the object. Any side of an object
box. The residence from Figure 2-9, for may be its front view; however, it is usu-
example, can be thought of as being placed ally best to make it the side with the most
inside a transparent glass box, as shown in detail. The drawing of a digital clock radio in
Figure 2-10. By looking at each side of the Figure 2-13 is an example of an oblique pic-
building through the glass box, you can see torial sketch. The dial side has been made the
the five views of the building. Figure 2-11 front view because it has the most detail and
shows the glass box opened up into one plane shows the width and height of the radio. The
as the views would be drawn on paper.
Pictorial Sketches
A pictorial sketch is a picturelike sketch Describe What is the relationship between
a pictorial sketch and an oblique sketch?
in which the width, height, and depth of an
object are shown in one view. The many dif-
ferent kinds of pictorial drawings will be dis-
REAR ELEVATION
cussed in Chapter 12. For sketching, we will
consider only two kinds of pictorial repre-
sentations: oblique and isometric. Sketch-
ing objects in oblique and isometric views
will help you learn how to visualize or “see”
objects in your mind.
Oblique Sketches
ROOF PLAN
Every object has three dimensions: width,
height, and depth. Each of these dimensions
is related to an axis (plural, axes). An oblique
sketch, is a type of pictorial sketch in which
two of the axes are at right angles (90°) to LEFT ELEVATION FRONT ELEVATION RIGHT ELEVATION
each other. The third axis can be drawn at any
angle to the other two, although an angle of Figure 2-11
45° is commonly used. See Figure 2-12. A vacation residence in pictorial, showing three
dimensions
PARTIAL ROOF PLAN

C
ANY
B ANGLE
O
90°
A
OBLIQUE AXES 45°
FRONT ELEVATION RIGHT ELEVATION
45° ANGLE
COMMONLY USED

The elevations can be projected from the Oblique drawings always have one right-angle
pictorial drawing to the transparent glass box. corner.

120°
120° 120°
UNFOLDING OBLIQUE
Figure 2-14
PICTORIAL The axes for an isometric sketch are located 120°
apart.
sketch, shows the axes spaced equally at 120°

apart, as shown in Figure 2-14. You can
9 :15 think of the axes as part of a cube (an object
that has six equal square sides).
As you can see in Figure 2-15A, an
OBLIQUE RENDERING isometric cube has three equal sides.
Figure 2-15B shows how to estimate the
Figure 2-13 location of the axes for an isometric sketch.
An oblique pictorial sketch The height OA is laid off on the Y axis. The
width OB is laid off to the left on a line 30°
above the horizontal. The depth OC is laid off
to the right on a line 30° above the horizontal.
front view is sketched just as the clock radio The 30° lines receding to the left and right can
would appear when you look at it directly be located by estimating one third of a right
from the front. angle, as shown in Figure 2-15B.
Any line that is parallel to one of the axes is
Isometric Sketches called an isometric line. The estimated dis-
Like an oblique sketch, an isometric tances are laid off on the axes, as shown for
sketch is a kind of pictorial sketch that relies the cube at Figure 2-15C. Then the rest of
on three axes to show the width, height, the isometric lines are blocked in, as shown in
and depth of objects. However, an isometric Figure 2-15D.
120°
C B C
B
30° 30° W D
0 0
Y AXIS H
A
A
CUBE LAY OUT AXES LAY OFF DISTANCES BLOCK IN

A B C D
Figure 2-15
Sketching the isometric axes and an isometric cube

NONISOMETRIC LINES
PARALLEL DIAGONALS CAN

B HELP MULTIPLY PROPORTIONS
HEIGHT
ISOMETRIC
WIDTH DEPTH
Figure 2-16
The nonisometric lines form an inclined plane on PROPORTIONS:
the isometric drawing. WIDTH TO HEIGHT 2:1
HEIGHT TO DEPTH 2:1
Figure 2-17
A line that is not parallel to any of the iso- Sketching a cabinet with proportional units
metric axes is a nonisometric line. These
lines are usually drawn after the isometric
lines are in place, because the isometric lines
help define the endpoints of the nonisomet-
and 30 high. In this case, the proportion is 2
ric lines. Examples of nonisometric lines are
to 1 since it is twice as wide as it is high. If the
shown in Figure 2-16.
designer then chooses to make the depth 15,
Proportions for Sketching the proportion of width (60) to depth (15) is
Sketches are not usually made to scale 4 to 1 (60 15 4). The proportion of height
(exact measure). Nonetheless, it is important to depth is 2 to 1 (30 15 2).
to keep sketches in proportion so that each
part of the drawing is approximately the right Technique in Developing
size in relation to other parts of the drawing. Proportion
With practice, you can train your eye to
Estimating Proportions work in two directions so that you can both
In order to sketch well, you must be able divide and extend lines accurately. For exam-
to “eyeball,” or estimate by eye, an object’s ple, you should be able to divide a line in
proportions. In preparing the layout, look at half by estimating. You can divide the halves
the largest overall dimension, usually width, again to give fourths, and so on. Using a
and estimate the size. Next, determine the similar technique, you can expand lines one
proportion of the height to the width. Then, unit at a time. Start by drawing a line of one
as the front view begins to take shape with unit. Increase it by one equal unit so that it
the height and width, compare the smaller is twice as long as it was at first. Practice add-
details with the larger ones and fill them in. ing an equal unit and dividing a unit equally
See Figure 2-17. in half. Practice developing units on parallel
It is important when sketching an object horizontal lines. Then develop them verti-
that the design drafter have a good sense of cally. By learning to compare distances, you
how various parts of the object relate to each can get better and better at estimating. See
other. This allows the drafter to show the Figure 2-18.
width, height, and depth of an object in the You can use scrap paper or a rigid card to
right proportions. measure when you do not have a scale or
For example, suppose that the design ruler at hand. For example, the proportion
drafter plans a cabinet that is to be 60 wide of width to height of the glass-top table in

FIRST SECOND A
STROKE STROKE
ADD EQUAL
UNIT FIRST B
STROKE
B A
B
B
SECOND
DIVIDE UNITS STROKE B
IN HALF A
A A
A
ESTIMATING PROPORTIONS A
(EYEBALLING)
A
A = SIZE DIMENSIONS
Figure 2-18 B = LOCATION DIMENSIONS
Practice estimating proportional units.
Figure 2-20
Overall size and location dimensions
A LEADER
ST R
IP O
F PA
PER B
B
A
EXTENSION LINE
DIMENSION LINE
Figure 2-21
Figure 2-19 Drafters use special kinds of lines to clarify
dimensioned drawings.
Using a strip of paper to estimate proportions
Figure 2-19 is 2 to 1. Mark the width on the Two types of dimensions are used on
scrap of paper, as shown. Then fold the paper sketches. Size dimensions describe the over-
in half, aligning the marks that indicate the all geometric elements that give an object
width, to find the height. its form, as shown in Figure 2-20. Location
dimensions relate these geometric elements to
Dimensioning a Sketch each other. Together, the two types of dimen-
An effective sketch must fully describe sions accurately and completely describe the
an object. Generally, however, the initial size, shape, and other details of the object.
sketches are made before the measurements Several types of lines are used to dimension
of an object have been decided. After the a drawing. Refer to Figure 2-21 as you read
needed dimensions are determined, they can the following definitions.
be recorded on the sketch if required.

• A dimension line is a thin line used to show
the direction of a dimension. Dimension
lines generally have an arrowhead at each
end to show where the dimension begins
and ends.
• Extension lines are thin lines used to extend
the shape of the object to the dimension
line.
• A leader is a thin line drawn from a note or
dimension to the place where it applies.
A leader starts with a horizontal dash and
angles off to the part featured, usually at
30°, 45°, or 60°. It ends with an arrowhead.
Figure 2-22
Explain How are size dimensions and Study of a two-position mirror for a racing car
location dimensions used to fully describe
an object?
mechanical, hard-line look. Concentrate on

Learning to Sketch using good proportions, and add a few choice
notes if necessary to clarify the drawing.
How does sketching help in the design
process?
Refined Sketches
The ability to create good-quality freehand Refined sketches are drawn more carefully
sketches, even on the spur of the moment, is than rough sketches. Many refined sketches
an important skill for drafters. The purpose of are based on a rough sketch that has captured
this section is to familiarize you with the vari- the general idea.
ous types of sketches and sketching techniques. You may use a straightedge to control long
Sketching and lettering are best learned in lines on a refined sketch. You may also use a
short, unhurried periods. Take your time, and circle template or compass to draw large cir-
practice the techniques as you read about them. cles in order to save time.
Any image drawn on paper freehand (with
limited use of straightedge or other tools) Presentation Sketches
may be called a sketch. Most drafters use sev- Pictorial sketches that have been greatly
eral types of sketches. The type of sketch used refined are known as presentation sketches.
depends on the purpose of the sketch and its These sketches are used to convince a client or
intended life span. management to accept and approve the ideas
presented. Pictorial sketches have a three-
Rough Sketches dimensional view that can be understood eas-
Rough sketches are usually made quickly ily by nontechnical people. Such sketches are
using loosely drawn lines. Their primary pur- generally drawn so that they look attractive or
pose is to record or express an idea quickly. artistic.
Figure 2-22 shows rough sketches that were As a member of a design team, you may
used to develop preliminary designs of a two- be called upon to present an idea or project
position automobile mirror. on short notice. Skill in sketching can help
Do not use instruments or straightedges you make these presentations clearly. Prac-
to prepare a rough sketch. Instruments tend tice sketching and speaking so that you can
to restrict the creative expressions devel- deliver presentations easily and coherently
oped with good pencil technique. Avoid a even on short notice.

Figure 2-23
The overlay can speed
up the design process
by allowing various
options to be viewed
without redrawing the
entire sketch each time.
Temporary Sketches required to create a sketch. Second, you can cre-

ate a sketch anywhere. You are ready to sketch
Many technical sketches have short lives.
with a pad of paper, a pencil, and an eraser.
Some are done merely to solve an immedi-
ate problem and then are thrown away. Other Paper
technical sketches are kept longer. It may take
You can use plain paper for sketching. If
weeks or even months to study some sketches
you need to refine the sketch, use tracing
and make mechanical drawings from them.
paper as an overlay. You may also use graph
However, these sketches too may eventually
paper to control proportions while sketching.
be thrown away.
The most common type of graph paper has
Permanent Sketches heavily ruled 1.00 squares. The 1.00 squares
Sometimes the engineering department or are then subdivided into lightly ruled 1/10,
the management of a company will include a 1/8, ¼, or ½ squares. This paper is called 10
sketch in a notice or memo to other employ- to the inch, 8 to the inch, and so on.
ees. Such a sketch is an important record and Graph paper ruled in millimeters (mm) is
should be kept. In this way, certain sketches are also available, and there are many specially
filed as part of a company’s permanent records. ruled types of graph paper for particular kinds
of drawing. For example, you can use special
The Overlay graph paper for isometric or perspective draw-
A good way to refine or improve a sketch ings. These kinds of drawings are explained
is to use an overlay. An overlay is a piece further in Chapter 12.
of translucent tracing paper that is placed While you can sketch on any convenient
on top of a sketch or drawing as shown in size of paper, standard 8.50 11.00 letter-
Figure 2-23. Because you can see through sized paper is best for making small sketches
the paper, you can quickly trace the best parts quickly. You can hold the paper on stiff card-
of the sketch or drawing underneath. Refin- board or on a clipboard while working on it.
ing ideas often means sketching over and over If you use graph paper, you may want to put
again on tracing paper, changing the drawing it under tracing paper to help guide the lines
until the design is final. and spacing.
Pencils and Erasers

Soft lead pencils (grades F, H, or HB), prop-
Recall Why are instruments or straightedges erly sharpened, are best for sketching. Erasers
not used when drawing a rough sketch? that are good for soft leads, such as a plastic
eraser or a kneaded-rubber eraser, are most
commonly used.
Materials for Sketching Four types of pencil points are used for
sketching: sharp, near-sharp, near-dull, and
What are the advantages of sketching over dull. The points should make lines of the fol-
drawing? lowing kinds:
Sketching has two major advantages over • Sharp point thick black lines
formal drawing. First, only a few materials are • Near-sharp point thick lines

• Near-dull point extra-thick lines
• Dull point light, temporary lines that may
later be erased
Contrast Describe the differences between

sketching and drawing.
Figure 2-25
Sketching Techniques Draw horizontal and vertical lines before
What techniques can help you achieve the sketching inclined lines.
natural feeling of a freehand sketch?
Sketches drawn freehand have a natu-

ral look. The slight unevenness in the direc- • Draw one long, continuous line.
tion of lines shows freedom of movement. • Draw short dashes where the line should
The explanations in this section are intended start and end. Then place the pencil point
to help you get started using good sketching on the starting dash and draw toward the
techniques. As you become a more experi- ending dash.
enced drafter, you may add techniques and • Draw a series of strokes that touch each
variations of your own. other or are separated by very small
spaces.
Straight Lines • Draw a series of overlapping strokes.
To draw a line, hold the pencil far enough
from the point that you can move your fin- Before you try to draw objects, practice
gers easily and yet can put enough pressure sketching straight lines to improve your line
on the point to make dense, black lines when technique. Draw vertical lines from the top
necessary. Draw light construction lines down and horizontal lines from left to right
with very little pressure on the point. They (if you are right-handed).
should be light enough that they need not
be erased.
Slanted Lines and
You can sketch lines in the following ways, Specific Angles
as demonstrated in Figure 2-24: You should sketch slanted, or inclined,
lines from left to right. However, it might be
easier to turn the paper and draw an inclined
line as if it were a horizontal one. When try-
FREELY
SKETCHED ing to sketch at a specific angle, first draw a
vertical line and a horizontal line to form a
DASH TO right (90°) angle, as shown in Figure 2-25.
DASH Divide the right angle in half to form two 45°
angles. Or divide it in thirds to form three 30°
SERIES OF
SEPARATED angles. By starting with these simple angles,
STROKES you can estimate other angles more exactly.
SERIES OF Figure 2-26 shows the direction in which
OVERLAPPING you would sketch to create lines inclined at
STROKES
various angles.
Figure 2-24 Circles and Arcs

Four ways to sketch straight lines There are several ways to sketch a circle.
One way is to start by drawing very light

R
A B
Figure 2-26
Sketching inclined lines and angles
R Figure 2-28
(A) Draw centerlines and other lines through the
center of the circle. (B) Mark off the estimated
radii on all lines. (C) Sketch the circle.
A
The second way to draw a circle is to draw
very light centerlines and extra lines through
the center, as shown in Figure 2-28A. Next,
estimate the length of the radius and mark
off this distance on all the lines, as shown in
Figure 2-28B. Then draw a curved line that
runs through all the radius marks, as shown
in Figure 2-28C. The bottom of the curve
is generally easier to form, so draw it first.
B Then turn the paper so that the rest of the
circle is on the bottom, and finish drawing
the circle.
Figure 2-27 You can use these same methods to sketch
Mark off the radii and draw a square in which to variations on circles, as shown in Figure 2-29
sketch the circle. (see page 42). These include:
• arcs parts of a circle
• tangent arcs parts of two circles that touch
horizontal and vertical lines, as shown in • concentric circles circles of different sizes
Figure 2-27A. These lines are the vertical that have the same center
and horizontal centerlines of the circle. The
point at which they cross forms the center Use light, straight construction lines to
of the circle. Then estimate the length of the block in the area of the figure. You can also
radius (the distance from the center of the use your hand as a compass. To do this, use
circle to its edge; plural radii), and mark it your little finger as a pivot (turning point) at
off. Using the marks as guides, draw a square the center of the circle. Use your thumb and
in which you can sketch the circle, as shown forefinger to hold the pencil rigidly at the
in Figure 2-27B. radius you want. Turn the paper carefully

Ted Mishima
Identify What are three ways to draw a
circle without using a compass?
CONCENTRIC CIRCLES
Making a Proportional
Sketch
Why is observation an important step
in sketching?
To create drawings in the correct propor-

tions, you should follow seven basic steps:
1. Observe the object to be sketched. For
this example, observe the chair in
ARCS TANGENT ARCS
Figure 2-31A.
2. Select the views needed to show all
Figure 2-29 shapes. In this case, you can describe
Control the shape of arcs and concentric circles the chair fully using the top, front, and
by first sketching squares. right-side views.
3. Estimate the proportions carefully. On
your drawing paper, use light construc-
under your hand, thereby drawing the circle. tion lines to mark off major distances
Also, for large circles and arcs you may want for width, height, and depth in all three
to use a compass in order to save time and views. See Figure 2-31B. Notice how
increase accuracy. the diagonal 45° line is used to project
A third way to draw circles is to use two the depth dimensions between the top
crossed pencils. Hold them rigidly with the and right-side views.
two points as far apart as the length of the 4. Block in the enclosing rectangles, as
desired radius. Put one pencil point at the cen- shown in Figure 2-31C.
ter. Hold it there firmly and turn the paper, 5. Locate the details in each of the views.
drawing the circle with the other pencil point. Block them in, as shown in Figure 2-31D.
See Figure 2-30. 6. Finish the sketch by darkening the object
lines.
7. Add any dimensions and notes if required.
Oblique Layout
To make an oblique sketch of an object, fol-
low the steps shown in Figure 2-32.
1. Estimate the proportions of the object.
See Figure 2-32A.
Rotate p
2. Block in lightly the front face of the

ap object, using the estimated distances for
er.
the width and height.
3. Decide on the angle of the third
(depth) axis depending on which part
Figure 2-30 of the object you want to emphasize
Two pencils can serve as a compass. or show most clearly. As you can see in
Figure 2-33A, if you draw the depth

Figure 2-31
Developing a multiview
sketch
W D H
STUDY PROPORTIONS ESTIMATE DIMENSIONS BLOCK IN SHAPE ADD DETAIL

A B C D
HEIGHT
60° A 30°
EMPHASIS
WIDTH DEPTH DEPENDS ON AXIS
A TWO-VIEW SKETCH
30° 60°
45° 45°
B
CABINET CAVALIER
Figure 2-33
HALF DEPTH FULL DEPTH (A) The effect of two different angles of
projection on oblique sketches; (B) Other
B CABINET AND CAVALIER examples of angles of projection
OBLIQUE SKETCHES
Figure 2-32
Converting a two-view sketch into cabinet and
cavalier oblique sketches
size by up to one half. When the depth
dimension of a drawing is exactly one
half of the true dimension, it is called a
axis at a small angle, such as 30°, the cabinet oblique sketch. Using a full-depth
side shows more clearly. If you choose a dimension produces a cavalier oblique
larger angle, such as 60°, the top shows sketch. See Figure 2-32B.
more clearly. Figure 2-33B shows the 5. Darken the final object lines.
effect of using other angles for the depth
axis. Lightly sketch the axis at the angle
you have chosen.
4. Lightly sketch the object lines along the
depth axis. You may draw the depth of Contrast How does a cabinet oblique
the object at the same proportions as the sketch differ from a cavalier oblique sketch?
rest of the object, or you can reduce its

A
B C D
DEVELOPING OBLIQUE PICTORIAL
GIVEN VIEWS
Figure 2-34
Graph paper can assist in developing oblique pictorials.
Figure 2-35
The steps in making an
isometric sketch
SKETCH AXES DEVELOP BLOCK IN ADD DETAILS

PROPORTION OBJECT LINES
A B C D
Oblique Sketching on Graph Paper Oblique Circles

Ordinary graph paper can be used as an aid In oblique sketching, circles in the front
in making oblique sketches. See Figure 2-34. view can be drawn in their true shape. How-
To develop the oblique pictorial drawing on ever, circles drawn in the top or side views
graph paper from a multiview drawing on appear distorted. Therefore, you must draw
graph paper, simply transfer the dimensions an ellipse to show such circles. Ellipses are
from one to the other by counting the graph more difficult to represent accurately, and in
paper squares. some cases they may confuse the viewer. As a
Proceed as follows: result, it is better practice to show the circular
1. Block in lightly the front face of the shapes of important parts in the front view,
object by counting squares. as in Figure 2-32.
2. Sketch lightly the depth axis by drawing
a line diagonally through the squares.
Isometric Layout
Figure 2-35 shows the steps in making an
For a cabinet oblique sketch, find the
isometric sketch.
depth by using half as many squares as
on the side view. Since the top view of 1. Sketch the isometric axes, as shown in
Figure 2-34A shows a depth of four Figure 2-35A.
squares, you should use two squares 2. Develop the proportion using the tech-
for the depth in the oblique sketch. See niques that were described earlier in this
Figure 2-34B. chapter. See Figure 2-35B.
3. Sketch in any arcs and circles, as shown 3. Block in the major features of the object,
in Figure 2-34C. as shown in Figure 2-35C.
4. Darken the final object lines, as shown in 4. Darken the final object lines and add
Figure 2-34D. detail, as shown in Figure 2-35D.

5
5 4 5
GIVEN VIEWS LAY OUT AXES BLOCK IN
MARK OFF DISTANCES
Figure 2-36
Isometric graph paper can be used for quick sketches.
b
1 a
3 a b
2 4 d
1
1
2 4 3 2 3 d c
4 c
OBLIQUE
PLANE
GIVEN – THREE VIEWS ISOMETRIC

1
Figure 2-38
Developing an oblique plane in an isometric
2 sketch
4
3
BLOCK IN LINES 1-2 AND 3-4 ISOMETRIC Figure 2-37. Note, however, that the objects
in Figures 2-37 through 2-39 have some noni-
Figure 2-37 sometric lines. You can draw these lines by
Developing an isometric sketch using an extending their ends to touch the blocked-in
isometric box as reference box. Locate points at the ends of the lines by
estimating measurements parallel to isometric
lines. Having located both ends of the non-
Sketched lines for isometric axes tend to isometric lines, you can sketch the lines from
become steeper than 30° if you do not prepare point to point. Nonisometric lines that are par-
the layout carefully. A better pictorial sketch allel to each other also appear parallel on the
results when the angle is at 30° or a little less. sketch, as shown in Figure 2-37. Note how the
Using isometric graph paper with 30° rul- ends have been located on lines 1-2 and 1-3 in
ing, as shown in Figure 2-36, lets you make Figure 2-39 (see page 46). Distances a and b
sketches quickly and easily. are estimated and transferred from the figure
Another way to prepare an isomet- at part A to part B. Any inclined line, plane, or
ric drawing is to sketch the object inside a specific angle must be found by locating two
lightly drawn isometric box, as suggested in points of intersection on isometric lines.

a
b b a
1
1
3 2
a b 3
1
3 2 2
3 2
GIVEN – THREE VIEWS 1, 2, AND 3 ISOMETRIC

A B BLOCK IN PICTORIAL C
Figure 2-39
Developing three oblique surfaces in an isometric sketch
TOP VIEW
DIA
DIA
T T
TOP
CYLINDRICAL SHAPES
T T
ISOMETRIC SQUARE Figure 2-42

Blocking in isometric circles on cylindrical forms
Figure 2-40
The isometric square with arcs tangent to form
an ellipse, or isometric circle Isometric Circles and Arcs
All circles in an isometric view are drawn
as ellipses. To sketch a circle in an isomet-
ric view, first sketch an isometric square, as
shown in Figure 2-40. Sketch the small-end
arcs tangent to (touching) the square. Then
sketch the larger arcs tangent at points T to
finish the square. Note that the long axis of
the ellipse, or isometric circle, is no longer
than the true size of the circle. The short
axis of the ellipse is shorter. This difference
is caused by the isometric angle. Figure 2-40
ISOMETRIC CIRCLES
ON CUBE shows an ellipse for a top view only. Circles
on the three faces of an isometric cube are
Figure 2-41 sketched in Figure 2-41.
You will use isometric circles to develop
Isometric circles sketched on the front, top, and
cylindrical and conical shapes in a sketch.
side of a cube
Some ways to block in cylindrical shapes are

shown in Figure 2-42. Methods of blocking sketch. In Figure 2-45A, a grid is applied,
in conical shapes are shown in Figure 2-43. and points are plotted on the front view
Arcs developed in an isometric view are where the grid lines intersect the curve on
shown in Figure 2-44. A semicircular open- the object. In Figure 2-45B, the grid is
ing and rounded corners appear in the front rotated to align with the axis in the pictorial
view. The object is blocked in at Figure view. The points are then plotted at the same
2-44A. The outline of the object is darkened distance from the left edge of the object.
at Figure 2-44B. Note that only partial circles Similar points are plotted on the pictorial in
are needed here. The rounded corners take up Figure 2-45C. The intersections serve as points
only a quarter of the full isometric circle that of reference for sketching the pictorial curve.
was plotted.
Irregular Curves
Draw irregular (noncircular) curves in pic-
torial sketches by plotting points along the Identify What is different about drawing
path of the curve. To locate the curve, you circles and arcs in isometric views?
generally transfer the points from a multiview
CONICAL SHAPES
MAJOR DIA
DIA
MINOR DIA
Figure 2-43
Blocking in conical shapes on isometric sketches
A
A
A
A
B C
PLOTTING CURVES
Figure 2-44
To block in arcs on an isometric sketch, use a Figure 2-45
method similar to the one for circles. Plot irregular curves using a coordinate grid.

Figure 2-46
A rough sketch
with notes about
important features
Figure 2-47
Study the word and letter spacing in these
examples.
INCORRECT LETTER, WORD, AND LINE SPACING
CORRECT LETTER, WORD, AND LINE SPACING
Lettering lettering is neat and carefully placed on the

What are some reasons for adding text to a drawing.
drawing?
Composition
Freehand sketches generally need some In lettering, composition means arranging
freehand lettering to explain features of a words and lines with letters of the right style
new idea or product. Lettering is the practice and size. Letters in words are not placed at
of adding clear, concise words on a drawing to equal distances from each other. They are
help people understand the drawing. placed so that the spaces between the let-
The notes lettered on the rough sketch in ters look equal. The distance between words,
Figure 2-46 describe features that are func- called word spacing, should be about equal to
tional and important to operation. Simple the height of the letters. Figure 2-47 shows
freehand lettering complements the idea examples of proper and improper letter and
that is captured in a sketch, especially if the word spacing.

Figure 2-48
Guidelines for
lettering should be
evenly spaced.
Figure 2-49
CAPITALS (UPPER CASE) Single-stroke Gothic letters
LOWER CASE
NUMERALS
Figure 2-50
Variations in
lettering styles for
the designer
Tools such as lettering triangles and the read and easy to hand letter. It is made up of
Ames lettering instrument are available to uppercase (capital) letters, lowercase (small)
help create neat, uniform lettering with letters, and numerals. Nearly all companies
the proper spacing. See Figure 2-48. On now use only uppercase lettering. As a result,
mechanical drawings, drafters create ruled this book stresses uppercase lettering. Let-
guidelines spaced .12" (3.5 mm) apart to help ters and numerals may be either vertical or
keep their lettering uniform. When you are inclined. However, vertical lettering is used
sketching, however, you will estimate the almost exclusively. You can vary your lettering
appropriate distances. to make it more personalized. Figure 2-50
shows some of the possible variations. They
Types of Lettering are common styles for designers and archi-
The lettering style most commonly used on tects. Whichever style you choose, remem-
working drawings is single-stroke Gothic let- ber that the same style should be followed
tering, as shown in Figure 2-49. It is easy to throughout a set of drawings.

4 1 2 3 2 1 2
1 2 4 3
1 3 5 1 3 1 1 3 1 1
3 1 2 2
3 2 2 2
1 3 1 3 1 1
2 3 2 2 2
1 1 1 4 1 2 1 1 2 2 2
3 3 2
2 4 3
1 1 1
1 2 4 2
2 2 1
2 1 2 1 1
1 3 3
3 1 3 3 2
2 2
1 3 1 3 1 1 2 2 1 1
2 2 1
1 2 2
2 2
3 3 4
3 3
Figure 2-51
Single-stroke vertical capital letters and numerals
The shapes and proportions of single-stroke which letters should be made. Each character
vertical letters and numbers are shown in is shown in a six-unit grid. By following these,
Figure 2-51. It also shows the pencil strokes you can easily learn the right shapes, propor-
needed to create each letter and the order in tions, and strokes.
Section 2.1 Assessment Analyze characteristics and

properties of two- and three-dimensional
After You Read geometric shapes and develop
mathematical arguments about geometric
Self-Check relationships
1. Identify and describe the three basic The surface area of a cylinder is the
aspects of design. sum of the areas of two circles and a rect-
2. Describe the traditional and concurrent angle. The two bases of a cylinder are
engineering models. equal in area. The height of the rectangle
3. Explain the importance of sketching to is the height of the cylinder. Its length is
communicate design ideas. the circumference of the cylinder. To find
4. Describe how to create freehand multi- the surface area, you would use the for-
view and pictorial sketches. mula for the area of a circle (A r2) to
5. Explain how to develop techniques for find the area of each base. Then find the
sketching in correct proportion. area of the rectangle using the formula
6. Explain the importance of adding clear, h (2r)
concise notes and dimensions to a tech-
nical drawing or sketch. Drafting Practice
7. Sketch a simple object in pictorial form.
Academic Integration Add lettering to identify the dimensions.
Mathematics
Calculating the Area of a Cylinder Go to glencoe.com for this
What is the surface area of a cylinder four book’s OLC for help with this
drafting practice.
inches wide and nine inches tall?

2.2 Computer-Aided Sketching
Connect Learning to design and sketch involves applying certain techniques and mathemati-
cal principles. What basic techniques and principles do you need to know?
Content Vocabulary
• digitizing
Academic Vocabulary
Learning these words while you read this section will also help you in your other subjects
and tests.
• uniform
Graphic Organizer
On a chart like the one below, list the function of each AutoCAD command.
Command Function
SKETCH book’s OLC for a downloadable
STYLE version of this graphic organizer.
TEXT
MTEXT
Academic Standards
Teachers of English
Apply strategies to interpret texts (NCTE) NCTM National Council
Apply knowledge of language structure and conventions to discuss texts (NCTE) of Teachers of
Mathematics
Mathematics
Number and Operations Understand numbers, ways of representing numbers, relationships
among numbers, and number systems (NCTM)
Section 2.2 Computer-Aided Sketching 51

operator as for the board drafter. Therefore, it
Sketching with CAD is important to work through the “Freehand
How does the concept of a sketch differ Sketching” section of this chapter. Even if you
when using CAD? plan to do nothing but CAD drafting, sooner
or later you will need the techniques discussed
The term sketching has a slightly differ-
in “Freehand Sketching.”
ent meaning for drafters using CAD systems.
Although AutoCAD and many other CAD pro- The SKETCH Command
grams include a SKETCH command, this com- As mentioned above, AutoCAD provides a
mand is generally not used for the kinds of SKETCH command that allows you to draw
freehand sketching described in Section 2.1. This “freehand” within the CAD system. Although
is because the concept of freehand sketching is most drafters do not use it for traditional
not as practical on a CAD system. It is just as easy, sketching tasks, this command is actually very
if not easier, to create a perfectly straight line in useful for certain jobs. One of its most impor-
CAD as it is to “sketch” a line. Circles, including tant uses is in digitizing irregular surfaces,
isometric circles, can be drawn perfectly using such as lakes, county or state lines, and other
the appropriate CAD commands. Figure 2-52 features on maps.
shows an example of why the SKETCH com- Digitizing is the process of converting
mand is not used for traditional sketching pur- a paper copy into an electronic format. To
poses. The sandpaper block in Figure 2-52A, digitize a map, drafters use a digitizing tablet
which was drawn using the SKETCH command, (discussed in Chapter 3) and the SKETCH com-
took longer to draw and is not as pleasing or mand to trace the boundaries and lines. The
accurate as the one in Figure 2-52B. advantage of using the SKETCH command for
Therefore, the term sketching is generally used this purpose is that it allows you to draw con-
by CAD operators to mean rough drawings that tinuous, irregular lines by holding down the
will be refined later. These drawings are created mouse button and tracing the original. Each
with the same commands as finished CAD draw- line created by the SKETCH command is made
ings. In other words, there is no separate proce- up of many control points that can later be
dure for sketching using a CAD program. You will edited to perfect all of the tiny irregular curves
learn the commands and techniques for creating that make up most lines on maps. Map draft-
drawings in AutoCAD throughout this textbook. ing and the SKETCH command are discussed
Creative ideas may strike you at any time. In in more detail in Chapter 20, “Map Drafting.”
fact, many good design ideas result from casual
conversations among friends or coworkers.
The ability to record those ideas quickly and
informally using pencil and paper—traditional Explain Why isn' t the SKETCH command
“sketching”—is just as important for the CAD typically used for traditional sketching
purposes?
A CAD Lettering
Why is lettering style an important design
element?
Lettering in a CAD drawing is generally

referred to as text. CAD systems maintain uni-
B form letter and word spacing automatically for
Figure 2-52 notes and dimension text. Text size is also uni-
form. Most CAD programs provide several letter-
The same sandpaper block drawn using
AutoCAD’s SKETCH command (A) and regular
ing styles. Each style is right for a particular use.
CAD commands (B) It is the drafter’s responsibility to set up a text
style and size that is appropriate for the drawing.

Lettering styles in CAD and other computer pro-
grams are known as fonts. A few commonly used
fonts are shown in Figure 2-53.
Setting the Text Style

The default text style in AutoCAD is the
Standard style. This style is boxy and does not
look much like hand-lettered text. Therefore,
drafters generally use the Roman Simplex font
for mechanical drawings. Follow these steps to
set the text of a drawing to Roman Simplex.
1. Start AutoCAD by double-clicking the Figure 2-53
AutoCAD icon on your screen, and open Examples of commonly used CAD lettering styles
a new drawing file by selecting New...
from the File menu. What happens next 3. Type in a name for the new style, choosing
varies depending on your version of Auto- a name (such as “Roman”) that will help
CAD. In most versions, you can choose to you remember what font the style uses.
start a drawing from scratch. If AutoCAD 4. Pick the down arrow under Font Name
prompts you for a template file, choose and select romans.shx to activate the
acad.dwt and press Enter or OK. Roman Simplex font.
2. Enter the STYLE command and press the 5. Pick the Apply button and then the Close
New... button in the dialog box. button.
Ratio and Proportion Proportion

A proportion is the equation obtained
Ratio when one ratio is set equal to another. For
A ratio is the quotient of one quantity example, if the ratio a : b equals the ratio
divided by another quantity of the same c : d, we have the proportion:
kind. This is written: a
a
__ a:bc:d OR __ __c
or a : b In either case, it is stated, ″a is to b.″ b d
b
What is the ratio of a rectangle whose If two rectangles are proportional and
sides are 4.5″ and 8.0″? the dimensions of rectangle A is 4.5 wide
Example: by 8.0″ long, what is the length of rect-
A playing field is 50 meters long and angle B if the width is 6.0? Write your
25 meters wide. The ratio is 50 : 25. Since answer as a proportion.
ratios are generally reduced to lowest Example:
terms, this ratio would be given as 2 : 1. Playing field A is 50 meters long and
25 meters wide; Playing field B is 100
meters long and 50 meters wide. The pro-
Academic Standards portion is 50 : 25 100 : 50.
Mathematics
Number and Operations Understand numbers, ways For help with this math activity, go
of representing numbers, relationships among numbers, to glencoe.com for this book’s OLC
and number systems and click on Math Handbook.

Using MTEXT
The MTEXT command is a more complex
command that allows you to insert formatted,
multiple-line text into a drawing. It is actually
Annotative Text
a text editor that resides in AutoCAD. It allows
Some versions of AutoCAD allow
you to change the font and to use fonts without
users to specify annotative text, or
text that displays at the correct pro- setting up styles for them.
portional size no matter what scale MTEXT also wraps text automatically to fit in
is used to print the drawing. Consult the space you define. In other words, you don’t
your software documentation to have to worry about where to press Enter to start
see whether your version has this a new line of text. Also, all of the lines of text
capability. make up a single object, so that all of the lines
can be moved together, maintaining their for-
matting, without having to pick the lines indi-
The Roman Simplex style is now activated vidually. In addition, you can create automatic
in the current drawing and is set as the cur- numbered lists using MTEXT, just as you can in
rent default. most of today’s word processing software. This
makes the MTEXT command a good choice for
Adding Text to a Drawing adding notes and specifications to a drawing.
AutoCAD has two commands for adding To use the MTEXT command, follow these
text to a drawing: TEXT and MTEXT. TEXT steps:
is the older command. Formerly known as 1. Enter the MTEXT command.
dynamic text (DTEXT), the TEXT command is 2. Pick two points on the screen. Pick the
useful when only one line of text is required. upper left and lower right corners of the
MTEXT, or multiple-line text, is used when rectangular space you want the text to
more than one line of text is needed. fill. See Figure 2-54. For this example,
Using TEXT pick points about 2 apart on the screen.
3. The text style reflects the current drawing
To use the TEXT command, follow these
default. In this case, if you followed the
steps:
steps in “Setting the Text Style” earlier in
1. Enter the TEXT command.
this chapter, the default font is currently
2. Pick a point anywhere on the left side of
Roman Simplex. Enter the text for the
the drawing area as a starting point.
note using the default style. Enter THE
3. At the Command line in the lower left part
MTEXT COMMAND ALLOWS GREATER
of the screen, AutoCAD prompts for the
FLEXIBILITY FOR LONG, COMPLEX
text height. Use the keyboard to enter .12.
NOTES AND SPECIFICATIONS.
4. The next prompt asks for the angle of
4. Review all of the options available
rotation for the text. AutoCAD will set
in the Text Formatting toolbar that
text at any angle you specify. Press Enter
appears above the text you created. See
to accept the default of 0 (normal text).
5. Enter the text for the note. For this FIRST POINT
example, enter ROMAN SIMPLEX IS
AN APPROPRIATE FONT FOR MOST
MECHANICAL DRAWINGS. Note that
text for mechanical drawings is set in
uppercase (capital) letters.
SECOND POINT
Figure 2-54
Identify Where is the starting point in a Pick the upper left and lower right corners of an
drawing using the TEXT command? imaginary rectangle to set the boundaries for MTEXT.

Figure 2-55
The Text Formatting toolbar allows you to create and style multiple lines of text.
Figure 2-55. Highlight different por- Editing Text

tions of the text and experiment with To edit text created with either the TEXT com-
the various options. Change the text mand or the MTEXT command, simply double-
style, the point size, and other charac- click on the text. When you double-click on
teristics. Pick the Numbering button to text created with the TEXT command the text
see the automatic numbering format. becomes highlighted in an editing box. Place
5. When you have finished experimenting, the cursor where you want to make changes and
pick the OK button to accept your type in the new text. When you double-click on
changes and close the toolbar. text created with the MTEXT command, the
When you are ready to exit AutoCAD, sim- text becomes activated and the Text Formatting
ply click the box with the X at the top right toolbar appears, allowing you to make changes
of the screen. This closes AutoCAD. to the text and its characteristics.
into use? What are some other ways

Section 2.2 Assessment the word is used in addition to drafting
After You Read design? Write two or three paragraphs
about what you discover.
Self-Check Drafting Practice
1. Define the term “sketching” in the con- 4. Use board drafting or a CAD program
text of the CAD environment. to represent a simple object in picto-
2. Explain the difference between the two rial form. Add lettering to identify the
AutoCAD commands used to add text to dimensions.
a sketch.
Academic Integration book’s OLC for help with this
English Language Arts drafting practice.
3. Research the etymology, or history, of the
word design. How and why did it come

Chapter Summary
• The three main concerns of design are • Although the idea of sketching differs
aesthetics, function, and feasibility. slightly in the board-drafting and CAD
• The traditional engineering design process drafting environments, in both cases a
is a linear process, although it allows for sketch can be thought of as a rough draw-
feedback in the development phase. ing that will later be refined.
• The concurrent engineering design pro- • The SKETCH command in CAD is most
cess employs a team approach. helpful in digitizing irregular surfaces,
• Design communicates ideas in clear, unam- such as lakes and other features on maps.
biguous, and precise graphic images. Unlike • AutoCAD provides several ways to add
a written description, a graphic image can text to a drawing, including the TEXT and
convey the same idea anywhere in the world. MTEXT commands.
• Sketches can be pictorial or multiview.
• Oblique and isometric are the simplest
forms of pictorial sketches.
• Freehand lettering is generally done in
single-stroke Gothic style.
• The ability to estimate proportions helps
a drafter create clear sketches that are easy
to understand.

Content Vocabulary • oblique sketch (p. 34) Academic Vocabulary

• design (p. 29) • isometric sketch (p. 35) • concurrent (p. 30)
• creativity (p. 29) • isometric line (p. 35) • comprehensive (p. 31)
• sketch (p. 29) • nonisometric line (p. 36) • uniform (p. 52)
• multiview sketch (p. 32) • digitizing (p. 52)
• pictorial sketch (p. 34)
Review Key Concepts

2. Identify the three issues that a design must address.
3. Name and describe the two kinds of design models.
4. Explain how sketching is important in the design process.
5. Describe the steps in creating freehand multiview and pictorial sketches.
6. Identify the techniques for developing proportional sketches.
7. Describe how to add notes and dimensions to a sketch.
8. Explain how the concept of sketching is different for a CAD drafter than it is for a board
drafter.
9. Explain how to add text to a CAD drawing.

Technology
10. CAD Past and Present Prep
Computer-aided drafting technology has True/False Questions For
helped drafters in many ways, from increas- Directions Read each state-
ing efficiency, to creating three-dimensional ment and determine whether
drawings. Research the history of computer- the statement is true or false.
aided drafting. When was CAD software first 13. Pictorial drawings help peo-
developed? What software company released ple who are not trained to read mul-
the first CAD application? Use the informa- tiview drawings understand basic
tion you find to create a timeline showing shapes.
these and other important milestones. T
F
14. CAD operators do not need to develop
freehand sketching skills needed by
board drafters.
11. Working with Cultural Diversity
T
When we work with people who differ
F
from us—whether from a company’s differ-
ent departments or from different countries TEST-TAKING TIP
or cultures—we are less likely to rely on old
assumptions and more likely to be open to When taking a True/False test, make sure you
new ideas and viewpoints. Why do you think understand each statement. All parts of a state-
people of different ages, cultures, ethnicities, ment must be correct for a statement to be true.
or genders might not have the same perspec-
tive on a job-related decision? Give an exam-
ple to support your position.
Mathematics
Win
12. Calculate Ratios
Competitive
Tekla is gaining work-based experience as Events
an intern at a design firm while also attend- 15. Job Skills
ing junior college. Of the 2,400 hours of work Organizations such as SkillsUSA offer a
and school experience she gains each year, variety of architectural, career, and draft-
she spends 400 hours at the design firm. The ing competitions. Completing activities
rest of that time is spent taking classes. What such as the one below will help you pre-
is the ratio of her time spent interning to her pare for these events.
time at school? Activity Create a two-view sketch for a
Represent Ratios chair of your own design. Develop rough
sketches first to develop your idea, and
Ratios are comparisons of numbers that
then draw a two-view sketch. Remember
can be represented in different forms. Usually
to select the two views that best describe
ratios represent the simplest form. The ratio
the chair.
1:2 can also be expressed as 1 out of 2, 1 to 2,
1
or __
2 Go to glencoe.com for this book’s
Set this ratio up as a fraction, with 400 as OLC for more information about
the numerator and 2,000 as the denominator. competitive events.
Your answer should be a fraction in lowest
terms.

2 Problems
Drafting Problems
Problems 1 through 13 in this chapter are designed to be completed
using freehand sketching techniques. You should complete them
using only paper, pencil, and eraser, regardless of whether you plan to
work with traditional board drafting or CAD techniques throughout
the rest of the book. Problems 14 through 17 may be completed using
freehand or CAD lettering. Note to CAD students: After you have stud-
ied Chapters 4 and 5, return to the problems in this chapter, complete
them using CAD techniques, and compare the advantages and disad-
vantages of using each method.
1. Sketch the 2.00 overlapping squares 2. Sketch the squares shown in Figure 2-57:
shown in Figure 2-56 as creative visual (A) overlapping; (B and C) diminishing;
studies. Then create two more of your and (D) as a transparent cube. Sizes are
own design. about 38 mm, 28 mm, and 18 mm.
A B
A B
C D
METRIC
Figure 2-57
C D
Figure 2-56

3. Sketch a cube with the rectangular shape 7. Sketch the 76-mm square shown in
shown in Figure 2-58. Observe the opti- Figure 2-62 with diminishing squares
cal illusion. at midpoints.
METRIC
Figure 2-58
Figure 2-62
4. Sketch the rectangular solid shown in
Figure 2-59. Use .50, 1.00, and 2.00.
8. Sketch the pentagon shown in Figure 2-63
using 2.00 sides. Sketch diminishing
five-pointed stars inside the pentagon, as
shown.
Figure 2-59
Figure 2-63
5. Sketch the apparent two-dimensional form
shown in Figure 2-60 using six diagonals.
9. Sketch the five basic solids shown in

Figure 2-64. Use freehand lettering to
label each solid.
Figure 2-60
TETRAHEDRON OCTAHEDRON
6. Sketch a 3.00 equilateral triangle like the
one shown in Figure 2-61, with dimin-
ishing triangles at midpoints. Note the
proportions. How many triangles can
you make diminish inside?
HEXAHEDRON ICASAHEDRON
Figure 2-64 DODECAHEDRON

Figure 2-61
Problems 59
2 Problems
10. Sketch three-views of the objects assigned in Figure 2-65A through 2-65P.
D E
A B C
F G H J
K L M N O P
Figure 2-65
.12"
11. Draw light guidelines, like the one
shown in Figure 2-66. Reproduce the
abbreviations as they appear. Refer to
Appendix A and other sources. Next to
.25"
the abbreviations and symbols, letter
the word or words that each represents.
CAD students: Set up a text style to use
the Roman Simplex font. Use DTEXT
to complete the exercise. Do not draw
guidelines.
3.5 mm
7 mm
Figure 2-66

Design Problems 2. In a world in which fuel economy is
Design problems have been prepared to becoming increasingly important, manu-
challenge individual students or teams of facturers of vehicles such as automobiles,
students. Complete all of the problems using aircraft, and marine vessels recognize
freehand sketching techniques. Note to CAD that aerodnamic vehicle designs can help
students: After you have studied Chapters 4 fuel efficiency. Research recent automo-
and 5, return to the problems in this chapter, biles, airplanes, ships, and other vehicles
complete them using CAD techniques, and to find out what aerodynamic features
compare the advantages and disadvantages of are incorporated in their design. Which
using each method. Be creative and have fun! features are most effective? Which are
most cost-effective? Hold a class discus-
Teamwork
sion or present a paper discussing your
findings.
1. Work as a team to design a three-wheel
vehicle. Refer to Figure 2-67 as a start- 3. Investigate principles of aerodynamic
ing point. Apply the concept of concur- design. Then sketch an original aerody-
rent engineering design to the process. namic design for a motorcycle. Label the
Choose one team member to serve as the aerodynamic features.
design engineer (project engineer). Dis-
cuss and document the procedure you
should follow to comply with the prin-
ciples of concurrent engineering design.
How does this process differ from the
traditional design process?
Be creative! This vehicle can be pedal-
powered, gasoline engine-powered, or it
can simply be a freewheeling downgrade
coaster. Once the team has developed the
basic concept, use overlays to refine the
design. Your final project should include
sketches of the vehicle design, general
specifications on materials and stock parts,
and documentation of the design process.
Figure 2-67
Problems 61
3 Drafting Equipment
Section 3.1
Board-Drafting
Equipment
Section 3.2
Computer-Aided Draft-
ing (CAD) Equipment
Chapter Objectives
• Identify and describe
basic board-drafting
equipment.
• Describe types of
drafting media.
• Select the appropriate
scales for architectural,
mechanical, and civil
drafting.
• Describe the com-
ponents of a CAD
workstation.
• Identify the three
main types of CAD
software.
• Describe the char-
acteristics of efficient
CAD furniture.
• Identify CAD safety
guidelines.
Applying Skill and

Patience Chadwick′s love of
furniture design comes from his
cabinetmaker grandfather who
taught him the importance of
skill, precision, and patience in
using the tools of the trade.
How do these qualities contribute
to good design?
62
Courtesy Herman Miller, Inc.
Drafting Career
Bill Stumpf and Don Chadwick,
Product Designers
‶We designed the [Aeron] chair… as a metaphor

of human form,″ says Bill Stumpf. He and Don
Chadwick won the Design of the Decade (1990s)
award for their ergonomic chair, which is in the
Museum of Modern Art′s permanent collection. ‶The
only way to be sure a chair is comfortable is to actu-
ally sit in it…,″ Chadwick says.
Stumpf and Chadwick needed to develop a new

material for the Aeron because foam, traditional chair
padding, can cause skin temperatures to increase by
as much as 20%. They solved the problem by design-
ing Pellicle, a lattice-like material that promotes air
circulation and helps evenly distribute weight.

• Problem identification, formulation and
solution
• Mathematics
• Reading/language arts
• Creative thinking
• Reasoning
Career Pathways
Science clubs, Boys & Girls Clubs, and high
school technology camps are among organizations
that provide programs for high school students to
participate in hands-on science projects.

about Bill Stumpf and Don Chadwick.
63
3.1 Board-Drafting Equipment
Connect As a beginning drafter, you will need to purchase your tools. Which tools do
you think are important to include in your basic board drafting kit?
Content Vocabulary
• drawing • T-square • irregular • vellum • dividers
board • protractor curve • case instruments • compass
• true edge • scales • template
Academic Vocabulary
and tests.
• media • minimal
Graphic Organizer
Use a table like the one below to organize information on various types of board-drafting
equipment discussed in this section.
Drafting Machine Drafting Media Bow Instruments

(functions) (types) (functions) Go to glencoe.com for this
Academic Standards
Teachers of English
Conduct research and gather, evaluate, and synthesize data to communiate discoveries (NCTE) NCTM National Council
of Teachers of
Measurement Apply appropriate techniques, tools, and formulas to determine measurements

(NCTM)
64 Chapter 3 Drafting Equipment

that is placed on top of a desk or table. They
Courtesy of Mayline Co., Ted Mishima

Basic Board-Drafting are made so that they will not warp and so
Equipment that the guiding edge, or true edge, will stay
straight. The most basic boards usually mea-
What is a common purpose of all drafting
sure 18 24 (460 600 mm). Professional
tools?
boards are typically larger, however, and may
While sketches can show a design idea be any size needed.
in its initial develoment stages, final draw-
ings communicate technical information to T-Squares
the people who design and manufacture the A T-square is a drafting instrument made
product. They are made with drafting instru- up of a head that lines up with the true edge
ments on drafting media or using a CAD of a drafting board and a blade, or straight-
system. edge, that provides a true edge. Figure 3-2
Drafting instruments and equipment, as shows three types of T-squares. Most T-squares
well as computer-aided drafting (CAD) sys- have plastic-edged wooden blades or clear
tems, constitute the “tools of the trade” in the plastic blades with heads made of wood or
engineering, design, and drafting office. Being plastic. The most accurate ones use steel or
able to identify them is the first step in the aluminum blades with metal heads.
process of learning to use them. You can easily check the accuracy of your
T-square (see Figure 3-3 on page 66). First,
Drawing Tables and Desks on a clean sheet of paper, draw a line along
Drawing tables and desks come in many the drawing edge of the T-square. Second,
different sizes and types. Figure 3-1 shows turn the drawing sheet upside down and line
a typical drafting table. The table surface up the T-square’s drawing edge with the other
should be cleaned daily to avoid transferring side of the line. If the drawing edge and the
pencil graphite smudges onto your draw- line do not match, the T-square is not accu-
ings. Some drawing tables can be adjusted for rate and should be replaced.
either standing or sitting.
Drawing Boards
The drawing board is a large, flat board
on which you attach a drawing sheet to make Explain What is the T-square tool used for in
a drawing. A drawing board can be the sur- drafting?
face of a drafting table or a separate board
HEAD
BLADE
Figure 3-2
Figure 3-1
T-squares are available in various styles and
A typical drafting table materials.
Section 3.1 Board-Drafting Equipment 65

Courtesy of Staedtler Inc., Courtesy of Vemco Drafting Products Corp.
AMOUNT OF
ERROR
Figure 3-5
A parallel-ruling straightedge is a convenient
Figure 3-3 instrument that can save time.
Check to see that the T-square is accurate.
80 90 I00 II
70 I00 80 7 0 I2
60 II0 0 0
60 I3
0 I 2 0
5 0 50 0
I3
I4 0 3
50 40
0
0
4
I4
I50 20
0 I 0
43°
3
0
0
I60 10 0
I0 2
I80 I70 I6
I70 I80
0

A protractor is used to measure or lay out angles. An arm- or elbow-type drafting machine
Drafting Machines
A drafting machine combines the functions
Parallel-Ruling Straightedges of the T-square, triangles, scales, and protrac-
Many drafters prefer to use a parallel-ruling tor. Scales are used to lay off and measure dis-
straightedge (see Figure 3-4). This device works tances. The drafting machine has arms that
like the T-square but is attached to the drawing move these instruments in parallel positions
board and slides up or down the board in par- to any location on the board. This lets you
allel positions. This provides a true edge any- draw faster and more easily.
where in the drawing area. Two drafting machine types are currently
used. The arm- or elbow-type (Figure 3-6)
Triangles uses an anchor and two arms to hold the pro-
Drafters use two types of triangles in com- tractor and two scales. The scales are ordinar-
bination with a T-square or parallel ruling ily at right angles to each other.
straightedge to draw lines at various angles. The track-type drafting machine (Figure 3-7)
The 45° triangle has one 90° angle and two uses a horizontal guide rail at the top of the
45° angles. The 30°-60° triangle has 30°, 60°, board and a moving arm rail at a right angle
and 90° angles. to the top rail. It is specially adapted for wide
drawings, but can also be used for regular-
Protractors sized drawings. The scales should be cleaned
A protractor is an instrument that is used with a mild soap and warm water daily. Also,
to measure or lay out angles. Figure 3-5 shows check scales regularly for accurate alignment
a semicircular protractor measuring a 43° angle. and adjust when necessary.

Courtesy of Vemco Drafting Products Corp., Ann Garvin, Courtesy of Staedtler Inc.
Figure 3-8
Some examples of irregular, or French,
Figure 3-7 curves
The track-type drafting machine
Figure 3-9
Flexible curves for plotting smooth curves.
Some drafters use “ducks” such as the one (the
rectangular object) shown here, to position
Figure 3-10
flexible curves accurately. Templates are made for many different uses and
save a good deal of time.
Other Basic Tools

In addition to the equipment described adjusted to complex curved paths that may be
thus far, board drafters use a variety of other difficult to draw using other types of irregular
tools, instruments, and equipment. These curves.
make up an important part of a board drafter’s
everyday tool kit. Templates
A template is a thin, plastic sheet with
Irregular Curves holes cut in the various shapes a drafter
Drafters use a tool called an irregular might need to draw. By tracing around the
curve, or French curve, to draw noncircular holes, the drafter can quickly and accurately
curves such as spirals and ellipses. These draw the shape required. Templates are avail-
devices are made of sheet plastic and come in able with basic shapes, like circles, or for spe-
different shapes, some of which are shown in cial uses, such as drawing bolt heads, nuts,
Figure 3-8. and electrical, architectural, and plumb-
Many drafters also use flexible curves such ing symbols. See Figure 3-10 for several
as those in Figure 3-9. Flexible curves can be different templates.

meter (1 m2). Sheet sizes are based on a
Drafting Media length-to-width ratio of 1 to the square
What qualities are important for drafting root of 2 (1:2). Each smaller size has an area
media? equal to half of the preceding size. Mul-
tiples of these sizes also are used for larger
Technical drawings are made on many
sheets.
different kinds of drawing sheets, known
as drafting media. Paper is one kind of draft-
ing medium. Drawing paper may be white,
cream, or pale green and comes in many sizes
and qualities.
Name What two organizations set the
Types of Drafting Media standards for the trimmed sizes for drafting
media?
Most drawings are made on paper, trac-
ing paper, vellum, or polyester drafting film.
Vellum is paper that has been treated to
make it more transparent. This is important Drawing Instruments
if you need to copy part of the drawing onto What types of instruments are included in
another sheet later. Polyester drafting films are a typical drafting kit?
widely used in industrial drafting rooms. They
have a matte (dull, rough) surface, are trans- Drawing instruments are needed to pro-
parent, durable, and suitable for both pencil duce accurate technical drawings. Instru-
and ink work. ments can be purchased as individual items
or in sets, also called case instruments.
Sizes of Drafting Media Figure 3-11 shows a basic set of drawing
Trimmed sizes of drafting media follow instruments. Note that many instruments
standards set by two organizations: the Amer- have pointed ends that are very sharp and
ican Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) can cause injury. They should always be care-
and the International Standards Organization fully handled and stored in their case when
(ISO). See Table 3-1 for the specifications not in use.
used by both organizations. A full set of instruments usually includes
ASME standard drawing sheet size A compasses with pen part, pencil part,
is based on the dimensions of 8.5 11 lengthening bar, dividers, bow pen, bow
(letter-sized) paper. Standard-size sheets can pencil, bow dividers, and one or two ruling
be cut from rolls of film or paper 36 or 42 pens (optional). Most drafters favor large-
wide with minimal waste. bow sets similar to the one in Figure 3-11.
The ISO standard is developed from a These are known as master, or giant, bows
base sheet with an area of about 1 square and are made in several patterns. With large
bows, 6 (152 mm) or longer, circles can be
drawn up to 13 (330 mm) in diameter or,
ASME (Inches) ISO (Millimeters) with lengthening bars, up to 40 (1016 mm)
Drawing Overall Drawing Overall Paper in diameter.
Size Paper Size Size Size
A 8.50 11.00 A0 841 1189 mm
B 11.00 17.00 A1 594 841 mm
Dividers
You can divide lines, arcs, and circles into
C 17.00 22.00 A2 420 594 mm
equal parts and transfer distances from one place
D 22.00 34.00 A3 297 420 mm to another with dividers (see Figure 3-12).
E 34.00 44.00 A4 210 297 mm Bow dividers are generally more rigid than
friction-joint dividers and are therefore more
Table 3-1 accurate. Although friction-joint dividers are
Standard drawing-sheet sizes more quickly adjusted, they are also more eas-
ily knocked out of adjustment.

Arnold and Brown
RULING PEN
NIB
LARGE BOW
COMPASS
SCREW
DRIVER/SPARE
SMALL BOW PARTS
COMPASS CONTAINER
EXTENSION
BEAM
DIVIDERS
Figure 3-11
A large-bow set of drawing instruments
Beam Compasses
Beam compasses like the one in Figure 3-14
(see page 70) are used to draw arcs or circles
Compasses with large radii. The beam compass has a bar,
Regular curves are curves with points that or beam, on which movable holders for a
are all exactly the same distance from a center pencil (or pen) part and a needle part can be
point. attached and fixed as far apart as desired. By
These curves can be drawn with a putting a needle point in both holders, you
compass like the ones in Figure 3-13. Bow can use a beam compass as dividers.
compasses, like bow dividers, are more rigid The usual bar or beam is about 13
than their friction-joint counterparts. Fric- (330 mm) long. However, by using a cou-
tion-joint compasses are easily knocked out pling to add extra length, you can draw cir-
of alignment. cles of larger size.
A B A B

Two types of dividers: (A) bow dividers and Two types of compasses: (A) bow compass and
(B) friction-joint dividers (B) friction-joint compass

Arnold and Brown
Figure 3-14
Beam compasses are used for large radii.
Bow Instruments distances, and divide a line into small

spaces.
The bow instruments include the bow pen-
cil, the bow dividers, the bow pen, and the
• Bow pen (Figure 3-15C) — to draw small
circles. It is included in a set of bow instru-
drop-spring bow compass; these are shown in
ments to offer drafters a choice of making
Figure 3-15. Bow instruments, except for the
circles or arcs in pen or pencil.
drop-spring bow compass, are available with
either a center wheel or a side wheel for mak-
• Drop-spring bow compass (Figure 3-15D) —
to draw very small circles. It is especially
ing adjustments.
useful for drawing many small circles of the
The bow instruments are easy to use and
same size, such as rivets.
are accurate for distances or radii less than
1.25" (32 mm). They hold small distances bet-
ter than the large instruments. Use them for
the following purposes:
• Bow pencil (Figure 3-15A) — to draw small Identify What tool is used to divide lines
circles. and transfer distances from one place to
• Bow dividers (Figure 3-15B) — to transfer another?
small distances, mark off a series of small
A D
B C
Figure 3-15
Bow instruments are used for drawing small circles and arcs and for stepping off short distances:
(A) bow pencil, (B) bow dividers, (C) bow pen, and (D) drop-spring bow compass.

and thick you want the finished line to be. To
Drafting Pencils lay out views on drawing paper with a fairly hard
and Pens surface, use grades 4H and 6H. When you draw
finished views that are to be reproduced using
How do pencils, pens, and erasing tools
tracing paper or by machine, use an H or 2H
affect the quality of a drawing?
pencil. Grades HB, F, H, and 2H are sometimes
Several types of pencils and pens have been used for sketching and lettering and for drawing
developed specifically for drafting. The type arrowheads, symbols, border lines, and so on.
you select depends on the drawing sheet you Very hard and very soft leads are seldom used in
use and the characteristics of the line you ordinary drafting.
want to draw.
Pencils for Film
Drafting Pencils When film came into use for drawings,
Both regular wooden pencils and mechani- new pencil leads were developed. One is a
cal (stick lead) pencils are used for technical plastic pencil, like a black crayon, with lead
drawing. However, mechanical drafting pencils that is extruded, or squeezed out using a
are favored because they maintain line consis- plasticizing process. It reproduces well on
tency better than wooden pencils. Many types microfilm.
of lead are available, but graphite lead is most The second type of lead is a combina-
commonly used. tion of plastic and graphite and is made by
heating. This type stays sharp, draws a good
Grades of Graphite Sticks or Pencils opaque line, does not smear easily, erases well,
Graphite drafting pencils are made in 17 and microfilms well. It can be used on paper
degrees of hardness, or grades (see Table 3-2). as well as on film.
The pencil grade you use depends on the type The third type does not remain as sharp as
of drawing surface and the nature of the draw- the others. However, it draws a fairly opaque
ing itself. It also depends on how opaque (dark) line, erases well, does not smear easily, and
microfilms well.
These pencils are made in only five or
6B softest and blackest six grades. The companies that make them
5B extremely soft use different systems to identify the type
4B extra soft of lead and how hard it is. You will need to
3B very soft experiment with the various grades.
2B soft, plus
B soft Technical Pens
HB medium soft Technical pens contain points of various
F intermediate, between soft and hard size to draw a specific line width. Some techni-
cal pens have a refillable cartridge for storing
H medium hard
ink. Others have a cartridge that is used once
2H hard
and then replaced. The disposable technical
3H hard, plus
pen has a stainless steel point and requires
4H very hard little maintenance. Points for refillable pens
5H extra hard are made of finer materials specific to the type
6H extra hard, plus of media to be used. The three main types of
7H extremely hard points are:
8H extremely hard, plus • hard-chrome stainless steel, for use on paper
9H hardest or vellum
• tungsten-carbide, for long wear on film,
Table 3-2 vellum, and paper (most commonly used
Standard grades of drawing pencils in pen plotters)
• jewel, for long, continuous use on film

Complete sets of technical pens which
Courtesy of Staedtler Inc.

Lettering Guides and Equipment
include all or most of the point sizes are avail- The lettering set in Figure 3-17 has three
able. Figure 3-16 shows the range of point basic tools: a scriber, lettering templates, and
sizes of technical pens. technical pens.
Lettering templates come in many styles
Drawing Ink and lettering sizes, from about .06 to 2 (1.5
Ink used for technical drawings is called to 50 mm) high. Other templates are used to
drawing ink. It must be completely opaque to draw symbols and shapes. The width of the
produce good, uniform line tone, but also be pen point used depends on the height of the
erasable on all drafting media. letters and size of the symbols.
Erasers and Erasing Shields

.118/4×0
.25/3×0
.13/5×0
1
2
1
2
.30/00
Use soft erasers to clean soiled spots or light

.35/0
.45/1
.50/2
.70/2
.80/3
2.0/6
1.0/3
1.2/4
1.4/5
pencil marks from drawings. Rubkleen, Ruby,
and Emerald erasers are generally good for
removing pencil. On film, use a vinyl eraser
made especially for film. Electric erasing
machines may also be used.
Although drawing ink is waterproof, it can
easily be removed from polyester drafting film
using erasers made especially for that purpose.
Plastic erasers either rub away the ink line or
Figure 3-16 absorb it.
The range of lines and point sizes available in To avoid erasing nearby lines accidentally,
technical pens. most board drafters use an erasing shield. This
metal or plastic device has holes of different sizes
PEN
SCRIBER
TEMPLATE
Figure 3-17
Three basic parts of a lettering set are the pen, the template, and the scriber.

FOUR BEVEL ONE BEVEL
Evaluate What determines the width of a

pen point to be used in a lettering template?
TRIANGULAR TWO BEVEL OPPOSITE BEVEL
Figure 3-18 Some scales, such as those in Figure 3-19A

Examples of the various scale shapes and B, are open divided, meaning only the
units at the end of the scale are subdivided.
Other scales are full divided, as shown in
and shapes. By positioning the shield so that the Figure 3-19C and D, with subdivisions over
part to be erased shows through one of the holes, their entire length.
you can protect other parts of the drawing.
Customary-Inch Scales
Scales Different scales are used to make differ-
ent types of drawings. The commonly used
How does a drafter represent objects that inch-based scales include the architect’s scale,
are either very large or very small? mechanical engineer’s scale, and civil engi-
neer’s scale.
Remember that scales are used to lay off
distances and to make measurements. Mea- The Architect’s Scale
surements can be full size or scaled, meaning The architect’s scale (see Figure 3-19A
they are in a specified proportion to full size. on page 74) is divided into proportional feet
Figure 3-18 shows the shapes of various scales. and inches. Many schools and some drafting
Measuring Angles Example:

For each of the three angles at right, identify A
whether they are acute, obtuse, or right.
You can measure an angle in

degrees, using your protractor. The number 90° B
of degrees in an angle will be greater than
0 and less than or equal to 180. You can
C
classify angles by their size. An acute angle LESS THAN 90°
measures less than 90°. A right angle mea-
sures 90°. An obtuse angle measures greater
than 90° and less than 180°.
MORE THAN 90°
Academic Standards
For help with this math activity, go
Mathematics to the Math Appendix located at the
back of this book.
Measurement Apply appropriate techniques, tools,
and formulas to determine measurements (NCTM)

offices use the triangular form because it not shown, and the dimension is given as
shows many different scales, and so is versa- 3−4½.
tile. However, a flat scale can be easier to use, Proportional scales are used for drafting in
especially when only one scale is required. general and particularly for drawing buildings
See Table 3-3 for the usual proportional and making mechanical, electrical, and other
scales. engineering drawings. The proportional scale
Symbols are used to represent feet () and to which the views are drawn should be given
inches (). For example, three feet four and on the drawing.
one-half inches is written 3−4½. When If you use only one scale, you indicate this
all dimensions are in inches, the inch sym- in the title block. The title block is the area on a
bol is usually left out. Also, on architectural drawing where reference information such as
and structural drawings, the inch symbol is the drawing’s title, the name of the company
1 2 20
0 10 0
HALF SIZE (6 INCHES = 1 FOOT) FULL SIZE – 32
B
I.74
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 12
0 1 2 11
FULL SIZE – 50 (0.02)
3.70
C
0 1 2 3 4 21 22 23 24
HALF SIZE
Figure 3-19
Customary-inch scales: (A) Architect’s scale, open divided. The triangular form has many proportional scales.
(B) Mechanical engineer’s scale, open divided. (C) Civil engineer’s scale, divided into decimals. (D) Decimal-
inch scales are often used in drawing machine parts.

Proportion Gradations Ratio • 10 parts to the inch
Full size 12 = 1−0 1:1
• 20 parts to the inch
¼ size 3 = 1−0 1:4
1/8 size 1½ = 1−0 1:8
1/12 size 1 = 1−0 1:12 • 60 parts to the inch
1/16 size ¾ = 1−0 1:16
1/24 size ½ = 1−0 1:24 With the civil engineer’s scale, 1 inch may
1/32 size 3/8 = 1−0 1:32 stand for feet, rods, miles, and so forth. It may
also stand for quantities, time, or other units.
1/48 size ¼ = 1−0 1:48
The divisions may be single units or multiples
1/64 size 3/16 = 1−0 1:64
of 10, 100, and so on. For example, the 20-
1/96 size 1/8 = 1−0 1:96
parts-to-an-inch scale may stand for 20, 200,
1/128 size 3/32 = 1−0 1:128 or 2,000 units.
The civil engineer’s scale is used for maps
Table 3-3 and drawings of roads and other public
Proportional scales projects. It is also used when decimal-inch
divisions are needed. These uses include plot-
ting data and drawing graphic charts.
The scale used should be given on the draw-
and the drafter, and the date is shown. If differ-
ing in the following way:
ent parts of a drawing are to different scales, the
scales are given near the views in this way: • SCALE: 1 500 POUNDS
• SCALE: 1 100 FEET
• SCALE: 6 1 − 0 • SCALE: 1 500 MILES
• SCALE: 3 1 − 0 • SCALE: 1 200 POUNDS
• SCALE: 1½ 1 − 0
For some uses, a graphic scale is put on a map,
drawing, or chart, as shown in Figure 3-20.
Explain How does a drafter use

The Decimal-Inch Scale
proportional scales? Like the civil engineer’s scale, the decimal-
inch scale (see Figure 3-19D) is divided into
tenths of an inch. Because many manufactur-
ers now use decimals rather than fractions
The Mechanical Engineer’s Scale (4.25 rather than 4¼), the decimal-inch scale
The mechanical engineer’s scale (Figure is used for many machine drawings.
3-19B) shows inches and fractions of an inch
divided to represent inches. The usual divi- The Metric Scale
sions are: Metric scales are divided into millimeters
• Full size–1 divided into 32nds (Figure 3-21). The usual proportional scales
• Half size–½ divided into 16ths
• Quarter size–¼ divided into 8ths
• Eighth size–1/8 divided into 4ths
These scales are used for drawing parts of 10 0 10 20 30 40 50

machines or when larger reductions in scale
SCALE OF MILES
are not needed.
The Civil Engineer’s Scale Figure 3-20

The civil engineer’s scale (Figure 3-19C) Civil engineers place graphic scales on maps to
divides inches into decimals. The usual divi- show people how to interpret them.
sions are:

33 3.0 shown on the drawing means that the draw-
mm ing is 10 times the actual size of the part. A
1:1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
ratio of 1:5 on the drawing means the object
is 5 times as large as it is shown on the
drawing.
Figure 3-21
If different parts on the same drawing are
Metric scales are divided into millimeters. to different scales, the scales are specified near
the views in this way:
• SCALE: 1:2
in the metric system are listed as ratios as in
Table 3-4.
• SCALE: 1:5
The numbers shown indicate the dif-
• SCALE: 1:10
ference in size between the drawing and
• SCALE: 2:1
the actual part. For example, the ratio 10:1
• SCALE: 20:1
165 10
1:5
0 100 200 300
FIFTH SCALE
1500 100 1.80 0.05
1:50 50:1
0 1 2 3 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
FIFTIETH SCALE FIFTY SCALE (0.05-mm DIVISIONS)
33 2.0 6.5 0.2
5:1
1:2
0 20 40 60 80 100 200 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
HALF SCALE FIVE SCALE (0.05-mm DIVISIONS)
230 10 2.6 0.1
10:1
1:2
0 200 400 600 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
TENTH SCALE TEN SCALE (0.1-mm DIVISIONS)
2.9m 0.4 16 0.5
2:1
1:2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
HUNDREDTH SCALE TWO SCALE (0.5-mm DIVISIONS)
A B
Figure 3-22
Metric scales: (A) for reduction and (B) for enlargement

Enlarged Same Size Reduced
1000:1 1:1 1:2
500:1 1:5
200:1 1:10
100:1 1:20
50:1 1:50 SCALE: 1:1 SCALE: 2:1
20:1 1:100 A B
10:1 1:200
Figure 3-23
5:1 1:500
2:1 1:1000
A part drawn at two different scales
Table 3-4
Metric proportional scales
Notice that scales are generally given in for an example of an enlarged-scale draw-
multiples of 2 or 5. ing. In Figure 3-23A, the drawing
To reduce an object’s drawing size, use one is shown at a scale of 1:1 (same size). In
of the scales shown in Figure 3-22A. To Figure 3-23B, the same part is enlarged to
enlarge an object’s drawing, use one of the 2:1 (double size).
scales in Figure 3-22B. See Figure 3-23
Section 3.1 Assessment Drafting Practice

After You Read In Chapter 2 you learned about free-
hand sketching. The following problem is
designed to give you additional practice.
Self-Check This sketching problem is designed to fit on
1. Identify the basic equipment used in an 8.5 × 11 drawing sheet. Quarter-inch
board drafting. grid paper may be used. A straightedge may
2. List and describe various types of be used for drawing long straight lines. Do
drafting media. not add dimensions (sizes). Estimate sizes
3. Describe the different scales used for not given.
architectural, mechanical, and civil 5. Make a freehand sketch of the tic-tac-toe
drafting. board shown in Figure 3-24.
Academic Integration 5"
Mathematics
4. Draw Angles Using a Protractor
Draw an example of an acute angle, 5" 6" SQ
a right angle, and an obtuse angle.

Label each and provide the angle
measurement.
Figure 3-24

3.2 Computer-Aided Drafting (CAD)
Equipment
Preview It is important to have a functional work area. What would you consider if you were
told that you could design your own work space and purchase the furniture and equipment for it?
Content Vocabulary
• CPU
• CAD software
• ergonomics
Academic Vocabulary
and tests.
• compatible
Graphic Organizer
On a chart like the one below, organize facts about safety areas to consider in the CAD
environment
Areas to Consider Go to glencoe.com for this

Electrical version of this graphic organizer.
CAD Environment Safety
Academic Standards
Teachers of English
Read text to acquire new information (NCTE) NCTM National Council
of Teachers of
NSES National Science
Measurement Understand measurable attributes of objects and the units, systems, and processes Education Standards
of measurement (NCTM)
Science
Personal and Social Perspectives Environmental Quality and Human Health (NSES)

because AutoCAD is not compatible with
Jeremy Gassman/Alamy
CAD Hardware the Macintosh operating system.
Equipment Monitors
What factors should you consider when
The computer monitor is the display
setting up a CAD system?
device for a CAD workstation. A CAD monitor
All CAD workstations require computer should be at least 17″, large enough to display
hardware, the equipment that comprises a drawings or parts of drawings effectively (see
computer system. Standard CAD hardware Figure 3-25.)
includes the central processing unit (CPU),
the monitor, storage devices, input devices, Resolution
and peripherals, or accessories. An output A monitor’s resolution refers to the num-
device such as a plotter or printer is an exam- ber of pixels per inch displayed on the
ple of a peripheral. screen. A pixel is a set of one red, one
blue, and one green dot. The more pixels
The CPU a monitor displays per inch, the higher the
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is quality of the image on the screen. Keep
the “heart” of the computer. This is where in mind that as resolution increases, total
the computations which make up the “work” picture size decreases. Resolution settings
of a computer are processed. Since drafting range from 640 480 to 1600 1280 or
software requires the performance of many more, depending on the monitor. Choose a
complex calculations, a fast CPU is essential. resolution that is appropriate for the moni-
This ensures minimal wait times for the user tor size. A 17″ monitor can display a 1600
while the computer does its work. 1280 resolution, but this combination
Be sure that the computer you are consid- is usually not practical because any details
ering will run the software you will be using. become too small to see. Table 3-5 (see
If you will be using AutoCAD, for example, page 80) shows appropriate resolutions for
you should not buy a Macintosh computer various monitor sizes.
Figure 3-25
Some high-end CAD workstations have two monitors to help designers visualize the
products they are drawing.
Section 3.2 Computer-Aided Drafting (CAD) Equipment 79

Monitor Size Resolution
17 1024 768
20 1024 768 or 1600 1280
21 1024 768 or 1600 1280 Monitors and Personal

35 at least 1600 1280 Safety
The size, resolution, and refresh
Table 3-5 rate of a monitor affect the image
Monitor resolutions that is displayed. By paying attention
to these factors when selecting a
monitor, you can reduce or avoid eye
fatigue, headaches, and other health
Input Devices problems often associated with
The most common input devices for CAD computer work.
workstations are the keyboard, the mouse,
and the digitizer.
Digitizers are specialized equipment used
to convert paper drawings to digital format.
Although not every CAD workstation includes
a digitizer, many companies keep at least one
digitizer, so that drawings can be converted
as needed. These companies may leave older Identify What hardware can be used to
drawings in their paper form until revisions are input data to a CAD system?
needed. At that time, the drawings are digitized,
the revisions are made, and the drawings are
stored in their new digital format.
Before a digitizer can be used with a CAD CAD Software
system, it must be calibrated. Each digitizer Why might a CAD drafter require more
has a specific procedure for calibration, and than one CAD program?
some need to be recalibrated periodically. If
you need to use a digitizer, consult the user’s In addition to hardware, a CAD system
manual to find out how to calibrate it. require the computer programs used to create
technical drawings, or the CAD software. The
Printers and Plotters software determines a CAD system’s drafting
Laser and inkjet technologies have become capabilities, so you should select it carefully. In
the standards for printing technical drawings. industry, the software a company uses depends
They replaced pen plotters which were first used on the products or services it provides.
to print CAD drawings. Printers are available In general, there are three types of CAD
in a variety of sizes to fit most drafting needs. software:
Prices vary according to the size of the printer • general-purpose drafting software
and the quality of the images it produces. • specialty software for architectural, electri-
Before selecting a printer or plotter, con- cal, and other special drafting needs
sider how you will use it. Will you be produc- • third-party software that works with
ing mostly A- or B-size drawings, or will you general-purpose drafting software to extend
need to print E-size drawings, too? its functions
Also consider the quality level you will
need. Very accurate, high-resolution printers AutoCAD, DataCAD, and TurboCAD are
are available for the most exacting needs, but examples of common general-purpose pro-
they are very expensive. Lower-priced printers grams. These programs provide the tools
are suitable for printing proofs and for most needed to create drawings for many different
school uses. fields and applications.

Specialized software is often used in fields
such as architecture, geographic informa-
The CAD Workstation
tion systems (GIS), and electronics. Examples What considerations should determine
include: your choice of computer furniture?
• Revit Architecture, for architectural There a number of issues concerning your
drafting CAD workstation.
• Pro/Engineer, for mechanical drafting
• CATIA, for aeronautical and electronic
CAD Furniture
engineering drafting
Standard drafting desks and tables are not
Third-party software works with a general- required for CAD workstations. Typical com-
use program to provide special features. Weld- puter furniture like a computer desk can usu-
ing, plant processing, and electronics are ally be used. However, you should take your
common examples of fields that commonly drafting needs into consideration before you
use third-party packages. select the furniture for your workstation. Ask
CAD utility software is another type of yourself the following questions:
third-party software. Although is not actually • Will the furniture accommodate my
CAD software, it performs special functions monitor? Make sure the part of the com-
that enable CAD files to be used for specific puter desk designed to hold the monitor is
purposes. For example, utilities are available large enough and sturdy enough to hold
to prepare CAD files for use with computer- the monitor you will use.
aided manufacturing (CAM) systems. • Will I be using a digitizer? Workstations that
include a digitizer may require additional
Maintenance and Repair table space.
Read any manuals that come with your • Where will I put the printer? The printer
equipment. Perform routine maintenance as drawers supplied with generic computer
specified and have the equipment serviced at desks are not large enough to hold printers
the intervals suggested. A decrease in com- used for large drawings. If you plan to use a
puter performance may mean that the hard- printer that can print E-size drawings, the
ware or software needs maintenance. Check printer must stand on the floor. Measure to
for indicators that the equipment is not per- make sure that the cables connecting the
forming correctly. Frayed cords should be printer to your CPU are long enough to
replaced immediately. Keep liquids and bev- reach through the computer desk to your
erages away from all computer equipment printer without straining.
to avoid accidents that could damage the • How much working surface do I need? Be sure
equipment. the computer desk provides enough desk-
To decrease the chance of equipment mal- top working space for notes, hand-drawn
function, store all equipment safely and prop- sketches, and other materials you may need.
erly when you are not using it. For example,
if you have a digitizer but use it rarely, cover Safety
it when it is not in use or disconnect it and Safety should be a primary goal when you
store it away. If you work in a dusty environ- design the workstation. There are many things
ment, keep your equipment covered when it you should know to maintain a safe CAD work
is not being used. environment.
Ergonomics
You should pay close attention to ergonom-
ics when you select hardware and furniture
for your CAD workstation. Ergonomics is a
Name What are examples of fields that
field of study in product design that promotes
commonly use third-party design software?
the personal safety and comfort of the user.

Ergonomically designed products “fit the per- the floor without cutting off the circulation
PhotoDisc/Alamy
son” instead of requiring that the person fit in your legs.
the product. • Place the monitor at or slightly above eye
Studies have shown that improper use of level to help reduce eye fatigue.
computer equipment can cause temporary or
permanent physical injuries. Some of these Electrical Safety
injuries are: To avoid the risk of injury or electrical fire:
• musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) • Place wires and cords out of the way so that
• carpal tunnel syndrome people will not trip over them, possibly
• repetitive stress injuries (RSIs) harming themselves and/or the equipment.
• “tennis elbow” • Avoid overloading a circuit by connecting
too many electrical devices to it.
Choosing ergonomically designed prod- • Never connect a multiple-outlet extension
ucts helps to avoid these injuries. For example, cord into another multiple-outlet exten-
many different types of ergonomic keyboards sion cord.
(Figure 3-26) and mice have been developed. • Make sure that any equipment such as a
Some can be separated into two pieces CPU or printer with a cooling vent is placed
which are placed at the most comfortable spot so the vents are not blocked.
for each hand. Others are designed to keep
your hands and forearms straight. Figure 3-27 Hazardous Waste
shows the proper positioning of equipment for Some equipment used in CAD workstations
a CAD workstation: and drafting rooms either use or produce
• Select a computer desk that has an adjust- hazardous waste. For example, toner for laser
able keyboard shelf or drawer. Adjust the printers and copiers can be hazardous. Read
keyboard height so that your forearms the instructions that come with all supplies,
(elbow to wrist) are parallel with the floor. especially toners, inks, and ordinary batteries,
• Use an office chair with adjustable height to find out how to use and dispose of them
and a proper back support. Adjust the chair properly and explore recycling options in
height so that your feet rest comfortably on your community.
Figure 3-26
Many types of ergonomic keyboards have been developed.

MONITOR AT OR SLIGHTLY
ABOVE EYE LEVEL
FOREARMS
PARALLEL TO
FLOOR
ADJUSTABLE
KEYBOARD SHELF
WRIST
LUMBAR SUPPORT
SUPPORT
ADJUSTABLE
CHAIR HEIGHT
FEET FLAT
ON FLOOR
Figure 3-27
Arrange your equipment to minimize stress and potential injury.

After You Read 6. Make a freehand sketch of the puzzle
Self-Check
1. Describe the computer hardware com-
ponents of a CAD workstation. 3" SQ
2. Identify the three main types of CAD

software.
3. Describe the characteristics of efficient
CAD furniture. 3" SQ
4. Summarize the ergonomic and per-

sonal safety factors to be considered
when setting up a CAD workstation.
Academic Integration
English Language Arts Figure 3-28
5. Create a Presentation Organize your
notes from this section and create a
poster or PowerPoint presentation that Go to glencoe.com for this
illustrates your understanding of the book’s OLC for help with this
CAD components and the importance drafting practice.
of ergonomics when working at a CAD
station.

Chapter Summary
• Basic board-drafting equipment includes • The hardware for a computer worksta-
drawing tables or desks, drawing boards, tion includes a CPU, at least one monitor,
and various instruments that improve input devices, and a printer.
accuracy, such as T-squares and triangles. • CAD software is a computer program that
• Standard drawing sheet sizes are speci- allows drafters to create technical draw-
fied by the American National Standards ings using a computer.
Institute (ANSI) and the International • Before purchasing CAD furniture, you
Standards Organization (ISO). should consider how well the furniture
• Technical drawings can be made on vel- meets your individual drafting needs.
lum or polyester film (board drafting) or • Drafters should take ergonomic and safety
using computer software. into account when considering CAD
• Drawing instruments include the divid- hardware and furniture.
ers, compass, beam compass, and bow
instruments.
• Board drafters use various drafting pen-
cils and technical pens to create accurate
technical drawings.
• Scales are used to lay off distances and to
make measurements.

1. Use each of these content and academic vocabulary words in a sentence or drawing.
Content Vocabulary • template (p. 67) • CAD software (p. 80)
• drawing board (p. 65) • vellum (p. 68) • ergonomics (p. 81)
• true edge (p. 65) • case instruments (p. 68) Academic Vocabulary
• T-square (p. 65) • dividers (p. 68) • media (p. 65)
• protractor (p. 66) • compass (p. 69) • minimal (p. 68)
• scales (p. 66) • CPU (p. 79) • compatible (p. 79)
• irregular curve (p. 67)
Review Key Concepts

2. Identify and describe the basic equipment used in board drafting.
3. List and describe various types of drafting media.
4. Describe the different scales used for architectural, mechanical, and civil drafting.
5. Describe the components of a CAD workstation.
6. Identify the three main types of CAD software.
7. Describe the characteristics of efficient CAD furniture.
8. Identify safety issues that should be addressed when setting up a CAD workstation.

Science
9. Managing Human-Induced Hazards Prep
CAD workstations can produce hazardous
Multiple Choice Questions For
Directions Choose the letter
waste that can affect personal and commu-
of the best answer. Write the
nity health if handled improperly. What pre-
letter for the answer on a
cautions should you take when disposing of
separate piece of paper.
hazardous materials? Create a poster for your
12. Standard drawing sheet sizes are
classroom that details how to correctly dis-
specified by.
pose of hazardous materials such as ink car-
A. The American Society of
tridges, paint, and batteries.
Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
B. The International Standards
Organization (ISO)
C. Both ASME and ISO
10. Critical Thinking D. Neither ASME nor ISO
Bill Stumpf, recipient of the Lifetime
Achievement Award from the Industrial TEST-TAKING TIP
Design Society of America, said good design Evaluate your test-taking savvy by answer-
isn′t just good business, it is a moral obliga- ing these questions:
tion. When he looked around, though, he said • Do I use my time well during a test?
that too often he saw design that ‶denies the • Does anxiety get in the way of doing
human spirit″ because architecture acknowl- my best on a test?
edges money, not people. What do you think • How can I prepare for my next test?
he meant by this statement? Write a one-page
essay on what you think Stumpf meant by
these remarks.
Win
Mathematics Competitive
11. Calculate Percentage
When shopping for a case of drawing instru- Events
ments, you find one that suits your needs costs 13. Job Skills
$50. Another case with a few more instruments Organizations such as SkillsUSA offer a
costs $65. Describe the difference between the variety of architectural, career, and draft-
two prices using a percentage. ing competitions. Completing activities
such as the one below will help you pre-
Number and Operations: pare for these events.
Percents Activity Scan newspaper or online job
To describe how much more the $65 case listings for an entry-level drafting job. Use
costs, create a fraction using the difference the ad to outline the skills needed to qual-
in price as the numerator and the cost of the ify for the position. Then, summarize in a
less expensive case as the denominator. To one-page paper which skills you currently
convert the fraction to a percent, divide the have and which you would need to fur-
numerator by the denominator and multiply ther develop to qualify for the position.
the product by 100.
OLC for more information about
competitive events.

3 Problems
Drafting Problems
In Chapter 2 you learned about freehand sketching. The following problems are designed to
give you additional practice. Each of these sketching problems is designed to fit on an 8.5″ 11″
drawing sheet. Quarter-inch grid paper may be used. A straightedge may be used for drawing
long straight lines. Do not add dimensions (sizes). Estimate sizes not given.
1. Make a freehand sketch of the identifica- 2. Make a freehand sketch of the inlay shown
tion plate shown in Figure 3-29. Care- in Figure 3-30.
fully letter in your own name.
7"
4"
1"
2"
3"
4"
Figure 3-30
Figure 3-29
3. Make a freehand sketch of the bicycle chain link shown in Figure 3-31. Use quarter-inch grid
paper if available.
1" DIAMETER 2.5" DIAMETER
3"
Figure 3-31

Design Problems
Design problems have been prepared to challenge individual students or
teams of students. Complete all of the problems using freehand sketching
techniques. Note to CAD students: After you have studied Chapters 4 and 5,
return to the problems in this chapter, complete them using CAD techniques,
and compare the advantages and disadvantages of using each method. Be cre-
ative and have fun!
1. Redesign the digital clock shown in 3. Design a carton (package) for the scooter
Figure 3-32. Give special attention you designed in the previous problem.
to the design of the base. Materials: It should be lightweight, yet durable
optional. Prepare a three-view sketch enough to protect the scooter during
of your design idea and use overlays to shipping. Work along with the design
refine the design. Make an oblique or team so that package design is complete
isometric pictorial sketch of your final when the scooter design is complete.
design. Keep both function and aesthet- 4. Design a nameplate for your desk. The
ics in mind as you proceed. base is to be made of walnut wood. Your
name is to be engraved on a 1 5 brass
plate attached to the wooden base. Make
a freehand sketch of the parts. Estimate
9:14 all sizes.
Teamwork
Figure 3-32
5. Design a sign for your drafting-room
door. It should not be larger than 8
22. Material optional. The lettering,
Teamwork DRAFTING ROOM, can be painted on, or
2. Work as a team to design a scooter that metal letters can be purchased.
could be manufactured and sold by your
Teamwork
technology club. Apply the eight steps
generally used in the traditional (linear) Design an ergonomic CAD workstation.
design process. Choose one member of
6.
Keep in mind all of the ergonomic prin-
your team to serve as the design engi- ciples discussed in this chapter. Be ready
neer. List each step and describe how it to present your design to the class for
would apply to the design of the scooter. discussion and approval.
Be sure to document each step as you
proceed.
Give every consideration to both func-
tion and aesthetics. Design the scooter
to fold for easy carrying. Specify light-
weight materials. Your final project
should include sketches of the product
design, general specifications on materi-
als and stock parts, and documentation
on the design process.
Problems 87
4 Basic Drafting Techniques
Section 4.1
Getting Ready to Draw
Section 4.2
Creating a Drawing
Chapter Objectives
• Prepare a drawing
sheet for a technical
drawing.
• Use basic drafting
tools and equipment.
• Produce a finished
technical drawing
using board-drafting
techniques.
• Use standard layouts
to create and set up a
drawing file on a CAD
system.
• Create basic geometry
and produce a techni-
cal drawing using CAD
commands.
Checkmate Each type of piece

you need for a chess game must
go through an entire design
process. How many pieces would
you need to design for a complete
chess set?
88
Todd France/Corbis
Drafting Career
Michael Graves, Product Designer
When you think of a chess set, do you think of

mechanical drawing and illustrations? Michael Graves
and his team of designers understand the connection.
Graves is a world-renowned architect and designer
who creates the whimsically designed games, dog
food dishes, toasters, teapots, and housewares that are
sold in Target stores nationwide.
The Graves design team uses CAD software to

visualize and design each product. The team presents
paper drawings with just a few models. Then 3D
drawings are completed and used to manufacture the
large assembly machines that stamp out the forms or
create the molds for items like toasters and cappuc-
cino makers.

• Math
• Computer science
• Information systems
• Computer programming
• Business management skills
• Verbal and written communication skills
• Organizing and planning skills
Career Pathways
In addition to a bachelor’s degree in industrial
design, commercial and industrial designers usu-
ally receive on-the-job training and normally need
one to three years of training before they advance to
higher level positions. Some experienced designers
open their own design firms.

about Michael Graves Design.
89
4.1 Getting Ready to Draw
Connect Board and CAD drafters must select and gather the appropriate tools and prepare
their work areas. As you read this section, take notes on preparing a drawing sheet.
Content Vocabulary
• sheet layout • revision • drawing • paper space • layer
• reference history block templates • limits
zones • application • model space
blocks
Academic Vocabulary
Learning these words while you read this section will also help you in your other subjects and tests.
• appropriate
Graphic Organizer
On a chart like the one below, list the tools you will need to create a board-based drawing and a
CAD drawing.
Board-Based Drafting tools CAD tools

Academic Standards
NCTE National Council of
English Language Arts Teachers of English
Use written language to communicate effectively (NCTE 4) NCTM National Council
of Teachers of
Conduct research and gather, evaluate, and synthesize data to communicate discoveries (NCTE 7) Mathematics
ADDA American Design
Mathematics Drafting Association
Number and Operations Compute fluently and make reasonable estimates (NCTM) ANSI American National
Standards Institute
Problem Solving Solve problems that arise in mathematics and other contexts (NCTM)
ASME American Society of
Mechanical Engineers
Industry Standards
ADDA Section 1
Functional/Simplified Drafting (ASME Y14.3M, ANSI Y14.4, ANSI Y14.6)
90 Chapter 4 Basic Drafting Techniques

Ted Mishima
Preparing the Drawing Hold Head of
Sheet T-Square in
contact with
What are the steps in preparing a drawing edge of
sheet? board
Align edge
Proper sheet preparation is an impor- of paper
tant part of the drafting process. Prepar- with blade of
ing the drawing sheet includes choosing an T-Square
appropriate size and type of drawing sheet,
fastening it to the drawing board, and laying
out the borders and title block.
Choosing the Drawing Sheet

The type of drawing sheet you select Approx. 1”
depends on how the final drawing will be
used. For example, drawing paper is appropri-
ate for short-term use, while polyester film is
better for long-term use.
The size of the sheet is determined by the
size and complexity of the drawing. It is often
useful to make a freehand sketch of the views
and notes before proceeding to do the final
instrument drawing. Except in rare cases,
standard drawing-sheet sizes should be used.
Fastening the Drawing Sheet to

Figure 4-1
the Board
To fasten the drawing sheet to the board, first
By attaching the drawing sheet to the
align the sheet with the T-square blade.
board, you have the freedom to move the T-
square and triangles freely over the whole
sheet. The sheet may be held in place on the
board in several ways. Some drafters put draft- head of the T-square against the edge of the
ing tape across the corners of the sheet and, board. Then fasten each corner of the sheet
if needed, at other places. Others use small, with drafting tape.
precut, circular pieces of tape, called dot tape.
Neither of these two methods will damage the Sheet Layout
corners or the edges of the sheet. They also Sheet Layout is the process of placing the
can be used on composition boards or other border and title block on the drawing sheet.
boards with hard surfaces. U.S. Customary drawing sheet layouts (inch
To fasten the paper or other drawing sheet, sizes) are designed and recommended by the
place it on the drawing board with the left American Society of Mechanical Engineers
edge 1″ (25 mm) or so away from the left edge (ASME). Metric sheet layouts (millimeter
of the board, as shown in Figure 4-1. (Left- sizes) are designed and recommended by the
handed students should work from the right International Organization for Standardiza-
edge.) Put the lower edge of the sheet at least tion (ISO). Margins for the borders on metric
4″ (100 mm) up from the bottom of the board sheets are somewhat uniform in size, while
so you can work on it comfortably. Then those on U.S. Customary sheets vary. How-
line up the sheet with the T-square blade, as ever, the sheet sizes and layouts prepared
shown in Figure 4-1. Hold the sheet in posi- by ASME and ISO are simply recommenda-
tion. Move the T-square down, keeping the tions. They may vary according to the user’s
Section 4.1 Getting Ready to Draw 91

requirements. However, all drawing sheets what, when, and where.” The revision
should have a border and title block. Also, it history block specifies revision dates and
is strongly recommended that the location of related information. The application
various elements of the title block be placed blocks are optional. They provide columns
as specified by ASME or ISO. In many indus- for purposes such as listing specific informa-
tries, borders and title blocks are printed on tion used to relate a given drawing to other
the drawing sheets and the drafter simply fills drawings in a set.
in the blanks in the title block and prepares
the drawing within the borderlines.
The layout recommendations of both ASME
and ISO are shown in Figure 4-2. ASME actu- Identify What do the acronyms ASME and
ally lists six standard sizes for drawing sheets ISO stand for?
plus special roll sizes, and ISO lists five stan-
dard sizes plus various elongated sizes. The
information in Figure 4-2 is limited to the Sheet Layout: U.S. Customary
most common sheet sizes used in educational Table 4-1 gives specific sizes for standard
programs. sheets. For example, an A-size sheet placed
Reference zones given in the margins in the horizontal position is 8.50 vertically
are used to locate specific information on and 11.00 horizontally (8.50 11.00). When
the drawing. The title block provides basic placed in the vertical position, it is 11.00 ver-
information about the drawing— the “who, tically and 8.50 horizontally (11.00 8.50).
MARGIN DRAWING
NUMBER BLOCK
I
A AND A4 SIZE REFERENCE ZONES
(HORIZONTAL) D
2 I
REVISION
HISTORY
APPLICATION BLOCK
F REVISION
BLOCK
HISTORY BLOCK
C
SEE TABLE 4-1

E
B AND A3 SIZE
B B A AND A4 SIZE
TITLE BLOCK (VERTICAL)
D
C AND A2 SIZE
A A APPLICATION
BLOCK
6 5 4 3 2 I
TITLE BLOCK
B MICROFILM CENTERING ARROW

TITLE BLOCK
REVISION STATUS
A A
TITLE BLOCK
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I
GENERAL NOTE:
DIMENSIONS SHOWN ARE RECOMMENDED AND MAY BE VARIED
TO ACCOMMODATETHE USER'S REQUIREMENTS.
Figure 4-2
Decimal-inch and metric drawing sheet layout.

Decimal-Inch Sizes Table 4-1
Size Vertical Horizontal Margin Sizes Decimal-Inch and Metric
Designation Sheet Size Sheet Size Horizontal Vertical Drawing Sheets
A (Horizontal) 8.50 11.00 .38 .25
A (Vertical) 11.00 8.50 .25 .38
B (Horizontal) 11.00 17.00 .38 .62

C (Horizontal) 17.00 22.00 .75 .50
Metric Sizes
A4 (Horizontal) 210 mm 297 mm 10 10
A4 (Vertical) 297 mm 210 mm 10 10

A3 297 mm 420 mm 10 10
A2 420 mm 594 mm 10 10
B- and C-size sheets are generally not used in be eliminated on drawings that are not
the vertical position. government-related.
Figure 4-3 shows a recommended lay- Since the trim sizes recommended by
out for the title block, which should be ASME and ISO are in almost universal use in
placed in the lower right-hand corner industry, they are also useful sizes for draft-
of the drawing. Since it is only recom- ing courses. Most of the drawing problems
mended, it can be altered in both size and throughout this book are planned for A-, B-,
content. For example, “cage code” is a ref- A4-, or A3-size sheets. However, to reduce the
erence number generally used on drawings amount of time and space required to draw
prepared for government contracts. It can the title blocks, you may use the modified
3.90
2.80
.40
COMPANY NAME
AND ADDRESS
INFORMATION RELATED
TO PREPARATION OF
TITLE
DRAWING INCLUDES
2.00
NAME OF DRAFTER,
ENGINEER, CHECKER, 1.40
ISSUE DATE, ETC.
SIZE CAGE CODE DWG NO. REV
.60
SCALE SHEET .30
1.80
3.30
4.30
6.30
GENERAL NOTE:
DIMENSIONS SHOWN ARE RECOMMENDED AND MAY BE VARIED
TO ACCOMMODATETHE USER'S REQUIREMENTS.
Figure 4-3
Recommended title block for A, B, and C drawing sheet sized (decimal inch)

version shown in Figure 4-4 for U.S. Cus- Larger sheets are generally used only in the
tomary drawings. Alternate layouts are shown horizontal position.
in Figure 4-5. Your instructor may assign one Figure 4-6 shows a recommended layout for
of these or one that he or she has designed. the metric title block. It is essentially the same
as the decimal-inch title block. The difference is
Sheet Layout: Metric in the units of measure used to lay it out. Like
In Table 4-1, you will see that the smallest the U.S. Customary recommendations, metric
metric-size sheet is A4. Placed in a horizon- recommendations may be altered to accommo-
tal position, it is 210 mm vertically and 297 date the user’s specific requirements.
mm horizontally (210 297). When placed Figures 4-7 and 4-8 show recommended
in a vertical position, it is 297 mm vertically A4 and A3 drawing-sheet layouts with borders
and 210 mm horizontally (297 210). The and title blocks. These have been modified from
A4-size sheet may be used in either position. the recommended ISO standard metric sheet
.50
8.50
5 X .12 OR
17.00
NAME OF SCHOOL DRAWING NAME DRAWN BY DWG NO.

.60
LOCATION SCALE DATE APPROVED BY
.30
.30
3.00 3.00 .80
11.00
Figure 4-4
Suggested sheet layout for an A- or B-size sheet.
B ( 11x17 ) or A3
( 297 mm x 420 mm )
Drawing Sheet
Horizontal Position
B ( 11x17 ) or A3
( 297 mm x 420 mm ) Figure 4-5
Drawing Sheet
Vertical Position Alternate layouts.
A ( 8.50 x 11.00 ) or A4
( 210 mm x 297 mm )
Drawing Sheet
Horizontal Position

layouts. The sheet sizes are ISO standard; the
layouts have been modified to save time and
space in preparing the sheets. Your instructor Identify Where is the title block placed on a
may assign one of these or one that he or she drawing?
has designed. Figure 4-8 shows alternate title
block layouts for decimal-inch and metric draw-
ing sheets.
95
70
10
COMPANY NAME
AND ADDRESS
INFORMATION RELATED
TO PREPARATION OF
TITLE
DRAWING INCLUDES
54
NAME OF DRAFTER,
ENGINEER, CHECKER, 36
ISSUE DATE, ETC.
SIZE CAGE CODE DWG NO. REV
16
SCALE SHEET 6
45
80
Figure 4-6
110
Recommended title
160 block for A2, A3, and
A4 drawing-sheet sizes
(metric)
12
210
Figure 4-7
METRIC Recommended sheet
5X3
NAME OF SCHOOL DRAWING NAME DRAWN BY DWG NO.
layout for an A4- or
15 A3-size sheet
LOCATION SCALE DATE APPROVED BY
8 75 75 20 8
297
Decimal-inch METRIC
.12 TYPICAL 3mm TYPICAL
NAME OF SCHOOL NAME OF SCHOOL

Figure 4-8
.60 15
LOCATION LOCATION
Alternate title block
DRAWING NAME
.60
DRAWING NAME
15
layouts for decimal-inch
SCALE DATE 2.10 SCALE DATE 53
(A- and B-size) and metric
DWN BY DWG NO.
.60
DWN BY DWG NO.
15 (A3- and A-4 size) sheets
APP BY APP BY
.30 8
.80 .30 20 .30
3.30 85

Getting Ready to Create Creating a New Drawing
As with board drafting, you must plan care-
a CAD Drawing fully before you begin to draw in CAD. Even
How does preparing a CAD drawing differ though you will be drawing at full size, you
from preparing a drawing sheet? must select a sheet size—and a scale—for the
printed drawing before you begin.
Techniques for creating a technical drawing The first step in preparing a drawing file is to
using CAD differ greatly from those used in open a new drawing in AutoCAD. Some versions
board drafting. One of the biggest differences of AutoCAD contain drawing templates for
is that CAD drawings are drawn at full scale, the various ASME sheet sizes (see Figure 4-9).
whether the object being drawn is a micro- A drawing template is a standard drawing setup
chip or a municipal parking lot. that conforms to ASME or ISO standards. For
Obviously, you cannot print a drawing of this example, we will use AutoCAD’s acad.dwt
a parking lot at full size. Therefore, you must template.
print the drawing at a scale that allows it to
1. Enter the NEW command to create a
fit on the selected drawing sheet. If you set
new drawing. For this exercise, either
the drawing up properly before you begin to
type NEW or pick New from the File pull-
draw, you can draw at full size and print at the
down menu. (Do not use the button on
appropriate scale on the drawing sheet.
the Standard toolbar.)
In other ways, drafting using a CAD system
2. In the Select Template dialog box, select
is similar to board drafting. You must under-
the acad.dwt template.
stand drafting concepts before you can cre-
ate an acceptable CAD drawing. Except where Notice the MODEL button at the bottom of
noted, all of the drafting principles discussed the screen, below the border and title block.
in this and other chapters apply equally to AutoCAD has two drawing spaces. Model
CAD and board drafting. space is a working space, where you will
This part of the chapter is designed to be do most of your drawing. Layout, or paper
“done,” rather than just read. Ideally, you space, allows you to position your drawing
should have access to a CAD workstation, so on the specified drawing sheet.
you can try the techniques as you read about In most versions of AutoCAD, you will also
them. If this is not possible, read the contents see tabs at the bottom of the drawing area. If
thoroughly, and then have the book with you the tabs are not present, right-click the Model
the next time you have access to CAD. or Paper button on the status bar and choose
REVISIONS
ZONE REV DESCRIPTION DATE APPROVED
Figure 4-9
Some versions of AutoCAD
provide templates for
standard ISO and ASME
borders and title blocks.
This is a layout for a B-size
sheet.
SIZE FSCM NO. DWG NO. REV
SCALE SHEET

to show the Model and Layout tabs. Remem-
ber to choose the Model tab whenever you are
actually creating or editing a drawing. Choose
the appropriate layout tab to view or work
with the drawing in paper space.
Zooming
Setting the Drawing Units CAD programs allow you to “zoom
Drawings based on the acad.dwt template out” to see all of a drawing, or “zoom
open automatically in model space. Be sure
in” to see part of it in a magnified
form that is easier to see and work
that the Model tab is the active tab. Then con-
with. After you have set the draw-
tinue to set up the drawing file. The next task
ing limits and set the snap and grid,
is to specify the drawing units.
zoom out to see the whole drawing.
In AutoCAD, the term unit is purposely
To do so, enter the ZOOM command
vague. AutoCAD ensures that 1 unit 1 unit. (or press the “z” key and Enter) and
It is up to you to determine whether the unit then type the word All. The entire
stands for millimeters, inches, miles, or, for drawing space appears in the draw-
some engineering applications, even hours or ing area.
other nonlinear units. Therefore, before you Later, if you want to see a detail of
begin drawing, you must specify what the part of the drawing, enter the ZOOM
units will be. command and then specify the part
To set the units in a drawing, enter the you want to see by using the mouse
UNITS command. AutoCAD presents a dialog to create a window, or rectangle,
box that lets you choose from architectural, around that part. ZOOM All always
decimal, engineering, fractional, or scientific takes you back to a view of the entire
units for both length and angle measure- drawing.
ments. For the drawings in this textbook, you
should choose decimal units unless directed
otherwise.
Selecting decimal units in AutoCAD does 17 11. To do this, use the LIMITS com-
not limit you to working in decimal inches. mand. This command works by specifying
By choosing decimal units, you are setting the lower left and upper right corners of the
up the drawing correctly for both ASME and drawing area.
ISO standards. Only the precision differs. For Enter the LIMITS command, and then look
ASME, select a length precision of two deci- at the Command line at the lower left corner
mal places (0.00). For ISO or metric, select a of the screen. It shows that the lower left cor-
length precision of one decimal place (0.0). ner is currently set to 0.00,0.00. This means
For both standards, set angle precision to no that the lower left corner of the drawing is
decimal places (0), unless directed otherwise. set at 0.00 inches horizontally and vertically.
In this case, choose precisions. In general, you should leave the values at
0.00,0.00. Press Enter to continue. For an A-
Setting the Drawing Limits size sheet (without scaling), type 11.00,8.50
Next, set the limits, or physical size of and press Enter. Do not type a space between
the drawing area, to correspond to the draw- the comma and the 8.50. Then enter the
ing sheet size you will use for paper space. ZOOM command and the All option to view
The paper-space layout does not affect the entire drawing area.
model space, so you have to set the limits
separately.
Limits for Printing at Full Size

This example will use an A-size sheet. If Describe What function does the LIMITS
your drawing will fit on the sheet without command perform?
scaling, you should set the drawing size to

10 – 32 UNC – 2B Ø.50
Sheet Size Drawing Model Space
ASME B1.1
Scale Limits
ASME A 1:1 11.00 8.50 .50

1:2 22.00 17.00
Ø2.00
1:4 44.00 34.00
Ø1.10
ASME B 1:1 17.00 11.00
1:2 34.00 22.00
1:4 68.00 44.00
R.10
ASME C 1:1 17.00 22.00
1:2 34.00 44.00
.20
1:4 68.00 88.00 .05 X 45°
1.50 CHAMFER
ISO A4 1:1 210 mm 297 mm
1:2 420 mm 594 mm A
1:4 840 mm 1188 mm
ISO A3 1:1 297 mm 420 mm
1:2 594 mm 840 mm
1:4 1188 mm 1680 mm
ISO A2 1:1 420 mm 594 mm
1:2 840 mm 1188 mm
1:4 1680 mm 2376 mm
Table 4-2
Drawing limits B
Figure 4-10
Limits for Printing a Scaled By placing dimensions on a separate layer, you
can control whether the dimensions display. In
Drawing (A), the dimension layer is displayed. In (B), it has
If you plan to scale the drawing to fit on the been frozen, so it does not show on the screen. If
drawing sheet, you should set the model space you print the drawing with the dimension layer
limits accordingly. For example, suppose you frozen, the layer will not print.
are working with a B-size sheet, and you plan
to print the drawing at a scale of 1:2. In other
words, your full-size drawing will be twice
as big as it will appear on the printed sheet. should be associated with them. Some com-
Therefore, your model-space limits should be panies even use their own drawing templates
twice the size of the B-size sheet, or 34 22. in which these layers have already been set
Table 4-2 shows common drawing limits for up. For instructional purposes, this textbook
drawings of different sizes and scales. will use a generic set of layers. These layers are
shown in Table 4-3.
Working with Layers
All CAD programs, including AutoCAD, Creating a New Layer
have a system of layers that gives the CAD To set up new layers in a drawing, enter the
operator much greater control over a draw- LAYER command. Look closely at the contents
ing. A layer is similar to a transparent paper of the dialog box. The 0 layer is the default
overlay. By setting up a layer for dimensions, layer. Notice that several properties are listed
for example, the CAD operator can control for each layer, including:
whether dimensions are displayed by turn- • layer name
ing the layer on and off, or by “freezing” and • on or off
“thawing” it, as shown in Figure 4-10. • frozen or thawed
Most companies have rules about what lay- • layer color
ers to use, what to call them, and what colors • linetype

• line weight
• plot style
• plot (whether the layer plots when the
drawing is printed)
Some versions of AutoCAD have addi-

tional properties, but those listed here are
common to all versions. One of the standard
layers used in this textbook is the Objects
layer. This layer will be used for all of the vis-
ible lines of the part or object. Therefore, you
already know that it will need to be a solid
(or continuous) line that is .30 mm thick. To
create a new layer named Objects, click the
New button in the dialog box. A new layer
appears in the window, and the layer name
is highlighted. Type the word Objects in the
layer name box.
Setting the Layer Color Figure 4-11

By default, new layers in AutoCAD are Colors can be used to distinguish visually the
white. To set the color for a layer, pick White different elements in a CAD file.
or the color box for that layer. A color palette
appears. To choose a different color, just pick
a color and pick OK. However, because this is
the Objects layer, leave it white. various colors, but set up a plot style to print
Colors are used in CAD programs to help them all in black ink. Therefore, the color of
the CAD operator distinguish among the a layer may or may not determine the color
layers. See Figure 4-11. Some companies of the lines on that layer when the drawing is
prefer to use white for all of their layers. Oth- printed. This is up to the individual drafter or
ers establish company-wide standards. For company.
example, they may declare that all electrical
wiring will be on a blue layer named Electr. Selecting the Linetype
These colors may or may not print, depend- AutoCAD gives new layers a continu-
ing on the plot setting and the printer being ous linetype by default, so the Objects
used. It is also possible to set up the layers in layer is already set up for the correct line-
type. However, as you can see in Table 4-3,
you will need to change it for some of the
Name Color Linetype Line Weight other layers. To do so, click the word Con-
tinuous. A dialog box appears from which
Objects White Continuous .30 mm
you can change the linetype, but notice
Dimensions Red Continuous .18 mm
that you have no other choices. To load
Hidden Lines White Hidden .18 mm other standard linetypes into the drawing,
Centerlines Blue Center .18 mm pick the Load button. Another dialog box
Notes Magenta Continuous .18 mm appears, allowing you to select from several
ISO and ASME linetypes. To load the ISO
Border White Continuous .18 mm
standard dashed line, for example, choose
Viewports Magenta Continuous .18 mm
ISO02W100 ISO Dash and pick OK. The line-
type becomes available for use in the draw-
Table 4-3 ing. To choose the ASME standard dashed
Layers for drafting problems line for hidden lines, scroll down to Hidden,
pick it, and pick OK.

Figure 4-12
AutoCAD provides Loading Linetypes
many standard line You will usually know in advance
widths. which linetypes you will need for a
drawing. It is more efficient to load
all of the needed lines at one time,
before you close the dialog box. After
adding each linetype, pick the Load
button again to choose another one.
Some versions of AutoCAD allow you
to load all available linetypes by pick-
ing a Load All button. When you have
finished, select the linetype you need
for the current layer. Then, select
Selecting the Line Width OK to return to the dialog box for
The default line width in AutoCAD is 0. managing layers.
This does not mean that the line does not
print. However, the width of the line is not
defined. You can and should define the width
of the lines on your drawings. To do so, pick Finishing Layer Setup
the word Default in the Line Width column Now finish the layer setup for your draw-
for the Objects layer. ing by creating the other layers listed in Table
AutoCAD specifies all of its line widths in 4-3. Be sure to give each layer the properties
millimeters, as shown in Figure 4-12. Visible shown in the table. Then enter the Save com-
lines in CAD are generally made at a width of mand to save the drawing file. Because of the
.12, or .30 mm. Select .30 mm from the list settings chosen in this example, a suitable
of line widths, and pick OK to apply it to the name for this file in Chapter 4 ASME B Full
Objects layer. Scale, or use a name given by your instructor.

After You Read 3. On an 8½ 11 inch sheet of grid paper
(inch or metric), sketch the borders
and title block shown in Figure 4-6 or
Self-Check 4-9 as assigned by your instructor. All
1. Describe the procedure for preparing a guidelines for lettering should be very
drawing sheet for a technical drawing. thin and light; all other lines should be
thick, sharp, and black.
Academic Integration 4. If you have access to a computer with
English Language Arts CAD software, follow the procedure you
2. Write a one-page essay explaining just read about to set up an ASME B-size
the different parts of a sheet layout. drawing sheet that includes borders and
Use Content Vocabulary terms and title block. Experiment with other sheet
other information from this section to sizes. What are the dimensions of a
explain each part of the layout. B-size sheet?

for help with this drafting practice.

4.2 Creating a Drawing
Preview When preparing to draw, it is important to know how to use the basic tools. As you read
this section, have your drawing tools or computers ready, so you can practice the various techniques.
Content Vocabulary
• inking • hidden lines • symmetrical • polyline • grid
• alphabet of lines • centerlines • Ortho mode • radius • viewports
• inclined lines • line weight • polar • snap
coordinates
Academic Vocabulary
Learning this word while you read this section will also help you in your other subjects and tests.
• differentiate
Graphic Organizer
On a chart like the one below, list the basic ASME and ISO standards you will need to follow when
drafting in CAD.
ASME Standards ISO Standards

Academic Standards
Science NCTE National Council of
Teachers of English
Science and technology in local, national, and global challenges (NSES) NCTM National Council
of Teachers of
Mathematics
Mathematics
Geometry Use visualization, spatial reasoning, and geometric modeling to solve problems (NCTM) Education Standards
English Language Arts Drafting Association
ANSI American National
Read texts to acquire new information. (NCTE) Standards Institute
Industry Standards
ADDA Section 1
Functional/Simplified Drafting (ASME Y14.3M, ANSI Y14.4, ANSI Y14.6)
Section 4.2 Creating a Drawing 101

grade mark, being careful not to cut the lead.
Ted Mishima
Working with Drafting Leave about half an inch (13 mm) exposed.
Pencils and Pens Then shape the lead to a long, conical point.
Do this by rubbing the lead back and forth on
When using drawing tools, why is it
a sandpaper pad or on a long file, while turn-
important to keep the drawing neat
ing it slowly to form the point, as shown in
and clean?
Figure 4-13B and 4-13C. Some drafters pre-
Techniques for using drafting pencils are fer the flat point, or chisel point, shown in
somewhat different from those for using tech- Figure 4-13D. Keep the sandpaper pad or file
nical pens. Unlike pencil marks, ink must be at hand, so that you can sharpen the point
allowed to dry before it can be touched. This often, as shown in Figure 4-14.
affects the way the instrument should be held, Mechanical sharpeners have special drafter’s
as well as the order in which the lines should cutters that remove the wood, as shown in
be drawn. Figure 4-15. Special pointers are made for
shaping the lead, as in Figure 4-16. Such
Sharpening the Pencil
To sharpen a wooden pencil, cut away the
wood at a long slope, as shown in Figure
4-13A. Always sharpen the end opposite the

Sharpening the pencil properly is important. A drafter’s pencil sharpener cuts the wood,
not the lead.
Figure 4-14
Rub the pencil
on a sandpaper
pad, turning
it slowly, to
achieve a
conical point.
BEFORE AFTER
Figure 4-16
The lead pointer allows a choice of point shapes.

uniform and keep the point from wearing
Courtesy of Staedtler Inc.

down unevenly.
Inking Techniques
Inking is the process of creating techni-
cal drawings using technical pens. Techniques
for inking are slightly different from those
for drawing in pencil. Hand position and the
order in which items are drawn are affected
by the fact that ink, unlike pencil, must be
allowed to dry to help avoid smudges.
Figure 4-17 shows the correct position
for drawing lines with a technical pen. Hold
the technical pen in a nearly vertical position,
perpendicular to the drawing surface, to get
the most uniform line.
Using Erasers
Use soft erasers to clean soiled spots or light
pencil marks from drawings. Keep in mind
that regular ink erasers often contain grit.
Figure 4-17 If you use these erasers at all, use them very
carefully to keep from damaging the drawing
The position of the technical pen is important
surface.
when drawing lines.
The ink used on polyester drafting film is
waterproof. However, you can easily remove
ink from the film by rubbing it with a moist-
devices may be hand-operated or electrically ened plastic eraser or by using an electric eras-
powered. ing machine. Do not apply pressure when
Mechanical pencils hold plain sticks of lead rubbing. The polyester film does not absorb
in a chuck that allows the exposed lead to be ink, so all ink dries on top of its highly fin-
extended various lengths. The lead for most ished surface. Remove ink from other surfaces,
lead holders should be shaped in the same such as tracing vellum or illustration board,
way as the lead in wooden pencils. Some refill with regular ink erasers or chemically treated
pencils have a built-in sharpener that shapes ink erasers that absorb ink. Press lightly with
the lead. strokes in the direction of the line to remove
Never sharpen a pencil over the drawing ink caked on the surface. Too much pressure
board. After you sharpen a pencil, wipe the lead damages the surface and makes it hard to
with a cloth or a Styrofoam™-type “stab-it” to revise the drawing.
remove the dust. Being careful in these ways When working on paper or cloth, erase
will help keep the drawing clean and bright. lines along the direction of the work. On film,
always erase across the direction of the work.
Techniques for Using a Drafting Always erase carefully to avoid marring the
Pencil finish on the drawing sheet. Use an erasing
Pencil lines must be clean and sharp; not shield to protect nearby lines and areas that
fuzzy. They must be dark enough for the views you do not want to erase.
to be seen when standard line widths are used.
If you use too much pressure, you will groove
the drawing surface. You can avoid this by
using the correct grade of lead. Contrast Explain how using a drafting
Rotate the pencil between your thumb and pencil differs from using a drafting pen.
forefinger as you draw to help make the line

THICK THICKNESS MAY VARY
VISIBLE LINE TO SUIT SIZE OF
DRAWING
THIN DASHES .12±

HIDDEN LINE VISIBLE LINE HIDDEN LINE SPACES .03±
CENTERLINE THIN EVENLY SPACED

ON SECTION VIEW
SECTION LINE
LONG DASHES
THIN
.75 TO 1.50±;
CENTERLINE SHORT DASHES .06±
SECTION LINE
CUTTING-PLANE LINE EXTENSION LINE EXTENSION LINE
EXTENDS BEYOND
THIN DIMENSION LINE .12±
LEADER
THIN
LEADER Ø.375 DIMENSION LINE

THIN
2.50 UNBROKEN EXCEPT AT
DIMENSION LINE
FIGURE; ARROWHEADS
AT ENDS
UNBROKEN DIMENSION
1.62 2'–3 THIN LINE WITH FIGURE
DIMENSION LINE ABOVE USED FOR CIVIL
EXTENSION LINE AND ARCHITECTURAL
DIMENSION LINE DRAWINGS
LONG DASHES .75

TO 1.50±; SHORT
THICK DASHES .12±;
CUTTING-PLANE LINE OR VIEWING-PLANE LINE SPACES .06±
SHORT-BREAK LINE
THICK EQUAL DASHES .25±
CUTTING-PLANE LINE OR VIEWING-PLANE LINE
THICK FREEHAND LINE FOR

SHORT BREAKS
SHORT-BREAK LINE
LONG-BREAK LINE THIN RULED LINES WITH

FREEHAND ZIGZAGS
LONG-BREAK LINE FOR LONG BREAKS
TRAVEL
THIN LONG DASHES .75

TO 1.50±; SHORT
PHANTOM LINE DASHES .12±
FOR ALTERNATE
PHANTOM LINE POSITIONS, REPEATED
DETAIL, ETC.
Figure 4-18
Alphabet of lines

other material. Always keep the point of the
Ted Mishima
Alphabet of Lines lead a little distance away from the corner
Why is the term “alphabet” used to between the guiding edge and the drawing
describe the various lines used in drafting? surface, as shown in Figure 4-20. This will
let you see where you are drawing the line.
The different lines or line symbols used
It will also help you avoid making a poor or
on drawings form a kind of graphic alphabet
smudged line. Be careful to keep the line par-
commonly known as the alphabet of lines.
allel to the guiding edge.
The line symbols recommended by ASME are
shown in Figure 4-18. Two line widths–thick
and thin—are generally used. Drawings are
easier to read when there is good contrast
among different line widths. All lines must be
uniformly sharp and black.
Explain Why does the alphabet of lines

utilize two different line widths?
Techniques for Drawing

Lines
Why does line drawing require special
instruments?
The sections that follow discuss basic draw-

ing techniques. Additional, more complex
techniques will be presented in later chapters.
Figure 4-19
Horizontal Lines Drawing a horizontal line.
To draw a horizontal line, use the upper
edge of the T-square blade as a guide. With
your left hand, place the head of the T-square
in contact with the left edge of the board.
Keeping the head in contact, move the T- GUIDE (T-SQUARE
OR TRIANGLE) 90°
square to the place you want to draw the line.
Slide your left hand along the blade to hold
SPACE TILT PENCIL
it firmly against the drawing sheet. Hold the SLIGHTLY FOR
EXTREME ACCURACY
pencil about 1" (25 mm) from its point. Slant
it in the direction in which you are drawing
the line. (This direction should be left to right 60° TO 75°
ON PAPER 55° TO 65°
for right-handers and right to left for left- OR CLOTH ON FILM
handers.) While drawing the line, rotate the
pencil slowly and slide your little finger along
POSITION OF PENCIL
the blade of the T-square, as shown in Figure VIEWED FROM THE FRONT
4-19. This will give you more control over the
pencil. Figure 4-20
On film, keep the pencil at the same angle
To ensure accurate drawing, position the pencil
(55° to 65°) all along the line. You must also as shown here.
use less pressure on film than on paper or

Ted Mishima
Vertical Lines
Use a triangle and a T-square to draw verti-
cal lines, as shown in Figure 4-21. Place the
head of the T-square in contact with the left
edge of the board. Keeping the T-square in
contact, move it to a position below the start
of the vertical line. Place a triangle against the
T-square blade. Move the triangle to where
you want to begin the line. Keeping the verti-
cal edge of the triangle toward the left, draw
upward. Slant the pencil in the direction in
which you are drawing the line. Be sure to
keep this angle the same when you are draw-
ing on film. Keep the point of the lead far
enough out from the guiding edge so you can
Figure 4-21 see where you are drawing the line. Be careful
Drawing a vertical line to keep the line parallel to the guiding edge.
Inclined Lines
Inclined lines are lines drawn at an
angle that is neither horizontal nor vertical.
Decimal Degrees
Degrees convert directly to
It is becoming a more common practice to
the same number of decimal degrees. Min-
specify angles in decimal degrees rather than
utes will be divided by 60 minutes per degree
degrees, minutes, and seconds. Convert
to arrive at the decimal degree, and seconds
the following measurements into decimal
will be divided by 3600 seconds per degree to
degrees.
arrive at the decimal degree.
Decimal Degree Equivalent Example:
Degrees, Minutes
Decimal Degrees Convert 25°3036 to decimal degrees.
and Seconds 25° 25.00 degrees
0°45 30 .50 degrees
0°014 (30 minutes / 60 minutes per degree .50)
25°3036 36 .01 degrees
(36 seconds / 3600 seconds per degree 01)
25°030
25.51 degrees
Academic Standards For math help, go to the Math

Appendix located at the back of
Mathematics
this book.
Select, apply, and translate among mathematical
representations to solve problems. (NCTM)

They are drawn using triangles, a protractor, Lines Inclined at 15° Increments
or a drafting machine. The 45° and 30-60° triangles, alone or
together and combined with a T-square, can
30°, 45°, and 60° Lines be used to draw angles increasing by 15° from
Angles are measured in degrees, min- the horizontal or vertical line. Some ways of
utes, and seconds. You can draw lines placing the triangles to draw angles of 15° and
at 30°, 45°, or 60° angles from the hori- 75° are shown in Figure 4-24.
zontal or vertical by using the triangles.
Lines inclined at 30° and 60° are drawn
with the 30°-60° triangle held against the
T-square blade, as shown in Figure 4-22 90°
8 ANGLES AT
or against a horizontal straightedge. The 45° 45° = 360°
90° 90°
30°-60° triangle can also be used to lay off 90°
equal angles, 6 at 60° or 12 at 30°, about a

center point.
To draw lines inclined at 45° from hori-
zontal or vertical lines, hold the triangle A B C
against the T-square blade, as shown in
Figure 4-23, or against a horizontal
straightedge. The 45° triangle can also be
used to lay off eight equal angles of 45° Figure 4-23
about a center point.
The 45° triangle has angles of 45° and 90°.
60°
6 ANGLES AT 15°
15°
60° = 360° 75°
60° 75° 75°
75°
15° 15°
15° 15°
75° 75°
75°
75° 15° 15°
15°
A B C D
90° 15° 15°

60° 90°
60° 75° 75°
30° 30° 75°
75°
30° 30° 30°
60° 15° 15°
90° 15° 15°
60° 90°
75° 75°
12 ANGLES AT
30° = 360°
C D A B

The 30°-60° triangle has angles of 30°, 60°, Drawing lines at 15° and 75° using the two
and 90°. triangles

Techniques for Special Lines that are made up of short dashes, as shown in
Figure 4-25. Notice in Figure 4-25A that
and Surfaces the first dash of a hidden line touches the line
To describe an object fully, you must show where it starts. If a hidden line is a continua-
every feature in each view, whether or not it tion of a visible line, space is left between the
can ordinarily be seen. You must also include visible line and the first dash of the hidden line
other lines that are not actually part of the (see Figure 4-25B). If the hidden lines show
object to clarify relationships and positions in corners, the dashes touch the corners, as shown
the drawing. To reduce confusion, special line in Figure 4-25C.
symbols, or linetypes, are used to differentiate Dashes for hidden arcs start and end at the tan-
between object lines and lines that have other gent points, as shown in Figure 4-26A. When
special meanings. a hidden arc is tangent to a visible line, leave a
space, as shown in Figure 4-26B. When a hid-
Hidden Lines den line and a visible line project at the same
It is necessary to describe every part of an place, show the visible line. See Figure 4-26C.
object. Therefore, every detail must be repre- When a centerline and a hidden line proj-
sented in each view, whether or not it can be ect at the same place, draw the hidden line, as
seen. Both interior and exterior features are shown in Figure 4-27A. When a hidden line
projected in the same way. Parts that cannot be crosses a visible line as in Figure 4-27B, do
seen in the views are drawn with hidden lines not cross the visible line with a dash. When
ARCS END AT TANGENT POINT

NO SPACE A
SPACE
B
SPACE
B SPACE
NO SPACE
SPACE
C
C
DASHES TOUCH SHOW FULL LINE

Treatment of hidden lines Treatment of hidden arcs

hidden lines cross, the nearest hidden line
has the “right of way.” Draw the nearer hid- A
den line through a space in the farther hidden
line, as in Figure 4-27C.
SHOW HIDDEN LINE — NOT C
Centerlines
Centerlines are special lines used to
locate views and dimensions (see the alpha-
bet of lines, Figure 4-18). Primary centerlines,
marked P in Figure 4-28, locate the center on
symmetrical views in which one part is a mir- B
ror image of another. Primary centerlines are
used as major locating lines to help in making FULL LINE IN FRONT
the views. They are also used as base lines for SPACE
dimensioning. Secondary centerlines, marked

S in Figure 4-28, are used for drawing details
of a part.
Primary centerlines are the first lines to be
drawn. The views are developed from them.
Note that centerlines represent the axes of
C
cylinders in the margin view. The centers of
circles and arcs are located first so that mea- LEAVE SPACE FOR NEAREST LINE
surements can be made from them to locate
the lines on the various views. As you may
recall from the previous section, when a hid-
den line falls on a centerline, the hidden line
is drawn. When a hidden line falls on a visible
line, draw the visible line. Figure 4-27
Technique for presenting hidden and visible
lines
Identify What drafting tools are used to

draw vertical lines?
P
CL
S S
S
S
P
Figure 4-28
S S
Primary and
secondary CL = CENTERLINE
P = PRIMARY CENTERLINE
centerlines S = SECONDARY CENTERLINE

Ann Garvin
Working with Drawing
Instruments
How can you further improve the accuracy
of your drawings? NEEDLE - POINT
LEG
PENCIL
The correct use of drawing instruments LEG
plays an important role in creating an accu- PERPENDICULAR
TO SURFACE
rate drawing. The following paragraphs
explain how to use the basic drawing
instruments.
Using the Dividers RADIUS OVER 2"

To transfer a distance using the dividers,
adjust the points to exactly the length to be Figure 4-30
transferred, such as the radius of a circle or the
Adjusting the compass for large circles
length of a line. Transfer the length by posi-
tioning the dividers at a new location.
You can also use the dividers to divide a
line, arc, or circle into equal parts. For exam- the points of the dividers by an amount
ple, to divide a line into three equal parts: about one third the distance. Then start
at the beginning of the line again.
1. Adjust the points of the dividers until
6. If the last point overruns the end of the
they seem to be about one third the
line, decrease the distance between the
length of the line. To adjust the divid-
points by one third the extra distance.
ers, hold them between your thumb
and index finger. Set them to the desired For four, five, or more spaces, follow the
radius using your third and fourth fin- same rules, but correct by one fourth, one
gers, as shown in Figure 4-29A. fifth, etc., of the overrun or underrun. You
2. Put one point on one end of the line and can divide an arc or circle in the same way.
the other point on the line, as shown in
Figure 4-29B. Using the Compass
3. Turn the dividers about the point that As you may recall from Chapter 3, the com-
rests on the line, as in Figure 4-29C. pass is used to draw regular curves, such as
4. Then turn them in the alternate direc- circles and circular arcs. Leave the legs of the
tion, as in Figure 4-29D. compass straight for radii under 2 (50 mm).
5. If the last point falls short of the end of For larger radii, make the legs perpendicu-
the line, increase the distance between lar (at a 90° angle) to the paper, as shown in
A B C D
Figure 4-29
The dividers are used to divide and transfer distances.

Ted Mishima
LENGTHENING BAR
DRAWING SURFACE
.38 +
NEEDLE POINT EXTENDS SLIGHTLY

BEYOND THE LEAD POINT

Use the lengthening bar in compasses for circles Adjusting the point of the compass
and arcs of large radii.
Figure 4-30. When you need a radius of more 1. Locate the center of the arc or circle by
than 8" (200 mm), insert a lengthening bar as drawing two intersecting, or crossing, lines.
shown in Figure 4-31 to increase the length 2. Lay off the radius by a short, light dash,
of the pencil leg, or use a beam compass. as shown in Figure 4-33A.
To get the compass ready for use, sharpen 3. Adjust the compass setting to the radius,
the lead as shown in Figure 4-32, allowing as shown in Figure 4-33B.
it to extend about .38" (10 mm). Then adjust 4. When the radius is set, raise your fin-
the shouldered end of the needle point until gers to the handle, as shown in Figure
it extends slightly beyond the lead point, 4-33C.
as shown in Figure 4-32. You cannot use as 5. Turn the compass by twirling the handle
much pressure on the lead in the compass as between your thumb and finger. Start the
you can on a pencil. Therefore, use lead one arc near the lower side and turn clockwise,
or two degrees softer in the compass to get as shown in Figure 4-33D. As you draw
the same line weight. Line weight refers to the curve, slant the compass a little in the
the thickness and darkness of a line. direction of the line. Do not force the nee-
To draw a circle or an arc with the compass, dle point into the paper. Use only enough
follow these steps: pressure to hold the point in place.
A B C D
Figure 4-33
Technique for drawing circles and arcs

Ann Garvin, Arnold and Brown
Using the Bow Instruments
Bow Pencil
The bow pencil is used to draw small cir-
cles. Whether you use instruments with cen-
ter wheels or with side wheels is up to you.
Sharpen and adjust the lead for the bow pen-
cil, as shown in Figure 4-34A. The inside
bevel holds an edge for small circles and arcs,
as shown in Figure 4-34B. For larger radii,
the outside bevel shown in Figure 4-34C
is better. Some drafters prefer a conical cen-
ter point or an off-center point, as shown in
Figure 4-34D, E, and F. A B
Use the bow pencil with one hand. Set Figure 4-35
the radius as shown in Figure 4-35A. Start
Adjusting the radius for the bow pencil compass
the circle near the lower part of the vertical
centerline, as shown in Figure 4-35B. Turn
clockwise. (Left-handers will need to reverse to open. Make small adjustments with the
this procedure.) adjusting nut on both the side-wheel and the
center-wheel bows.
Drop-Spring Bow Compass
Use the drop-spring bow compass to draw
very small circles, as shown in Figure 4-36.
Attach the marking point to a tube that slides List What are the steps involved in drawing a
on a pin. Set the radius with the spring screw. small circle with a drop-spring bow compass?
To use the drop-spring bow compass, first
set the radius with the adjusting screw. Keep
the pin still and turn the lead around it. Hold Using Irregular Curves
the marking point up while putting the pin To use an irregular curve, find the points
on the center. Then drop the marking point through which a curved line is to pass. Then
and turn it. set the path of the curve by drawing a light
line, freehand, through the points. Adjust it
Adjusting Bow Instruments as needed to make the curve smooth. Next,
You can make large adjustments quickly match the irregular curve against a part of
with the side-wheel bows by pressing the fork
and spinning the adjusting nut. Some center-
wheel bows are also built for making large, Figure 4-36
rapid adjustments. To do this, hold one leg The drop-spring
in each hand and either push to close or pull bow compass is
used for drawing
very small circles,
Figure 4-34 especially when
Bevels and points there are many to
be drawn.
A B C D E F

2
SECOND POSITION
B
FIRST POSITION
A
3
2
1
THIRD POSITION
C
Figure 4-37
Steps in drawing a smooth curve
the curved line, as shown in Figure 4-37A, dimensions and notes on the assignment draw-
and draw part of the line. Move the irregu- ings. For example in Problem 6, Figure 4-55A,
lar curve to match the next part, and so on, you will notice such things as 2X, R44, and
as shown in Figure 4-37B and C. Each new Ø54. The 2X is used to specify two times or two
position should fit enough of the part just places. The 2X in a dimension or note means
drawn to make the line smooth. Note whether that the item being specified appears twice on
the radius of the curved line is increasing or that view or drawing. It eliminates the need to
decreasing and place the irregular curve in the repeat the dimension for each detail that has
same way. Do not try to draw too much of the identical size and shape.
curve with one position. If the curved line is The R44 specifies a radius of 44 millimeters
symmetrical, or mirrored around an axis, and the Ø54 specifies a diameter of 54 milli-
mark the position of the axis or centerline on meters. Notice that there is no space between
the irregular curve on one side. Then turn the the number and the symbol or abbreviation.
irregular curve around to match and draw the Notice also that, except for the use of the let-
other side. ter X, abbreviations and symbols are placed
before the size dimension. Also, there is no
space between the symbol or abbreviation
Applying Drawing Skills and the size dimension.
How do abbreviations and symbols help in Symbols and abbreviations are a form of
drafting? drafter’s shorthand. They reduce the amount of
time and space needed to provide critical infor-
As you begin to work on the drawing prob- mation on the drawing. A list of the most com-
lems at the end of the chapter, you will notice monly used abbreviations and symbols can be
the use of various abbreviations and symbols in found in Appendix A.

Applying Basic Drawing Skills 7. Draw the vertical lines with T-square
and triangle by setting the pencil on the
Follow the procedure below to complete the
marks on the bottom line and starting
template drawing shown in Figure 4-38A.
and stopping the lines on the proper hor-
1. Begin with an 11.00 17.00 drawing izontal lines, as shown in Figure 4-38E.
sheet and prepare it with .40 borders on 8. Erase the lines not wanted (if necessary)
the left, right, and bottom and a .60 bor- and darken the lines of the figure to fin-
der on the top. ish the drawing. Figure 4-38F shows the
2. Measure 3.80 from the left border line, finished template. Do not add dimen-
and from this mark measure 8.50 toward sions unless instructed to do so.
the right.
3. Lay the scale on the paper vertically
near (or on) the left border line, make
a mark 2.50 up from the bottom bor-
der line, and from this measure up 5.50
Identify What does the notation ‶2X″
more. The sheet will appear as in Figure
indicate on a drawing?
4-38B.
4. Draw horizontal lines 1 and 2 with the T-
square and triangle, as shown in Figure
4-38C.
B
5. Lay the scale along the bottom line of
the figure, with the measuring edge on
the upper side, and make marks 1.70
apart. Then, with the scale on line 3 and
its measuring edge to the left, measure
from the bottom line two vertical dis-
tances, 2.50 and 1.50, as shown in Fig- C
1
ure 4-38D.
6. Through the two marks, draw light hori-
zontal lines.
3 4
2
Figure 4-38 D
Template for drawing practice
A
1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70
1.50
3.00
5.50
3.80 8.50
2.50

When you are finished, press Enter to leave
Working with CAD the LINE command.
Commands Horizontal and Vertical Lines
Which basic CAD commands are needed to
AutoCAD allows you to create perfectly
create a simple CAD drawing?
vertical and horizontal lines with very little
The commands in a CAD program are the effort. The Ortho mode forces every line
“tools” the CAD operator uses to create draw- you draw to be either vertical or horizontal,
ings. Instead of using a T-square and triangle as shown in Figure 4-39. To turn Ortho on,
to create a 45° line, for example, the CAD pick the Ortho button at the bottom of the
operator uses the LINE command to create the screen, or press the F8 function key on the
line and specifies a 45° angle. Commands vary keyboard.
among CAD programs, and sometimes even
among different versions of AutoCAD and Inclined Lines
AutoCAD LT. Therefore, if you see a command The simplest way to create inclined lines
in this text that does not appear in your soft- accurately is to use polar coordinates. Polar
ware, use the software’s Help feature to find coordinates include a specified distance and
out which command you should use instead. the angle at which the line should extend. For
However, within AutoCAD and AutoCAD LT, example, suppose you have already entered
most of the basic commands are the same. the LINE command and specified the first
The sections that follow explain how to use point. Typing @2.50<45 when AutoCAD
basic drawing commands in AutoCAD. As you prompts you for the next point creates a line
read each section, pause and try out the tech- that extends 2.50 units at 45 degrees.
nique in AutoCAD before continuing to read. Notice the required format for polar coordi-
nates. The @ symbol tells AutoCAD that this
Drawing Straight Lines coordinate will be relative to the last point
Draw straight lines in AutoCAD by entering entered. The @ is followed by the length of
the LINE command. The Command prompt the line. The < symbol represents “angle,” and
(at the lower left corner of the screen) asks the last number is the specified angle.
for the first point of the line. For now, use the
mouse to pick a point anywhere in the draw- Polylines
ing area. The prompt changes to ask for the All of the lines discussed so far, even those
next point. Pick another point, and another. whose ends join, are actually individual line
As you can see, you can continue picking segments. For many manufacturing uses, the
points to create line segments indefinitely. lines must be joined into a single line. Auto-
CAD makes this possible by providing a poly-
line. A polyline is a line of any length, with
any number of defining points, that is consid-
ered by the software to be a single line object,
as shown in Figure 4-40. Polylines can
contain straight segments, curved segments,
A B

The Ortho mode forces every line you draw to be Examples of
perfectly vertical or horizontal. In this illustration, polylines
the points shown in magenta represent the
actual points picked by the CAD operator.
The black lines show how AutoCAD draws the A
corresponding lines with Ortho off (A) and with
Ortho on (B).
B

or both. To create a polyline, use the PLINE accurate than just pointing to a place on the
command. Experiment with this useful com- screen to specify endpoints for lines, center
mand until you feel comfortable using it. points for circles, and so on. One way to pro-
The options that appear at the Command duce lines that meet exactly and are exactly
line after you enter the first point of a polyline the right length is to use coordinate entry.
extend its usefulness. The most frequently This is a fairly slow method, and it has a
used options for most applications are the major disadvantage: you must know or figure
Arc and Close options. Arc allows you to add out the exact coordinates for every defining
one or more curved segments to the polyline, point in the drawing.
and Close joins the last point you entered to Fortunately, there are easier ways. Auto-
the first point of the polyline. This creates a CAD provides two tools called snap and grid
perfectly closed shape, which is very impor- to help you select points accurately. Snap
tant for use with computer-aided manufactur- sets the distance intervals at which the cur-
ing (CAM) and computer numerical control sor moves when you move the mouse. For
(CNC) systems. example, a snap of .25 allows you to enter
points at exactly .25-unit intervals. While the
Drawing Circles and Arcs snap is on and set to .25, you cannot acciden-
Circles and arcs are easy to create in Auto- tally enter a point at .23 unit from the previ-
CAD. In general, to create a circle, use the ous point. Snap is like a magnet that attracts
CIRCLE command. To create an arc, use the points to the intervals you specify.
ARC command. To turn the snap on, pick the Snap but-
The easiest way to create a circle or arc is ton at the bottom of the screen or press the
to specify a center point and a radius. The F9 function key. To set the snap interval,
radius of a circle or arc is the distance from enter the SNAP command at the keyboard.
its center point to any point on the rim of You can set the X and Y intervals to the
the circle or arc (see Figure 4-41). However, same value or to different values. You can
you can also use other methods, depending also rotate snap to any angle, and you can
on how you need to incorporate the object specify whether you want a standard or
into the drawing. You can specify a center isometric snap.
point and diameter, for instance, or specify
two tangent objects and a radius. Experi-
ment with the options of the CIRCLE and
ARC commands until you feel comfortable
using them.
Using Snap and Grid

To create acceptable technical drawings, Coordinate Values
you must use techniques that are more While the LINE command is active,
move the mouse and watch the lower
left part of the screen. The coordinate
CENTER values of the cursor position appear
POINT
there. Double click the values to turn
the coordinates on and off. Enter the
LINE command and then turn the
coordinates on and off more than
once to notice that the coordinates
RADIUS can be shown either as coordinate
pairs or as polar coordinates. For most
Figure 4-41 work, polar coordinates are more use-
ful. Use the coordinates with the snap
The simplest way to create a circle in AutoCAD is and grid to make your work go faster.
to specify a center point and a radius.

Figure 4-42 This method can be used even in the middle
2.50
of many drawing commands, such as the
Setting snap and
LINE command. This makes it a quick and
grid values of .50
would help you easy way to correct mistakes without stopping
1.50
create this stencil to enter another command or losing your
for the letter H train of thought.
very quickly and
2.50
accurately.
1.50 2.50 1.50 Explain How do AutoCAD’s snap and grid

features allow for greater accuracy?
Grid produces a nonprinting grid of dots Creating the Layout in Paper

on the screen at intervals you specify. These
dots provide a visual reference for the CAD
Space
operator. To turn grid on or off, pick the GRID Unless you have used a template that
button at the bottom of the screen or press includes a pre-drawn or ISO border and title
the F7 function key on the keyboard. To set block, you will need to create these items in
the grid spacing, enter the GRID command at paper space before you can lay out the draw-
the keyboard. You can set the X and Y settings ing properly in paper space for printing.
to the same interval or to separate intervals 1. Pick the Layout1 tab at the bottom of
(using the Aspect option). You can also set the drawing area to activate it. Notice
them to correspond to the snap settings. that the stencil you created appears on a
By setting up snap and grid intervals that will paper-like background inside a rectangle.
be useful in your current drawing, you can cut In paper space, drawings actually appear
down on drawing time. For example, to create in viewports. Viewports are invisible
the stencil shown in Figure 4-42, you could set windows in the drawing area in which a
the snap and grid to equal intervals of .50. view of the drawing can be placed. The
rectangle is the default viewport. How-
Erasing ever, it is not the right size for an A-size
Erasing in AutoCAD takes two forms. You sheet.
can either use the ERASE command, or you can 2. Enter the ERASE command, select the
simply “undo” one or more of your actions. viewport, and press Enter to delete it.
When you enter the ERASE command, The stencil disappears also, because
AutoCAD asks you to select the objects to be model-space geometry requires a view-
erased. You can pick them one by one with port to display in paper space. However,
the mouse, or you can create a window by the stencil still exists in model space. You
picking two diagonal corners of a rectangle. will create a new viewport to display the
All objects inside the rectangle are selected for drawing properly, but first, you should
erasure. When you have finished selecting the add a border and title block.
objects to be erased, press Enter to complete 3. Switch to the Border layer by selecting it
the command. in the Layer Control drop-down box in
AutoCAD has a formal UNDO command the Layers toolbar or on the Dashboard.
that has several options. However, CAD oper- 4. Referring to the margin sizes in Table 4-1
ators usually just press the “u” key and then on page 93, use the LINE or PLINE com-
Enter. This causes AutoCAD to undo the last mand to create a border for a horizontal
action you took. If you press “u” again, Auto- A-size sheet.
CAD continues to undo the previous actions 5. Create a title block in the lower right cor-
sequentially. In this way, you can undo as ner of the drawing sheet, with its bottom
many steps as necessary until the drawing and right sides aligned with the border.
reaches the state at which it was last saved. 6. Switch to the Viewports layer.

7. Enter the VPORTS command to create a you have only to add the appropriate
new viewport. Select the Single option text to the title block.
and pick OK. 12. Enter the TEXT command and complete
8. Follow the prompts to create a rectangle the title block. Title the drawing STENCIL,
the size of the border you created earlier. put your school name in the COMPANY
This will be the new viewport. NAME AND ADDRESS block, specify a
The stencil now reappears, but it is drawing size of A and a scale of 1:1. In the
scaled arbitrarily to fit in the viewport. SHEET area, enter SHEET 1 OF 1.
We want it to display on the drawing 13. Right-click on the Layout1 tab to display
sheet at a scale of 1:1. the shortcut menu and select Rename.
9. Click once on the viewport (the magenta Give the layout a descriptive name such
rectangle) to select it. Then right-click as A – STENCIL.
and select Properties from the shortcut 14. Save the drawing.
menu to display the Properties palette.
10. Pick the box next to Standard scale to If a drawing will not fit on the drawing
activate the text box and display an sheet you have selected, you will need to use
arrow, as shown in Figure 4-43. Pick a different drawing scale. The procedure is the
the arrow and select 1:1 to set the draw- same as for creating a full-scale drawing. Just
ing scale. change the scale in the Properties palette to
11. If the stencil overlaps the title block, pick the correct scale.
the PAPER button on the status bar to
return to model space within the layout.
Printing the Drawing
After you have set up the drawing in paper
Enter the PAN command to move the
space and entered the appropriate informa-
stencil to a better location in the view-
tion in the title block, you are ready to print
port. Pick and hold with the mouse but-
the drawing.
ton while you move the geometry.
The stencil is now properly displayed 1. Enter the LAYERS command and pick the
at full scale. To complete the drawing, sun icon in the Viewports row to freeze
Figure 4-43
To change the scale
of a drawing in paper
space without changing
the size of the border
and title block, change
the properties at the
viewport in which the
drawing appears. (A)
Select Viewport to see
the list of properties for
the viewport. (B) Select
the scale at which you
want the drawing to
appear.

the Viewports layer. This will prevent the 1. Create a new drawing using AutoCAD’s
viewport rectangle from printing, but the ASME B template.
stencil in the viewport will plot because 2. Switch to model space and set up the
it is on the Objects layer. units. For this drawing, use decimal units
2. Enter the PLOT command. Check the with a length precision of two decimal
printer settings, and make sure the plot places and an angle precision of zero dec-
scale is set to 1:1. Then pick OK to print imal places.
the drawing. 3. Set the model-space limits. This drawing
will be printed at full size, so the limits
should equal the sheet size.
4. Create the appropriate layers. This is a
Explain How are viewports used to scale a fairly simple drawing that contains only
drawing in AutoCAD? visible lines. You will not dimension
this drawing, so you really only need an
Objects layer. Create the layer and set it
up for visible lines .30 mm thick. Leave
the layer color at White.
Applying the Concepts 5. Set the snap and grid. Review the tem-
In what ways are board-drafting techniques plate in Figure 4-45 and notice that all
different than CAD techniques? of the decimals are in multiples of .25.
Therefore, .25 would make a good setting
Practice is required to gain the skill for the snap and grid.
needed to create accurate technical draw- 6. Save the drawing before you proceed.
ings using CAD. The following procedure Give it a name that is easy to identify,
steps you through the process of creating a such as Chapter 4 Practice, or name it
drawing of the template shown in Figure according to your instructor’s directions.
4-44. This is the same drawing that is used 7. Refer again to Figure 4-45 to figure out
in the “Board Drafting Techniques” section where to start drawing. In this case, a
of this chapter. If you are completing both convenient place to start is the lower
procedures, notice the differences and simi- left corner of the template. Notice that
larities between the board drafting and CAD it is 3.25 from the left side of the bor-
techniques. der. This becomes the X coordinate for
1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75
1.50
3.00 Figure 4-44

Template for
5.50 drawing practice
3.75 8.75
2.25

prompt, for example, enter @8.75<0.
90° This draws an 8.75 horizontal line to the
right from the first point.
10. For the second point, you will need to do
ORIGIN
180° 0°
a minor calculation. The length of the
X AXIS line is the total length 5.50 less the 1.50
inset. Subtracting 1.50 from 5.50 equals
4.00, so the next line should be 4.00
drawn vertically bottom-to-top. There-
270°
Y AXIS fore, you should enter @4.00<90.
11. Calculate and enter the remaining val-
Figure 4-45 ues on your own. After you have entered
the last value, press Enter to end the
Polar coordinates. Notice that 0° lies to the right
LINE command. Your finished template
of the origin along the X axis. The angle value
increases counterclockwise through a complete should look like the one in Figure 4-45,
circle. without the dimensions.
12. Pick the layout view tab to see how the
drawing looks on the sheet layout. The
drawing should appear to be the correct
your starting point. It is 2.25 from the
size for the drawing sheet, but it may
bottom, so 2.25 becomes the Y coordi-
seem a little off-center. You can change
nate for the starting point. Therefore,
the position of the drawing on the draw-
the coordinates for the starting point are
ing sheet by selecting the viewport and
(3.75,2.25).
entering the PROPERTIES command.
There are two ways to proceed from here.
You can determine the exact coordinates • At the top of the dialog box, select Viewport.
of each of the remaining endpoints on the
drawing, or you can use polar coordinates.
The easier method, used in this exercise, is
the polar coordinates method. Figure 4-45
shows the polar values for the angles you will
need to specify. In general:
• A line drawn horizontally to the right has
an angle of 0°.
• A line drawn horizontally to the left has an
angle of 180°.
• A line drawn vertically bottom-to-top has
an angle of 90°.
• A line drawn vertically top-to-bottom has
an angle of 270°.
8. Enter the LINE command, and use the

mouse to move the cursor until the
coordinate display in the lower left
corner shows the coordinates to be
3.75,2.25,0.00. (The third number is for
three-dimensional drawings only, so you
can ignore it for this drawing. Its value Figure 4-46
will always be 0.00.) Click to set the first The properties Center X and Center Y allow you
point of the line at 3.75,2.25. to center the drawing on the drawing sheet for a
9. Work counterclockwise to draw the lines pleasing display.
for the template. At the first Next point

• Scroll down the list until you see Center X • The origin of the line is the current hori-
and Center Y, as shown in Figure 4-46. zontal or vertical center.
These refer to the horizontal and vertical • Move the mouse and click to select a new
centers of the drawing. center.
• You can change the defaults either by
entering a new numerical value or by using 13. Save the drawing file. If your instruc-
the mouse. tor requires a printed copy, print the
• To use the mouse, pick the icon at the right drawing. See pages 118 and 119 under
of the current value. A line appears in the the heading “Printing the Drawing”
viewport. for more instructions on printing a
drawing.

After You Read 7. Draw the item shown in Figure 4-47
below. Use the specified sheet size and
scale. Do not dimension.
Self-Check
1. List the basic drafting tools and equip- .75
ment used by the drafter. 1.75 7.00
2. Name the line and line symbols recom- 5.00 1.50 5.50
mended by ASME.
3. Identify the basic commands used to
set up a drawing on a CAD system. 5.50 3.25
4. Describe the correct hand positions for 12.00
drawing lines with a technical pen and
SHEET SIZE: B
with a drafting pencil. SCALE: FULL SIZE
5. List the steps used to draw a circle with
a compass. Figure 4-47
Academic Integration 8. Draw the frame shown in Figure 4-48.

Mathematics Locate all centerlines before beginning to
draw the frame.
6. Calculate Average Work Time Three
drafting students spent a total of four 4x R40 4x R60
hours working together to prepare a set 4x R30
of mechanical drawings. What is the

average number of minutes each student 60
1.00
spends on the drawings?
Use Variables and

Operations 268
134
Translating words into algebraic expres-

sions requires knowledge of the mean- Figure 4-48
ing of the verbal descriptions. In algebra,
a variable is a symbol used to represent a
number. Arithmetic operations include Go to glencoe.com for this
addition, subtraction, multiplication, book’s OLC for help with this
and division. If x = the average num- drafting practice.
ber of hours each worker spends on the
drawings, the algebraic expression for the
problem is 3x = (4 60).

Chapter Summary
• Preparing the drawing sheet includes • The use of a drafting pencil differs from
choosing an appropriate size and type of the use of a technical pen.
drawing sheet, fastening it to the drawing • The lines and line symbols used on draw-
board, and laying out the borders and title ings come from the alphabet of lines.
block. • Techniques for drawing circles, arcs, lines,
• Preparing a drawing file in CAD includes and inclined lines require the use of a
creating a new drawing, selecting a draw- compass, circle template, T-square, pro-
ing template for the appropriate standard tractor, drop-spring bow compass, dividers
sheet size, and setting up units, limits, and or triangle.
layers. • In a CAD system, the LINE, ORTHO, polar
• Layers in AutoCAD have specific proper- coordinate, and PLINE commands are
ties such as line width, linetype, and color. used to produce straight lines, vertical or
• Commands are the drafting tools used in horizontal lines, inclined lines, and to
a CAD program. join lines into a single line, respectively.
• Technical drawings created in CAD can The CIRCLE and ARC commands are
be printed using ASME or ISO standard used to produce circles and arcs. Grid and
layouts in paper space. snap commands produce lines that meet
exactly.

Content Vocabulary • layer (p. 98) • polar coordinates (p. 115)
• sheet layout (p. 91) • inking (p. 103) • polyline (p. 115)
• reference zones (p. 92) • alphabet of lines (p. 105) • radius (p. 116)
• revision history block (p. 92) • inclined lines (p. 106) • snap (p. 116)
• application blocks (p. 92) • hidden lines (p. 108) • grid (p. 117)
• drawing templates (p. 96) • centerlines (p. 109) • viewports (p. 117)
• model space (p. 96) • line weight (p. 111) Academic Vocabulary
• paper space (p. 96) • symmetrical (p. 113) • appropriate (p. 91)
• limits (p. 97) • Ortho mode (p. 115) • differentiate (p. 108)
Review Key Concepts

2. Describe how to prepare a drawing sheet for a technical drawing.
3. Define the alphabet of lines.
4. Explain how the use of the drafting pencil and pen differs.
5. Describe how to use the compass and the dividers.
6. Explain how the snap and grid tools function in AutoCAD.
7. Explain how basic geometry is created to produce a technical drawing with CAD commands.

Technology
8. Moving from Paper to Electronic Prep
The Bechtel Group is a large international
True/False Questions For
Directions Read the following
engineering and construction company.
statements and determine
Among many of its achievements are the
whether each statement is
Hoover Dam and the “Chunnel” that runs
true or false.
underneath the English Channel. As projects
11. Parts of a drawing that cannot be
are designed and reviewed, the company is
seen in the views are drawn with
migrating from paper to primarily electronic
centerlines.
drawings. For an international company with
T
marketing, legal, engineering, and construc-
F
tion groups, what advantages or disadvan-
12. A revision history block specifies revi-
tages do you think accompany this change?
sion dates and related information.
Write a one-page paper explaining your ideas.
T
F
TEST-TAKING TIP
9. Ethics and Design Read statements slowly and carefully. If any
You have been asked to design a desk that part of the statement is not accurate, then
will be used in schools nationwide. Your the entire statement is false. For the state-
manager asks you to consider the materi- ment to be true, every part must be true.
als that the desks will be made from. Plastic
laminates, wood, and particle board are some
of your options. What issues might you con-
sider in regard to construction costs, the
environment, and safety? Give a five-minute Win
presentation that details how you selected the Competitive
materials for your design.
Events
13. Job Interview
Mathematics Organizations such as SkillsUSA offer
10. Calculate Dimensions a variety of architectural, career, and
At her new job, Tina has been asked to cal- drafting competitions. Completing activ-
culate the dimensions of the boxes for a new ities such as the one below will help you
line of kitchenware. The volume of the boxes prepare for these events.
can be no more than 1,800 cubic inches. To Activity Imagine an interviewer says,
accommodate the products, the length must “Tell me about a mistake you made at
be 15 inches and the height 10 inches. What work, and how you handled it after-
should the width of the boxes be? wards.” Write four sentences describing
how you could answer this question in
Dimension and Volume a way that shows resourcefulness and a
To calculate the volume of a three-dimen- positive attitude.
sional figure, use the formula V l w h.
Use the information that you have to create Go to glencoe.com for this book’s
an equation for the volume of the box. Use OLC for more information about
w to represent the width. V 15 w 10. competitive events.
Solve for w.

4 Problems
Drafting Problems
The problems in this chapter can be performed using board drafting or CAD
techniques. The problems are presented in order of difficulty, from least to
most difficult. Begin by drawing a border and title block if instructed to do so.
1. Draw each item shown in Figure 4-49

using the specified sheet size and scale.
Do not dimension.
25
125 5.00 276 12

316
75 1.50
12
1.75 60 70
12 200 94
100 50 1.50 12412 200 12 96
200 8.00 416
METRIC A B METRIC C
SHEET SIZE: A4 SHEET SIZE: A SHEET SIZE: A4
SCALE: 1:1 SCALE: FULL SIZE SCALE: 1:2
4.80 6
6.00 6.26 .20

8.00 1.60 1.40 .40
1.50 1.00 1.50 1.00
1.75 1.50 1.75 1.50 .25 2.26
4.80 1.60 6.00 132 SQ

1.00
6.26 1.75 8.00 SQ 172
2.20 .20
4.00
5.00 1.40
.25
.40
•
1.00
1.50
.20 6 (TYP)
(TYP) SPACE LINES 15 SQUARE (TYP)
3 mm APART
D E F
SHEET SIZE: A SHEET SIZE: A SHEET SIZE: A4
SCALE: FULL SIZE SCALE: 3/4 SIZE SCALE: 1:1
METRIC
Figure 4-49

2. Draw the grill plate shown in Figure 4. Practice using a civil engineer’s scale by
4-50. Make all ribs 12 mm wide. The dis- drawing the land parcel shown in Figure
tance AB is 59 mm; BC is 88 mm; AD is 4-52. Measure the length of the closing
64 mm. The diamond shapes are 38 mm line to the nearest tenth of a foot and
square. Sheet size: A4. Scale: 1:1. note it on your drawing. Sheet size: B. 1
40-0.
F G AB = 600'
E 90°
C BC = 340'
105°
60° CD = 280'
D F DE = 105'
90° 90° EF = 100'
AB = 55 mm H
E BC = 90 mm FG = 75'
AD = 200 mm GH = 120'
AE = 65 mm HA = ?
CLOSING
AF = 130 mm LINE
K10 = 10 mm
A B C D Dimensions 40mm
75° 90°
METRIC
Figure 4-50 B A
Figure 4-52
3. The drawing in Figure 4-51 provides 5. Draw the head gasket shown in Figure
practice in metric measurement. Draw 4-53. Scale: 1:1.
horizontal line AB 180 mm long. Work
clockwise around the layout. Remem-
ber: Angular dimensions are the same in
AB = 90 mm
the U.S. Customary and metric systems. D
C = R60 mm
Measure the closing line and measure C F F C D = R40 mm
E E E = Ø60 mm
and label the angle at H. Sheet size: A4. A B
F = Ø90 mm
G = Ø20
Scale: 1:1.
F
E H D
60° 90° 90°
G – 7 HOLES
75° D
G
AB = 180 mm
C
90° CLOSING LINE
BC = 60 mm Figure 4-53
CD = 48 mm
DE = 42 mm
120° 75° EF = 74 mm
FG = 50 mm
B A GH = 90 mm
METRIC
Figure 4-51
Problems 125
4 Problems
6. Draw each item in Figure 4-54. Before you begin each drawing, determine a suitable sheet
size and scale. Include all centerlines. Do not dimension.
2X 4X
Ø24 R64 Ø54 Ø.62 R.75
R.56
2.50
4.50
.75
R44
150 METRIC 6.00
B 8.00
A
2X
R53.98/2.125
Ø38.10/1.50 4X
Ø16
EQUALLY Ø44
SPACED
Ø136 Ø98
R82.55/3.25
METRIC
C 127.00 MM; MM/IN. 10X18
5.00 IN. D 96
120
4X .70 3 2
1.00 30º 4 1 Ø76 72
.60 30° 3 2
.50 1.88
5 4 1
Ø1.88 15º
4X 4.00
15° 5 Ø58
Ø.62
R.62 6
2X R.80 6
77 0 0 Ø36
10X
Ø12 88 9 9
4.38 Note:
NOTE: numbers
NUMBERS AREare6 10mm high
mm HIGH
4.40 SQ
E
F METRIC
3X
Ø.56
Ø2.25 15.8 120.6 4X
.62 4.75 Ø19/.75
30°
Ø4.50
1.12 57.2
2.25
3.88 R.62 R9.53/.38

152.4 R19/.75
G 6.00
METRIC H MM
; MM/IN.
IN
Figure 4-54

7. Draw each item in Figure 4-55. Determine a suitable sheet size and scale. Include all center-
lines. Do not dimension.
2X
Ø44.45/1.75
180
82 60
28
58
58 112
29
3X Ø14
139.70
5.50
R57.15/2.25 MM ; MM/IN.
58
A B IN.
METRIC
R42 R1.12
R66 2X R1.12
Ø2.75 R2.00
R.50
R1.00
R12 88
R12 3.50
60° 60° 24 4X
Ø.75
96 48
190 3.38
C 7.50
METRIC D
Figure 4-55
8. Draw the offset bracket shown in Figure 4-56. Locate all center points before beginning to
draw circles and arcs. Do not dimension.
10.62
R1.12
R.62
R2.88
1.68 (2.25)
1.75 (7.12) 2X
O 1.00
Figure 4-56
Problems 127
4 Problems
9. Draw each item shown in Figure 4-57. Locate and mark points of tangency. Determine an
appropriate sheet size and scale. Include all centerlines. Do not dimension.
4.60
O .60
2.62 5 HOLES
POINT
EQUALLY SPACED
R2.12OF R 5.00
STRAIGHT TANGENCY POINTS OF 6.00
4.75 TANGENCY
LINE R.50
2.50 R3.50 2.50
R1.25 O 5.96
R 3.50 R 1.30 R.61
O 4.78
.06 1.00 .10
R2.50 1.38 .3
.25 1.28 O 3.40
5.50
11.00
11.00
A
1.00
O1.50 R 1.50
1.00
2x R .24
R.25 R 1.00
.75 R1.50 .50

.50
B
.50.50
R1.25 .50
O1.00
R 1.00 1.50
2.00
4.70 7X R6
30° 12
R64
C O30
R52
19
15°
O22 O16
30° 30° O34 86 METRIC
NOTE: SMALL RADII R6
Ø110
D
O.88
3 HOLES
EQUALLY SPACED
Ø76 Ø48
O3.20
O4.40
6X
R.80
O5.20 R1.00
E
METRIC
4X R8
F
Figure 4-57

10. Draw the multiple dial plate shown in 12. Draw the pawl shown in Figure 4-60.
Figure 4-58. Create the centerlines at Scale: 1:1.
2X R.50
right angles. Distances FC, FD, FG, FE,
EA, and GB are 6.00 each. The diameter
R3.00 2X
of the inner ring with center F is 4.50. R1.00
R.50
Diameters of all other inner rings are 5.50
4.00. Scale: 3 1-0 (1:4). .50

1.00
H 4X R.50
O1.00
C
1.00 2.50 4.00
8.50
A E F G B
Figure 4-60
Figure 4-58
11. Draw the double dial plate shown in 13. Draw the tilt scale shown in Figure 4-61.
Figure 4-59. Line AB = 7.00, and dis- Scale: 1:1.
tances AC, CD, and DB are equal. Radii
of inner arcs with centers at C and D R.30 2X R
R.20
1.50 and 1.70, respectively. Radii of R2.90
R 3.50
outer arcs with centers E and F are 3.70 R3.80

R2.00
30
30
and 3.90 respectively. Scale: Full size.
45
60 45
60
75 75
90
F
Figure 4-61
A C D B
Figure 4-59
Problems 129
4 Problems
F G G F
14. Construct the irregular poly-

gon shown in Figure 4-62. E 135° 105° 105° 135° E
Begin by drawing line AA 105° H H 105°

centered near the bottom of D D
the sheet. The length of each C C
I AA = 140
line is given in millimeters 60° 60°
AB = 90
at the right of the polygon. 270° BC = 80
75° 75° CD = 90
Scale: 1:2. B B DE = 40
150° 150° EF = 50
FG = 100
GH = 60
Figure 4-62 A A
15. Draw the wire rope hook shown in 16. Draw the adjustable link shown in
Figure 4-63 using the dimensions selected Figure 4-64. Scale: 1:1.
by your instructor. Determine the radii
necessary for smooth tangencies.
R. 40
2x R. 50
C
1.80 DIA
.750 DIA R. 80
15º
1.30
30º
D R 3.40
A
.88 DIA 1.50 TO TITLE BLOCK
R .70 4.00
5.60 TO BORDER
E METRIC
B
Figure 4-64
Wire Rope Hook

A B C D E
4.94 3.20 .88 1.06 .84
5.44 3.50 1.00 1.12 .90
6.25 4.10 1.12 1.25 1.12
6.88 4.54 1.25 1.38 1.30
7.62 4.88 1.38 1.50 1.38
8.60 5.75 1.50 1.70 1.56
9.50 6.38 1.16 1.88 1.70
Figure 4-63

R
Ø.38 SLOTS
17. Draw a gasket for the bottom
R.30 of the guide block shown
.38 .24 R.34
R.48 in Figure 4-65. It should
2.24 be shaped so that when cut
1.00
out, it will touch only the
1.12 metal surface on the bottom.
.24 .36 .43 Scale: 1:1.
3.96
6.50 ROUNDS AND FILLETS R.06
MATL – MALLEABLE IRON
2.36 .80
.2X
Ø.64
R.64
.38 1.80
.16
1.00
.36
Figure 4-65
Design Problems
teams of students. In these problems, you are to apply skills learned mainly
in this chapter, but also in other chapters throughout the text. The problems
are designed to be completed using board drafting, CAD, or a combination of
the two. Be creative and have fun!
Challenge Your Creativity Teamwork

1. Design a nightstand caddy to hold a 3. Design a fishing-tackle box. The design
watch, wallet, coins, jewelry, and other team should first make a list of items
items. First, sketch your design ideas and and quantities of items that the box is to
then prepare instrument or CAD drawings accommodate. Next, work in groups of
as assigned. Do not dimension. Material: two or three to design individual sections
Optional. of the box. Then work as a full team to
put the sections together into a finished
Teamwork box design. A cardboard version could
be made to help in visualizing the final
2. Design a drawer divider to hold CDs and
DVDs. Inside drawer size: 6 deep 12 design. Material: 22-gauge galvanized
wide 26 long. Material: Optional. Do sheet metal. Do not dimension.
not dimension. Each team member should
first develop design sketches. The entire
team should then select the best design
(or combined design). Finally, each team
member should prepare finished drawings
of the final design.
Problems 131
5 Geometry for Drafting
Section 5.1
Applied Geometry for
Board Drafting
Section 5.2
Applied Geometry for
CAD Systems
Chapter Objectives
• Identify geometric
shapes and construc-
tions used by drafters.
• Construct various
geometric shapes.
• Solve technical and
mathematical prob-
lems through geomet-
ric constructions using
drafting instruments.
• Solve technical and
mathematical prob-
lems through geomet-
ric constructions using
a CAD system.
• Use geometry to
reduce or enlarge a
drawing or to change
its proportions.
Defying Convention It
has been said that Zaha Hadid
has built a career on defying
convention—conventional ideas
of architectural space, and of
construction. What do you see
in the building shown here that
defies convention?
132
Drafting Career
Zaha Hadid, Architect
Architect Zaha Hadid’s designs for the Cincinnati

Contemporary Art Center were “like a rollercoaster,
a little scary, but exhilarating,” says Center direc-
tor Charles Desmarais. Critics said “she was a paper
architect, someone who had great respect as a theo-
rist and as a thinker about architecture but who
hadn't had the opportunity to build.”
“She totally got what we were trying to do,” said

Desmarais, “which was to try and bridge that sort
of gap between the inside and the outside, between
the world and the museum.” She certainly did. Zaha
Hadid is the first woman in the world to design a
museum and to win the prestigious Pritzker Architec-
ture Prize.

• Math
• Computer sciences
• Business management skills
• Verbal and written communication skills
• Organizing and planning skills
Career Pathways
There is a wealth of opportunities outside the
classroom for expanding your drafting knowledge.
Learn about annual drafting contests. Even if you
do not intend to apply, read about the projects.
Find groups such as the Solar-Powered Car Chal-
lenge; their ideas will inspire you.

about Zaha Hadid.
133
Zaha Hadid
5.1 Applied Geometry for Board
Drafting
Preview In this chapter, you will learn to construct geometric shapes using board drafting
techniques. Have you learned geometric terms and formulas in other courses?
Content Vocabulary
• geometry • vertex • parallel • circumscribe • ellipse
• geometric • bisect • polygon • regular
construction • perpendicular • inscribe polygon
Academic Vocabulary
tests.
• accurate • methods
Graphic Organizer
Use a table like the one below to organize the major concepts about the types of geometric
constructions.
Bisect Construct Lines Construct

1. Arc 1. Triangle 1.
2. 2. 2.
3. 3.
4.
5.
6.
Academic Standards
Students read a wide range of print and nonprint texts to build an understanding of texts (NCTE) NCTM National Council
of Teachers of
Mathematics
Mathematics
Students recognize and use connections among mathematical ideas (NCTM)
134 Chapter 5 Geometry for Drafting

Geometry and Geometric
Constructions 5
What do you need to be able to understand

geometric constructions?
B
4 C
Geometry is the study of the size and
90° 25
shape of objects, and of as the relationship 2 =
5
between straight and curved lines in draw- A
2
ing shapes. In ancient times, geometry 4 = 16
A2 + B2 = C 2
was used for measuring land and making 3 32 + 4 2 = C2
accurate right-angle, or 90-degree, corners 9 + 16 = 25
for constructing buildings and other proj-
32 = 9
ects. When building the great pyramids,
Ancient Egyptians formed right-angle cor- Figure 5-2
ners by using rope with marks or knots at
3-, 4-, and 5-space sections, and stretching The Pythagorean theorem shown graphically and
mathematically
the rope around carefully placed pegs driven
into the ground. (See Figure 5-1.)
In the sixth century BCE, the math- This method also works well for triangles
ematician Pythagoras studied this method that have the same proportions, such as 6, 8,
of forming right angles and proved the and 10 units:
theory that the 3-4-5 triangle makes a right
angle. This theorem (a2 + b2 = c2) or proof, 62 + 82 = 100
called the Pythagorean theorem, is shown in 36 + 64 = 100
Figure 5-2. 100 = 100
Figure 5-1
Egyptian rope-stretchers
used knots divided into
3-4-5 triangles to lay
out square corners for
buildings.
Section 5.1 Applied Geometry for Board Drafting 135

180°
STRAIGHT LINE POINT OF RIGHT
(SHORTEST DISTANCE INTERSECTION A ANGLE (90°)
A
BETWEEN TWO POINTS)
B B
INTERSECTING LINES
COMPLEMENTARY SUPPLEMENTARY ANGLES
PARALLEL LINES
ANGLES
HY
ALTITUDE
PO
SID
E
60° SI
SID
TE
DE
NU
SID
SE
60° 60° 90°
E
EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE BASE
SYMBOL FOR BASE
ALL SIDES EQUAL LENGTH ISOSCELES TRIANGLE
RIGHT ANGLE (90°) SCALENE TRIANGLE
TWO SIDES EQUAL LENGTH
SEMI-CIRCLE TANGENT ARC

QUADRANT
(ONE-QUARTER
OF A CIRCLE)
CHORD
DIAMETER
POINT OF
TANGENCY
S
IU
D
RA
SECTOR
TANGENT LINE
SEGMENT ANGLE
RIGHT ANGLES
IN A SEMI-CIRCLE
5 SIDES 6 SIDES
PENTAGON HEXAGON
CONCENTRIC CIRCLES ECCENTRIC CIRCLES
EQUAL OPPOSITE SIDES 7 SIDES 8 SIDES

SIDES ARE EQUAL
90° ANGLES 90° ANGLES

HEPTAGON OCTAGON
SQUARE RECTANGLE
EQUAL SIDES OPPOSITE SIDES

ARE EQUAL 9 SIDES 10 SIDES
OPPOSITE
ANGLES OPPOSITE ANGLES
ARE EQUAL ARE EQUAL
RHOMBUS RHOMBOID NONAGON DECAGON
TWO SIDES 12 SIDES

NO TWO SIDES
ARE PARALLEL
ARE PARALLEL
TRAPEZOID TRAPEZIUM DODECAGON
Figure 5-3
Dictionary of drafting geometry

The units may be millimeters, meters, Illustrations made of individual lines and
inches, fractions of an inch, or any other unit points drawn in proper relationship to one
of measure. Geometric figures used in drafting another are known as geometric con-
include circles, squares, triangles, hexagons, structions. Drafters, surveyors, engineers,
and octagons. Many other shapes are shown architects, scientists, mathematicians, and
in Figure 5-3. designers use geometric constructions.
To understand geometric constructions,
A2 ⫹ B2 ⫽ C2 you must understand how to describe various
32 ⫹ 42 ⫽ C2 lines, arcs, and other shapes. This chapter fol-
9 ⫹ 16 ⫽ 25 lows the identification rules used in geometry.
Geometry Formulas The diameter of a circle is 15″. What is the

In addition to solving drafting problems circumference?
using geometric constructions, drafters often
To find the circumference
need to be able to calculate various aspects of
of a circle, multiply pi (π) times the diam-
geometric constructions. While hundreds of
eter of the circle. The approximate decimal
these formulas exist, a few are given here as
equivalent of pi is 3.1416.
examples.
What is the area of triangle A where the base is Example:
10″ and the height is 7″? Circumference = πd
Circumference = 3.1416 × 2.50
To find the area of any tri- Circumference = 7.85
angle, multiply the base (b) times the height
(h) and divide by two. DIAMETER (d) = 2.50
Example:
Area = bh/2
Area = 2 × 6/2
Area = 6 square inches
ALTITUDE (h)
BASE (b)
2"
to the Math Appendix at the back of
6"
this book.
Academic Standards
Mathematics
and formulas to determine measurements (NCTM)

Lines and arcs are described using their end- A B
B
points. Therefore, line AB is a line segment LINE AB

ARC AB
that extends from point A to point B. Arc AB A
is an arc whose endpoints are A and B. Angles
A
are described using three points: both end-
points and the vertex, or the point at which B A
the two arms of the angle meet. Angle ABC
C
is an angle whose endpoints are A and C and ANGLE ABC CIRCLE A
whose vertex is at point B. Circles are usually
specified using their center points, so circle Figure 5-4
A is a circle whose center is at point A. See
Identification of lines, angles, arcs, and circles
Figure 5-4.
Explain How is the Pythagorean theorem

used in geometry?
Bisect a Line, an Arc, or 2. With points A and B as centers and any

radius R greater than one-half of AB,
an Angle draw arcs to intersect, or cross, line AB
Bisect means to divide into two equal parts. as in Figure 5-5B. The radius is the dis-
tance from the center of an arc or circle
to any point on the arc or circle. The two
Bisect a Line or an Arc places where the arcs intersect create
Follow these steps to bisect a straight line points C and D.
or an arc. 3. Draw line EF through points C and D
1. Draw a line AB and arc AB as shown in (Figure 5-5C).
Figure 5-5A.
E
A A R A R
C C
R R
Figure 5-5 D D
B B B
F
Bisecting a straight line, B B E B
an arc, and an angle C C
R R
D D
A A R R
A F
A B C

Bisect an Angle 3. With C and D as centers and any radius
R2 more than one- half the radius of arc
This construction demonstrates a method
CD, draw two arcs to intersect, locating
for bisecting a given angle. Refer to Figure 5-6.
point E. (Figure 5-6C).
1. Draw given angle AOB (Figure 5-6A). 4. Draw a line through points O and E to
2. With point O as the center and any con- bisect angle AOB (Figure 5-6C).
venient radius R1, draw an arc to inter-
sect AO and OB to locate points C and D
(Figure 5-6B).
A A A
GIVEN ANGLE
C C
R2
E
O O O
R1 R1
R2
D D
B B AOE = EOB B
A B C
Figure 5-6
Bisecting an angle
1. Construct a line of any length at A per-

Divide a Line into Any pendicular to line AB, as in Figure 5-7A.
Number of Equal Parts Lines are perpendicular when they cross
Two methods of dividing a line into equal at 90° angles.
parts are described next. Try both methods. 2. Position the scale, placing zero on line AC
Can you think of situations in which you would at such an angle that the scale touches
need to use one method instead of the other? point B, as in Figure 5-7B. Keeping
zero on line AC, adjust the angle of the
Divide a Line into Equal Parts scale until any eight equal divisions are
This method can be applied to create any included between line AC and point B (in
number of equal divisions. In this construc- this case, at 8″). Mark the divisions.
tion, you will divide a straight line into eight 3. Draw lines parallel to AC through the
equal parts. Refer to Figure 5-7 and follow division marks to intersect line AB Figure
these steps: 5-7C. Two lines are parallel when they
are always the same distance apart.
B
A B A A B
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
C C C
A B C
Figure 5-7
Dividing a straight line into any number of equal parts

Divide a Line into Five 3. Draw a line connecting point A and the
last point on line BC (Figure 5-8C.)
Equal Parts Draw lines through each point on BC
Follow these instructions to divide a line parallel to this line as shown.
into five equal parts.
1. Draw line BC from point B at any conve-
nient angle and length (Figure 5-8A).
2. Use dividers or a scale to step off five
Summarize Explain how to bisect a line
equal spaces on line BC beginning at
using board drafting techniques.
point B (Figure 5-8B).
A B A B A B
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 C 4
C C 5 5
A B C
Figure 5-8
Dividing a straight line into five equal parts
1. Draw line AB and point O (Figure 5-9A).

Construct a 2. With O as the center and any conve-
Perpendicular Line nient radius R1, construct an arc inter-
Each one of the many procedures to con- secting line AB, locating points C and D
struct a line perpendicular to another line (Figure 5-9B).
is useful in certain drafting situations. Four 3. With C and D as centers and any radius
methods are discussed below. R2 larger than OC, draw arcs intersecting
at point E (Figure 5-9C).
Method 1 4. Draw a line connecting points E and O to
Figure 5-9A shows the given line AB and form the perpendicular line (Figure 5-9C).
point O that lies on line AB. Follow these steps
to draw a line at point O on line AB so that the
two lines are perpendicular.
R2
D B D B
B
O R2
O
O
C R1 C R1
A A A
A B C
Figure 5-9
Constructing a line perpendicular to a given line through a given point on the line (Method 1)

Method 2 passing through line AB to locate point
D (Figure 5-10B).
Use this method when the given point
3. Construct a line through points D and
through which a perpendicular line is drawn
C, extending it through the arc to locate
lies near one end of the line.
point E (Figure 5-10C).
1. Construct given line AB and point O 4. Connect points E and O to form the per-
(Figure 5-10A). pendicular line (Figure 5-10C).
2. From any point C above line AB, con-
struct an arc using CO as the radius and
C C
O B O B
O B
R
A D A D
A
A B C
Figure 5-10
Constructing a line perpendicular to a given line through a given point on the line
Method 3 2. Place the T-square and triangle (Figure

5-11B).
This construction demonstrates another
3. Slide the triangle along the T-square until
way to draw a line perpendicular to a given
the edge aligns with point O on line AB
line through a given point on the line. Follow
(Figure 5-11C).
the steps to create a line at O that is perpen-
4. Draw a perpendicular line through point
dicular to line AB. Refer to Figure 5-11.
O (Figure 5-11C).
1. Construct given line AB and point O
(Figure 5-11A).
C
B B
O O
B
O
A A
D
A
A B C
Figure 5-11
Constructing a line perpendicular to a given line through a given point on the line

Method 4 3. With C and D as centers and CO and DO
as radii, draw arcs to intersect, locating
Figure 5-12A shows another given line AB
point E (Figure 5-12C).
and point O that is not on the line. Follow the
4. Connect points O and E to form the per-
steps to practice another way to draw a line
pendicular line (Figure 5-12C).
perpendicular to a given line through a point
that is not on the line.
1. Construct given line AB and point O
(Figure 5-12A).
2. Construct lines from point O to any two Identify What are perpendicular lines?
points on line AB, locating points C and
D (Figure 5-12B).
O O O
B B B
D D
C C
A A A
A B C E
Figure 5-12
Constructing a line perpendicular to a given line through a point that is not one the given line
intersecting line AB to locate point C

Draw a Parallel Line (Figure 5-13B).
The following construction methods create
3. With point C as the center and the same
a line that is parallel to another line. Recall
radius R1, draw an arc through point
that lines are parallel when they are always
P and line AB to locate point D (Figure
the same distance apart.
5-13B).
Method 1 4. With C as the center and radius R2 equal
to chord PD, draw an arc to locate point
This construction allows you to place a line
E. A chord is a straight line between two
parallel to a given line. Refer to Figure 5-13.
points on a circle (Figure 5-13C).
1. Draw given line AB and point P (Figure 5. Draw a line through points P and E. Line
5-13A). PE is parallel to line AB (Figure 5-13C).
2. With point P as the center and any
convenient radius R1, draw an arc
P P P R2
B R1 B R1 B
R1 C R1 C
A A D A D
A B C
Figure 5-13
Using a compass to construct a line parallel to a given line through a given point

Method 2 2. Place the T-square and triangle (Figure
5-14B).
The following steps demonstrate another
3. Slide the triangle until the edge aligns
way to construct a line parallel to another line
with point P (Figure 5-14C).
through a given point. Refer to Figure 5-14.
4. Draw a parallel line through point P. See
1. Draw given line AB and point P (Figure (Figure 5-14C).
5-14A).
B B B
P P P D
A A
A
C
A B C
Figure 5-14
Using a triangle and T-square to construct a line parallel to a given line through a given point
Method 3 3. Draw a parallel line CD tangent to the

arcs. Recall that a line is tangent to an arc
Use this method to construct a line parallel to
or circle when it touches the arc or circle
a given line at a specified distance from the given
at one point only (Figure 5-15C).
line. Refer to Figure 5-15. Note: See “Construct
a Tangent Line to a Circle” later in this chapter
for instructions on creating a tangent line.
1. Draw given line AB (Figure 5-15A).
2. Draw two arcs with centers anywhere along Explain What is a chord?
line AB. The arcs should have a radius R
equal to the specified distance between the
two parallel lines (Figure 5-15B).
R R D
A A A
R R
B B B
A B C
Figure 5-15
Constructing a line parallel to a given line at a specified distance from the given line

BO and AO at C and D and A1O1 at D1.
Copy an Angle Refer again to Figure 5-16B.
4. With D1 as the center and radius R2 equal
of copying a given angle to a new location
to chord DC, draw an arc to locate point
and orientation. Refer to Figure 5-16.
C1 at the intersection of the two arcs
1. Draw given angle AOB (Figure 5-16A). (Figure 5-16C).
2. Draw one side O1A1 in the new position 5. Draw a line through points O1 and C1
(Figure 5-16B). to complete the angle. Refer again to
3. With O and O1 as centers and any conve- Figure 5-16C.
nient radius R1, construct arcs to intersect
D D
O A O A O A
GIVEN
GIVEN POSITION R2
POSITION GIVEN R1
B POSITION C B CHORD C B
GIVEN ANGLE O1 O1
D1 D1
A A1 A1
R1 NEW R2 NEW
POSITION POSITION
C1
B C
Figure 5-16
Copying an angle
1. Draw base line AB (Figure 5-17A).

Construct a Triangle 2. With points A and B as centers and a
A triangle is a polygon, or closed figure,
radius R equal to the length of the two
with three sides. The following constructions
sides you want, draw intersecting arcs
show methods for drawing various types of
to locate the third vertex of the triangle
triangles.
(Figure 5-17B). The other two vertices
(plural of vertex) are at the endpoints of
Method 1 the base line.
This method constructs an isosceles triangle, 3. Draw lines through point A and the ver-
which has two sides that are of equal length. tex and through point B and the vertex
Refer to Figure 5-17. to complete the triangle (Figure 5-17C).
VERTEX
R R Figure 5-17
BASE Constructing an
A B A B A B isosceles triangle
A B EQUAL SIDES OF
DESIRED LENGTH
C

Method 2 draw intersecting arcs to locate the third
vertex Refer again to Figure 5-18B.
This method constructs an equilateral trian-
3. Draw lines through point A and the
gle. An equilateral triangle is one in which all
vertex and through point B and the ver-
three sides are of equal length and all three
tex to complete the triangle (Figure
angles are equal. Refer to Figure 5-18.
5-18C).
1. Draw base line AB as in Figure 5-18A.
2. With points A and B as centers and a
radius R equal to the length of line AB,
VERTEX
60°
60° 60°
BASE
A B A B A B
R
A B C
Figure 5-18
Constructing an equilateral triangle
Method 3 2. Draw a line perpendicular to AB at B

equal to BC. Note: Construct the perpen-
Construct a right triangle using this method
dicular line using the method in Figure
when you know the length of two sides of the
5-11 or Figure 5-12.
triangle. A right triangle is one that has a right
3. Draw a line connecting points A and C
(90°) angle at one of its vertices. Given sides
to complete the right triangle (Figure
AB and BC are shown in Figure 5-19A.
5-19C).
1. Draw side AB in the desired position
(Figure 5-19B).
C C
A B
B C
A B A B
A B C
Figure 5-19
Constructing a right
triangle given the
lengths of two sides

Method 4 3. With point A as the center and a radius
equal to side AB, draw an arc to intersect
Use this method to construct a right triangle
the semicircle to locate point B (Figure
when you know the length of one side and the
5-20C).
length of the hypotenuse. See Figure 5-20A
4. Draw line AB and then draw a line to
for the given side AB and hypotenuse AC.
connect B and C to complete the triangle
1. Draw the hypotenuse AC in the desired (Figure 5-20C).
location (Figure 5-20B).
2. Draw a semicircle on AC using ½AC as
the radius. Refer again to Figure 5-20B.
Figure 5-20
B
Constructing a right
A B
triangle given the
SIDE 1 length of one side
2
AC
A
HYPOTENUSE
C A C A C and the length of the
hypotenuse.
A B C
Method 5 3. Connect both ends of line AB with point

C to complete the triangle (Figure
You can use this method to construct a tri-
5-21C).
angle when you know the lengths of all three
sides. This method is useful for constructing
scalene triangles, which have three different
angles and sides of three different lengths.
Figure 5-21A shows given triangle sides AB, Compare What is the difference between
BC, and AC. an isosceles triangle and an equilateral
1. Draw base line AB in the desired location. triangle?
2. Construct arcs from the ends of line AB
with radii equal to lines BC and AC to
locate point C (Figure 5-21B).
C C
R = AC
A B
R = BC
B C
A C A B A B
A B C
Figure 5-21
Constructing a triangle given the lengths of all three sides

2. Draw perpendicular bisectors of AB
Construct a Circle and BC to intersect at point O (Figure
This construction describes a method for
5-22B).
creating a circle given three points that lie on
3. Draw the required circle with point O as
the circle. Refer to Figure 5-22.
the center and radius R = OA = OB =
1. Given points A, B, and C, draw lines AB OC (Figure 5-22C).
and BC (Figure 5-22A).
B B B
Figure 5-22
A A A
Constructing a circle given
C O C O C three points that lie on the
A B circle
2. Draw a line perpendicular to line OA at P

Construct Lines Tangent (Figure 5-23B). The perpendicular line
to a Circle is the tangent line.
The constructions that follow present A A
methods of creating lines tangent to a circle.
As you may recall, a line that touches a circle P P
at one point only is said to be tangent to the
circle.
O O
Method 1
Use this method to construct a line tangent
to a given point on a circle without using a
triangle or T-square. Refer to Figure 5-23.
A B
1. Given a circle with center point O and
tangent point P (Figure 5-23A), draw Figure 5-23
line OA from the center of the circle to Constructing a line tangent to a circle through a
extend beyond the circle through point P. given point on the circle (Method 1)
Method 2
O
to a given point on a circle using a 30°-60° tri-
FIRST POSITION
angle and a T-square. See Figure 5-24. P
1. Given a circle with center point O and tan-

gent point P, place a T-square and triangle SECOND POSITION
so that you can construct the hypotenuse
of the triangle through points P and O. Figure 5-24
2. Hold the T-square, turn the triangle to Constructing a line tangent to a given point on a
the second position at point P, and draw circle (Method 2)
the tangent line.

Method 3 3. Draw a circle with center A and radius
R = AP = AO to locate tangent points T1
This method creates lines tangent to a circle
and T2 (Figure 5-25B).
from a given point outside the circle. See
4. Draw lines PT1 and PT2 (Figure 5-25C).
Figure 5-25.
These lines are tangent to the circle.
1. Draw a circle with center point O and
point P outside the circle (Figure 5-25A).
2. Draw line OP and bisect it to locate point
A (Figure 5-25B).
P T1 P T1 P
A A
O O O
T2 T2
A B C
Figure 5-25
Constructing a line tangent to a circle from a given point outside the circle (Method 3)
Method 4 2. Draw a circle with center O1 and a radius

R, where R = R1 − R2. Refer again to Figure
5-26A.
to the exterior of two circles. Refer to Figure
3. From center point O2, draw a tangent O2T
5-26.
to the circle of radius (Figure 5-26B).
1. Draw the two given circles with centers 4. Draw radius O1T as shown in Figure
O1 and O2 and radii R1 and R2 (Figure 5-26B, and extend it to locate point T1.
5-26A). 5. Draw the needed tangent T1T2 parallel to
TO2 (Figure 5-26C).
T1 T1
T T
T2 T2
O2 O1 O2 O1 O2 O1
R R
R2 R1
A B C
Figure 5-26
Constructing an exterior common tangent to two circles of unequal radii (Method 4)

Method 5 4. Draw radius O1T to locate point T1 (Figure
5-27B).
Use this method to construct a line tangent to
5. Draw O2T2 parallel to O1T.
the interior of two circles. Refer to Figure 5-27.
6. Draw the needed tangent T1T2 parallel to
1. Draw the two given circles with centers O1 TO2 (Figure 5-27C).
and O2 and radii R1 and R2 (Figure 5-27A).
2. Draw a circle with center O1 and a radius
R, where R = R1 + R2. Refer again to Figure
5-27A.
3. From center point O2, draw a tangent O2T Identify What two tools are used in some of
the methods described in Section 5.1?
to the circle of radius R (Figure 5-27B).
T T
T1 T1
R2 R
O2 O1 O2 O1 O1
R1 O2
T2 T2
A B C
Figure 5-27
Constructing an interior common tangent to two circles of unequal radii (Method 5)
1. Given lines AB and CD (Figure 5-28A),

Construct Arcs Tangent draw lines parallel to AB and CD at a dis-
to Straight Lines and tance R from them on the inside of the
angle. The intersection O will be the cen-
Other Arcs ter of the arc you need.
The following are methods for drawing arcs 2. Draw perpendicular lines from O to AB
tangent to other geometric figures, such as and CD to locate the points of tangency
straight lines and other arcs. T (Figure 5-28B).
3. With O as the center and radius R, draw
Construct an Arc Tangent to the needed arc (Figure 5-28C).
Two Straight Lines
The technique is shown for two lines at
an acute angle, an obtuse angle, and a right
angle. Refer to Figure 5-28.

A D A D A D
R
R
O O O
T T R
B T
B B T
C C C
ACUTE ANGLE
D
D D
R
R
O
O O
R
T T
A B C A T B C A T BC
OBTUSE ANGLE
D C T D C T D
A A A
R R
T T
O O O
R
B B B
RIGHT ANGLE
A B C
Figure 5-28
Constructing an arc tangent to two straight lines at an acute angle, an obtuse angle, and a right angle
Construct an Arc Tangent to 2. Draw an arc with center O1 and radius =

R + R1, where R is the radius of the
Two Given Arcs desired tangent arc. See Figure 5-29B.
Refer to Figure 5-29 for the steps in con-
The intersection O is the center of the
structing this arc.
tangent arc.
1. Draw two arcs having radii R1 and R2 3. Draw lines O1O and O2O to locate tan-
(Figure 5-29A). The radii R1 and R2 may gent points T1 and T2 (Figure 5-29C).
be equal or unequal. 4. With point O as the center and radius R,
draw the tangent arc needed.
RADIUS OF
TANGENT ARC
O1 O2 O1 O2 O1 O2
R1 R2
T1 T2
R
A B R+R1 R+R2
C
O O
Figure 5-29
Constructing an arc tangent to two given arcs

Construct an Arc Tangent to a 4. Draw a line from O1 perpendicular to AB
to locate tangent point T.
Line and an Arc 5. Draw a line from O to O1 to locate tan-
Use this method to construct an arc tangent point T1 on CD (Figure 5-30C).
gent to a line and an arc, given the line, the 6. With point O1 as the center and radius R,
arc, and the radius R of the desired tangent draw the tangent arc.
arc. Refer to Figure 5-30.
1. Draw given line AB and arc CD as shown
in Figure 5-30A.
Recall What three types of angles do you
2. Draw a line parallel to line AB, at dis-
create constructing an arc tangent to two lines?
tance R, toward arc CD. (Figure 5-30B).
3. Use radius R1 + R to locate point O1. Refer
again to Figure 5-30B.
T T B
A B A B O A O
C O C
T1
R + R1 R1
R1
D D D
O1 O1
A A A
RADIUS R
O1 O1
T T
R1
B B B
R + R1 T1
R1 C C
C
O O D O D
D
A B C
Figure 5-30
Constructing an arc tangent to line and an arc
3. Complete the square by drawing perpen-

Construct a Square dicular lines at each end of line AB to
A square is a rectangle with all four sides
intersect the diagonals. Draw the last line
equal. You can construct a square in several
from the intersection of the diagonal and
ways. The method you choose depends on the
the vertical lines. Draw the lines in the
other geometry in the drawing.
order shown by the numbered arrows.
Construct a Square When the
Length of One Side Is Known
3
Use this method to construct a square
when you know the length of a side. Refer to Figure 5-31
Figure 5-31.
1 2
Constructing a
1. Given the length of the side AB, draw square given the
line AB. length of a side
2. Construct 45° diagonals from the ends of
line AB. Refer again to Figure 5-31. A B

Construct a Square Inscribed in A B
a Circle
A square or other polygon is inscribed in
O
a circle when its four corners are tangent to
the circle. Refer to Figure 5-32.
1. Draw the given circle with center point O. D C
2. Draw 45° diagonals through the center
point O to locate points A, B, C, and D.
Refer again to Figure 5-32. Figure 5-32
3. Connect points A and B, B and C, C and Constructing a square inscribed within a circle
D, and D and A to complete the square.
Construct a Square
Circumscribed in a Circle
A square or other polygon is circumscribed
O
about a circle when the square fully encloses
the circle and the circle is tangent to the square
on all four sides. Refer to Figure 5-33.
1. Draw the given circle with center point O.
2. Draw 45° diagonals through the center
Figure 5-33
point O.
3. Draw sides tangent to the circle, inter- Constructing a square circumscribed about a
circle
secting at the 45° diagonals, to complete
the square.
2. Draw line BC and extend it to make line

Construct a Pentagon CD equal to AC. Refer to Figure 5-34A
A pentagon is a five-sided polygon. When its
for steps 1 and 2.
five sides are exactly the same length and all
3. With radius AD and points A and B as
of its angles are equal, it is called a regular
centers, draw intersecting arcs to locate
polygon. The following methods demon-
point O (Figure 5-34B).
strate the construction of regular pentagons.
4. With the same radius and O as the cen-
Regular Pentagon When the ter, draw a circle.
5. Step off AB as a chord to locate points E,
Length of One Side Is Known F, and G. Connect the points to complete
To use this method, refer to Figure 5-34. the pentagon (Figure 5-34C).
1. Given line AB, construct a perpendicular
line AC equal to one-half of the length of
AB.
F
Figure 5-34
G E Constructing a
D D O O regular pentagon
C C given the length
of one side
A B A B A B
A B C

Inscribe a Pentagon within a 4. With C as center and radius CE, draw an
arc to locate point F.
Circle 5. Draw chord CF. This chord is one side of
Refer to Figure 5-35 for this method. the pentagon.
1. Draw the given circle with diameter AB 6. Step off chord CF around the circle
and radius OC (Figure 5-35A). The to locate points G, H, and J. Draw
diameter of a circle is the distance across the chords to complete the pentagon
the circle through its center point. (The (Figure 5-35C).
symbol for diameter is Ø.)
2. Bisect radius OB to locate point D (Figure
5-35B).
3. With D as center and radius DC, draw an
Explain What is a regular polygon?
arc to locate point E.
C C C
F F G
O E O D O
A B A B A B
R
J H
A B C
Figure 5-35
Inscribing a regular pentagon within a circle
Construct a Hexagon 2. With the T-square and 30°-60° triangle,

draw the tangents in the order shown in
A hexagon is a six-sided polygon. The fol-
lowing methods demonstrate construction for Figure 5-36.
regular hexagons, which have six sides of equal
length, six internal angles of equal size, and
six external angles of equal size. 1
Construct a Regular Hexagon 5 4
When the Distance across the DISTANCE

ACROSS FLATS
Flats Is Known 3
6
This method constructs a regular hexagon
when you know the distance across the 2
flats, or sides. The distance across the flats is
the distance from the midpoint of one side
through the center point to the midpoint Figure 5-36
of the opposite side of the polygon. Refer to Constructing a regular hexagon given the
Figure 5-36. distance across the flats
1. Given the distance across the flats of a
regular hexagon, draw centerlines and a
circle with a diameter equal to the dis-
tance across the flats.

Construct a Regular Hexagon 3. Connect the points to complete the
hexagon.
When the Distance across the
Corners Is Known C D
Method 1
Use this method to construct a regular
A B
hexagon when you know the distance across
the corners. The distance across the corners
is the distance from one vertex through the
center point to the opposite vertex. Refer to F E
Figure 5-37. DISTANCE ACROSS
CORNERS
1. Given the distance AB across the corners,
draw a circle with AB as the diameter. Figure 5-37
2. With A and B as centers and the same Constructing a regular hexagon given the
radius, draw arcs to intersect the circle at distance across the corners (Method 1)
points C, D, E, and F.
Method 2 5
This construction demonstrates another 1 3

method of constructing a regular hexagon 60° 30°
A B
given the distance across the corners. Refer to
Figure 5-38. 4
30°
1. Given the distance AB across the corners, 60° 2
draw lines from points A and B at 30° to line

6
AB. The lines can be any convenient length.
2. With the T-square and 30°-60° triangle, Figure 5-38
draw the sides of the hexagon in the
Constructing a regular hexagon given the
order shown.
distance across the corners (Method 2)
Explain What is a flat of a hexagon?
2. With the T-square and 45° triangle, draw

Construct an Octagon lines tangent to the circle in the order
An octagon is an eight-sided polygon. The
shown to complete the octagon.
following methods demonstrate the construc- 1
tion of regular octagons.
5 7
Construct an Octagon
3 4
Circumscribed about a Circle
Refer to Figure 5-39 as you follow the steps
8 6
in constructing an octagon circumscribed
2
about a circle.
1. Given the distance across the flats,
draw centerlines and a circle with a Figure 5-39
diameter equal to the distance across
Constructing a regular octagon circumscribed
the flats.
about a circle given the distance across the flats

Construct an Octagon Inscribed G
C
E
within a Circle
Refer to Figure 5-40 as you follow the 45°
A B
steps for constructing an octagon inscribed
within a circle.
1. Given the distance across the corners, F H
draw centerlines AB and CD and a circle
D
with a diameter equal to the distance
across the corners.
2. With the T-square and 45° triangle, draw
Figure 5-40
diagonals EF and GH.
3. Connect the points to complete the Inscribing a regular octagon within a circle given
octagon. the distance across the corners of the octagon
C D
Construct an Octagon Inscribed
within a Square
Refer to Figure 5-41 as you follow the
O
steps to construct an octagon inscribed within
a square.
1. Given the distance across the flats, con-
struct a square having sides equal to
A B
AB.
2. Draw diagonals AD and BC with their
Figure 5-41
intersection at O. With A, B, C, and D as
centers and radius R = AO, draw arcs to Inscribing a regular octagon within a square
given the distance across the flats
intersect the sides of the square.
3. Connect the points to complete the
octagon.
Describe How many sides does an octagon

have?
(Figure 5-42A). The major axis AB and minor

Construct an Ellipse axis CD are given. They intersect at O.
An ellipse is a regular oval. It is sym-
metrical around two axes that form a right 1. With C as center and radius R = AO,
angle. The shorter axis is the minor axis, and draw an arc to locate points F1 and F2
the longer one is the major axis. This sec- (Figure 5-42A).
tion demonstrates methods for drawing an 2. Place pins at points F1, C, and F2 (Figure
ellipse. 5-42B).
3. Tie a string around the three pins and
Pin-and-String Method to remove pin C.
Construct an Ellipse 4. Put the point of a pencil in the loop and
draw the ellipse. Keep the string tight
This illustration demonstrates the use of the
when moving the pencil (Figure 5-42C).
pin-and-string method of drawing a large ellipse

C C C
O O O
A B A B A B
F1 R = AO F2 F1 F2
D D D
A B C
Figure 5-42
Constructing an ellipse by the pin-and-string method
Trammel Method to Construct 2. On the trammel, move point O along

minor axis CD and point D along major
an Ellipse axis AB and mark points at A (Figure
This method demonstrates the use of the 5-43B).
trammel to draw an ellipse. A trammel is a 3. Use a French curve or irregular curve to
piece of paper or plastic on which specific connect the points to draw the ellipse
distances have been marked off. Figure (Figure 5-43C).
5-43A shows the major axis AB and minor
axis CD, intersecting at O.
1. Cut a strip of paper or plastic to use as a
trammel. Mark off distances AO and OD
on the trammel (Figure 5-43A).
C C
a
FIRST
POSITION
A O A O B
o B
d
a o
o D
d
D D
SECOND
POSITION
A B C
a
Figure 5-43
Constructing an ellipse by the trammel method
Use of Major and Minor Axes to 1. Lay off OF and OG, each equal to AB –
CD Refer again to Figure 5-44A.
Construct an Ellipse 2. Lay off OJ and OH, each equal to three-
This method constructs an approximate fourths of OF.
ellipse by using its major and minor axes. This 3. Draw and extend lines GJ, GH, FJ, and
method works when the minor axis is at least FH (Figure 5-44B).
two-thirds the size of the major axis. Figure
5-44A shows the major axis AB and minor
axis CD, intersecting at O.

4. Draw arcs with centers F and G and radii
FD and GC to the points of tangency
(Figure 5-44C).
Identify What tool is used with the trammel
5. Draw arcs with centers J and H and method?
radii JA and HB to complete the ellipse.
The points of tangency are marked T in
(Figure 5-44C).
C C C
T T
F F F
J H J H
J H
A B A B A B
O O O
G G T G T
D D D
A B C
Figure 5-44
Constructing an approximate ellipse when the minor axis is at least two-thirds the size of the major axis
Reduce or Enlarge a
Drawing
The following techniques reduce or enlarge
an existing drawing.
ENLARGED SIZE
Reduce or Enlarge a Square or E
F
Rectangular Drawing A
ORIGINAL SIZE B
If a drawing is square or rectangular, use a
REDUCED SIZE
diagonal line method to reduce or enlarge it.
Refer to Figure 5-45.
1. Draw a diagonal through corners D and B.
2. Measure the width or height you need D
G
C
along DC or DA (example: DG). DIAGONAL
3. Draw a perpendicular line from that point
(G) to the diagonal. Figure 5-45
4. Draw a line perpendicular to DE intersect- Reducing or enlarging a square or rectangular area
ing at point F.

Reduce or Enlarge a Drawing 8
A
That Is Not Square or Rectangular 7
Use this method to reduce or enlarge a 6
drawing that is not square or rectangular. 5

Refer to Figure 5-46. 8 4
7
1. Draw a grid larger or smaller than the one 6 3
shown at B. The size of the grid depends 5
2
4
on the amount of enlargement or reduc- 3
2 1
tion needed. 1
2. Use dots to mark key points on the sec- 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
ond grid corresponding to points on the B C
original drawing at A.
3. Connect the points and darken the lines Figure 5-46
to complete the new drawing. Reducing or enlarging a drawing of a sailboat
Multiply pi (π) times the diameter of

Section 5.1 Assessment the circle. The approximate decimal
After You Read equivalent of pi is 3.1416.
Circumference = πd
Self-Check Circumference = 3.1416 × 2.50″
1. List various geometric shapes and con- Circumference = 7.85″
structions used by drafters.
2. Describe one method for constructing Drafting Practice
a geometric shape.
5. Draw the gasket shown in Figure 5-47.
3. Explain how to solve technical and
Before beginning, determine an appropriate
mathematical problems through geometric
scale and sheet size. Do not dimension.
constructions using drafting instruments.
Academic Integration 2x
Ø64 R48
Ø24
Mathematics R24
4. Calculate Circumference Calculate

the circumference of a circle with a dia-
meter of 2.50 inches.
178
Calculating Circumference
To find the circumference of a circle:
METRIC
DIAMETER (d) = 2.50

Figure 5-47

book’s OLC for help with this
drafting practice.

5.2 Applied Geometry for CAD
Systems
Preview In this section, you will learn to construct geomteric shapes using CAD techniques.
Content Vocabulary
• object snap
• ogee curve
Academic Vocabulary
and tests.
• intervals • specify
Graphic Organizer
Use a diagram like the one below to organize the CAD commands discussed in the section.

Inscribe a polygon book’s OLC for a downloadable
POLYGON
Academic Standards
Teachers of English
Students employ a wide rage of strategies as they write and use different writing process elements NCTM National Council
appropriately to communicate with different audiences for a variety of purposes (NCTE) of Teachers of
Use information resources to gather information and create and communicate knowledge (NCTE) Mathematics
Mathematics
Geometry Specify location and describe spatial relationships using coordinate geometry and other
representational systems (NCTM)
Section 5.2 Applied Geometry for CAD Systems 159

specify an object snap, type the first three let-
Using Geometry with ters of its name.
CAD Systems
What do object snaps allow a drafter to do?
The techniques for creating geometry in Explain How do you specify an object snap?
AutoCAD and other CAD programs differ sig-
nificantly from board drafting techniques.
With CAD programs, the software creates the Bisect or Divide a Line,
geometry, but you must understand the geo-
metric principles before you can direct the an Arc, or an Angle
software to create the geometry to achieve What actions do the LINE, TRIM, and
the correct result. DIVIDE commands perform?
This section consists of a series of exam-
ple exercises in which you will use CAD Lines and arcs are usually bisected to find a
techniques to create the same geometry beginning point for a new line or arc.
described in the first section of this chapter.
You can also use the same techniques
Bisect a Line or an Arc
described in that section. However, drafters In AutoCAD, the point that lies at the
who use CAD systems usually take advan- exact middle of a line or arc is known as the
tage of the streamlined methods when the midpoint. Because AutoCAD has a Midpoint
software offers them. By working through object snap, bisecting a line or arc—finding its
these constructions, you will begin to under- midpoint—is simply part of the construction
stand how to draw the basic geometry in of the new line or arc.
AutoCAD. 1. Draw a line and an arc (Figure 5-48A).
To work through the constructions, open 2. Enter the LINE command, but do not
a new drawing in AutoCAD. Use the tem- enter a first point. Instead, type MID (for
plate specified by your instructor, or start midpoint) and press Enter.
a new drawing using AutoCAD’s default 3. At the “of” prompt, select the line you
acad.dwt template. Your instructor will advise drew in step 1. Depending on the version
you on how many constructions to include in of AutoCAD you are using, you may see
each drawing file. Be sure to save your work a yellow triangle appear at the midpoint
frequently. of the line. In any case, the first point of
the new line you are creating begins at
Object Snaps the exact midpoint of the original line,
AutoCAD has a set of features known as shown as point C in Figure 5-48B.
object snaps that allow you to “snap” auto-
A A D
matically to important points on any Auto-
CAD object. Object snaps you will use in this
C
section include: SNAP TO
MIDPOINT
• Midpoint • Intersection B B
• Nearest • Quadrant B B
• Endpoint • Perpendicular C
• Center • Tangent
Specifying the Intersection object snap, for
example, allows you to snap to the intersec- A A D
tion of two existing lines or arcs. This can be A B

useful if you have used two arcs to locate the
beginning of a new line. Object snaps have Figure 5-48
many other uses, too, as you will see as you Bisecting a line or arc in AutoCAD
work through the following constructions. To

4. Pick another point anywhere in the sor to draw a radius similar to the one in
drawing area and press Enter to end the Figure Figure 5-49B.
LINE command. 3. Enter the TRIM command and press
5. Repeat steps 2 through 4, but this time Enter to select all of the objects on the
select the arc in step 3. This results in a line screen automatically. Then pick any
that starts at point C and bisects the arc point on the circle outside angle AOB.
(Figure 5-48B). This procedure trims away all of the cir-
cle except for an arc that extends from
Bisect an Angle one arm of angle AOB to the other. See
The CAD method for bisecting an angle is Figure 5-49C.
very similar to the board drafting method. 4. Enter the LINE command. Use the Inter-
Refer to Figure 5-49. section object snap to place the first
point of the line at point O. Then use the
1. Use the LINE command to draw two con-
Midpoint object snap to place the second
nected line segments to create angle AOB
point of the line at the exact midpoint of
(Figure 5-49A).
the arc. Refer again to Figure 5-49C. This
2. Enter the CIRCLE command and specify
line bisects angle AOB.
point O as its center point. Use the cur-
A A A
C C
O O O
D D
B B B
A B C
Figure 5-49
Bisecting an angle in AutoCAD
Divide a Line into Eight Equal point style from the dialog box that appears.
See Figure 5-50B.
Parts
AutoCAD includes a DIVIDE command
that divides lines, arcs, and other geometry A B
into equal parts. The following procedure

divides a line into eight equal parts. Refer to
Figure 5-50. A B
1. Draw a line of any length as in Figure

5-50A. Figure 5-50
2. Enter the DIVIDE command.
Dividing a line into equal parts in AutoCAD
3. When prompted for the number of seg-
ments, type 8 and press Enter.
Markers appear at equal intervals along
the line to divide it into eight parts. If you
cannot see these markers, you will need to
change the point style. To do so, enter DDP- Explain Why might a line or arc need to be
TYPE at the keyboard and select a different bisected?

3. Before specifying the second point of the
line, type PER to enter the Perpendicular
object snap. Then pick a point on line AB
and press Enter. The resulting line is per-
pendicular to line AB.
Presetting Object
Snaps Construct Lines Parallel to a
If you know that you will be using Given Line
certain object snaps frequently for a To create parallel lines in AutoCAD, use the
particular drawing, you can set OFFSET command. Refer to Figure 5-52.
AutoCAD to use them automatically,
without having to specify them each 1. Draw the line AB.
time you use them. Object snaps that 2. Enter the OFFSET command and enter
have been preset in this way are known an offset distance of 1. This will place the
as running object snaps. To set running second line 1 unit away from line AB.
object snaps, enter the OSNAP com- 3. When prompted to select the object to
mand. A dialog box appears. Pick the offset, pick line AB.
Object Snap tab of the dialog box to 4. When prompted for the side to offset,
see the available object snaps. Pick the pick a point anywhere above line AB. The
check boxes next to the object snaps parallel line CD appears.
you want to run automatically and pick
OK to close the dialog box. Notice that the OFFSET command is still
active. You can offset as many lines or arcs as
you want without reentering the command.
This can save time when you are working on a
technical drawing.
5. Press Enter to end the command.
Construct Lines with a
D
CAD System B B
Most CAD systems can construct a full vari- C
ety of lines. A A
Construct a Perpendicular Line Figure 5-52

Follow these steps to create a line perpen-
Creating a line parallel to a given line using the
dicular to a given line. Refer to Figure 5-51.
OFFSET command
1. Draw given line AB.
2. Reenter the LINE command and pick
point O as the first point of the new line.
Construct a Polygon
AutoCAD provides a POLYGON command
to create regular polygons with 3 to 1,024
USE THE sides. Equilateral triangles and squares are
O
PERPENDICULAR examples of regular polygons that have three
OBJECT SNAP FOR
SECOND POINT and four sides, respectively. The constructions
B in this section use the following geometry:
• square, or four-sided polygon
A • pentagon, or five-sided polygon
• hexagon, or six-sided polygon
Figure 5-51
Creating a line perpendicular to a given line
Create a Square
through a point that does not lie on the given line Use this method to construct a polygon, in
this case a square, when you know the length

of one of its sides. It can be very useful when the center of the polygon to be. Instead of pick-
you need to construct a polygon that shares ing a point on the circle to define the radius,
a line with other geometrical shapes in the enter a numerical value at the keyboard.
drawing.
1. Enter the POLYGON command, and
Circumscribe a Hexagon about
specify 4 as the number of sides. Press E a Circle
(Edge) and pick a point on the screen. This method circumscribes a hexagon
2. Either pick another point on the screen about a circle with a known center point and
for the second endpoint of the edge or radius. Refer to Figure 5-54.
use polar coordinates to specify where 1. Create the circle.
the endpoint should be. If you use polar 2. Enter the POLYGON command and
coordinates, the length of the line you specify 6 sides.
specify becomes the length of one side 3. Use the Center object snap to select the
of the square. The square appears on the center of the circle as the center point of
screen. the hexagon.
4. Enter C (Circumscribed) to circumscribe
Inscribe a Pentagon in a Circle the polygon about the circle. When
Use this method to inscribe a pentagon in prompted for the radius of the circle, use
a circle with a known center point and radius. the Nearest object snap to snap to a point
Refer to Figure 5-53. on the circle. The hexagon appears inside
1. Create the given circle. the circle, with the point you picked on
2. Enter the POLYGON command and spec- the circle as one of the vertices.
ify 5 sides.
3. Use the Center object snap to select the
center of the circle as the center point of
the pentagon.
4. Enter I (Inscribed) to inscribe the poly-
gon in the circle. When prompted for the
radius of the circle, use the Nearest object
snap to snap to a point on the circle. The
pentagon appears inside the circle with
the point you picked using the Nearest
object snap as one of the vertices.
Figure 5-54
Using the POLYGON command to circumscribe a
hexagon about a circle
You can use this method to “circumscribe”

a polygon about a circle even if the circle does
not exist. Follow the preceding four steps, but
for the center point, pick a point where you
Figure 5-53 want the center of the polygon to be. Instead
Using the POLYGON command to inscribe a of picking a point on the circle to define the
regular pentagon within a circle radius, enter a numerical value at the keyboard.
You can use this method to “inscribe” a Construct an Ellipse

polygon in a circle even if the circle does not Of the two axes of an ellipse, the shorter
exist. Follow the preceding four steps, but for axis is the minor axis, and the longer one
the center point, pick a point where you want is the major axis. In AutoCAD, the ELLIPSE

command allows you to create ellipses FIRST AXIS
(MAJOR) THIRD
of any size by defining the axes. Refer to POINT
Figure 5-55. FIRST
POINT SECOND
1. Enter the ELLIPSE command and pick a POINT
point anywhere in the drawing area as
the first endpoint of the first axis.
2. Pick another point as the second end- SECOND AXIS
(MINOR)
point of the first axis.
3. As the ellipse begins to appear on the Figure 5-55
screen, select a third point to specify the
Using the ELLIPSE command.
other axis.
Notice that you do not have to specify
two points for the second axis. When
you specify the third point, AutoCAD
calculates the last point automatically, so
that the second axis is at right angle to
the first.
Note that you can control the orientation

Copy an Angle of the angle by entering a numerical value
for the angle of rotation instead of using the
of copying a given angle to a new location
cursor.
and orientation. Refer to Figure 5-56.
1. Draw the angle AOB (Figure 5-56A).
2. Enter the COPY command and use a
window to select both arms of the angle.
To do this, pick a point below and to the A B C
A A A
right of the angle, and then pick another
point above and to the left of the angle. O O ORIGINAL O ORIGINAL
The selected lines become dashed to
show that they are selected. Press Enter
B B B
to proceed to the next prompt.
C P
3. For the point of displacement, pick
point O.
P COPY
4. When asked for the second point of dis-
ROTATED
placement, pick another point anywhere COPY C
D
on the screen. An exact copy of angle D
AOB appears (Figure 5-56B). Press Enter

to end the COPY command. Figure 5-56
5. To change the orientation of the sec- Copying and changing the orientation of an angle
ond angle, enter the ROTATE command, in AutoCAD.
select both legs of the second angle, and
press Enter.
6. Specify a point anywhere on the angle
as the base point. This is the point about
which the angle will rotate.
Contrast How can you control the orientation
7. Move the cursor to reposition the angle of an angle other than by using the cursor?
at a new orientation (Figure 5-56C).

3. Create a second circle with the same
Construct a Triangle radius, placing its center point at point B
This type of polygon can be created using
Refer again to Figure 5-57B.
the LINE command as described in the fol-
4. Enter the LINE command and enter END
lowing methods. Note: The POLYGON com-
to use the Endpoint object snap to place
mand is usually used to create an equilateral
the first point of the line at point A.
triangle.
Use the Intersection object snap to place
the second point of the line at the upper
Construct an Isosceles Triangle intersection of the two circles. Then use
The following method is for constructing the Endpoint object snap for point B. See
an isosceles triangle. Refer to Figure 5-57. Figure 5-57C.
1. Draw the given base line AB (Figure 5. Erase the two circles. The remaining tri-
5-57A). angle is an isosceles triangle.
2. Create a circle with its center point at
point A and a radius equal to the length
of the sides you want. See Figure 5-57B.
USE INTERSECTION
VERTEX OBJECT SNAP
R R
BASE
A B A B A B
B C
Figure 5-57
Constructing an isosceles triangle using AutoCAD
Construct a Right Triangle 3. Use the Endpoint object snap to place

Construct a right triangle using this method the third point at point A, completing
when you know the length of two sides of the the right triangle.
triangle. In this construction, sides AB and BC C
are given. Side AB is 2.50 units long, and side BC
is 3.25 units long. Refer to Figure 5-58.
@3.25<90
1. Draw side AB using the LINE command USE ENDPOINT 2

OBJECT SNAP
and polar coordinates: @2.50<0. Leave 3
the LINE command active.
A @2.50<0 B
2. Specify the coordinates for side BC:
@3.25<90. This creates line BC perpendic- 1
ular, to side AB. Leave the LINE command

active. Figure 5-58
Constructing a right triangle in AutoCAD given
the length of two sides

Construct Tangents
You already know several methods for creating
a circle:
• specify a center point and a radius
• substitute the diameter for the radius by Object Tracking
pressing the D key before entering the The process for extending a
numerical value line that is described in step 4 of
• specify two points on the diameter of the Construct a Tangent Line is known as
circle object tracking. If this does not seem
• specify three points on the diameter of the
to work for you, enter the OSNAP
command, go to the Object Snap tab,
circle
and make sure the Object Snap Track-
AutoCAD also allows you to create a circle ing On box is checked. If this option is
that is tangent to two other objects in AutoCAD not available in your version of Auto-
by specifying the tangent objects and a value CAD, you can achieve the same effect
for the radius of the circle. As you may recall, a by using the EXTEND command.
line is tangent to a circle if the line touches the
circle at one point only. Refer to Figure 5-59.
1. Before you can use this option, you must
have at least two lines in the drawing to
specify as tangents. Use the LINE com- (5.00,7.50)
mand to create the two lines. Use coor- (6.00,7.00)
dinate values to place the endpoints of

the lines at the coordinates shown in the
illustration.
2. Enter the CIRCLE command. Enter T at (2.50,5.50)
the keyboard to select the tan tan radius
(6.50,5.00)
(Ttr) option.
3. At the appropriate prompts, pick any- Figure 5-59
where on the two lines as the two tan- Creating a circle tangent to two other objects
gents. Specify a radius of 1.00. The circle given the radius of the circle.
appears as in Figure 5-59.
Construct a Tangent Line same general direction. AutoCAD displays

Because AutoCAD has a Tangent object an “Extension” message that shows the
snap, creating tangent lines is fairly easy. Refer length and angle of the extended line.
to Figure 5-60. P
TANGENT
1. Draw a circle anywhere in the drawing POINT
area using the cursor to specify any radius.
2. Enter the LINE command. Pick any point
outside the circle as the first point of the
line.
3. Enter the Tangent object snap and move
the cursor near the circle. Select a point
on the circle. The line automatically Figure 5-60
snaps to the tangent point on the circle. Using the Tangent object snap to create a line
4. To extend the line beyond the tangent tangent to a circle.
point, keep moving the cursor in the

2. Use the OFFSET command to offset both
lines 1 unit to the inside.
Summarize How do you create a circle that 3. Enter the ARC command. At the prompt,
is tangent to two other objects in AutoCAD? enter C (Center), and use the Intersec-
tion object snap to snap to the intersec-
tion of the two lines you offset in step 2.
Construct a Tangent Arc 4. Use the Perpendicular object snap to
AutoCAD has an ARC command that gives place the ends of the arc perpendicular
CAD users great flexibility in creating arcs. to lines AB and CD (Figure 5-61B).
However, sometimes the best solution is to use
the tan tan radius option of the CIRCLE com-
mand, trimming away the unneeded parts of A D A D
the circle. This section illustrates a few of the 1
1
ways to create arcs in AutoCAD. O O
Construct an Arc Tangent to B B

Two Lines C C
The procedure for constructing an arc tan- A B
gent to two lines in AutoCAD is similar to the
board drafting procedure. In CAD, the pro- Figure 5-61
cedure is the same whether the angle is an Using AutoCAD to create an arc tangent to two
acute, obtuse, or right angle. Therefore, only lines
an acute angle is shown in Figure 5-61.
1. Draw given lines AB and CD (Figure
5-61A).
Construct an Arc Tangent to C
Two Given Arcs TANGENT

POINT 2
This method uses the CIRCLE command
TANGENT D
to construct an arc tangent to two given arcs. POINT 1
B
Refer to Figure 5-62.

1. Enter the ARC command and follow the
prompts to enter the start point, second
point, and endpoint of arcs AB and CD. The
A
radii of the arcs may be equal or unequal. BREAK
2. Enter the CIRCLE command. At the POINTS
prompt, enter T (tan tan radius). Select

points on the given arcs near the tangent Figure 5-62
locations. Note that you have only to Using the CIRCLE command to construct an arc
pick a point somewhere near the tangent tangent to two given arcs
point. AutoCAD calculates the exact tan-
gents for you.
3. Specify a radius of 1.50 to make the tan-
gent circle appear.
4. Enter the BREAK command, and pick
two points on the circle to break the arc
out of the circle. Use the ERASE com- Determine How does the CAD procedure
mand to erase the unwanted portion of for constructing an arc tangent to two lines
the circle. The remaining arc is tangent differ for acute, obtuse, and right angles?
to the two given arcs.
4. Create two circles. For the first, use the
Construct an Ogee Curve intersection of the vertical line from
An ogee curve is a reverse curve that looks
point B and the lower perpendicular as
something like an S. The CAD procedure for
the center point. For the radius, enter
drawing an ogee curve is similar to the board
the Endpoint object snap and snap to
drafting procedure. Refer to Figure 5-63.
point E. For the second circle, use the
1. With Ortho on, draw lines AB and CD intersection of the vertical line from
(Figure 5-63A). Then turn Ortho off point C and the upper perpendicular as
and use the Endpoint object snap with the center point. For the radius, use the
the LINE command to draw line BC. Endpoint object snap to snap to point
2. Enter the BREAK command. This com- E. It does not matter if the circles extend
mand is used to “break” a single line, arc, off the screen. (Figure 5-63C).
circle, or other geometry into two distinct 5. Notice that the two circles are tangent to
objects. At the prompt, enter F (First), and each other at point E. One circle is also
use the Nearest object snap to pick a point tangent to line AB, and the other is tan-
E on line BC through which the curve is gent to line CD. To finish the ogee curve,
to pass. Refer again to Figure 5-63. Line BC enter the TRIM command, press Enter to
becomes two lines: BE and EC. select all of the objects, and trim away
3. Construct perpendiculars at the mid- the unwanted parts of the circles. Erase
points of lines BE and EC. The length of lines BE, EC, and the vertical and perpen-
the perpendicular lines does not matter. dicular lines. See Figure Figure 5-63D
Erase any circles or arcs used for con- for the finished curve.
struction before continuing to step 4
(Figure 5-63B).
BREAK
POINT C D C D
E E
A B A B
A B
C D C D
E E
A B A B
C D
Figure 5-63
Creating an ogee curve in AutoCAD.

3. The base point is the point around which
Reduce or Enlarge a the scaling will occur. Use the Center
Drawing object snap to select the center of the cir-
To change the size of objects in an Auto- cles for the base point.
CAD drawing, you can use the SCALE com- 4. Enter a scale factor of .75 to scale the cir-
mand. Note that this process is different from cles to 75% of their original size (Figure
using the ZOOM command to make objects 5-64B). You can check their size by using
on the screen appear larger or smaller. It is also the grid, remembering that the dots on
different from choosing a standard scale in the grid are spaced at intervals of .50.
paper space to scale a drawing for printing.
When you use the SCALE command, you
change the actual dimensions of the objects
you see on the screen. You can scale all of the
objects in the drawing at once or scale only
those objects that you select.
This construction demonstrates the effect
of scaling objects in AutoCAD. Refer to
Figure 5-64. A B
1. Set the snap and grid to .50. Use the
snap, grid, and coordinate display to
Figure 5-64
create two concentric circles (both with Using the SCALE command to enlarge or reduce
the same center point). Make the radius the physical size of a drawing in AutoCAD.
of one circle 2.00 units, and make the
radius of the second circle 1.00 unit Notice that you must enter a decimal frac-
(Figure 5-64A). tion. The number 1 stands for 100%, or full
2. Enter the SCALE command. Pick both size. If you enter 75, the circles will enlarge to
circles to scale, and press Enter. 75 times their original size.

After You Read
3. Read the following content vocabulary
and technical terms from this chapter.
Self-Check Organize the terms using one of them as
1. Describe how technical and mathemat- the heading under which the others are
ical problems related to geometric con- listed as examples.
structions can be solved using CAD.
isosceles equilateral
2. Explain how to reduce or enlarge the
triangle scalene
physical size (dimensions) of a drawing
using CAD.
Drafting Practice
Repeat the board drafting practice
in Section 5.1, this time using CAD
techniques.

drafting practice.

Chapter Summary
• Geometry is the study of the size and • Using CAD object snaps for geometric
shape of objects and their relationship to constructions greatly increase the effi-
each other. ciency of the drawing process and reduces
• Drafters, surveyors, engineers, architects, the time involved in preparing accurate,
scientists, mathematicians, and design- high-quality drawings.
ers use geometric constructions to show • In CAD, many commands are available
proper relationships between individual for drawing basic geometric shapes.
lines and points. Examples include CIRCLE, POLYGON,
• Geometric shapes discussed in this ARC, and ELLIPSE.
chapter include lines, triangles, squares,
circles, arcs, angles, pentagons, hexagons,
polygons.
• The most important principles of
drafting include accuracy. Work that is
not accurate may give designers wrong
information.

Content Vocabulary • polygon (p. 144) Academic Vocabulary
• geometry (p. 135) • inscribe (p. 152) • accurate (p. 135)
• geometric construction (p. 137) • circumscribe (p. 152) • methods (p. 139)
• vertex (p. 138) • regular polygon (p. 152) • intervals (p. 161)
• bisect (p. 138) • ellipse (p. 155) • specify (p. 163)
• perpendicular (p. 139) • object snap (p. 160)
• parallel (p. 139) • ogee curve (p. 168)
Review Key Concepts

2. List geometric shapes that drafters use.
3. Demonstrate how to construct various geometric shapes accurately.
4. Describe how technical and mathematical problems related to geometric constructions can
be solved using board-based drafting.
5. Describe how technical and mathematical problems related to geometric constructions can
be solved in a computer environment.
6. List the steps involved in using geometry to enlarge or to change a drawing’s proportions.

Engineering
7. What do Engineers Do? Prep
Webster’s Dictionary defines engineering
Multiple Choice Question For
Directions Choose the letter
as “the application of science and mathemat-
of the best answer. Write the
ics by which the properties of matter and the
letter for the answer on a
sources of energy in nature are made useful to
separate piece of paper.
people.” According to the National Academy
10. Which of the following is an example
of Engineering (NAE), there are more than
of a polygon?
two million practicing engineers in the United
A. Circle
States. What are all these engineers doing? In
B. Angle
what ways are engineers making things use-
C. Triangle
ful for people? Using the Internet or library,
D. Parallel Line
research a type of engineering, such as archi-
tectural or biomedical engineering. Then write
a one-page paper, summarizing what makes TEST-TAKING TIP
the field of engineering important and name In a multiple-choice test, the answers
one major innovator working in the field. should be specific and precise. Read the
question first, then read all the answer
choices before you choose. Eliminate
answers that you know are incorrect.
8. Productivity and Accountability
You and a classmate have been assigned a
project that represents a significant part of
your grade. You are both to participate equally
Win
in completing it. The two of you agree to the Competitive
parts for which each will be responsible. You
finished your work, but your partner did not. Events
How do you handle this situation? Prepare a 11. Technical Math
bulleted list to show your options, to use as a Organizations such as SkillsUSA offer a
basis for a class discussion. variety of architectural, career, and draft-
ing competitions. Completing activities
Mathematics pare for these events.
9. Calculate Area Activity Complete the STEM Math-
Determine the area of a triangle with a base ematics exercise on this page. Then team
of 6 inches and a height of 2 inches. with a partner and check each other’s
work, going over any concepts that
Calculating Area might be unclear.
To find the area of a triangle, multiply the
base (b) times the height (h) and divide by Go to glencoe.com for this book’s
two. Area = bh/2. OLC for more information about
competitive events.
ALTITUDE (h)
BASE (b)
2"
6"

5 Problems
Drafting Problems
The problems in this chapter can be per-
formed using board drafting or CAD tech-
niques. The problems are presented in order
of difficulty, from least to most difficult.
Problems 1 through 18 are designed for work-
ing four problems on an A-size sheet, laid out
as shown in Figure 5-65. Draw each problem
three times the size shoown. If you are using
board drafting, use dividers to pick up the Figure 5-65
dimensions from the problems, and step off
each measurement three times. If you are using
a CAD system, use a scale to measure the dimen- 9. Draw a circle with a 3″ diameter Figure
sions, and create the geometry in the CAD sys- 5-66I. Inscribe a square in the circle.
tem at three times the measured size.
10. Draw a circle with a 3″ diameter Figure

1. Draw and bisect line AB Figure 5-66A. 5-66I. Inscribe a regular pentagon in the
circle.
2. Draw line AB Figure 5-66B. Construct a
perpendicular at point P. 11. Draw a circle with a 3″ diameter Figure
5-66I. Circumscribe a regular hexagon
3. Draw line AB Figure 5-66C. Divide line about the circle.
AB into five equal parts.
4. Draw line AB Figure 5-66D. Construct 5-66I. Circumscribe a regular octagon
line CD through point P so that CD is par- about the circle.
allel to AB and equal in length to line AB.
5. Draw angle ABC Figure 5-66E. Bisect 5-66J. Construct a tangent line through
angle ABC. point P.
6. Draw angle ABC Figure 5-66F. Copy 14. Locate points A, B, and C on the drawing
the angle in a new location, beginning sheet Figure 5-66K. Construct a circle
with line A1B1. through these three points.
7. Draw base line AB Figure 5-66G. Con- 15. Draw the two lines shown in Figure
struct an isosceles triangle using base line 5-66L. Construct an arc having a radius
AB and sides equal to line CD. R tangent to the two lines.
8. Draw base line AB Figure 5-66H. Con- 16. Draw the two arcs shown in Figure
struct a triangle on base AB with sides 5-66M. Construct an arc having a radius
equal to BC and AC. R tangent to the first two arcs.

17. Draw a 3.00″ square Figure 5-66N. Construct a regular octagon within the square.
18. Construct an ellipse that has a 4.00″ major axis and a 2.50″ minor axis Figure 5-66O.
B P
A B
30°
A B C
A B1
A
A1
P C
B
B B A
D E F
D
C
C
A BASE B C A BASE BB A
G H I
R
P
B
A
J K L
MAJOR AXIS
R
M N O
Figure 5-66
Problems 173
5 Problems
Problems 19 through 24: These problems

provide additional practice in geometric con- 21. Draw the adjustable fork shown in
structions. They are designed to be drawn Figure 5-69. Use the following dimen-
one per drawing sheet. Before beginning each sions: A = 220 mm; B = 80 mm; C =
drawing, determine an approximate scale and 40 mm; D = 27 mm; E = 64 mm; F =
sheet size. Do not add dimensions to your 20 mm; G = 8 mm; H = 10 mm.
drawing. G F
H
19. Draw the handwheel shown in Figure
5-67. Use the following dimensions: E
C D
A = Ø7.00″; B = Ø6.12″; C = Ø5.50″; D
= R1.25″; E = Ø2.00″; F = Ø1.00″; G
B
(keyway) = .20″ wide × .10″ deep; H = A
Ø.38″; I = R.38″; J = R.20″; K = 1.00″. METRIC
A Figure 5-69
B
H I C
G D
F E
22. Draw the rod support shown in Figure
5-70.
K
J
Figure 5-67 R3.50 5.50

Ø1.06
3 HOLES R1.00
20. Draw the combination wrench shown in

Figure 5-68. Use the following dimen-
sions: square: 1.00″; octagon: 1.38″ across 2.75
7.62
flats; isosceles triangle: 2.75″ base, 2.00″
sides; pentagon: inscribed within Ø1.38⬙
circle; hexagon: 1.25″ across flats. If you Figure 5-70
are using board drafting techniques, do
not erase construction lines.
R1.25
2.50 3.50 3.00 3.00

12.00
Figure 5-68
23. Draw the adjustable table support shown 24. Draw the tilt scale shown in Figure 5-72.
in Figure 5-71. Use the following dimensions: AB = 44
mm; AX = 66 mm; AC = 140 mm; AD =
R1.00 184 mm; AE = 216 mm; AF = 222 mm;
AG = 236 mm; H = R24 mm; I = R16 mm;
R.38
60? J = R5 mm; K = Ø12 mm.
R7.00 20 30 G
1 70 60 40
R1.62 0 50 45 F
J 90 E
R.75 50° D
R1.00
15? 45° C
R.38 45°
Ø.75 4.00
8.00
Figure 5-72
B
I K
Figure 5-71
A
H
X METRIC
Design Problems
teams of students. In these problems, you will apply skills learned mostly in
this chapter but also in other chapters throughout the text. The problems are
designed to be completed using board drafting, CAD, or a combination of the
two. Be creative and have fun!
Challenge Your Creativity

2. Design an octagon-shaped jewelry box
1. Design an educational toy to help tod- with a hinged lid. The overall size should
dlers develop manual dexterity, spatial not exceed 160 mm across the corners
relationships, and color association. The of the octagon by 90 mm high. Material:
toy should be similar to Figure 5-73, but optional. Do not dimension.
expanded to include at least six geomet-
ric shapes of different colors. Material: 1″ Teamwork
thick pine.
3. Design and draw a cover for your 8.50″ ×
11.00″ or 11.003 × 17.00″ set of technical
drawings. Use various geometric shapes in
the design. Geometric shapes, such as cir-
cles, squares, hexagons, octagons, ellipses,
2 2
etc., can be used to enhance the design.
Use colors where desired. Use block letters
to add information on the cover, such as
your name, the school name, the course
title, the instructor’s name, and the year.
Figure 5-73
Problems 175
UNIT 1
Create a Logo for Your Own Business

Your Project Assignment TIP! A logo will be used to promote your
Explore the opportunities to become an business and give it an identity. It should
entrepreneur by working as a freelance draft- be eye-catching, simple, and speak to the
sperson from your home. Create a logo for your needs of your potential customers.
business. • Prepare three finished drawings of your logo
Use what you have learned in Chapters 1–5 at three different sizes.
to create a plan for starting your own freelance
business. Your challenge is to: Applied Skills
• Identify opportunities for employment as • List and categorize the opportunities you
an independent draftsperson by researching uncover in your research. Include contact
local classified ads and regional and national information for each company, information
online job search sites. about qualifications and requirements, type
• Choose a focus for your home-based business of company, and the nature of the work.
based on your interests and abilities. Will • Outline the educational requirements, and
your clients be manufacturing companies, identify schools or programs where you could
engineering firms, or architects? Are you obtain the necessary training.
stronger at board drafting, or computer-aided
• Write a paragraph or two about your interests
drafting? and abilities. Discuss why you chose the focus
• Explain the educational requirements for the for your business that you did.
kind of work you have chosen.
• List the steps, materials, and tools you used to
• Create finished drawings for a business create the drawings for your logo. Explain the
logo to use on stationery, business cards procedure you used to reduce or enlarge your
brochures, etc. initial drawing to create three versions.
The Math Behind the Project

The primary math skills you will use to com-
plete this project are geometry modeling, algebra,
and measurement. To get you started, remember
Math Standards
these key concepts, and follow this example:
Geometry Use visualization, spatial reasoning, and Geometry—Ratio, Proportion,
geometric modeling to solve problems (NCTM)
and Scale
Problem Solving Solve problems that arise in To understand how to reduce or enlarge the
mathematics and other contexts (NCTM) size of a drawing, think about the terms ratio,
proportion, and scale. A ratio is a comparison
NCTM National Council of Teachers of Mathematics of two numbers. For example, a rectangle has a

length of 2 inches and width of 3 inches. The unknown quantity. For example, consider this
ratio of length to width is 2/3. problem:
When two ratios are equal, they form a pro- What is the length of a rectangle 6 inches
portion. One way to determine whether two wide that is proportional to another rectangle
ratios form a proportion is to check their cross 2 inches wide and 3 inches long?
products. For example, to find out if a 2/3 rect- Use l to represent the length of the enlarged
angle is proportional to a 6/8 rectangle, multiply rectangle drawn to scale.
the numerator of each ratio by the denominator
6
2 = __
__ 2l = 6 × 3 2l = 18 l=9
of the other. If the resulting products are equal, 3 l
the figures are proportional.
The length should be 9 inches.
6
2 ? __
__ 2×8?6×3 16 ≠ 18 To determine the scale factor of the enlarged
3 8 drawing, write a ratio comparing similar sides,
Since the products are not equal, the rectan- and reduce. For example, 6/2 or 9/3. In both
gles are not proportional. In other words, they cases, the ratios reduce to 3. When a figure is
are not drawn to scale. enlarged, the scale factor is greater than one.
When two similar figures are identical in size,
Solving Proportion Problems the scale factor is equal to one. When a figure is
To use proportions to solve problems, set reduced, the scale factor is less than one.
up two ratios using a letter symbol for the
Designers of Famous Logos

In the United States and around the world, famil-
iar corporate logos dot the landscape. You can spot
your favorite fast food restaurant or gas station from
far away because their powerful logos are easy to rec-
ognize and prominently displayed. What makes these
symbols so effective? Who designed them?
One of the most influential logo designers of the
twentieth century is Milton Glaser. He designed the
famous “I Love New York” logo. He also designed the
“bullet” you see on DC Comics. A good logo catches
the eye. It may also say something about the product
or service offered, or make the observer curious.
Research Activity Find out more about Milton Gla-

ser and the things he has designed. What characteris-
tics do his logos and other objects have in common?
Also research the principles behind good logo design.
Write a one-page summary of your findings.
Bonus! Incorporate the principles of good logo

design into your creation.
Unit 1 Hands-On Math Project 177

Car Culture/Corbis
UNIT 1 Hands-On Math Project
Project Steps: enlarge or reduce it so you have three ver-

sions: one should be sized for use on a busi-
Design Your Future! ness card, one for use on stationery, and one
for use on a Web site.
STEP 1 Research
TEAMWORK Collaborate: Ask a classmate
to review the design of your logo before you
• Explain the type of drafting work you are best
continue. Ask for feedback on the technical
suited for and most interested in pursuing.
aspects of your drawing as well as the overall
• Look for job opportunities in local classified concept.
ads and on the Internet. Make phone calls
to these companies to find out more about
available opportunities. STEP 4 Present
• Phone other similar firms in your area and
ask if they ever hire outside firms to handle Prepare a presentation combining your
any of their drafting needs. research with your completed drawings using
the checklist below.
• Find out more about logo design and think
about what you want to communicate with
your logo. Presentation Checklist
TIP! Write a script, and practice your phone Did you remember to…
inquiry skills before you call prospective clients.
✓state your objectives for your business?
STEP 2 Plan ✓describe the services you will offer?
✓show and discuss your logo?
• Define and write out your overall goal for ✓explain the process you used to create the
this project. logo and what you hope to achieve with it?
• Gather the appropriate supplies and tools for ✓describe the services you will offer?
board drafting. ✓show and discuss your logo?
• Set up to prepare your drawing file with
✓explain the process you used to create the
AutoCAD. logo and what you hope to achieve with it?
✓show your preliminary sketches and explain
Refer to the Math Concepts on the how you created your logo?
previous page, or go to glencoe.com
for this book’s OLC for more informa- ✓demonstrate the basic sketch or CAD drawing?
tion on the math concepts used in ✓show the three versions of your logo and
this project. explain how they could be used?
✓review the drafting principles involved in
completing your logo?
STEP 3 Apply ✓explain any problems you encountered and
how you overcame them?
• Make several preliminary sketches of ideas ✓turn in your research and planning notes to
you have for your logo. your teacher?
• Complete one version of your logo, then

STEP 5 Build Your Portfolio
The purpose of a portfolio is to showcase your

education and examples of your work and
accomplishments. The purpose of a portfolio is to showcase
• Organize your drawings in a manner that will your education and examples of your
show your ideas well. work and accomplishments. A typical
portfolio might include the following:
• Attach a written introduction and a descrip-
tion of your design. • Career summary and goals
• Résumé
• List of accomplishments
STEP 6 Evaluate Your Technical • Education and certifications
Skills • Samples of your work
• Job or Job-shadowing experience
Assess yourself before and after your
presentation.
Getting Started
1. Is your research thorough? To prepare the written components for
your portfolio, you will need access to a
2. Did you plan your steps carefully?
computer with Microsoft Word, Pages,
3. Did you organize your visuals so that they
or other word processing application.
showcase your ideas? Use this software to create the written
4. Is your presentation creative and effective? components of your portfolio.
5. During your presentation, do you make
eye contact and speak clearly enough? 1. Career summary and goals:
Prepare a brief summary of your
specific career goals. Describe the
Rubrics Go to glencoe.com to this industry or job that interests you.
book’s OLC for a printable evaluation
rubric and Academic Assessment. 2. Résumé: If you have not already
done so, use the information from
Chapter 1 to prepare your résumé.
Include in your résumé a list of
accomplishments, education, and
certifications you hold.
3. Samples of your work: Now that
you have completed your business
planning and design project for this
unit, include your drawings as sam-
ples of your work in your portfolio.
Save Your Work

In the following Units, you will add more
elements to your portfolio. Keep items
you want to save for your portfolio in a
special folder as you progress through
this class.
Unit 1 Hands-On Math Project 179

Image Source Black/Alamy
UNIT 2
Developing
Drafting
Techniques
CHAPTER
Multiview Drawing
Dimensioning
Sectional Views
Auxiliary Views
Descriptive
Geometry
Building Blocks for Success

Consider times in your life when
you tackled a challenging project
or learned a new skill. What
attitudes, approaches, or habits
helped you accomplish your goal?
180
Svenja-Foto/zefa/Corbis
UNIT
Preview
Customize Your Workspace
When you have completed this unit,
you will create a full set of technical
drawings for a design idea of your own.
Project Checklist
As you read this unit, use this checklist
to prepare for your unit project:
✓ Keep notes on industries of interest
to you that employ drafters and
designers.
✓ Jot down ideas for technical drawings
you would like to produce.
✓ Practice your board and CAD draw-
ing skills.
✓ Use geometry to construct drawings
and solve technical problems.
✓ Create various views of an object.
✓ Estimate the time required to com-
plete various drafting tasks.
As you wrap up the study of Chapter 8,
you’ll be ready to launch into your unit
project.
Internet Project
Online Learning Center (OLC). Find the
WebQuest Internet Project for Unit 2
called Becoming a Certified Drafter.

for Unit 2 Practice Tests, Skills Reviews,
and Study Guides.
181
6 Multiview Drawing
Section 6.1
Understanding Ortho-
graphic Projection
Section 6.2
Creating a Multiview
Drawing Using CAD
Chapter Objectives
• Explain orthographic
projection.
• Describe first- and
third-angle projection.
• Determine the num-
ber of views needed
to describe fully the
shape and size of an
object.
• Locate multiple views
on a drawing.
• Create the various
views of an object.
• Develop a multiview
drawing using board
drafting.
• Develop a multiview
drawing using CAD.
• Explain the advan-
tages of using solid
models in CAD.
Form and Function Terblanche

has said that everything needs
to be extremely practical, which
means form must closely follow
function. Explain how this applies
to motorcycle design.
182
Ducati
Drafting Career
Pierre Terblanche, Motorcycle Designer
Renowned motorcycle designer Pierre Terblanche set

out “to create a bike for a real-world rider who wants
to be on the bike as often as possible: to commute, to
go for a hard ride, to pick up the groceries” when he
designed the Multistrada.
Terblanche said the greatest challenge in design-

ing this bike was to create it to do everything well,
with plenty of storage and massive visual impact. “We
worked long and hard until it looked right. Getting
those sides slim enough, making a frame as narrow as
possible, and building a low bike took a lot of time.”

• Problem identification, formulation, and
solution
• Critical thinking and systems thinking
• Seeing things in the mind’s eye
• Monitoring and correcting performance
Career Pathways
Mentoring is an excellent way to learn about
careers. Mentors help students in their job explora-
tion and career development by giving advice based
on their own knowledge and experience in the field.
Does your school have a mentoring program?

about Pierre Terblanche.
183
6.1 Understanding Orthographic
Projection
Preview Board drafters must visualize an object and then represent it on paper in a way that
describes its exact shape and proportion. As you read the section, practice the techniques for
visualizing objects.
Content Vocabulary
• visualization • multiview • orthographic • first-angle • third-angle
• implementation drawing projection projection projection
• normal view
Academic Vocabulary
• technical • distorted • locate
Graphic Organizer
Use a table like the one below to organize notes about orthographic projection.
Orthographic Projection
First-Angle Third-Angle
Planes
Projection Projection
Academic Standards
Read texts to acquire new information (NCTE 4) NCTM National Council
of Teachers of
Mathematics
Mathematics
Measurement Understand measurable attributes of objects and the units, systems, and Mechanical Engineers
processes of measurements (NCTM) ADDA American Design
Drafting Association
Industry Standards
ADDA Section 14
Standards and Practices Listing (ASME Y14.3)
184 Chapter 6 Multiview Drawing

positions. The views are arranged in a standard
Technical Drawing order so that anyone trained in drafting can
How can a technical drawing give more understand them. This type of graphic repre-
accurate information than a photograph? sentation is called multiview drawing.
Technical drawing requires skill in visual-
ization and implementation. Visualization Normal Views
is the ability to see clearly in the mind’s eye The front, top, and right-side views are
what an object looks like. Implementation known as the normal views because they
is the process of drawing what has been visu- are the ones most often used to describe
alized. The designer, engineer, or drafter first objects in technical drawing. The normal
visualizes an object and then explains it using views of the V-block from Figure 6-1 are
technical drawing. shown in Figure 6-2.
A properly made technical drawing gives a To understand each view, you must imag-
clearer, more accurate description of an object ine you are are looking at an object from a
than a photograph or written explanation. position directly in front of it, then above it,
Technical drawings result in views that give and finally at the right side of it.
an exact visual description of an object. In Figure 6-2, the front view of the V-block
A technical drawing is different from a shows the object’s exact width and the height.
photograph or a pictorial drawing. A pictorial The dashed lines show the outline of details
drawing shows an object as it appears to the hidden behind the front surface.
human eye. Notice that the pictorial view of The top view of the V-block shows the exact
the V-block (Figure 6-1), shows three sides shape of the top. Therefore, it provides the
of the V-block in a single view. But photo- width and depth of the V-block. Notice that
graphs and pictorial drawings cannot show the circular holes are true circles in this view,
the exact forms and relationships of parts that and the rounded ends of the base are true
make up the object. They show the V-block as radii.
it appears, not as it really is. For example, the The right-side view of the V-block shows the
circular holes in the base appear as ellipses, depth and height accurately. Notice that the
not as true circles. shape of the V appears to be symmetrical in
the right-side view. It appeared distorted in
Multiview Drawing the pictorial drawing.
A drafter must represent an object on a Notice the top view is directly above the
sheet of paper in a way that describes its front view. The right-side view is to the
exact shape and proportions. This is done by right of the front view. Each view is where it
drawing “views” of the object from different logically belongs. The edges of the views line
TOP
TOP VIEW
RIGHT
FRONT SIDE
FRONT VIEW RIGHT-SIDE VIEW

Figure 6-1
This pictorial shows the top, front, and right Figure 6-2
side in a single view, but it does not supply all The relationship of the three normal views of the
information necessary to build a V-block. V-block
Section 6.1 Understanding Orthographic Projection 185

up exactly. For example, the center of a hole HORIZONTAL PLANE
in the front view is directly in line with the

center of the hole in the top view.
In some cases, it may be necessary to show
other views. The next section discusses all the
main views of objects and the importance of
FIRST
their relationship to one another. ANGLE
THIRD
ANGLE
Infer What do you think is meant by ‶see

clearly in the mind′s eye?″
VERTICAL PLANE
PROFILE PLANE
Orthographic Projection Figure 6-4

How does the angle of vision affect the way The three planes used in orthographic projection
you see an object?
Most objects have six sides, or six views:

top, front, bottom, rear, right side, and left
side, as shown in Figure 6-3. The views
Angles of Projection
Notice that the vertical and horizontal
that make up multiview drawings are devel-
planes divide the space into four quadrants,
oped using the principles of orthographic
or quarters of a circle. In orthographic projec-
projection. This is the process of projecting
tion, quadrants are also referred to as angles.
two or more views of an object onto imagi-
nary planes perpendicular to the object. First-Angle Projection
Orthographic projection uses three planes:
In European countries, the accepted
the vertical plane, the horizontal plane, and the
method of projecting views onto the quad-
profile plane, or side view (see Figure 6-4). A
rants, or angles, is known as first-angle
view of an object is projected and drawn onto
projection. Using this method, the object
each plane.
is projected from the first angle, or quad-
rant, onto the other quadrants (Figure 6-5).
TOP
REAR LEFT FRONT RIGHT
BOTTOM
Figure 6-5
Figure 6-3 The position of the three planes used in
Pictorial drawing and six views first-angle projection

FRONT VIEW LEFT-SIDE VIEW
TOP VIEW
TOP VIEW FRONT VIEW RIGHT-SIDE VIEW

Three views in first-angle projection Three views in third-angle projection
The front view is projected to the vertical Third-Angle Projection

plane, the top view to the horizontal plane, Third-angle projection uses the same
and the left-side view to the profile plane. To basic principles as first-angle projection.
create a multiview drawing, the horizontal But the object is projected onto the planes
and profile planes are rotated so that all views from the third angle, not the first angle. This
lie in a single plane (see Figure 6-6). Using method is used in the United States and
first-angle projection, the front view appears Canada. In Figure 6-7, you see the same
above the top view, and the left-side view object projected onto the planes within the
appears to the right of the front view. third quadrant. In this case, the front view is
projected to the vertical plane, the top view to
the horizontal plane, and the right-side view
to the profile plane. Again, the planes are
rotated to lie in a single plane. The result is a
drawing in which the top view appears above
the front view (see Figure 6-8).
The Glass Box

We mentioned earlier that most objects
have six sides. Therefore, six views may result.
We explain the theory of projecting all six
views by imagining a glass box.
Imagine a transparent glass box around the
Figure 6-7 bookend in Figure 6-9A. In your mind’s eye,
The position of the three planes used in project the views of the bookend onto the
third-angle projection. sides of the glass box. When the glass box is
opened, the six views are seen in their relative

Figure 6-9
(A) Imagine that the bookend is inside a glass box.
(B) When the glass box is opened, you can see all
six sides of the bookend easily.
A
TOP Most objects can be recognized because

VIEW
they have a characteristic view. This is the
first view to consider. The characteristic view
usually becomes the front view and the first
BACK LEFT-SIDE FRONT RIGHT-SIDE
VIEW VIEW VIEW VIEW view drawn. Consider also the normal posi-
tion of the part when it is in use. It is often
BOTTOM
desirable to draw the part in its normal
VIEW position.
B However, it is not always practical. For
example, tall parts, such as vertical shafts,
can be drawn more easily in a horizontal
position. Views with the fewest hidden lines
positions as if they had been drawn on paper
are easier to read and take much less time to
(Figure 6-9B). These views are arranged
draw.
according to proper order for the six views
in third-angle projection. The back view is Choosing the Number of Views
located to the left of the left-side view. The main purpose of drawing views is to
Notice that some views give the same infor- describe the shape of something. There-
mation found in other views. Some views may fore it is a waste of time to make more views
also be mirror images of one another. Thus, than are necessary to describe an object. For
it is not necessary to show all six views for a example, parts of uniform thickness such as
complete description of the object. In this the latch in Figure 6-10, require only one
case, the object can be described completely view. The thickness is given in a note. Cir-
using the three normal views. They are shown cular objects such as the bushing and sleeve
in the blue highlighted area of Figure 6-9B. shown in Figure 6-11 can also be shown
in one view. Dimensions for diameters are
marked with the diameter symbol [Ø].
See Figure 6-12 for examples of objects
Contrast To which planes are the front that can be described with two views. When
view, the top view, and the left-side view you use two views, you must select them
projected? carefully so that they describe the shape of
the object accurately. For the base in Figure
6-12A, the top view and either front or side
Drawing the Views
How do you decide which views to use
when making a technical drawing?
In most cases, three views are sufficient to

describe an object. The general characteristics
LATCH
of an object often suggest the three views 5 GA (.182) B & S SHEET BRASS
required to describe its shape. Sometimes,
however, an object has features that can be Figure 6-10
more clearly described by using another view Parts of uniform thickness require only one view.
or part of another view.

BUSHING
BASE SLIDE BLOCK PLACER CONE
A B C
Figure 6-12
SLEEVE
Two-view drawings
Figure 6-11
Cylindrical objects such as these can be shown in
one view. Diameters must be marked clearly.
view are enough. The top view and front view

describe the slide block in Figure 6-12B
adequately. A third view would add noth-
ing to the description of the placer cone in
Figure 6-12C.
Many objects, such as the angle plate in
Figure 6-13, require three views to describe
them completely. The sliding base in
Figure 6-14 also requires three views.
Though all six views are shown to illustrate
the selection of views, you see that the top, Figure 6-13
front, and right-side views give the best
shape description and contain the fewest This angle plate requires a three-view drawing.
hidden lines.
TOP VIEW
W D W D
H H H
Figure 6-14
BACK VIEW LEFT-SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW RIGHT-SIDE VIEW
Choice of views
W
BOTTOM VIEW

The top view of a frustum of a cone appears
as two circles. Refer to Figure 6-15D. In this
view, the conical surface is represented by the
space between the two circles.
Cylinders, cones, and frustrom of cones
have single curved surfaces. They appear as
circles in one view and straight lines in the
A B others. Other objects, such as the handles in
Figure 6-16A, have double curved surfaces
that appear as curves in both views. The ball
handle has spherical ends. Thus, both views of
the ends are circles because a sphere appears as
a circle when viewed from any direction. The
slotted link in Figure 6-16B is an example
of a tangent plane and curved surfaces. The
C D rounded ends are tangent to the sides of the
link, and the ends of the slot are tangent to
Figure 6-15 the sides. Therefore, the surfaces are smooth.
The curved surfaces of cylinders and cones There is no line of separation.
appear as straight lines in some views.
Infer Why is it best to use only two or three

Curved Surfaces views to describe an object?
Some curved surfaces, such as cylinders and
cones, do not show as curves in all views. This
is illustrated in Figure 6-15. A cylinder with
its axis, or centerline, perpendicular to a plane Placing Views
shows as a circle on that plane (See Figure How does view placement affect the way a
6-15A and B). It shows as a rectangle in the drawing is interpreted?
other two planes. When choosing the views
for an object that contains curved surfaces, be The size of the drawing sheet should allow
sure to include a view that defines the curved enough space for the number of views needed
surfaces accurately. to give a clear description of the part. Working
A cone appears as a circle in one view. It space for an A-size drawing sheet is shown
appears as a triangle in the other (Figure 6-15C). by the sheet layout in Figure 6-17. Working
A B
Figure 6-16
Two-view drawings of curved surfaces: (A) double curves; (B) single curves

space for other sheet sizes is discussed in Chap-
ter 4. The method for working out the posi-
.75
tions of the views is the same for any space.
Locating the Views

7.00
In Figure 6-18A, a pictorial drawing of
a slide stop is shown with its overall width,
height, and depth dimensions. Some simple .25 .25 8.50
arithmetic is needed to properly place the
10.50
three normal views. It may also be helpful to .50
make a rough layout on scrap paper, as shown TITLE STRIP – OPTIONAL
in Figure 6-18B. This rough layout need not
.25
be made to scale. 11.00
A working space of 7.00″ × 10.50″ is used
to explain how to place the views of the Figure 6-17
slide stop. The width, depth, and height A-size sheet layout
.62
1.75
3.00
.75
7.00
3.00
5.25 1.25 5.25 1.00 1.75 1.25
A 1.75
.88
B 10.50
C
3.00 Height (for front view) 5.25 Width (for front view)
+ 1.75 Depth (for top view) + 1.75 Depth (for right-side view)
4.75 Vertical space needed for views 7.00 Horizontal space needed for views
7.00 Total available vertical space 10.50 Total available horizontal space
– 4.75 Total needed for views –7.00 Total needed for views
2.25 Remaining vertical space 3.50 Remaining horizontal space
2.25 Remaining vertical space 3.50 Remaining horizontal space

– .75 Space between front and top views – 1.00 Space between front and side views
– .62 Space at top of sheet – 1.25 Space at left side of sheet
– .88 Space at bottom of sheet – 1.25 Space at right side of sheet
0.00 (All vertical space accounted for) 0.00 (All horizontal space accounted for)
Figure 6-18
Calculations for the placement of three views on an A-size sheet

Lines, Line Segments,
In geometry, a line is made
and Rays up of points and has no width. A line seg-
Identify each of the following as line, line ment is a measurable part of a line that
segment, and ray. consists of two points, called endpoints, and
a. all of the points between them. A ray is part
of a line that has one endpoint and extends
b. infinitely in one direction.
AutoCAD’s RAY command allows you to
c. create mathematically correct rays.
Academic Standards
Mathematics to the Math Appendix located at the
back of this book.
Geometry Use visualization, spatial reasoning, and
geometric modeling to solve problems (NCTM)
dimensions are given in magenta on the Horizontal Placement

sketch. The dimensions in blue indicate the Determine horizontal placement by follow-
spacing at the top, bottom, side, and between ing these steps.
views. Use the following procedure to deter-
mine spacing. Figure 6-18C shows the actual 1. Add the width and depth to find the
calculations. total horizontal space needed to draw
the front and right-side views.
2. Subtract the result of step 1 from the
Vertical Placement total horizontal of the drawing space
Determine vertical placement by following (10.50″).
these steps.
The remaining 3.50″ is the amount left for
1. Add the height and depth of the object the space between the front and right-side
to find the total vertical space needed to views and the space at the left and right of the
draw the front and top views. sheet. If you specify 1.00″ between the front
2. Subtract the result of step 1 from the and side views, you will have 2.50″ remaining.
total vertical drawing space (7.00″). You can divide this equally for the left and
The calculations show that a total of 2.25″ is right sides. Keep in mind that you may need
left for the space between views and the space to make these spaces larger or smaller for
at the top and bottom of the sheet. If you spec- other drawings, depending upon the shapes
ify a space of .75″ between the front and top of the views, the space available, and the
views, you will have 1.50″ left for spaces above space needed for dimensions and notes.
the top view and below the front view. These Regardless of the number of views, the
could be .75″ each, but a better visual balance basic procedure does not change. Figures
will result if .88″ is used below and .62″ above. 6-19 and 6-20 show the same procedure

FR
ON 1.25
RV T DE
SI
4.25
H
1.50
1.12
1.12
W D RH 4.75 1.00 2.50
A B
L
C
3.00 1.25
C D
Figure 6-19
Calculations for the placement of views for a front- and right-side view drawing
1.12
RV L
C
3.50
1.00
D STARTING LINES
6.25
3.50
1.38 1.38
A B C D
Figure 6-20
Calculations for the placement of views for a front- and top-view drawing
used for a two-view drawing. When only

the front and side views are necessary, you
can arrange the views as shown in Figure Calculate How do you determine the total
6-19D. When the drawing includes only the horizontal space needed to draw the front
front and top views, arrange them as shown and right-side views?
in Figure 6-20D.

O1.00
.50
2.50
.50
1.50
5.00
1.25
2.50
Figure 6-22
Study this rod support and visualize the
necessary views.
Laying Out the Views

To lay out a multiview drawing of the rod
support shown in Figure 6-22, first perform
the calculations to locate the views. Then
Figure 6-21 follow these steps:
Second position of the side view in third-angle 1. Study Figure 6-22 and determine which
projection view should be used as the front view.
2. Determine which views will be required
to describe the part fully. In this case, the
front, top, and right-side views will be used.
Second Position of the 3. Locate the views as shown in Figure
Side View 6-23A, referring to Figure 6-19 or 6-20
as necessary. Use only short, light pencil
An alternate position for the side view in
marks.
third-angle projection is to the right of the
4. Block in the views with light, thin layout
top view (see Figure 6-21). This second
lines, as shown in Figure 6-23B.
position may be necessary due to the
proportions of the object or the size of the Adding Details
drawing sheet. Using the glass box model,
After you have located and blocked in the
you can achieve this position by revolving
views, you must finish the details. Follow
the side plane around its intersection with
these steps:
the top plane.
1. Lay off principal detail measurements, as
shown in Figure 6-23C. To transfer depth
Beginning to Draw from the side view to the top view or from
the top view to the side view, use one of
How can you ensure your drawing gives all
the methods shown in Figure 6-24:
the necessary information?
• Method A: Draw arcs from a center O.
Carefully review the earlier text on plac- • Method B: Construct a 45° line, called
ing views. Then read both “Laying Out the a miter line, through O.
Views” and “Adding Details,” paying careful • Method C: Use dividers to transfer
attention to the illustrations. Be sure you distances.
are familiar with all steps before you begin • Method D: Use a scale to measure
to draw. distances.

A B C
D E F
Figure 6-23
Steps for creating a multiview drawing
D D
0 0
D D
A B
Figure 6-24
Methods of locating
depth measurements
C D

2. Draw the principal detail lines or layout 4. Darken all lines to make them sharp and
lines, including centerlines, as shown in black and of the proper thickness, as
Figure 6-23D. shown in Figure 6-23F.
3. Draw circles and other details needed to
complete the views. See Figure 6-23E.
Section 6.1 Assessment

After You Read
Self-Check 1.00
1. Explain how orthographic projection is

used to develop multiple drawings.
2. Describe the difference between first-
and third-angle projection. 1.00
3. Recall how to determine the number

of views needed to describe fully the
shape and size of an object. Figure 6-25
4. Describe how to locate multiple views
on a drawing. 9. Draw the front and top views of the
5. Describe how to create the various step block shown in Figure 6-26.
views of an object. Complete the right-side view in its
6. List the steps to develop a multiview proper location. The step block is
drawing using board drafting. 20 mm × 44 mm × 88 mm. The notch
is 22 mm × 44 mm. Scale: Full size.
Mathematics
7. Determine the vertical placement for an
object with a height of 4″ and a depth of
2.25″ for a working space of 10.50″ × 7″
26
To calculate vertical placement, add

the height and depth of the object to
find the total vertical space needed to
26
draw the front and top views. Subtract
the result from the total vertical draw-
ing space.
Figure 6-26
Drafting Practice
These problems provide practice in visual- Go to glencoe.com for this
izing and creating normal views of objects. book’s OLC for help with this
Do not draw the pictorial views, and do not drafting practice.
dimension the drawings.
8. Draw the two views of the sanding
block shown in Figure 6-25, and com-
plete the third (top) view. The block is
.75″ × 1.75″ × 3.50″. Scale: Full size.

6.2 Creating a Multiview Drawing
Using CAD
Connect Connect the principles you learned in Section 6.1 to the CAD techniques discussed in
this section to create multiview drawings.
Content Vocabulary
• wireframe • solid model
Academic Vocabulary
• offset
Graphic Organizer
Use a table like the one below to take notes about drawing views using CAD.
Drawing Views with CAD

Independent Views Using a solid Model book’s OLC for a downloadable
Step 1: version of this graphic organizer.
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
Step 5:
Academic Standards
Apply knowledge of language structure and conventions to discuss text (NCTE 6) NCTM National Council of
Teachers of Math
Use information resources to gather information and create and communicate knowledge (NCTE 8)
Mathematics
Representation Students should use representations to model and interpret physical, social, and Drafting Association
mathematical phenomena.
Industry Standards
ADDA Section 14
Section 6.2 Creating a Multiview Drawing Using CAD 197

form the basis for the top and side views.
Creating Views Note: After you have placed the first hor-
Independently in CAD izontal or vertical construction line, you
can use the OFFSET command to quickly
How does CAD add efficiency to creating
place the other construction lines.
views?
2. Add horizontal construction lines at the
Although CAD techniques may differ in proper distances to finish blocking in the
their approach from board drafting tech- top view.
niques, it is important to keep in mind the 3. Add vertical construction lines at the
basic drafting principles covered in the first proper distances to finish blocking in
section of this chapter. Unless specifically the right-side view. Figure 6-28A shows
stated otherwise, all drafting principles apply the appearance of the drawing when all
equally to board and CAD drawings. construction lines are in place.
One way to create a multiview drawing
using a CAD system is to create the necessary
views independently of each other. This pro-
cess occurs in two dimensions, and is much
the same as for board drafting. However, CAD
offers an efficient method to create and align
the views.
Laying Out the Views

To lay out a multiview drawing of the rod
support shown in Figure 6-22 (Section 6.1)
A
using CAD techniques, first set up a drawing
file (see Section 4.2). Be sure to set up Hidden,
Centerline, and Object layers. You may also
want to set the grid and snap to a convenient
spacing. Determine the location of the views
according to the instructions given earlier in
this chapter. Then follow these steps:
1. With Ortho on, use vertical and horizon-
tal construction lines (XLINE) to block in
the main object lines for the front view, B
as shown in Figure 6-27. Because con-
struction lines extend infinitely, they also
Figure 6-28
(A) Finish placing the construction lines.
Figure 6-27 (B) Visualize the three views before beginning the
Use construction lines rather than regular lines to trimming operation. Trim away all parts of the
block in the front view. This provides the basis for lines except those shown in black. (C) The result
the top and side views automatically. of the trimming operation.

Figure 6-29
The Layer Control dropdown box
allows you to select a new current
layer or change the layer of selected
objects.
4. Trim the construction lines to create the

main object lines for all views. Note that
this requires careful study of the rod sup-
port to determine the appropriate places
to trim. Remember to trim between the
views. Figure 6-28B shows the appro-
priate trimming operations for the rod
support, and Figure 6-28C shows the
result after trimming.
Figure 6-30
Adding Details Construction lines drawn tangent to the exact
Add the holes and finish the views by top and bottom of the circle show the correct
placement of the holes in the front view. Use the
following these steps:
Quadrant object snap to snap to these points.
1. Pick the interior line in the right-side
view to select it. Then pick the Layer
Control dropdown box at the top of
the drawing area (or in some versions of
AutoCAD, on the Dashboard), as shown
in Figure 6-29, and pick the Hidden
layer. This moves the line to that layer.
2. In the right-side view, use the OFFSET
command to offset the top object line LINE and XLINE
down by 1.00. Offset the left object line Commands
to the right by 1.25. These temporary Lines created with AutoCAD’s LINE
lines will intersect at the correct position command have definite starting
for the center of the circle that represents and ending points. Because of this,
the hole. Refer again to Figure 6-22. Add mathematically they are not lines at
the circle, using the intersection of the all. They are line segments.
temporary lines as its center point. Then Construction lines created using
delete the temporary lines. the XLINE command are true lines in
3. Use horizontal construction lines to the mathematical sense. Unlike lines
determine the placement of the hid- created with the LINE command, they
den lines that represent the circle on extend infinitely in both directions.
the front view. Use the Quadrant object This characteristic makes them useful
snap to place the construction lines at for laying out multiview drawings.
the exact top and bottom of the circle Views are easier to align using con-
in the right-side view (see Figure 6-30). struction lines, and the construction
Trim the construction lines to finish the lines can be edited to become parts
hidden lines on both arms of the rod, of several different views.
and move them to the Hidden layer.

and trim the center of the line so that
.50 extends past the inside of each arm.
Select the centerlines and move them to
the Centerlines layer. The finished top
view is shown in Figure 6-31C.
6. Use a horizontal construction line
through the center of the hole in the
A right-side view to place the centerlines
in the front view. Trim the construction
line and move it to the Centerlines layer
to finish the centerlines for both holes.
7. Right-click any button on one of
the toolbars on the screen and pick
Dimension from the list to open the
Dimension toolbar. Pick the Center Mark
button and select the hole in the right-
B
side view to create the centerlines for
that view (Figure 6-31D). Note: If only
a center mark, or cross, appears, pick the
Dimension Style button and modify the
current dimension style to show “lines”
for centers of circles.
List What are three characteristics of

construction lines?
Creating Views from a 3D

Model
D
How can a 3D model help to create 2D
views?
Figure 6-31
Another way to create a multiview draw-
Transferring the circle to the top view
ing is to extract the necessary views from a 3D
model. In AutoCAD, the two main types of
4. In the top view, use the Midpoint object 3D models are wireframes and solid models.
snap and LINE command to create a A wireframe is similar to a physical model
temporary line from the midpoint of the made of toothpicks—it has no interior. A
left side to the midpoint of the right side. solid model is also a physical 3D model, but
This line places the center of the holes in it has interior properties. Three-dimensional
the top view. Offset the line .50 above models exist within the CAD drawing file.
and below, as shown in Figure 6-31A. A depth dimension (Z axis) is added to the
Trim the lines and change the linetype width (X axis) and height (Y axis) of a two-
to hidden. Figure 6-31B shows the fin- dimensional CAD drawing. Figure 6-32 illus-
ished hidden lines. trates the relationship of the Z axis to the X
5. Use the centerline you created in step 4 and Y axes. Because CAD programs allow you
as a basis for the centerlines through the to rotate the model or change the point of
holes. Extend the line .50 on each end view, you can create any view you need.

Figure 6-32
(A) Two-dimensional
drawings use the
X axis (horizontal)
and the Y axis
(vertical). (B) Three-
dimensional
drawings use three
axes. The third,
called the Z axis, lies
at 90° angles to both
the X axis and the Y
axis and is used for
depth.
Solid Models Wireframe Models

AutoCAD includes a set of predefined solid To create a wireframe model, you can
models called primitives. All versions of the either use the THICKNESS command or enter
software contain at least the six primitives the 3D coordinates using the keyboard. The
shown in Figure 6-33. By positioning two or THICKNESS command works with most 2D
more primitives together, many other com- drawing commands and simply gives the
plex models can be created. objects a thickness, or depth.
Solid primitives can be modified using
standard AutoCAD commands. You can use Extraction of the 2D Profiles
the COPY, MOVE, ROTATE, and SCALE com- After you have created a model and have
mands to manipulate and size them as needed. positioned it appropriately, you can use it to
To erase a solid primitive, use the DELETE extract the views. These extracted views are
command. known as profiles. Use the View pulldown
menu to display the various profiles. These
include all of the six basic views and four iso-
metric views. AutoCAD allows you to display
more than one view on the screen.
To create the two-view drawing of the cyl-
inder shown in Figure 6-34, you would first
create the cylinder as a 3D wireframe or solid
model. Then from the View pulldown menu,
BOX
WEDGE SPHERE select two Viewports. This places two copies
of the cylinder on the screen. Change the top
viewport to the Top predefined view by selecting
3D Views and then Top from the View menu.
Then change the bottom viewport to the front
view. This provides the multiview drawing. You
CONE TORUS CYLINDER can move the viewports around to place the
views more precisely.
Figure 6-33 Using this method saves time because you
AutoCAD’s six solid primitives draw the object only once, no matter how
many views you need. Also, the model itself

TOP VIEW
Exploding a Solid
Model
You will occasionally need to
extract a wireframe drawing from
an existing solid model. To do this,
simply enter the EXPLODE command
SOLID MODEL FRONT VIEW and select the solid model. The model
OF CYLINDER
becomes a wireframe automatically.
Figure 6-34
You can easily create top and front views of
the cylinder model on the left by changing to In industry, solid models are often preferred
AutoCAD’s predefined Top and Front views. over wireframes because of their flexibility.
They can be rendered to look almost like pho-
tographs (see Figure 6-35). This allows any-
can become a “pictorial view.” You can spec- one to visualize how an item will look when it
ify the viewing angle for the best pictorial rep- is finished, which is helpful when marketing
resentation. Since the views and the pictorial or promoting an item.
are made from the same model, there can be In addition, because they are “solid,” these
no discrepancies between them. models can have mass properties such as
Figure 6-35
A solid model created using a CAD program can be rendered to look realistic. In this case, a different color has
been used to render each material that will be used in the final product.

mass, volume, and moments of inertia. Engi- from the solid model to drive the manufac-
neers can assign materials to a model and the turing equipment. Any changes to the solid
CAD software will calculate the mass proper- model result in changes to the program-
ties. Engineers can develop automation or ming instructions that are passed to the CAM
animation programs that allow a model to be software.
tested much like a physical prototype. To make solid models, however, you must
Finally, solid models can be used to generate be able to think in three dimensions. Though
prototypes and even products. Links between this is something drafters do all the time,
CAD software and computer-aided manu- it takes practice to learn to work in all three
facturing (CAM) software allow information dimensions at once.
Section 6.2 Assessment

After You Read
Self-Check
1. Develop a multiview drawing using
CAD techniques.
2. Explain the advantages of using solid
models in CAD
Academic Integration Figure 6-36

5. Draw the front and top views of the step
3. Use the library or Internet to research block shown in Figure 6-37. Complete
the etymology or origin of the content the right-side view in its proper location.
vocabulary term orthographic. What are The step block is 20 mm × 44 mm × 88
the word origins for ortho and graphic? mm. The notch is 22 mm × 44 mm. Scale:
How do these word parts suggest the Full size.
meaning of orthographic projection? .
Drafting Practice
Perform these drafting assignments using
CAD techniques.
90°
4. Draw the two views of the sanding block
shown in Figure 6-36, and complete
.50
the third (top) view. The block is .75″ ×
1.75″ × 3.50″. Scale: Full size.
Figure 6-37

drafting practice.

Chapter Summary
• The views that make up multiview • Although CAD techniques may differ
drawings are developed using the in their approach from board drafting
principles of orthographic projection. techniques, all drafting principles apply
• In first-angle projection, the object is pro- equally to both. However, CAD has tools
jected onto the planes from the first angle, that add efficiency to the processes.
or quadrant. Third-angle projection uses the • One way to create a multiview drawing
third quadrant, not the first, for projection. using CAD is to create the necessary views
• The number of views needed to describe independently of each other.
an object completely depends on its shape • A second method for creating multiview
and characteristics. drawings is to extract the necessary views
• Multiview drawing represents an object from a 3D model.
on paper using views as seen from
different positions. These views are then
arranged in a standard order so that
trained drafters can understand them.
• Views are chosen based on an object’s
characteristic view, its normal position,
and the relative number of hidden lines in
the views that are being considered.

Content Vocabulary • orthographic projection Academic Vocabulary
• visualization (p. 185) (p. 186) • technical (p. 185)
• implementation (p. 185) • first-angle projection (p. 186) • distorted (p. 185)
• multiview drawing (p. 185) • third-angle projection (p. 187) • locate (p. 194)
• normal view (p. 185) • wireframe (p. 200) • offset (p. 199)
• solid model (p. 200)
Review Key Concepts

2. Define orthographic projection.
3. Contrast first- and third-angle projection.
4. Identify the six sides and six possible views that most objects have.
5. Explain how to locate multiple views on a drawing according to accepted principles of drafting.
6. List the steps to create various views of an object.
7. Summarize how to develop a multiview drawing using a drafting board.
8. Summarize how to develop a multiview drawing using CAD techniques.
9. Explain why some manufacturing companies prefer information from solid models rather
than that from two-dimensional drawings.

Technology
10. Gaspard Monge and Descriptive Prep
Geometry
Directions Read each
French mathematician Gaspard Monge was
statement and determine
the inventor of descriptive geometry. What
whether the statement is
were Monge’s greatest achievements? During
true or false.
what years did he live? What challenges did
1. The three most often-used views for a
he overcome to complete his work? Write
multiview drawing are known as the
a two-page paper accurately summarizing
normal views.
Monge’s life and work. Gather and organize
T
information from primary and secondary
F
sources and write a report using your research.
2. Technical drawings describe two-
Be sure to cite sources properly when quoting.
dimensional objects using three
dimensions on a flat surface.
T
F
11. Integrity and Honesty
For the past seven years, you have been TEST-TAKING TIP
a drafter for a small shop. You have made
If you do not know the answer to a ques-
friends with many of your coworkers and
tion, make a note and move to the next
clients. You are thinking about opening your
question. Come back to it later, after you
own shop nearby, which would provide the have answered the rest of the questions.
same service. You believe there is enough busi-
ness to support another shop. Do you think
it is fair to open a shop in direct competition
with your current employer? Why or why not?
Win
12. Calculate Vertical and Horizontal Events
Placement 13. Computer-Aided Drafting
Determine the vertical and horizontal spac- and Design
ing needed for an object with a height of 4.5″, a Organizations such as SkillUSA offer a
width of 3.25″, and a depth of 2.75″. The work- variety of architectural, career, and draft-
ing space is 10.50″ × 7″. ing competitions. Completing activities
Apply appropriate techniques such as the one below will help you pre-
pare for these events.
to determine measurements
Activity Use CAD software to create
To calculate vertical placement, add the multiview drawings of an object you use
height and depth of the object to find the total at school. An example might be a writ-
vertical space needed to draw the front and ing instrument, a book, or a desk. Be sure
top views. Subtract the result from the total your drawing is drawn to scale.
vertical drawing space. To calculate the hori-
zontal placement, add the width and depth to Go to glencoe.com for this book’s
find the horizontal space needed to draw the OLC for more information about
front and right-side views. Subtract the result competitive events.
from the width of the drawing space.

6 Problems
Drafting Problems
The problems in this chapter can be performed using board drafting
or CAD techniques. The problems within each part are presented in
order of difficulty, from least to most difficult.
Problems 1 through 5 provide practice in visualizing and creating
normal views of objects. Do not draw the pictorial views, and do not
dimension the drawings.
1. Draw the front and top views of the 2. Draw the top and right-side views of
slide shown in Figure 6-38. Complete the rod support shown in Figure 6-39.
the right-side view in its proper location. Complete the front view. The overall
The overall size is 2.12″ square × 3.75″. sizes are 2.00″ square × 3.50″. The bot-
The slots are .38" deep and .50" wide. tom and ends are .50″ thick. The holes
Allow 1.00" between views. Scale: Full are 1.00″ square and are centered on the
size. upper portions. Allow 1.00″ between
views. Scale: Full size.
Figure 6-38
Figure 6-39

3. Draw the front view of the cradle shown 5. Draw the front view of the strap shown
in Figure 6-40. Complete the top in Figure 6-42. Complete the top view
view in the proper shape and location. in the proper shape and location. Allow
Height = 50 mm; width = 150 mm; 1.00″ between views. Overall width is
depth = 58 mm; base = 12 mm thick; 6.00″. Scale: Full size.
A = 76 mm; B = 26 mm. Allow 26 mm
between views. Scale: Full size.
2.00
A R1.75
R1.25
B
D
.50
W
METRIC
Problems 6 through 11 are two- and

three-view problems. Each problem
4. Draw the top view of the spacer shown has one view missing. Draw the view or
in Figure 6-41. Complete the front views given and complete the remaining
view. Base = 2.50″ × 1″; top = Ø1.50″ view in the proper shape and location.
× .75″; hole = Ø1.00″. A vertical sheet Scale: Full size or as assigned.
will permit a larger scale. Allow 1.00″
between views. Scale: As assigned.
6. Stop. See Figure 6-43. W = 5.00″; H =
2.00″; D = 2.00″; base = 1.00″ × 2.00″ ×
5.00″; part = .75″ × 1.00″ × 3.00″.
H
Figure 6-41
W D
Figure 6-43
Problems 207
6 Problems
7. Link. See Figure 6-44. W = 7.50″; D = 9. Saddle. See Figure 6-46. W = 140 mm;
2.50″; H = 1.25″; holes = Ø1.06″. D = 50 mm; H = 56 mm; material thick-
ness = 12 mm; hole = Ø26 mm.
METRIC
W D
Figure 6-44
Figure 6-46
8. Angle bracket. See Figure 6-45. W =
5.00″; D = 2.00″; H = 2.25″; material
thickness = .50″; holes = Ø1.00″. 10. Spacer. See Figure 6-47. W = 6.50″; D =
3.25″; thickness = 1.00″; holes = Ø2.38″
and Ø.75″; A = R.75″.

11. Dovetail slide. See Figure 6-48. W = 13. Dovetail slide. See Figure 6-50.
4.25″; D = 2.50″; H = 2.00″; base thick-
ness = .75″; upright thickness = 1.25″;
holes = Ø.62″; A = .50″; B = .50″; CD =
1.50″; DE = .75″.
2.50
1.50
45°
45°
A D
8.00
B C D E
4.00
W
Figure 6-50
Figure 6-48
14. Slide. See Figure 6-51.
For problems 12 through 22, create two-
or three-view drawings of the objects
O24
shown. Do not draw the pictorial views, 2 HOLES 35
and do not dimension the drawings.
96
12
12. Stop. See Figure 6-49.

44
12
166
2.50 50
20 90
METRIC
.88
.88 1.62
Figure 6-51
6.80
.88
2.62
Figure 6-49
Problems 209
6 Problems
15. Pivot arm. See Figure 6-52. 17. Edge protector. See Figure 6-54.
2.00
O3.38
R1.25
O2.00 R1.50
.75 1.00
1.25
.25
3.25
R1.62
7.12
Figure 6-54
O2.62 O1.38
Figure 6-52
18. Socket. See Figure 6-55. A = Ø50.5

16. Shaft support. See Figure 6-53. mm × 7 mm; B = 38 mm; C = 25.2 × 17
mm long with Ø13 mm hole through;
R1.62
slots = 4.5 mm wide × 8 mm deep; D =
Ø6 mm, 4 holes equally spaced.
O1.50
2.00 CBORE
.50 DEEP D
2 HOLES A B
3.00
1.50
1.12
C
7.00
3.00
METRIC
Figure 6-55
Figure 6-53

19. Cam. See Figure 6-56. A = Ø2.62″; B = 21. Pipe support. See Figure 6-58. AB =
Ø1.25″, 1.75″ counterbore .25″ deep on 8.00″; BC = 4.00″; AD = .75″; E = 3.88″
both ends; C = 2.12″; D = R.56″; E = centered; F = Ø2.75″ × 2.25″ long; G =
1.75″; F = .88″. Ø2.23″ hole through centered; slots =
1.00″ wide centered.
D A
D
F
E
C
F
E
G
B C
A
Figure 6-58
Figure 6-56
20. Camera swivel base. See Figure 6-57. AB 22. Angle plate. See Figure 6-59. AB = 6.00″;
= 40 mm; AC = 38 mm; BD = 5.5 mm; BC = 6.50″; AD = 9.75″; DE = 1.00″; CF
BE = 20 mm; EF = 45 mm; H = R12 mm; = 1.00″; G = Ø.75″, 2 holes; EH = 2.00″;
G = Ø10 mm; J = 6 mm. Boss: K = Ø24 EJ = 2.50″; FL = 1.12″; LO = 2.00″; FM =
mm × 9 mm long; L = Ø28 mm × 4 mm 1.50″; MN = 2.50″; P = 1.12″; K = Ø.50″,
long; hole = Ø12 mm × 14 mm deep; 8 holes.
counterbore = 18 mm × 3 mm deep.
J O K
C C
L
F G
K J
F M
L A E
H H
N P D
E G
B
METRIC
D
B A
Problems 211
6 Problems
For problems 23 through 25, draw all

necessary views of the objects shown. Do 24. Mini sawhorse. See Figure 6-61. Top
not draw the pictorial views, and do not rail is 2.00″ × 4.00″ × 24.00″. Legs are cut
dimension the drawings. from 2.00″ × 12.00″ stock, 14.50″ long.
Scale: ¼″ × 1″.
23. Knife rack. See Figure 6-60. Back is
.50″ × 9.00″ × 18.00″. Front is 1.50″ ×
7.00″ × 10.00″ with 30° bevels on each .50
end. Slots for knife blades are .12″ wide × .50

1.00″ deep. Grooves on front are .12″
wide × .12″ deep. Estimate all sizes not
given. Scale: Half size.
2.00
4.00 7.00
9.00
11.00
Figure 6-61
18.00
25. Note-paper box. See Figure 6-62. All
stock is 6 mm thick. AB = 168 mm, BC
= 118 mm, BD = 24 mm, DE = 12 mm,
F = 6 mm, GH = 38 mm. Initial inlay is
10.00
optional. Scale: Full size or as assigned.
Figure 6-60 A
C
E D
F
METRIC
B
Figure 6-62

Design Problems
Designing new or improved products requires creativity, problem-solving
skills, and drafting skills to communicate the new ideas to other members of
the team. The following problems provide practice to help you improve these
important skills. Use board or CAD techniques to present your designs.
Challenge Your Creativity Teamwork

1. Design a tic-tac-toe board similar to the 4. Design a rack to support a book on a
one shown in Figure 6-63 to use golf table or counter. The rack should support
tees. Devise a convenient way to store books at a convenient angle for reading.
the golf tees with the board. Draw all Draw all necessary views and specify the
necessary views. materials from which it is to be made.
5. Design a storage case for CDs or DVDs.
The case should be able to hold up to 50
of the “jewel cases” in which CDs and
.12
.75 DVDs are commonly sold. Draw all nec-
essary views and specify the materials
.25
from which it is to be made.
.75
6. Some curved surfaces are not easy to draw
.10
and describe. For example, think about
6.00 6.00
the curves on a modern sports car. How
would you create the curves in the body
style accurately? Actually, many types of
Figure 6-63 curved surfaces can be described math-
ematically, and most CAD programs are
capable of creating these surfaces. The
2. Design a knife rack similar to the one two most common classifications are
shown in Figure 6-60. Design it to sit on analytic surfaces and non-analytic surfaces.
a counter or table rather than hang on Research curved surfaces and write a
the wall. Draw all necessary views and paper on the differences between analytic
specify the materials from which it is to and non-analytic surfaces. In your paper,
be made. include definitions of the following
terms: NURBS, B-spline, Gordon, Bezier,
Teamwork mesh, and Coons patch.
7. Find out which CAD packages can create
3. Design a shelf to hold sport trophies. The
one or more of the surface types listed in
shelf should hang on a wall and should
the previous problem. Give a class demon-
be able to support at least three trophies.
stration on how to create a non-analytic
Draw all necessary views and specify
surface model using the CAD software of
the materials from which it is to be
your choice. Identify the control points
made. Dimension all views using metric
for the surface and show how to edit the
measurements.
position of a control point. Show how
adding and removing control points can
change the shape of the surface.
Problems 213
7 Dimensioning
Section 7.1
Basic Dimensioning
Principles
Section 7.2
Dimensioning
Techniques
Chapter Objectives
• Add measurements,
notes, and symbols to
a technical drawing.
• Apply ASME and ISO
standards to dimen-
sions and notes.
• Differentiate
between size dimen-
sions and location
dimensions.
• Specify geometric tol-
erances using symbols
and notes.
• Add dimensions to a
drawing using board-
drafting techniques.
• Use a CAD system
to add dimensions,
notes, and geometric
tolerances to a techni-
cal drawing.
Playing with Plastics

Jonathan Ive says that engineers
and designers can now do things
with plastic that were previously
impossible. What are the
characteristics of plastic that give
it this ability?
214
Drafting Career
Jonathan Ive, Engineer
What comes to mind when you think of a mobile

phone that offers all these features: multimedia
player, access to the Internet, camera, text messaging,
and visual voicemail? Probably the iPhone designed
by Jonathan Ive, senior vice president of industrial
design at Apple Inc., and his product design team.
Ive, recipient of many awards, is especially proud

of what the iPod shuffle represents. Originally
shipped for $79, its aluminum body clips together
with a tolerance of ±0.03 mm—remarkable precision.
“I don’t think there’s ever been a product produced
in such volume at that price … given so much time
and care.… I hope that integrity is obvious.”

• Math
• Science
• English
• Social Studies
• Physics
• Mechanical Drawing
Career Pathways
A bachelor’s degree in engineering is required
for almost all entry-level engineering jobs. Some
engineers must be licensed by all 50 states and the
District of Columbia. Beginning engineers usually
work under the supervision of experienced engi-
neers. Communication skills are important.

about Jonathan Ive.
215
Ashley Troy Photography
7.1 Basic Dimensioning Practices
Connect Symbols have a significant function in drafting. Identify three symbols discussed in
this section, and explain what they mean?
Content Vocabulary
• dimensioning • finish mark • unidirectional • datums
• dimension line • aligned system system
Academic Vocabulary
tests.
• symbols • processes
Graphic Organizer
Use a table like the one below to organize notes about dimensioning.
Basic Dimensioning
Lines and Symbols for Dimensioning Systems book’s OLC for a downloadable
Dimensioning and Types
Academic Standards
Read a wide range of print and non-print texts to acquire new information (NCTE) NCTM National Council
of Teachers of
Mathematics
Mathematics
Apply appropriate techniques, tools, and formulas to determine measurements (NCTM) Drafting Association
Standards Institute
Industry Standards ASME American Society of
ADDA Section 2
Dimensioning and Tolerancing (ANSI B4.1, ASME Y14.5M)
216 Chapter 7 Dimensioning

Lines and Symbols for O .38
LOCAL NOTE
LEADER
Dimensioning .75
2 HOLES
O 1.25
T 1.06
What information does a complete set of R.62

working drawings include?
This chapter discusses how to show the

size and shape of the objects you draw. It is
important to understand the rules and prin- CENTERLINE
ciples of size description, or dimensioning. 1.75 USED AS AN
EXTENSION
Dimensions, or sizes, are measured in either 3.50 LINE
U.S. customary or metric (SI) units. Decimal O 2.12

EXTENSION LINE
divisions and metric units are now most com-
monly used throughout the industry and are DIMENSION
used exclusively in ASME Y14.5M (the draft- 1.62

ing standard on dimensioning).
Notes and symbols that show the type .44
of finish, materials, and other information

(4.75)
needed to make a part are also included in ROUNDS AND
REFERENCE DIMENSION FILLETS R.I2
dimensioning. A complete set of working
DIMENSION LINE GENERAL NOTE
drawings (the drawing or set of drawings from
which the part is manufactured) includes
shape description, measurements, notes, Figure 7-1
and symbols (see Figure 7-1). Chapter 13 Dimensioning includes measurements, notes,
provides more information about working and symbols.
drawings.
Dimensions on working drawings must
be as precise as necessary to allow the man- Standards, and the International Standards
ufacturer to create the part or object. When Organization (ISO).
dimensions must be precise, they are given
in hundredths, thousandths, or ten-thou- Dimension Line
sandths of an inch. If the metric system is A dimension line is a thin line that shows
being used, the measurements may be in where a measurement begins and where it
tenths, hundredths, or even thousandths of ends. It is also used to show the size of angles.
a millimeter. The dimension line should have a break in
The views on drawings describe the shape it for the dimension numbers. To keep the
of an object. To ensure accuracy and efficiency, numbers from getting crowded, dimension
the drafter adds size information to the draw- lines should be at least .38″ (10 mm) from the
ing using a system of lines, symbols, and lines of the drawing and at least .25″ (6 mm)
numerical values. from each other. In general, a dimension line
Lines and symbols are used on drawings to should be placed outside the view outlines.
show where the dimensions apply, as shown
in Figure 7-2. Professional and trade asso- Extension Line
ciations, engineering societies, and certain An extension line is a thin line that extends
industries have agreed on the symbols, so the lines or edges of views. It is used to locate
people who use the drawings can recognize center points and to provide space for dimen-
their meaning. The latest standards informa- sion lines. Because an extension line is not
tion on drawings and symbols can be found part of the views, it should not touch the out-
in publications from the American Society of line. Start the extension line about .03″ to .06″
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the Society (1 to 1.5 mm) from the part, and extend it
of Automotive Engineers (SAE), the Military about .12″ (3 mm) beyond the last dimension
Section 7.1 Basic Dimensioning Practices 217

.38" (I0 mm) MINIMUM FROM
LEADER VISIBLE LINE TO DIMENSION LINE
2X R.25 O..75
.25" (6 mm) MINIMUM
BETWEEN DIMENSION
LINES
2.25
Figure 7-2 R.88

SPACE
1.12
Dimensioning consists
of lines, symbols, and
placement techniques. I.88
1.88 3.50 SPACE
6.50
.75 EXTENSION LINE .12" (3 mm)
R.12
R.25 FINISH MARK

1.25 DIMENSION LINE
.62 .50
line as in Figure 7-2. Avoid drawing exten- Some industries use other means to point
sion lines that cross each other or that cross out the endpoint of a dimension line or leader.
dimension lines. Figure 7-3C shows some examples. These
symbols do the same job as arrowheads. For
Arrowhead example, slash marks are often used instead of
An arrowhead is placed at each end of dimen- arrowheads in architectural drafting. For most
sion lines to show where a dimension begins mechanical working drawings, however, the
and ends. It is also used at the end of a leader arrowheads shown in Figure 7-3A and B are
to show where a note or dimension applies to a preferred. Also, when space is limited, a dot
drawing. Refer again to Figure 7-1. may be used to replace arrowheads as shown
Arrowheads can be open or solid. Their in Figure 7-3D.
shapes are shown enlarged in Figure 7-3A
and in actual size in Figure 7-3B. In any The Finish Mark
one drawing, they should all be the same size To dimension a drawing correctly, drafters
and shape. In a small space, you may need to must know the correct symbols to include on
make the arrowheads slightly smaller. drawings as well as the principles of dimen-
sioning. Sometimes the symbols indicate
which processes are needed.
The finish mark, or surface-texture sym-
THIS bol, shows that a surface is to be machined,
1 UNIT or finished. See Figure 7-4 for the standard
2-1 UNITS finish mark now in general use, as well as two
2
NOT THIS older forms of the symbol.
The point of the finish mark symbol should
A B
touch the edge view of the surface to be fin-
.24 ished or an adjacent extension line. Also, it
should be positioned to read from the bottom
.30 of the sheet or from the right side of the sheet
C D
(see Figure 7-4).
Leaders
Figure 7-3 A leader is a thin line drawn from a note or
Arrowheads dimension to the place where it applies (see
Figure 7-5). Always place leaders at an angle

60° Dimensioning Systems
.09 (2 mm)
.19 (5 mm) and Types
What are the two basic types of
STANDARD FORM APPLICATION
dimensions?
60° Various systems or types of dimensioning
.12 (3 mm) 60° can be used and are discussed here.
.19 (5 mm)
OLD FORM Units
OLD FORM
When you use the U.S. Customary sys-
tem, give the measurements in inches and
Figure 7-4 decimals of an inch. When customary dimen-
The finish mark tells which surfaces are to be sions are in inches, omit the inch symbol (″).
machined. Add a note to the drawing: UNLESS OTHER-
WISE SPECIFIED, ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN
INCHES.
.12 (3 mm)
Sometimes, parts must fit together with
extreme accuracy. In that case, the machinist
Ø1.00
must work within specified limits. If the mea-
60°
surements are customary, the decimal inch is
used. This is called decimal dimensioning. Such
dimensions are used between finished sur-
faces, center distances, and pieces that must
be held in a definite, accurate relationship to
each other.
NICKEL PLATE
With customary measures, you may use
decimals to two places when limits of ±.01″
Figure 7-5 are close enough, as shown in Figure 7-6A,
B, and C. Use decimals to three or more places
Leaders point to the place where a note or
dimension applies. when limits smaller than ±.01″ are required, as
shown in Figure 7-7A and B. For two-place
decimals, fiftieths, such as .02, .04, or .24
(even numbers) are preferred over decimals
to the horizontal. An angle of 60° is preferred, such as .03 and .05 (odd numbers).
but 45°, 30°, or other angles may be used.
A leader starts with a dash, or short horizon-
tal line. This line should be about .12″ (3 mm) .76 1.00
long, but it may be longer if needed. CAD sys-
tems set the length of the dash automatically.
A leader generally ends with an arrowhead.
However, a dot is used if the leader is pointing A B
to a surface rather than an edge, as in Figure
7-5. Avoid drawing leaders parallel to dimen- 1.64
sion, extension, or section lines.
Define What does the finish mark indicate

Figure 7-6
on a drawing? Decimal dimensions: two places

1.628 zero to the left of the decimal point. When
1.623
all dimensions are in millimeters, the mm
symbol is omitted. Instead, add a note to
the drawing such as UNLESS OTHERWISE
A SPECIFIED, ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN
MILLIMETERS.
1.625 +.005
–.000
Types of Dimensioning
B
The two basic types of dimensions are
size dimensions and location dimensions.
Figure 7-7 Size dimensions define each piece. Giving size
dimensions is really a matter of giving the
Decimal dimensions: three places
dimensions of a number of simple shapes.
Every object is broken down into its geomet-
When you use the metric system, give the ric forms, such as prisms, cylinders, pyramids,
dimensions in millimeters, meters or, for spe- cones, and so forth, or into parts of such
cial applications, micrometers. With metric shapes. This is shown in Figure 7-8, where
dimensions, use decimals to one place when the bearing is separated into simple parts.
limits of ±0.1 mm are close enough. Use A hole or hollow part has the same outlines
decimals to two places or more when limits as one of the geometric shapes. Think of such
smaller than ±0.1 mm are required. open spaces in an object as negative shapes.
Whole numbers do not need a decimal The idea of open spaces is especially valu-
point or zero. A millimeter value less than 1 able to certain industries. Drafters in the air-
is shown with a zero to the left of the deci- craft industry need to know the weights of
mal point, for example, 0.2 mm. A decimal parts. These weights are worked out from the
inch value less than 1 does not require a volumes of the parts as solids. From these
2X R.50
2X R.12
1.50
2X Ø.44
1.38
O.62
VERTICAL SUPPORT
O1.62
BASE
1.75
.38
.38
2.00
2.50
Figure 7-8
Parts can usually be broken down into basic geometric shapes for dimensioning.

solids, the volumes of the holes and hollow or
open spaces (negative shapes) are subtracted
to get the total weight per cubic inch or cubic
millimeter of the material.
When the object being dimensioned has a 3.500 3.250 (2.50)
number of pieces, the positions of each piece 9.250
REFERENCE
must also be given. These are given by loca- DIMENSION
tion dimensions. Each piece is first considered

separately and then in relation to the other Figure 7-10
pieces. When the size and location dimen- Enclose reference dimensions in parentheses.
sions of each piece are given, the size descrip-
tion is complete. Dimensioning a whole
machine, a piece of furniture, or a building you give the overall dimension, leave out the
is just a matter of following the same orderly dimension of one of the smaller distances
pattern that is used for a single part. unless it is needed for reference. If a dimen-
sion is needed for reference, put parentheses
Placing Dimensions around it to show that it is for reference only
Two methods of placing dimensions are as in Figure 7-10. Reference dimensions are
currently used: the aligned system and the used to help clarify a drawing but are never
unidirectional system. In the aligned system used in manufacturing a part.
of dimensioning, the dimensions are placed If possible, all dimensions should be kept
in line with the dimension lines. Horizontal outside the area that is shaded in Figure 7-11.
dimensions always read from the bottom of Avoid crossing a dimension line with another
the sheet. Vertical dimensions read from the line. Also, avoid dimensioning to hidden
right. Inclined dimensions read in line with lines if possible. On circular end parts, give
the inclined dimension line. the center-to-center dimension instead of an
In the unidirectional system of dimen- overall dimension as in Figure 7-12. When a
sioning, all dimensions read from the bottom dimension must be placed within a sectioned
of the sheet, no matter where they appear as area, leave a clear space for the number as in
in Figure 7-9. In both systems, notes and Figure 7-13.
dimensions with leaders should read from the Always give the diameter of a circle, not the
bottom of the drawing. The unidirectional radius. Use the symbol Ø before the dimen-
system has now replaced the aligned system sion. When dimensioning an arc, use the
in most industries. ASME Y14.5M uses the radius, not the diameter, and place the abbre-
unidirectional system exclusively. viation R before the value.
Place overall dimensions outside the
smaller dimensions as in Figure 7-10. When
Ø6.75
Ø5.25
Ø4.25
45°

The unidirectional system of placing dimensions Avoid placing dimensions in the shaded area.

Ø1.75
Ø1.12
W D
A
6.50
Ø3.25 Ø2.25 1.25
B
1.75 1.75 2.75
.88
.62

Center-to-center dimensions Dimensioning a simple rectangular prism
.38
A
2.75
1.00 1.50
.25
2.00
.75
Figure 7-13
Dimensions within a sectioned area
B
Identifying the Drawing Scale 1.75
The scale used on a drawing should be 2.62 .50
given in or near the title. If a drawing has
views of more than one part and different 1.50
1.00
scales are used, the scale should be given .50
close to the views. Scales are stated as full or
1.12
full size, 1:1; half size, 1:2; and so forth. If
enlarged views are used, the scale is shown as Figure 7-15
2 times full size, 2:1; 4 times full size, 4:1; and Dimensioning a simple rectangular prism
so forth. The scales used on metric drawings
are based on divisions of 10. Scales such as
10:1, 1:50, and 1:100 are examples.
Size Dimensions of Basic
Shapes
The first shape we will consider is
the prism. For a rectangular prism as in
Figure 7-14, the width W, the height
Contrast How do the aligned and the H, and the depth D are needed. This basic
unidirectional systems of dimensioning differ? shape may appear in a great many ways, a
few of which are shown in Figure 7-15.

The rule for dimensioning prisms is: For any hole. Remember that a hollow cylinder can be
flat piece, give the thickness in the edge view thought of as two cylinders of the same length,
and all other dimensions in the outline view. as shown by the washer in Figure 7-17B. The
The second shape is the cylinder. It needs rule for dimensioning cylinders is: For cylin-
two dimensions: diameter and length. See drical pieces, give the diameter and the length on
Figure 7-16. Three cylinders are dimen- the same view. For holes, give the diameter and
sioned in Figure 7-17A. One of these is the depth in the end view or section view.
Volume and Weight 2. Determine the volume of the large cylinder.

Volume = Area × Length
The weight of a part is sometimes critical in
Volume = 1.38 × 2.07
the design process. Suppose a solid cast iron
Volume = 2.86 cubic inches
cylinder has dimensions of 2.25″ × 2.00″.
3. Multiply the weight per cubic inch for cast
A small cylinder is cut out to create a hole.
iron (.26) by the volume of the cylinder.*
The small cylinder has a hole with an area of
Weight = .26 × 2.86
.7854 square inches. Determine the weight
Weight = .74 pound
of the small cylinder.
Next, calculate the weight of the small cylin-
O 1.62 der removed to create the hole and subtract
that weight from the weight of the large
cylinder.
1.38
Area of small cylinder
= 3.1416 × .312 = .31 square inches
Volume of small cylinder
O .62 = 1.38 × .31 = .43 cubic inches
Weight of small cylinder
= .26 × .43 = .11 pound
Finally, subtract the weight of the small cyl-
To determine the weight of inder from the weight of the large cylinder.
the small cylinder shown here, first calculate .74 pound (weight of large cylinder)
the weight of the Ø1.62″ × 1.38″ cast iron – .11 pound (weight of small cylinder)
cylinder as a solid. = .63 pound (net weight of part)
*Note: The weight of various materials can
Example:
be found in the Machinery’s Handbook or
1. Determine the area of the Ø1.62″ circle. The American Machinist’s Handbook.
Area = ␲r2
Area = 3.1416 × .812
Area = 3.1416 × .66 For help with this math activity, go
Area = 2.07 square inches the Math appendix located at the
back of this book.
Academic Standards
Mathematics
and formulas to determine measurements.

FILLET
Ø1.88
ROUND
O.75 .62
A 2.50 B A
R.88
R1.50
Figure 7-16
Dimensioning a cylinder R.25
R.25
C
2.25
R.50
B
.50
Ø4.00 3.00 3.00 1.75
Figure 7-18
Dimensioning (A) holes, (B) rounds, and (C) radii
A
Ø6.00
Traditional Preferred
Method Method
4.00 1
2.00 /2 Drill or .50 Drill Ø.50
48 Drill Ø.500
Ø6.00 500 Ream
1
/2 Drill, 7/8 Cbore Ø.500
1
/4 Deep .875
]↦
.25
.38 Drill Ø.38
82º CSK To Ø.75 × V82º
.75 DIA
.38 Drill Ø.38
.88 Spotface .88
]↦
.06 Deep .06

B
Table 7-1
Ø6.00
Ø3.50 Notes and symbols for machining operations
1.50
Notes are generally used to give the sizes of
holes. Such a note is usually placed on the out-
line view, as shown in Figure 7-18A. These
Ø2.250
notes are used to show the size and shape of
the hole; note the required machine operation,
as shown in Figure 7-19. The symbols used
for these operations are defined in Table 7-1.
3.50 Parts of cylinders, such as fillets and
C rounds, are dimensioned in the views in
1.26 which the curves show. Figure 7-18B
.80
shows how to dimension a round, or exter-
Ø3.000 nal curve, and Figure 7-18C shows how
Ø4.50 to dimension a fillet, or internal curve. The
radius dimension is given and is preceded by
Figure 7-17 the abbreviation R.
Dimensioning holes in cylinders Some other shapes are the cone, the pyr-
amid, and the sphere. The cone, frustum

O.50 O .50 O .50 O .50 O.38
T .62 O.88 O .88 FOR NO. 12
T.25 FH SCREW
.25
O.38 O.47 O.38 O.38 O .38

O.75X82° O .88
A B C
.82° .82° O.88 .06

.67 .75
.25
Figure 7-19
Methods for specifying dimensions and operations
D E F
Figure 7-20
(truncated cone), square pyramid, and sphere Dimensioning some elementary shapes
can be dimensioned in one view, as shown
in Figure 7-20A, B, and C. To dimension
rectangular or other pyramids and parts of
pyramids, two views are needed as shown in
Figure 20D, E and F.
Location Dimensions
Location dimensions are used to show the
relative positions of the basic shapes. They are
also used to locate holes, surfaces, and other
features.
Finished surfaces and centerlines, or axes, are
important for fixing the positions of parts by
location dimensions. In fact, finished surfaces
and axes are used to define positions. There are
two general rules for showing location dimen-
sions, as shown in Figure 7-21:
Figure 7-21
• Prism forms are located by the axes and the
surfaces. Three dimensions are needed. Locating dimensions for prisms and cylinders
• Cylinder forms are located by the axis and
the base. Three dimensions are needed.
Combinations of prisms and cylinders are Datum Dimensioning

shown in Figure 7-22. The dimensions marked Datums are points, lines, and surfaces that
L in Figure 7-22B are location dimensions. are assumed to be exact. Examples of datums

Ø1.00
Ø1.25
L.75 3.00
3.00
L.75 L
1.50
1.50 L
1.25
L
Figure 7-22 3.88
Examples of
3.50
dimensioning prisms O 2.25
O 2.00
and cylinders
1.50
2.50 1.88 .62
1.00 .75 (5.25)

6.00
A B
DATUM
are shown in Figure 7-23. Such datums are

used to compute or locate other dimensions.
Location dimensions are given from them.
When positions are located from datums, the
different features of a part are all located from
the same datum.
Two surfaces, two centerlines, or a sur- A
face and a centerline are typical datums. In
Figure 7-23A, two surface datums are used.
In Figure 7-23B, two centerlines are used. DATUM
In Figure 7-23C, a surface and a centerline
are used.
Name In what views are fillets and rounds

dimensioned?
B
Standard Details DATUM
When can dimensioning be omitted

from a drawing?
The shape, methods of manufacture, and use

of a part generally tell you which dimensions
must be given and how accurate they must be. C
A knowledge of manufacturing methods, pat-
tern making, foundry and machine-shop proce-
dures, forging, welding, and so on is very useful Figure 7-23
when you are choosing and placing dimensions. Datum dimensioning
The number of parts to be made must also be

considered. If many identical parts are to be They can also be dimensioned from datum
made, quantity-production methods must be lines (Figure 7-27B). A regular curve can be
used. In addition, some items may incorporate described and dimensioned by showing the con-
purchased parts, identified by name or brand, struction or naming the curve (Figure 7-27C).
that call for few, if any, dimensions. The basic dimensions must also be given.
Some companies have their own standard
parts for use in various machines or con-
structions. The dimensioning of these parts
.12 : 1
depends on how they are used and produced.
There are, however, certain more-or-less stan- TAPER 1.50 IN. PER FT ANSI TAPER NO. 200
dard details or conditions. For these, there are

suggested ways of dimensioning.
Chamfers A B
Chamfers are angled corners, or bevels. 14° 30'

Figure 7-24 shows two standard methods for
dimensioning chamfers. 1.255 5.5°
1.250 4.3°
Tapers
Tapers can be dimensioned by giving C 1.88
D 2.120
1.85
the length, one diameter, and the taper as 3.56 2.125
a ratio (Figure 7-25A). Another method

(Figure 7-25B) gives one diameter or width, Figure 7-25
the length, and either the American National Dimensioning tapers
Standard or another standard taper num-
ber. For a close fit, the taper is dimensioned
as in Figure 7-25C. In Figure 7-25D, one
diameter and the angle are given. In certain
cases, the beginning and ending diameters
are given.
Curves
A curve composed of arcs is dimensioned by A
the radii that have centers located by points of
tangency (Figure 7-26). Noncircular, or irregu-
lar, curves can be dimensioned (Figure 7-27A).
.12 X .12
OR
45° X .12 .12
B
30°
PREFERRED FOR 45° PREFERRED FOR ANGLES 1.00 SQUARE

CHAMFERS OTHER THAN 45°
A B INVOLUTE

Dimensioning chamfers Dimensioning curves composed of circular arcs

space between views for all necessary
dimensions.
2. Think about the actual shape of the part
and its characteristic views. With this in
mind, draw all of the extension lines and
lengthen any centerlines that may be
A needed.
3. Think about the size dimensions and the
related location dimensions. Draw the
dimension lines, leaders, and arrowheads.
4. After considering any changes, put in the
dimensions and add any notes that may
be needed.
B DATUM
C C
Infer When adding dimensions why is it
important to plan ahead?
A B
A B
AB = 6.50 CO = 1.62
SEMI-ELLIPSES
AB = 2.20
CO = 3.20 Dimensioning an
C Assembly Drawing
How is dimensioning different for detail
Figure 7-27
and assembly drawings?
Dimensioning noncircular curves
When the parts of a machine are shown
together in their relative positions, the draw-
ing is called an assembly drawing. If an assembly
drawing needs a complete description of size,
the rules and methods of dimensioning apply.
Explain What are chamfers, and what Drawings of complete machines, construc-
determines the standard method used for tions, and so on are made for different uses.
dimensioning them? The dimensioning must show the informa-
tion that the drawing is designed to supply.
• If the purpose of the drawing is only to
Dimensioning a Detail show the appearance or arrangement of
parts, the dimensions can be omitted.
Drawing • If the drawing is needed to indicate the space
Why are the dimensions added in the final a product requires, give overall dimensions.
step? • If parts must be located in relation to each
other without giving all the detail dimen-
A drawing for a single part that includes all sions, center-to-center distances are usually
dimensions, notes, and information needed given. Dimensions needed for putting the
to make that part is called a detail drawing. machine together or erecting it in position
The dimensioning should be done in the fol- may also be given.
lowing order: • In some industries, assembly drawings are
1. Complete all views of the drawing completely dimensioned. These composite
before adding any dimensions or notes. drawings are used as both detail and assem-
Plan ahead so there will be plenty of bly drawings.

• Photo-drawings are photographs of prod- For furniture and cabinet work, sometimes
ucts with dimensions, notes, and other only the major dimensions are given. For
details drawn on them. Photo-drawings example, length, height, and sizes of stock
can be substituted for any of the three uses may be given. The details of joints are left to
listed above. the cabinet maker or to the standard practice
of the company. This is especially true if con-
struction details are standard.

After You Read 6. For each object shown in Figure 7-28,
create a multiview drawing using tradi-
tional board-drafting techniques. Take
Self-Check dimensions from the printed scales
1. Summarize how to use measurements, below the objects. Include dimensions
notes, and symbols to add information and notes.
to a technical drawing.
2. Explain how to apply ASME and ISO
standards for dimensions and notes.
3. Explain the difference between size
dimensions and location dimensions.
4. Describe how to specify geometric toler-
ances using symbols and notes.
Academic Integration A
Mathematics
5. Calculate the volume of the pyramid
below.
h = 200 cm
17
5 cm 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
cm
90
DECIMAL INCH
10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Calculating Volume METRIC
To calculate the volume of a pyramid

with a square or rectangular base, begin Figure 7-28
by following the first two steps from the
Do the Math activity on page 223 to
find the area of the base, then multiply
by the height, you then multiply that
drafting practice.
quantity by 1/3. V = 1/3(Bh)

7.2 Dimensioning Techniques
Connect Other than the basic difference of being drawn by hand rather than by computer,
what differences do you see in the board-drafting and CAD techniques for dimensioning?
Content Vocabulary
• tolerance • bilateral • basic shaft system
• unilateral tolerances • geometric
tolerances • basic hole dimensioning and
system tolerancing
Academic Vocabulary
• accumulate
Graphic Organizer
Use a diagram like the one below to organize notes about accurate precision dimensioning.
Board Drafting Go to glencoe.com for this

Dimensioning book’s OLC for a downloadable
CAD
Academic Standards
Read texts to acquire new information (NCTE) NCTM National Council
of Teachers of
Use written language to communicate effectively (NCTE) Mathematics
Participate as knowledgeable, reflective, creative, and critical members of a variety of literary
communities (NCTE) Standards Institute
Mathematics Mechanical Engineers
Recognize and apply mathematics in contexts outside of mathematics ADDA American Design
Geometry Analyze characteristics of two- and three-dimensional geometric shapes and develop
mathematical arguments about geometric relationships (NCTM)
Industry Standards
ADDA Section 2
Dimensioning and Tolerancing (ANSI B4.1, ASME Y14.5M)

Board–Drafting
Techniques
Why do some drafters prefer to freehand
sketch dimensions and notes before doing
the final drawing?
The process of dimensioning a drawing

involves several steps. Drafters often prepare
a freehand sketch with dimensions and notes
first, before producing the final drawing. This
allows the drafter to determine the amount
of space required for dimensions and notes
before costly errors are made on the final draw-
ing. Either way, the process of adding dimen-
sions is exactly the same. Figure 7-30
Figure 7-29 is the starting point for a fully Two complete views of the post socket spaced to
dimensioned two-view drawing of a post socket. provide room for dimensions and notes
Follow these steps to create the dimensioned
drawing.
1. Prepare a freehand sketch of the post socket extension lines, extend centerlines, and
views to determine how much space will be add leaders as needed (see Figure 7-30).
required for dimensions and notes. 4. Finally, add dimensions, arrowheads,
2. Prepare an instrument drawing of the specific and general notes, and any other
two views, complete with centerlines. details necessary to complete the dimen-
3. Study the shape and details of the views sioning process. Remember that when
before beginning the dimensioning pro- the drawing is finished, it should tell pro-
cess. Once you are sure about which duction workers the exact shape and size
dimensions are needed and where they of the finished part. Your drawing should
should be placed, draw all necessary look like the one in Figure 7-31.
2X Ø.38 Ø1.12
Ø.75 1.00
R.60
1.75
3.50
2.10
1.60
.44
(4.70)
ROUNDS AND FILLETS R.10
Figure 7-31
Figure 7-29 The post socket with extension lines and leader
Finished drawing of the post socket lines added
Section 7.2 Dimensioning Techniques 231

and notes. Instead, you can estimate how far
apart to place the views. If you find later that
Identify How does dimensioning a sketch you allowed too little or too much space,
differ from dimensioning a drawing? you can move an entire view complete
with dimensions and notes to space them
properly.
To dimension a drawing using AutoCAD,
you will use a series of dimensioning com-
CAD Techniques mands. The names of the commands are long,
What are two ways that CAD streamlines so the easiest way to use these commands is
the dimensioning process? to display the Dimension toolbar, or, in some
versions, use the Dimension control panel on
In this section, you will create a CAD
the Dashboard. To display the Dimension tool-
drawing of the post socket shown in
bar, right-click on any button at the top of the
Figure 7-32. Notice that this is the same
screen and pick Dimension from the list that
drawing shown in Figure 7-29, but with
appears.
subtle differences. The differences are due
to the use of the AutoCAD software. The dif-
ferences are minor, and both versions meet Creating the Drawing
ASME and ISO standards. Follow these steps to create a CAD drawing
CAD procedures differ slightly from board of the post socket:
procedures. For example, you do not need 1. Set up the drawing file. Study the drawing
to draw a freehand sketch to determine how in Figure 7-32 to determine the appropri-
much space you will need for dimensions ate sheet size. Create a new drawing using
an appropriate drawing template, and set
the grid and snap to convenient inter-
vals. Create layers for objects, centerlines,
hidden lines, and dimensions, being sure
Ø1.12
1.00 to use the appropriate linetypes. Set the
2X Ø.38 2X R.60
Ø.75 units to decimal inches with 2 decimal
places.
2. Decide which view to draw first and
approximately where in the drawing
area to place the view. In this case, cre-
ate the primary centerlines for the top
1.75 view first, because they will help define
3.50
the features of both views. Then off-
Ø2.10
set the primary vertical centerline 1.75
to both sides to create the secondary
centerlines.
1.60
3. Use the LINE, CIRCLE, and TRIM com-
.44 mands with the appropriate object snaps
to create both views of the post socket
(4.70) complete with center lines. Ignore the
fillets and rounds when you create the
front view. After the basic view is in place,
Figure 7-32 use the FILLET command set to a radius
of .10 to create the fillets and rounds.
The appearance of the post socket drawing when
completed on a CAD system. Notice that the CAD You may choose to use construction
operator placed the dimensions, centerlines, and lines to create the sides of the front view
hidden lines on different, color-coded layers. from the end radii in the top view (see
Figure 7-33).

dialog box that appears has several tabs, as
For this drawing, you will need to make
changes to the first five tabs. However, you
should be familiar with all of them. The tabs
types follow. Read through all of the informa-
tion, and set the values and options described
for the Lines, Symbols and Arrows, Text, Fit,
and Primary Units tabs. When you have fin-
ished selecting the appropriate settings, pick
the OK button to close the dialog box; then
pick Close to close the Dimension Style Man-
ager and save your settings.
• Lines tab Use the down arrows and scroll-

Figure 7-33 bars to set the dimension and extension line
Use the centerlines and construction lines to color and line weight to BYLAYER. Enter a
align the views properly. value of .12 for “Extend beyond dim lines.”
Set the arrow size to .12. Leave the rest of
the options at their default values.
Setting the Dimension Style • Symbols and Arrows tab Use the down arrows
AutoCAD provides a standard dimension to set the arrowhead style for dimensions
style that controls the appearance of dimen- and leader lines. In the Center marks area,
sions in a drawing. The settings in this style select Line to use centerlines rather than
usually need to be changed before you can center marks. Set dimension and extension
dimension a specific drawing correctly. To set line color and line weight to BYLAYER. Enter
up the dimension style, enter the DIMSTYLE a value of .09 for the center mark size.
command or pick the Dimension Style icon • Text tab Set the text style to Roman. If it
on the Dimension toolbar. When the Dimen- does not appear as an option, pick the ...
sion Style Manager dialog box appears, button to the side of the text style name
choose to modify the standard style. The and choose romans.shx from the list of
font names. Then return to the text tab and
choose Roman or romans for the text style.
Set the text height at .12.
• Fit tab In the Fit Options portion of the dia-
log box, pick Arrows as the first element to
be placed outside the extension lines if both
text and arrows will not fit.
• Primary Units tab Choose decimal dimen-
sions with two decimal places. Note that
this is set separately from the units for the
drawing in general. If you do not specify
two decimal places here, AutoCAD will
display its default of four decimal places,
regardless of your Units settings for the
drawing. In Zero Suppression, pick the
Leading check box to suppress leading
Figure 7-34 zeros. Pick the Leading box in the Angular
Measurements section to suppress leading
The Modify Dimension Style: Standard dialog
box allows you to change the settings of the zeros in angular dimensions. (Remember
Standard dimension style. to leave these boxes unchecked for metric
drawings.)

• Alternate Units tab This tab applies only to select the dimension. Then right-click to
drawings that require dual dimensioning. You see a menu of options. Pick Properties. In
may safely ignore the Alternate Units tab for the Properties dialog box that appears at
all of your drawings related to this book. the left of the screen, pick Text Override.
• Tolerances tab Even though the Tolerances In the box next to Text Override, enter (<
tab is not needed for this drawing, you >). The angle brackets tell AutoCAD to use
should pick the tab and review the options the actual measurement for the dimension.
for tolerance method. Tolerance is discussed Then pick a point anywhere in the drawing
later in the chapter. Pick each of the options area to activate it, and press the Escape key
and observe the sample drawing in the to deselect the dimension. The overriding
dialog box to see its effects. You will need to text appears at the dimension.
use this tab for toleranced drawing prob- 4. The remaining vertical and horizon-
lems at the end of this chapter. For now, tal dimensions require a slightly dif-
leave the Method set to None. ferent approach. The distances being
dimensioned are not defined by a single
line. Therefore, you cannot use the Select
Objects option of the DIMLINEAR com-
mand. Instead, enter the DIMLINEAR
Describe What does the FILLET command
command, and then pick the endpoints
allow you to do?
of the dimension to be placed. Be sure the
endpoint object snap is turned on to pick
the endpoints exactly. The red boxes in
Dimensioning the Drawing Figure 7-35 show where to select the end-
Now that the dimension style is set up cor-
points for the .44 dimension in the front
rectly, you can begin to dimension the draw-
view. Place the remaining horizontal and
ing. Follow these steps:
vertical dimensions using this method.
1. Study the shape and details of the views In the top view, the place the horizontal
before beginning the dimensioning pro- dimensions to show the distance between
cess. Be sure you understand which dimen- the centerlines of the holes.
sions are needed and where they should be 5. Radial dimensions are created in AutoCAD
placed. They are determined for you in this using the DIMRADIUS command. Pick the
case, but you will need to decide for your- Radius Dimension button on the Dimen-
self in drawings you create on the job. sion toolbar to activate the command.
2. Place the horizontal dimensions first. Then pick the R.60 arc on the right side of
Both horizontal and vertical dimen- the top view. Move the cursor and pick the
sions are created in AutoCAD using the left mouse button to place the dimension.
DIMLINEAR command. Enter this com- 6. Diameters are dimensioned in AutoCAD
mand by picking the Linear Dimension using the DIMDIAMETER command. Pick
button on the Dimension toolbar. Press the Diameter Dimension button on the
Enter or click the right mouse button to Dimension toolbar to activate the com-
choose to select an object. Then pick the mand. Then pick one of the holes to be
top line of the front view. The dimen-
sion line, extension lines, and dimension
value appear. Move the cursor to place
.44
the dimensions approximately .38″ from
the view line, and pick the left mouse
button to set the dimension in place. Figure 7-35
3. Repeat the process in step 2 to set the bot-
Because the fillet is a separate object in AutoCAD,
tom dimension of the front view. However,
to dimension the height correctly, you must use
notice that this is a reference dimension. the right endpoint of the horizontal line at the
You will need to add parentheses around top of the base as shown by the upper red box.
the value. To do this, use the mouse to

dimensioned and place the dimension as
shown in Figure 7-32 on page 232. Notice
that the diameter symbol appears auto- Identify What does the symbol < > indicate
matically. However, the second line of text to AutoCAD?
for both diameter dimensions must be cre-
ated separately. AutoCAD does not provide
the standard symbols used in this draw-
ing. You must create them yourself. Place Editing Dimensions
them as shown in Figure 7-32 Then use the Even though AutoCAD’s dimensions are
MTEXT command to create the text. To use associative, sometimes you may need to edit
this command, enter M at the keyboard them. Editing can take many forms. You may
just before placing the dimension. An edi- want to change the text font, for example, or
tor appears, allowing you to type in the change the way the text and arrows display in
text and insert the appropriate symbols. tight spaces. The two fastest, most convenient
7. Add the finish symbols as shown in methods for editing dimensions are right-click-
Figure 7-32. ing to display a shortcut menu of options and
8. Use the TEXT command to add the using the Properties palette. See Figure 7-36.
note at the bottom of the drawing. Your The Properties palette is a comprehensive
drawing should now look like the one editing tool that allows you to change or over-
in Figure 7-32. ride any property of a dimension. Pick the
9. Check the relative positions of the views arrow to the right of each category head to dis-
and adjust them if necessary. Be sure to play its options. In Figure 7-36, the Lines and
keep the views aligned exactly. Arrows options are displayed. But although the
shortcut menu that appears when you right-
click on the dimension contains fewer options,
it is often faster for minor changes.
Associative
Accurate Measurement
Dimensioning and Position
By default, AutoCAD dimensions are
associative. That is, they retain a con-
Dimensioning
nection to the object being dimen- How do accuracy and precision affect the
sioned. If you change the size of the production process?
object using the STRETCH command, The latest edition of ASME Y14.5M gives pre-
the dimension automatically updates
cise information on accurate measurement and
to reflect the new size of the object.
position dimensioning. The following para-
Associative dimensions include hori-
graphs are adapted from Dimensioning and Toler-
zontal, vertical, and ordinate dimen-
ancing with the permission of the publisher, The
sions. To demonstrate this feature,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
enter the STRETCH command and use
a crossing window to select the right
side of the post socket including the Limit Dimensioning
hole. Use grips to move the selected When one part is to be assembled with other
objects to the right, stretching the parts, it must be made to fit into place without
post socket. Notice that the two further machining or handwork. These parts
horizontal dimensions in the top view are called mating parts, or interchangeable parts.
and the bottom horizontal dimension For mating parts to fit together, variations in
in the front view update to show the the dimensions must be limited. For example,
new length of the part. suppose two mating parts are a rod, or shaft,
and the hole in which the rod fits or turns. For

will last for many years and hundreds of thou-
sands of miles. The successful drafter is one who
can interpret the specifications prepared by the
designer and engineer and produce accurate
working drawings from them.
Absolute accuracy cannot be expected.
Instead, workers must keep within a fixed
limit of accuracy that is given as the tenths,
hundredths, thousandths, or ten-thousandths
of an inch or millimeter that the part is
allowed to vary from the absolute measure-
ments. This permitted variance is called the
tolerance. The tolerance may be stated
in a note on the drawing or written in a
space in the title block. An example would
be DIMENSION TOLERANCE ±.01 UNLESS
OTHERWISE SPECIFIED.
Limit dimensions, or limits that give the
maximum and minimum dimensions allowed,
are also used to show the needed degree of
accuracy. This is illustrated in Figure 7-37A.
Note that the maximum limiting dimension
is placed above the minimum dimension for
both the shaft (external dimension) and the
hole in the ring (internal dimension).
In Figure 7-37B and C, the basic sizes
are given, and the plus-or-minus tolerance
is shown. Consecutive dimensions are shown
in Figure 7-37B. In this case, the dimension
X could have some variation. This dimension
should not be given unless it is needed for
reference. If it is given, it should be enclosed
in parentheses as a reference dimension.
Progressive dimensions (each starting at the
Figure 7-36
same place) are shown in Figure 7-37C. Here
The Properties palette provides a comprehensive they are all given from a single surface. This kind
method for editing dimensions.
of dimensioning is called baseline dimensioning.
Very accurate or limiting dimensions should
not be called for unless they are truly needed
these parts to fit together, the variation in the because they greatly increase the cost of mak-
diameter of the rod and the hole must be lim- ing a part. The detail drawing in Figure 7-38
ited. If the rod is too large in diameter, it will has limits for only two dimensions. All other
not turn. If it is too small, the rod will be too dimensions are called nominal dimensions. The
loose and will not work properly. amount of variation in these parts depends on
their use. In this case, the general note calls for
Accuracy and Precision a tolerance of ±0.1″.
The quality of an automobile as it rolls off the
production line is only as good as the degree of
accuracy and precision specified by the design-
ers, engineers, and drafters. Carefully chosen
Identify In what specification is the fixed
and specified fits on mating parts, for example,
limit of accuracy stated?
will result in the production of an engine that

Expressing Size
Size is a designation of magnitude. When
MAXIMUM a value is given in a dimension, it is called
O1.1230 the size of the dimension. Note: The words
1.1220
MINIMUM dimensions and size are both used to convey
the meaning of magnitude. Several different
size descriptions can be used to describe a part.
MAXIMUM Study the following definitions.
O1.1250 • nominal size The nominal size is used
1.1240
MINIMUM for general identification. Example: .5″
A
(13 mm) pipe.
• basic size The basic size is the size to which
allowances and tolerances are added to get
the limits of size.
• design size The design size is the size to
which tolerances are added to get the limits
of size. When there is no allowance, the
.75
+ +
.50 1.00 +
– .01 X design size equals the basic size.
– .01 – .01
3.50 +
– .03
• actual size An actual size is a measured size.
B • limits of size The limits of size, usually called
limits, are maximum and minimum sizes.
Expressing Position
Dimensions that fix position usually call
for more analysis than size dimensions. Linear
and angular sizes locate features in relation to
.75 +
– .01 one another (point-to-point) or from a datum.
1.25 +
– .01
Point-to-point distances may be enough to
describe simple parts. If a part with more than
2.25 +
– .01
one critical dimension must mate with another
3.50 +
– .01
C
part, dimensions from a datum may be needed.
Figure 7-37
Limit dimensions
.8130
O
.8125
O .38 SPOT FOR SET SCREW
.88
4X R.06
.69
1.25 NOTE:
TOLERANCES +.01
2.69
UNLESS OTHERWISE
SPECIFIED
O 1.38 NECK .12 X T .02
.12
4X R.12
Figure 7-38
.6248
A detail drawing with 1.38 1.12 O
.6240
limits
.75

Locating Round Holes Ø.250–.252
8 HOLES EQL SP
ON Ø1.500 BC
Figures 7-39 through 7-46 show how
to position round holes by giving distances,
or distances and directions, to the hole cen-
ters. These methods can also be used to locate
round pins and other features. Allowable
variations for the positioning dimensions
Ø1.500
are shown by stating limits of dimensions or
angles, or by true position expressions. Figure 7-42
Locating holes on a circle by radius or diameter
and the words “equally spaced”
+.005
Ø.250 –.000
5 HOLES
EQUALLY SPACED
Figure 7-39
Locating holes by linear dimensions
Figure 7-43
“Equally spaced” holes in a line
Figure 7-40
Locating holes
DATUM
by rectangular
coordinates
Figure 7-44
Dimensions for datum lines
1.000 .8750 1.0000 .8750 1.000

.625
±.001 ±.0003 ±.0004 ±.0003 ±.001
X Y
TOLERANCE ACCUMULATES
TO ± .001
Locating holes on a circle by polar coordinates Point-to-point, or chain, dimensioning

4.750 ±.001 4.750 ±.001
3.7500 ±.0005 2.875 ±.001
2.875 ±.001 1.875 ±.001
1.875 ±.001 1.000
.625 ±.001
.625 1.0000
±.0005
2.750 ±.001
X Y
X Y Figure 7-47
TOLERANCE ACCUMULATES Dimensioning to prevent tolerance accumulation
TO ± .001
between X and Y
Figure 7-46
Datum dimensioning
+.000
1.878 –.002
A
Tolerance UNILATERAL
Name and explain the two tolerance systems. +.002

1.876 –.001
B
A tolerance is the total amount by which BILATERAL
a given dimension may vary. A tolerance

should be expressed in the same form as its Figure 7-48
dimension. The tolerance of a decimal dimen- (A) A unilateral tolerance allows deviation in one
sion should be expressed by a decimal to the direction only. (B) A bilateral tolerance allows
same number of places. deviation on both sides of the design size.
In a “chain” of dimensions with tolerances,
the last dimension may have a tolerance equal
to the sum of the tolerances between it and critical size is approached as material is removed
the first dimension. In other words, toler- during manufacture (see Figure 7-48A). For
ances accumulate; they are added together. example, close-fitting holes and shafts are often
The tolerance on the distance between two given unilateral tolerances.
features (first and second hole, for example) is
equal to the tolerances on the two dimensions Bilateral Tolerance System
from the datum added together. When the dis- Bilateral tolerances allow variations
tance between two points must be controlled in both directions from a design size. Bilat-
closely, the distance between the two points eral variations are usually given with locat-
should be dimensioned directly with a toler- ing dimensions. They are also used with any
ance. Figure 7-45 illustrates a series of chain dimensions that can be allowed to vary in
dimensions where tolerances accumulate either direction (see Figure 7-48B). Angle tol-
between points X and Y. Datum dimensions erances are usually bilateral.
in Figure 7-46 show the same accumulation
with larger tolerances. Figure 7-47 shows Tolerance Placement
how to avoid the accumulation without the A tolerance numeral is placed to the right
use of extremely small tolerances. The datum of the dimension numeral and in line with
dimensioning method of Figure 7-44 also it. It may also be placed below the dimension
avoids overall accumulations. numeral with the dimension line between
them. Figure 7-49 shows both arrangements.
Unilateral Tolerance System
Unilateral tolerances allow variations in Limit System
only one direction from a design size. This way A limit system shows only the largest and
of stating a tolerance is often helpful when a smallest dimensions allowed (see Figure 7-50).

2.438 ±.005 1.750 ±.002
.750 .750 (.928)
±.002 ±.002
1.150
±.002
Figure 7-51
Using a combined plus-and-minus sign
Figure 7-49
Placing tolerance and dimension numerals
1.000
A +.005
1.000 MIN FULL

2.250 FORM THREADS
2.245
B R.05 MAX
A
.500
Ø .495
.505
Ø .500 Figure 7-52
Expressing a single tolerance or limit
Ø.748–.750
place the high-limit number (maximum
B dimension) above. Place the low-limit
number (minimum dimension) below (see
Figure 7-50A). When the limits are given
in note form as in Figure 7-50B, place
Figure 7-50 the minimum number first and the maxi-
Specifying limits mum number second.
• It is not always necessary to give both limits.
• A unilateral tolerance is sometimes given
without stating that the tolerance in
The tolerance is the difference between the the other direction is zero, as shown in
limits. Figure 7-52A.
The amount of variation permitted when • MIN or MAX is often placed after a number
dimensioning a drawing can be given in several when the other limit is not important.
ways. For both linear and angular tolerances, Depths of holes, lengths of threads,
the ways recommended here are as follows: chamfers, and so on are often limited in
• If the plus tolerance is different from the this way, as shown in Figure 7-52B.
minus tolerance, two tolerance numbers are • The number of decimal places shown in
used, one plus and one minus. Refer again to the tolerances should always be the same as
Figure 7-48. Note: Two tolerances in the same the number of decimal places in the basic
direction should not be called for. dimension.
• When the plus tolerance is equal to the
minus tolerance, use the combined
plus-and-minus symbol (±) followed by a
single tolerance number. See Figure 7-51.
• Show the maximum and minimum lim- Explain How do you expresss the tolerance
its of size. For both location and size of a limit system?
dimensions given directly (not by note),

Dimensioning for Fits Basic Hole System
A basic hole system is one in which the
What is a basic shaft system, and how do
design size of the hole is the basic size and the
you determine the limits for its fit?
allowance is applied to the shaft. To determine
The tolerances on the dimensions of inter- the limits for a fit in the basic hole system, fol-
changeable parts must allow these parts to fit low these steps:
together at assembly, as shown in Figure 7-53. 1. Give the minimum hole size.
When mating parts do not need to be inter- 2. For a clearance fit (a condition in which
changeable, you can dimension as shown in there is always positive clearance), find the
Figure 7-54. The size of one part does not need desired allowance, or minimum clearance,
to be held to a close tolerance. It is to be made from the minimum hole size. For an inter-
the proper size at assembly for the desired fit. For ference fit (a condition in which there is
further information about limits and fits, see the always negative clearance), add the desired
ASME B4.1 drafting standard manual. allowance, or maximum interference.
To calculate dimensions and tolerances of 3. Adjust the hole and shaft tolerances to
cylindrical parts that must fit well together, you get the desired maximum clearance or
must first decide which dimension you will use minimum interference (Figure 7-55). By
for the basic size: either the minimum hole size using the basic hole system, you can often
or the maximum shaft size as the basic size. keep tooling costs down. This is possible
because standard tools such as a reamer or
broach can be used for machining.
Basic Shaft System

A basic shaft system is one in which the
design size of the shaft is the basic size and the
allowance is applied to the hole. To figure out
.878 .378 the limits for a fit in the basic shaft system, fol-
Ø .875 .375
low these steps:
.874
Ø .871
.374 1. Give the maximum shaft size.
.371
2. For a clearance fit, find the minimum
hole size by adding the desired allowance
(minimum clearance) to the maximum
shaft size. Subtract for an interference fit.
Figure 7-53 3. Adjust the hole and shaft tolerances to get
the desired maximum clearance or mini-
Indicating dimensions or surfaces that must fit
closely
mum interference (see Figure 7-56).
Use the basic shaft method only if there is a

good reason to do so, such as when a standard-
+.001 +.001
.755 Ø.500 –.000 Ø.500 –.000
Ø .750 Ø.78
+.000 +.000
Ø.499 –.001 Ø.498 –.003
MACHINE FOR RC2 ALLOWANCE .001 ALLOWANCE .002

FIT AT ASSEMBLY MAXIMUM CLEARANCE .003 MAXIMUM CLEARANCE .006
(SHAFT SIZE IS UNCHANGED)
Figure 7-54
Dimensioning noninterchangeable parts that
Figure 7-55
must fit closely Fits in the basic hole system

+.001 +.003
Ø.501 –.000 Ø.502 –.000
+.000 +.000
Ø.500 –.001 Ø.500 –.001
Figure 7-56
ALLOWANCE .001 ALLOWANCE .002
Fits in the basic shaft system MAXIMUM CLEARANCE .003 MAXIMUM CLEARANCE .006
(HOLE SIZE IS UNCHANGED)
size shaft is necessary. For additional informa- tool makers, manufacturers, inspectors, assem-
tion on American National Standard limits and blers, and others in many different manufac-
fits, see Appendix tables C-9 through C-16. turing industries use GD&T on a daily basis.
If it is applied properly and employees actu-
ally follow the geometric specifications on the
drawing, the probability of making better parts
Summarize What are the steps in increases significantly.
determining the limits for a fit in the basic Modern systems of tolerancing include
hole system? geometric and positional tolerancing, use of
datum and datum targets, and precise linear
and angular tolerances. These systems provide
Geometric Dimensioning designers and drafters a means of expressing
permissible variations in a very precise man-
and Tolerancing ner. This section covers the application of
What information does geometric GD&T methods to technical drawings.
dimensioning and tolerancing convey? It is not necessary to use geometric tolerances
for every feature on a part drawing. In most
An engineering drawing of a manufactured cases, if each feature meets all dimensional tol-
part is intended to convey information from erances, form variations will be adequately con-
the designer to the manufacturer and inspec- trolled by the accuracy of the manufacturing
tor. It must contain all information necessary processes and the equipment used.
for the part to be correctly manufactured. It
must also enable an inspector to determine
precisely whether the parts are acceptable. Datums
Therefore, each drawing must convey three Prior to a discussion of the geometric
essential types of information: dimensioning language, you need to under-
stand how parts are positioned for machining,
• material to be used
inspection, and assembly. Parts are positioned
• size or dimensions of the part
on datums. A datum is a reference frame used
• shape or geometric characteristics
as a basis for calculating or measuring.
The drawing must also specify permissible The datum feature is any physical por-
variations for each of these aspects in the form tion of a part. A simulated datum is what the
of tolerance and limits. The addition of this datum feature contacts. The simulated datum
material, size, and shape information to an should imitate the mating part in the assem-
engineering drawing is known as geometric bly. A theoretical datum is established by the
dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T). contact of a datum feature and a simulated
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing datum (see Figure 7-57). A simulated datum
can be one of the most important subjects may be a mounting surface of a machine tool,
learned by those who will be entering the a surface of an assembly fixture, or a surface of
manufacturing workplace. It is a very flexible an inspection holding fixture.
communication system that can help design- The role of an engineering drawing is to spec-
ers specify the intent of the design throughout ify what the part should be like after machining
the entire manufacturing process. Engineers, or assembly. Therefore, finished surfaces are gen-

DATUM FEATURE
PART
Figure 7-57
A theoretical datum
THEORETICALLY EXACT SIMULATED
DATUM PLANE DATUM
erally selected as datum features. However, this The restrictive environment created to hold
is not always possible. In many cases, specific the parts is called a datum reference frame. One
points, lines, or areas of a surface are defined as of the major tasks involved in designing and
datum targets. Datum targets are specified datum machining parts is figuring out exactly what
features that are rough, uneven, or on different the datum reference frame should be.
levels, such as on castings, forgings, or weld-
ments. It is very common for a part to be sup-
ported by one or more machined surfaces and
one or more datum targets.
Describe What are degrees of freedom?
Datum Reference Frame

It may not be possible to make parts exactly Specifying Datum Features
the same, but it is possible to design a reliable Datum features may be identified by the
and repeatable support structure while they methods in Figure 7-59. The datum symbol
are being machined. Parts may move up and may be attached to a visible line represent-
down, in and out, and from side to side. They ing the datum feature (see Figure 7-59A) or
may also rotate. These movements are known to an extension line (see Figure 7-59B). If
as degrees of freedom. See Figure 7-58. Each the datum feature is a rectangular size feature,
direction in which a part can move during the straight line connecting the square and
manufacture decreases its accuracy when fin- the triangle must be in line with the dimen-
ished. Therefore, movement in each direction sion line that states the size of the feature (see
must be restrained. Figure 7-59C).
The letters used in the square box do not
have to be in alphabetical order. The impor-
tant thing is how each letter is used on the rest
UP
of the drawing. Choose letters that will not be
RIGHT misunderstood due to their appearance else-
OUT
where in a different context.
Specifying Datum Targets

If specific portions of a feature will be used
to establish the theoretical datums, they are
identified with datum target symbols. Datum
IN
targets are of three types: points, lines, and
LEFT
areas. Figure 7-60 illustrates how each type is
DOWN
shown on a drawing.
Figure 7-58 Figure 7-60A shows an example of a datum
target point. A large X is placed where the part
The six degrees of freedom. Limiting a part’s
will rest on the tooling. Figure 7-60B shows
movement in one or more of these directions
during manufacture improves the accuracy of an example of a datum target line. A phantom
the part. line is used to show where the line of contact
will be. Figure 7-60C shows an example of

Figure 7-59 1.10 1.10 1.10
Placement of the datum
feature symbol
A A A
A B C
Ø10
Figure 7-60 A1 A1 A1
The datum target may be (A) a

point, (B) a line, or (C) an area.
Notice that basic dimensions
are used in these examples.
11 12
Basic dimensions are enclosed 30 30 30
in a box to distinguish them
from general dimensions. A B C
THEORETICAL
EXACT SIZE
a datum target area. The area is shown with a Symbol Symbol Name Symbol Symbol Name
phantom line that has been crosshatched. The Straightness Concentricity
area may be any shape.
Flatness Position
In all cases, the datum target is identified
Circularity Symmetry
with a letter and number placed in the bottom
half of a circle. The letter identifies the datum, Cylindricity Diameter
and the number identifies the specific target. Profile of a Line M Maximum Material Condition
The datum target area size is placed in the Profile of a Surface T Tangent Plane
upper half of the datum target symbol. Parallelism L Least Material Condition
The dimensions for datum targets may be Angularity P Projected Tolerance Zone
basic dimensions, as shown, or general toler- Perpendicularity F Free State
anced dimensions. If basic dimensions are Circular Runout ST Statistical Tolerance
used, the actual location tolerances for the
Total Runout Between
datum targets are determined by the employ-
ees who make the tooling.
Table 7-2
Geometric Dimensioning Geometric characteristic symbols
Sentence Structure
The ASME Y14.5M standard defines 14 contain datum references. These are the vari-
main geometric symbols used to describe geo- ables within the basic “sentence structure”.
metric conditions. Several other symbols may The information contained in the feature con-
also be used. The feature control symbols trol frame may be read like a sentence. The first
and their names are shown in Table 7-2. words spoken include the geometric character-
The sizes of these symbols are shown in istic name. For example, an introductory phrase
Appendix C-18. for Position would be “The Position of the fea-
These symbols, along with numbers, are ture.” The term axis, axes, or center plane is added
placed in a rectangular box called a feature con- when the control is related to the size features.
trol frame, which is divided into two or more The lines dividing the compartments
compartments. Figure 7-61A shows that are where the connecting phrases are “spo-
the first compartment contains the geometric ken”. The first connecting phrase is “must
characteristic symbol. The second compart- be within.” See Figure 7-61B. The second
ment contains the tolerance information. connecting phrase is “relative to.” These con-
Additional compartments can be added to necting phrases can remain the same for all

FEATURE CONTROL FRAME
Parallel Lines
The parallel lines tolerance zone type is a
two-dimensional area. The distance between
GEOMETRIC SYMBOL
the parallel lines is the tolerance zone. It is
TOLERANCE INFORMATION specified by the geometric tolerance in the
DATUM REFERENCES feature control frame. In each of the follow-
A ing parallel line cases, the tolerance zone may
be at any or all positions on the surface. Each
individual trace of the surface is separate from
all others.
RELATIVE TO
Figure 7-62 illustrates four examples of
MUST BE WITHIN how a parallel lines tolerance zone may be
THE _______ OF THE FEATURE
applied to a plane surface. Figure 7-62A
B shows the geometric characteristic Straight-
ness. Because Straightness is not related to
Figure 7-61 a datum, it is considered a refinement of the
The structure and use of a feature control frame size dimension. The tolerance zone will always
remain within the size zone. It is placed in the
view where the inspection will take place.
geometric specifications. Translations are pro- Other geometric controls that use two par-
vided for each specification that follows in allel lines as a tolerance zone are Parallelism,
this chapter. Perpendicularity, and Angularity, as shown
in Figure 7-62B, C, and D. Notice that each
Tolerance Zones feature control frame has a note below it that
This section shows logical relationships reads, “EACH ELEMENT.” This note is added to
between the characteristics by examining specify a two-dimensional inspection.
their common attributes. The most common The definition of parallel lines used in this
attribute is the type of tolerance zone they use. section is, “A line extending in the same direc-
The characteristics may be divided into three tion as and equidistant at all points from
different tolerance zone types: parallel lines, another line.” This definition may include
parallel planes, and cylinders. Table 7-3 shows concentric circles or cylinders. The Circular-
the characteristics that fall into each type of ity and Circular Runout examples shown in
tolerance zone. Figure 7-63 display two parallel lines about a
common center point.
The main difference between Circular-
Parallel Lines Parallel Planes Cylinders ity and Circular Runout is that Circularity is
Straightness Flatness Straightness considered a refinement of the size dimen-
Circularity Parallelism Parallelism sion, so it requires no datum. The Circular
Runout of a surface is controlled relative to
Circular Runout Perpendicularity Perpendicularity
an axis derived from a diameter that is dif-
Profile of a Line Angularity Angularity ferent from the one being controlled. It is
Parallelism Cylindricity Position considered a surface-to-axis control. The
Perpendicularity Total Runout Concentricity tolerance zone for Circularity must remain
Angularity Profile of a Surface within the size tolerance, but in Circular
Straightness Runout the tolerance may exceed the size
Position tolerance if required.
Symmetry
Table 7-3
Types of tolerance zones Identify What are the three tolerance zones?

Figure 7-62
A .506
.003
Examples of the parallel .496
lines type of tolerance
1.00 2.55
TRANSLATION: THE STRAIGHTNESS OF THE FEATURE MUST BE

WITHIN THREE THOUSANDTHS.
B .506
.003 A
.496
EACH ELEMENT
1.00 2.55
A A
TRANSLATION: THE PARALLELISM OF EACH FEATURE ELEMENT MUST BE WITHIN

THREE THOUSANDTHS RELATIVE TO DATUM FEATURE A.
C .003
.003 A
EACH ELEMENT
2 X .50
1.30
1.50 A 2.55 A
TRANSLATION: THE PERPENDICULARITY OF THE FEATURE ELEMENT MUST BE WITHIN

.003
.003 A
D
EACH ELEMENT
40°
.30 1.30
40°
1.50 A 2.55 A
TRANSLATION: THE ANGULARITY OF EACH FEATURE ELEMENT MUST BE WITHIN

The example shown in Figure 7-64 is of umes instead of two-dimensional areas. The
Profile of a Line. Profile uses basic dimensions parallel planes tolerance zone is the space
to define a true profile. The area between two between two parallel surfaces. The distance
parallel splines, or curved lines, defines the tol- between the surfaces is specified on a drawing
erance zone. In the example, the splines are an by the geometric tolerance in the feature con-
equal distance from, and on either side of, the trol frame.
true profile. Profile is the only parallel lines spec- Figure 7-65 illustrates four different geomet-
ification that may control size as well as form. ric characteristics that use the distance between
two parallel planes as their tolerance zone. Flat-
Parallel Planes ness and Parallelism (see Figure 7-65A and B)
The parallel planes tolerance zone types are the same except that Parallelism is related to
are very similar to the parallel lines examples another surface, but Flatness is not. Because Flat-
except that they are three-dimensional vol- ness is not related to a datum, it is considered a

A 3.80
Figure 7-63
Two parallel lines can
define the tolerance zone
for concentric cylinders.
1.003 .003 .003

O
.995
TRANSLATION: THE CIRCULARITY OF THE FEATURE MUST BE

B 2.90
I.25
A
1.003
O .995
.005
1.003 A
O .995
.005 A
TRANSLATION: THE CIRCULAR RUNOUT OF THE FEATURE MUST BE WITHIN

FIVE THOUSANDTHS RELATIVE TO DATUM FEATURE A.
2.26
.005 A B 2.24
B
Figure 7-64 X Y
2.05
Two parallel splines 1.46 R1.10
1.44 Y
can define the
tolerance zone for the
X
true profile of a line.
2.20
B
R1.10 A
TRANSLATION: THE LINE PROFILE OF THE FEATURE MUST BE WITHIN FIVE THOUSANDTHS
RELATIVE TO DATUM FEATURES A AND B BETWEEN POINTS X AND Y.
refinement of the size dimension. Even though combination of Straightness and Circularity.
Parallelism is related to a datum, it is nevertheless When combined, they form two concentric cyl-
considered a refinement of the size dimension inders around a common axis. Because Cylin-
because it is a control of opposing surfaces. dricity is not related to a datum, it is considered
Perpendicularity and Angularity (see a refinement of the size dimension. Total Run-
Figure 7-65C and D) are the same except out uses the same tolerance zone type but, like
that the tolerance zone in Perpendicularity Circular Runout, the tolerance zone is relative
is always oriented at a basic 90° angle to the to a datum axis that is derived from a different
datum surface. The basic angle in Angularity diameter than the one being controlled.
must be specified. The true profile in Profile of a Surface
Figure 7-66A and B show examples must be specified with basic dimensions.
of Cylindricity and Total Runout, respec- The tolerance zone in the example shown in
tively. Cylindricity may be thought of as a Figure 7-67 is equally distributed on either

Figure 7-65 A .506
.496
.003
Examples of the tolerance

zones defined by parallel
lines
1.00 2.55
TRANSLATION: THE FLATNESS OF THE FEATURE MUST BE

B .506
.003 A
.496
1.00 2.55
A A
TRANSLATION: THE PARALLELISM OF THE FEATURE MUST BE WITHIN

C .003 A .003
2X .50
1.30
2.55 A 1.50
A
TRANSLATION: THE PERPENDICULARITY OF THE FEATURE MUST BE WITHIN
.003 A .003
D
40°
.30 I.30
40°
1.50 A 2.55
A
TRANSLATION: THE ANGULARITY OF THE FEATURE MUST BE WITHIN
side of the true profile. If Profile of a Surface the form of the part to bow or warp outside the
is applied with datums, it may control size, maximum size dimension. Straightness is the
form, orientation, and position. only geometric characteristic that will allow
this to happen. The tolerance zone controls
the center plane of the part. Because of this, the
tolerance is applied to the size of the part, not
Differentiate What is the difference between to a surface.
Flatness and Parallelism? The Position example in Figure 7-68B
uses the same tolerance zone type as
Straightness, but it is a control that specifies
See Figure 7-68 for three examples of how a centering of the slot relative to the outside
to control the center plane of a size feature. The surfaces of the part. Position is intended for
Straightness example in Figure 7-68A allows interchangeable fits.

A 3.80
Figure 7-66
.003
Cylindricity and Total Runout
tolerance zones may be
defined using two parallel
planes.
1.003 .003
O
.995
TRANSLATION: THE CYLINDRICITY OF THE FEATURE MUST BE

.005
B 2.90
1.25
A
2.006
O
1.998
A
1.003
O
.995
.005 A
TRANSLATION: THE TOTAL RUNOUT OF THE FEATURE MUST BE WITHIN

FIVE THOUSANDTHS RELATIVE TO DATUM FEATURE A.
1.20
Figure 7-67 2X 1.10
Specifying the tolerance 2X .80

.70 2X .60
zone for the profile of a A
surface using two parallel X Y
lines.
2X .80
.01 A B
B B
X Y
TRANSLATION: THE SURFACE PROFILE OF THE FEATURE MUST BE WITHIN

ONE ONE–HUNDREDTH INCH RELATIVE TO DATUM FEATURES
A AND B BETWEEN LINES X AND Y.
The Symmetry example in Figure 7-68C zone must have a diameter symbol placed in
is similar to Position. Their difference lies in front of the tolerance value.
how the tolerance is applied. Symmetry can be Letters enclosed in circles after the toler-
applied only on a “regardless of feature size” ance value or any size datum references indi-
basis. It may be applied in noninterchangeable cate that the tolerance applies at a specified
situations. size condition. If there are no size condition
symbols, it means that the tolerance applies
regardless of feature size.
Cylinders The Straightness control in Figure 7-69 is
The cylindrical tolerance zone is the most similar to the example in Figure 7-68A except
used of the three tolerance zone types. It is a for the shape of the tolerance zone. This toler-
control of the axis of a hole or cylinder. All ance also allows the form of the part to bow or
geometric characteristics that use this type of warp outside the maximum size dimension.

.503
.498 Figure 7-68
A .007 M
Controlling the center
plane of a size feature
1.00 2.90 A
TRANSLATION: THE STRAIGHTNESS OF THE FEATURE CENTER PLANE MUST BE

WITHIN SEVEN THOUSANDTHS AT MAXIMUM MATERIAL CONDITION.
B .605
.003 M A M
1.30
.90 A 2.35 .003

A
1.50
TRANSLATION: THE POSITION OF THE FEATURE CENTER PLANE MUST BE WITHIN

THREE THOUSANDTHS AT MAXIMUM MATERIAL CONDITION
RELATIVE TO DATUM FEATURE A AT MAXIMUM MATERIAL CONDITION.
.605
C
.003 A
1.30
.90 A 2.35 .003

1.50
A
TRANSLATION: THE SYMMETRY OF THE FEATURE CENTER PLANE MUST BE WITHIN

3.80
Figure 7-69
The tolerance zone for
Straightness can be defined
using a cylinder
1.003 O .010
O
.995
.010 M
TRANSLATION: THE STRAIGHTNESS OF THE FEATURE AXIS MUST BE WITHIN
TEN THOUSANDTHS AT MAXIMUM MATERIAL CONDITION.
The example in Figure 7-70 illustrates The Position example in Figure 7-72 can
how the parallelism of one hole may be con- be thought of as a combination of Parallelism
trolled using another Parallelism control. and Perpendicularity with location. The centers
The established cylinder for the controlled of the tolerance cylinders are located with basic
hole must be parallel to the axis defined by dimensions from the datum surfaces.
the datum hole. Figure 7-73 is an example of Concentric-
Figure 7-71 is an example of Perpendicu- ity. The cylinder tolerance zone is aligned with
larity. The controlling cylinder is oriented at a the axis of the datum diameter. It is referred to
basic 90° angle relative to the datum surface. as an axis-axis control.

2.45
Figure 7-70 R.55 R.70
O .70
The Parallelism control
feature can be used to
control the parallelism of
one hole to another
A A
.80 O .50–.51 O.007
0.007 M A
TRANSLATION: THE PARALLELISM OF THE FEATURE AXIS MUST BE WITHIN
SEVEN THOUSANDTHS AT MAXIMUM MATERIAL CONDITION
RELATIVE TO DATUM FEATURE A.
Figure 7-71 1.80

.95 1.25
Using Perpendicularity
to control a cylinder at
right angles to the datum A
.95
surface
2.30
.805
O
.795
0.007 M A A O .007
TRANSLATION: THE PERPENDICULARITY OF THE FEATURE AXIS MUST BE

WITHIN SEVEN THOUSANDTHS AT MAXIMUM MATERIAL
CONDITION RELATIVE TO DATUM FEATURE A.
C
Figure 7-72 3.05
.65 1.75 .65 B A B
An example of the Position
control feature
.70 C
A
1.40
2X .007
2X .60 .61 .65
.007 M A B C
TRANSLATION: THE POSITION OF THE FEATURES AXES MUST BE WITHIN

SEVEN THOUSANDTHS AT MAXIMUM MATERIAL CONDITION
RELATIVE TO DATUM FEATURES A, B, AND C.
3.65
Figure 7-73
1.95
An example of the A
Concentricity control feature
O.002
.903 2.006 A
O
.895 O 1.998
.002 A
TRANSLATION: THE CONCENTRICITY OF THE FEATURE AXIS MUST BE WITHIN

TWO THOUSANDTHS RELATIVE TO DATUM FEATURE A.

Figure 7-74 .004 A
.507 .0015
Using more than one .495
geometric characteristic
1.00 2.55
A
A
TRANSLATION: THE PARALLELISM OF THE FEATURE MUST BE WITHIN FOUR
THOUSANDTHS RELATIVE TO DATUM FEATURE A AND FLAT
WITHIN FIFTEEN TEN–THOUSANDTHS.
C
Figure 7-75 1.55
.80 B B
1.00
Position and
Perpendicularity are
often used together. .95
A C
2.30 O.002
.805
O
2.75 .795 A O.006
.006 M A B C
.002 M A
TRANSLATION: THE POSITION OF THE FEATURE AXIS MUST BE WITHIN SIX

THOUSANDTHS AT MAXIMUM MATERIAL CONDITION RELATIVE
TO DATUM FEATURES A, B, AND C AND PERPENDICULAR WITHIN
TWO THOUSANDTHS TO DATUM FEATURE A.
Tolerance Zone Combinations Surface Texture

The previous examples have illustrated To what characteristics does surface texture
single tolerance zones only. It is not unusual for refer?
different geometric characteristics to be used in
combination. Usually, the lower segment of the There is no such thing as a perfectly smooth
geometric control is considered a refinement of surface. All surfaces have irregularities. At
the upper segment. Two examples are presented times a drafter must determine how much
to show this concept. roughness and waviness the surface of a
See Figure 7-74 for an example of Parallel- material can have and the lay direction of
ism and Flatness used together. The Parallelism both. There are standards for these character-
control is a refinement of the size dimension, istics, and each characteristic has a symbol to
and the Flatness control is a refinement of the represent it.
Parallelism. Refer to ASME B46.1 for a complete
A very common combination is Position and discussion of surface texture. The following
Perpendicularity. Depending on the arrange- paragraphs about surface texture are adapted
ment, Position may include Perpendicularity. The from that text. They are included here
Perpendicularity control shown in Figure 7-75 with the permission of the publisher, The
further refines the Position control. American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME).
Surfaces, in general, are very complex in
character. This standard deals only with the
Describe What is the cylinder tolerance height, width, and direction of the surface
zone? irregularities. These are of practical importance
in specific applications.

to it. Sometimes an angle other than a per-
MEASURED PROFILE
pendicular one is specified.
• measured profile The measured profile is a
representation of the profile obtained by in-
NOMINAL PROFILE struments or other means. See Figure 7-76.
• microinch A microinch is one millionth of
Figure 7-76 an inch (.000 0001″). Microinches may be
abbreviated μin.
An enlarged profile shows that a surface is not
as it appears.
• micrometer A micrometer is one millionth
of a meter (.000 0001 m). Micrometers may
be abbreviated μm.
• roughness Roughness refers to the finer
Definitions of Terms irregularities in the surface texture. Rough-
A working knowledge of the relevant ness usually includes irregularities caused
terms will help you understand surface tex- by the production process. Among these are
ture designations more clearly. These terms traverse feed marks and other irregularities
refer to surfaces made by various means such within the limits of the roughness-width
as machining, abrading, extruding, casting, cutoff (see Figure 7-77).
molding, forging, rolling, coating, plating, • roughness height For the purpose of this
blasting, burnishing, and others. Study the book, roughness height is the arithmetical
definitions in this section before attempting to average deviation. It is expressed in micro-
use surface texture characteristics. inches or micrometers measured normal
• surface texture Surface texture includes to the centerline. The preferred series
roughness, waviness, lay, or the direction of of roughness-height values is shown in
the predominate surface pattern, and flaws. Table 7-4.
It includes repetitive or random differences • roughness width Roughness width is the
from the nominal surface that forms the distance between two peaks or ridges that
pattern of the surface. make up the pattern of the roughness.
• profile The profile is the contour, or shape, Roughness width is given in inches or
of a surface in a plane that is perpendicular millimeters.
FLAW
Figure 7-77
Relation of symbols to WAVINESS
HEIGHT
surface characteristics
LAY DIRECTION
ROUGHNESS WIDTH
WAVINESS
ROUGHNESS HEIGHT ROUGHNESS–WIDTH CUTOFF
WIDTH
WAVINESS HEIGHT WAVINESS WIDTH

ROUGHNESS–WIDTH CUTOFF
.002–2 LAY
ROUGHNESS HEIGHT .I00
(ARITHMETICAL AVERAGE) 63 ROUGHNESS WIDTH
.020

Roughness Values Grade mm 0.075 0.250 0.750 2.500 7.500 25.000
50 2000 12 inches .003 .010 .030 .100 .300 1.000
25 1000 11
12.5 500 10 Table 7-5
6.3 250 9 Standard roughness-width cutoff values
3.2 125 8
1.6 63 7
• roughness-width cutoff This is the greatest
0.8 32 6
spacing of repetitive surface irregularities to
0.4 16 5 be included in the measurement of average
0.2 8 4 roughness height. Roughness-width cutoff
0.1 4 3 is rated in inches or millimeters. Standard
0.05 2 2 values are shown in Table 7-5. Roughness-
0.025 1 1 width cutoff must always be greater than
the roughness width in order to obtain the
Table 7-4 total roughness-height rating.
Preferred series roughness
• waviness Waviness is covered by surface-
texture standards. Geometric tolerancing
now covers this surface condition under
Symbol Designation Example

Table 7-6
Lay Symbols
DIRECTION
Lay parallel to the line representing the
OF TOOL
surface to which the symbol is applied. MARKS
DIRECTION
Lay perpendicular to the line representing the
OF TOOL
surface to which the symbol is applied. MARKS
Lay angular in both directions to the line DIRECTION

representing the surface to which the symbol OF TOOL
is applied. MARKS
Lay multidirectional.
Lay approximately circular relative to the center

of the surface to which the symbol is applied.
Lay approximately radial relative to the center

of the surface to which the symbol is applied.

flatness. Flatness is a condition in which all • flaws Flaws are irregularities that occur
surface elements are in a single plane. Flat- at one place or at relatively infrequent or
ness tolerances are applied to surfaces to widely varying intervals in a surface. Flaws
control variations in surface texture. Wavi- include defects such as cracks, blowholes,
ness results from factors such as machine checks, ridges, and scratches. The effect
or work deflections, vibration, chatter, heat of flaws is not included in the roughness-
treatment, or warping strains. Roughness height measurements unless otherwise
may be thought of as being superimposed specified.
on a “wavy” surface. • contact area Contact area is the amount
• waviness height Waviness height is rated in of area of the surface required to be in
inches as the peak-to-valley distance. contact with its mating surface. Contact
• waviness width Waviness width is rated area should be distributed over the surface
in inches or millimeters as the spacing of with approximate uniformity. Contact area
successive wave peaks or successive wave is specified as shown in Figure 7-78.
valleys. When specified, the values are the
maximum amounts permissible.
• lay Lay is the direction of predominant sur-
face pattern. Ordinarily, it is determined by
the production method used. Lay symbols Explain What causes waviness?
are shown in Table 7-6.
A E
Roughness height rating is centered 90% Minimum requirements for contact
a above and between the two legs. The or bearing area with a mating part
a specification of only one rating shall or reference shall be indicated by a
a indicate the maximum value and any percentage value placed above the
lesser value shall be acceptable. A value extension line as shown. Further
is here applied to the symbol variations. requirements may be controlled
by notes.
B F
The specification of maximum value and Lay designation is indicated by the
a1 minimum value roughness height ratings lay symbol placed at the right of the
a2 a
indicates the permissible range of value long leg.
rating.
C G
MILLED If a final surface texture must be MILLED If it is necessary to indicate a sampling

a1 produced by a special production 2.44 length, it is placed below the horizontal
a2 method, it is placed above the a extension.
horizontal extension.
D H
ZINC PLATED
Any indication as to treatment or coating MILLED Where required, maximum roughness
a is also placed above the horizontal a1 2.44 width rating shall be placed at the right
extension. The numerical value of a2 of the lay symbol. Any lesser rating shall
0.05
roughness applies to the surface texture be acceptable.
after treatment, unless stated otherwise.
Figure 7-78
Applications of surface texture symbols and ratings

Designation of Surface Figure 7-78 shows how roughness, wavi-
ness, and lay are called for on the surface sym-
Characteristics bol. Only those ratings necessary to specify
When no surface control is specified, you the desired surface need to be shown on the
can assume that the surface produced by the symbol.
operation will be satisfactory. If the surface Symbols for lay are shown in Table 7-6.
is critical, the quality of the surface needed Roughness ratings usually apply in a direction
should be shown. that gives the maximum reading. This is nor-
The symbol used to designate surface irregu- mally across the lay.
larities is the check mark with horizontal exten- This is the end of the material extracted and
sion as in Figure 7-79A. The point of the adjusted from Surface Texture, ASME B46.1.
symbol must touch the line to indicate which For more information, use the complete ISO
surface is meant. It may also touch the exten- and ASME standards.
sion line or a leader pointing to the surface. The
long leg and extension are drawn to the right
as the drawing is read. When only roughness
height is shown, the horizontal extension may
Describe What symbol designates surface
be left off. Figure 7-79B shows the typical use
irregularities?
of the symbol on a drawing.
When the symbol is used with a dimension,
it affects all surfaces defined by the dimen-
sion. Areas of transition, such as chamfers Using GD&T in AutoCAD
and fillets, should usually be the same as the
What GD&T step is required in AutoCAD
roughest finished area next to them. Surface-
but not in board drafting?
roughness symbols always apply to the com-
pleted surface unless otherwise indicated. Geometric dimensioning and toleranc-
Drawings or specifications for plated or coated ing in AutoCAD requires an extra step that
parts must tell whether the surface-roughness board drafting does not. However, the soft-
symbols apply before, after, or both before and ware makes it fairly easy to create GD&T “sen-
after coating or plating. tences.” To demonstrate the use of geometric
dimensioning and tolerancing in AutoCAD,
use the object in Figure 7-80. Follow these
steps.
1. Draw all of the views and dimension them
A
normally.
1.80
.95 1.25
.95
2.30
.805
O
.795
0.007 M A A
B
Figure 7-80
Figure 7-79 Object for practicing geometric
(A) The surface symbol, and (B) applying the dimensioning and tolerancing procedures
surface symbol on a drawing in AutoCAD

2. Enter the TOLERANCE command at the 6. The black box to the right of the text box
keyboard. The AGeometric Tolerance dia- controls the material condition. Pick in
log box appears. the box and choose maximum material
3. Pick the black box labeled Sym in the first condition (the M inside a circle).
row of the dialog box. The Symbol dia- 7. The next three boxes in the row allow
log box appears. Pick the Perpendicular- you to add a second tolerance, but no fur-
ity symbol. The Perpendicularity symbol ther tolerancing is needed for this exam-
appears in the black box. ple, so you can skip them. Move to the
4. The next black box to the right, in the white box in the Datum 1 area and enter
Tolerance 1 area, toggles the diameter a capital A for the datum feature.
symbol on and off. Pick in the box to 8. Pick OK. The Geometric Tolerance dialog
make the diameter symbol appear. box disappears, and a feature control frame
5. The next (white) box is a text box in containing the specifications you have just
which you enter the tolerance value. Pick defined appears at the cursor. Move the
in the box to activate it, and enter .007 cursor to the location shown in Figure 7-80
for the value. and pick a point to place it on the drawing.
they are discussed in the same chapter?

Section 7.2 Assessment Write one or two paragraphs describing
After You Read how these terms relate to each other.
Use other content vocabulary terms
from this section in your explanation.
Self-Check
1. Explain how to add dimensions to a Drafting Practice
drawing using board drafting techniques. 4. Create a multiview drawing of each
2. Explain how to add dimensions, notes, object shown in Figure 7-81. Take
and geometric tolerances to a technical dimensions from the printed scales at
drawing using a CAD system. the bottom of the illustration. Include
dimensions and notes.
3. Review the Content Vocabulary terms book’s OLC for help with this
dimensioning and tolerancing. How are drafting practice.
these terms related? Why do you think
Figure 7-81
A B
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
DECIMAL INCH METRIC

Chapter Summary
• Notes and symbols give information • The process of adding dimensions in
about the type of finish and materials board drafting is the same whether they
needed to make an object, and measure- are added in a preliminary freehand
ments or dimensions must be as precise sketch or the final drawing.
as necessary to allow the manufacturer to • Geographic dimensioning and toleranc-
create the object. ing is a very flexible communication
• ASME and ISO standards closely con- system that can help designers specify the
trol the dimensions and notes used in intent of the design throughout the entire
dimensioning. manufacturing process.
• Size dimension defines the size of each • In AutoCAD, you must set up the dimen-
piece; location dimension gives the size of sion style by either creating a custom style
each piece as well as its position in rela- or modifying AutoCAD’s Standard style.
tion to the other pieces. • Drafters use standard surface texture char-
• Why must variation in specified dimen- acteristic symbols and ratings to designate
sions for mating parts be limited? roughness, waviness, and lay direction of
• To specify permissible variations in parts a surface.
to be manufactured, technical draw-
ings include geometric dimensions and
tolerances.

Content Vocabulary • datums (p. 225) • geometric dimensioning and
• dimensioning (p. 217) • tolerance (p. 236) tolerancing (p. 242)
• dimension line (p. 218) • unilateral tolerances (p. 239) Academic Vocabulary
• finish mark (p. 218) • bilateral tolerances (p. 239) • symbols (p. 217)
• aligned system (p. 221) • basic hole system (p. 241) • processes (p. 218)
• unidirectional system (p. 221) • basic shaft system (p. 241) • accumulate (p. 239)
Review Key Concepts

2. Summarize how to add measurements, notes, and symbols to a technical drawing.
3. Explain how to apply ASME and ISO standards for dimensions and notes.
4. Explain the difference between size dimensions and location dimensions.
5. Describe how to specify geometric tolerances using symbols and notes.
6. Explain how to add dimensions to a drawing using board drafting techniques.
7. Show how to communicate using the geometric dimensioning and tolerencing system.
8. List the steps necessary to add dimensions, notes, and geometric tolerances to a technical
drawing in CAD.

Technology
9. All About ASME Prep
The American Society of Mechanical Engi- Extended Response For
neers (ASME) sets national standards for draft- Directions Read the following
ing, but it also provides additional services to question and write a one-page
those working in the field of engineering. Visit answer.
the ASME Web site and find five facts about the 12. What is the purpose of geometric
organization. When was it founded? How many dimensioning and tolerancing?
members does it have? What are some of its What information needs to be given
core values? What features are included in the to provide accurate distancing and
ASME Student Center? Write a one-page paper tolerancing?
summarizing the information you find.
TEST-TAKING TIP
When answering an essay question on a
test, focus on one main idea per paragraph.
Do not write long introductions and conclu-
10. Technology Applications
sions. Spend most of your time answering
Imagine you are in charge of the equipment
the question asked.
for your office’s drafting department. One of
your responsibilities is to record the type of
supplies the department purchases, such as
computers, software, stationery, and desk items
like staplers and boxes of binder clips, as well
as when each item was ordered and received.
Win
Use spreadsheet software to create a document Competitive
that can list and categorize the equipment. Events
13. Job Interview
Mathematics Organizations such as SkillsUSA offer a
variety of architectural, career, and draft-
11. Calculating Volume
At his job, Mark has been asked to calculate
which has a smaller measurement of volume,
a cone or a pyramid with a square base. Calcu-
Activity Create a personal fact sheet,
late the volume of each and determine which
or list of all the information about your-
has the greater volume. The cone and pyra-
self that you will need to fill out a job
mid each have the same height of 250 cm, the
application form. A fact sheet should
base of the cone has a diameter of 60 cm, and
include your name, phone number, and
the length of each side of the pyramid’s base
address, your Social Security number,
is 60 cm.
schools you have attended, places you
Comparing Measurements have lived, and contact information for
any jobs you may have had.
To calculate the volume, first find the area
of each base. A cone has a circular base. The
area of a circle can be calculated using the for- Go to glencoe.com for this book’s
mula A = πr2, and the area of a square is A = OLC for more information about
lw. Use the volume formula discussed in this competitive events.
chapter’s Do the Math: V = 1/3(Bh).

7 Problems
Drafting Problems
The drafting problems in this chapter are designed to be completed using
board drafting techniques or CAD.
1. For each object shown in Figure 7-82, create a multiview drawing. Take dimensions from
the printed scales at the bottom of Figure 7-83. Include dimensions and notes.
A B C
D E F
G H I
J K L
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
DECIMAL INCH METRIC
Figure 7-82

For problems 2 through 10, first determine
the necessary views. If you are using board 4. Double-shaft support (Figure 7-85). A =
67 mm; B = 7 mm; C = R21 mm; D = 10
drafting instruments, create a freehand sketch
mm; E = Ø6 mm through, 10 mm coun-
and dimension it.
terbore, 2 mm deep, 2 holes; F = 43 mm;
G = R12 mm; H = 14 mm.
2. Square guide (Figure 7-83). A = 5 mm
thick × 44 mm square; B = 30 mm square × I
C
G
30 mm high; hole = 20 mm square. E
METRIC
A
B
A
Figure 7-85
METRIC
Figure 7-83
5. Cradle slide (Figure 7-86). AB = 2.38;

3. Locator (Figure 7-84). AB = 40 mm; BC =
BC = 3.56; CD = 5.12; E = 1.50; F = 2.12;
60 mm; CD = 5 mm; DE = 12 mm; EF = 36
mm; EG = 18 mm; H = 8 mm; hole = Ø10 G = .88; H = R1.62.
mm through, 18 mm counterbore, 2 mm G
deep. A
D
B F
H
E
F
METRIC
C
H
A
E B
C D G
Figure 7-86
Figure 7-84
Problems 261
7 Problems
6. Pipe support (Figure 7-87). Base plate = 8. Idler pulley (Figure 7-89).
.50 thick × 4.50 wide × 6.50 long; A =
2.38; B = R1.50; C = R1.12; D = .50; E = .60
3.00; F = Ø.38 hole through, countersink
to Ø.75, 3 holes; G = 1.00; H = .75; I =
2.25.
O 4.00 .30 THICK
.25
I
G 1.50
F
E 1.00 I.D, 1.38 OD

1.50 LONG
NOTES:
D FILLETS — R.12
MATL — CAST ALUMINUM
A
H
H B
Figure 7-89
C
Figure 7-87
7. Stop plate (Figure 7-88). Overall sizes: 9. Connecting rod (Figure 7-90).
L = 4.25, W = 2.00, H = .75. AB = .38;
AC = 1.00; AE = 2.75; AD = 1.00; JN = .50; O 1.00
M = 1.00; F = Ø.44, 2 holes; G = Boss: R1.00
Ø1.25 × 50 high, Ø.50 through, .88 coun-

terbore = .12 deep. .38
1.00 O 2.25
F .38 O 3.50
G
M
H 7.75
E
J 1.62
N
C D
L A
MATL – CAST ACRYLIC (PLASTIC)
B W
Figure 7-90
Figure 7-88

10. Single V-pulley (Figure 7-91).
O I40 X 3 WIDE
FOR 6 KEY "V" I2.5 WIDE X T I4
RECESS O I00 X T I2 WITH 36° INCLUDED ANGLE
ONE SIDE
O 24
O 42 X 20 NOTES:
FILLETS–R3
Figure 7-91 MATL–CAST IRON
Design Problems
in this chapter but also in other chapters throughout the text. The problems
Teamwork 64 mm × 152 mm × 254 mm. Materials

optional. Prepare a set of drawings and
1. Work as a team to design a two-wheeled
add a materials list.
scooter. It should be designed to fold flat
for easy carrying and storage. Specify light- 4. You have discovered the importance of
weight materials. Wheels and bearings tolerances for manufactured parts and
should be selected for extreme durability. products. Some three-dimensional CAD
Share responsibility in the preparation of software packages allow the designer
a complete set of plans. Be sure to include to incorporate tolerance limits, called
a list of materials. Use general toleranc- constraints, directly into the CAD model.
ing and geometric dimensioning and tol- These constraints help enforce the neces-
erancing where appropriate. Begin with sary tolerances for new designs. They also
design sketches. prevent the model from being changed in
ways that might change the design intent
2. Design an adjustable arm for holding your
or weaken the design integrity. Research
drafting book at a convenient location on
CAD packages to discover which ones
your drafting table or at your computer.
allow the designer to apply constraints. If
Begin with design sketches. Make a complete
possible, use one of these packages to apply
set of plans and include a list of materials.
constraints to a simple object, such as a
box. For example, you might apply con-
Teamwork
straints to keep the sides of the box exactly
3. Design a desk or shelf clock. The clock perpendicular to the top and bottom of the
mechanism fits a Ø72 mm × 20 mm box. Discuss your results or make a display
deep hole. The clock should not exceed to show classmates how to use constraints.
Problems 263
8 Sectional Views
Section 8.1
Types of Sectional
Views
Section 8.2
Techniques for
Sectioning
Chapter Objectives
• Describe the purpose
of a sectional view.
• Identify the differ-
ent types of sectional
views.
• Identify symbols
used in sectioning.
• Use the correct tech-
niques for section
lining.
• Identify features that
are not sectioned.
• Explain section-
ing techniques that
increase efficiency.
• Prepare a drawing
with sectional views
and CAD techniques.
Hip Hop at the Rock and Roll

Hall of Fame Courtney Sloane’s
aesthetic connection with the
hip hop movement made her
the obvious choice to design the
Hall of Fame’s exhibit celebrating
hip hop’s 20th anniversary. What
design elements would you use?
264
Drafting Career
Courtney Sloane, Interior Designer
Do you ever wonder who designs those beauti-

ful rooms you see in House Beautiful and Seventeen?
Courtney Sloane is one of these designers, called
“Interior Designers.” “Living spaces and work areas
should read like an engaging novel,” she says. “Every
room should tell a different story, and each threshold
should invite new and exciting twists while main-
taining continuity.”
Sloane’s award-winning studio produces dynamic

environments that tell stories for clients including
Academy Award-nominated Queen Latifah and
Sean “Diddy” Combs. Of her work at Sony Music’s
Manhattan recording studio and soundstage, Andy
Kadisen of Sony says her “willingness to take risks,
her creative eclecticism, responds to our needs.”

• English
• Math
• Social science
• Science
• Fine arts
• Computer-aided design
Career Pathways
A bachelor’s degree followed by a one- to three-
year apprenticeship is recommended for entry-level
positions. Some states register or license interior
designers; to take their eligibility exam, applicants
must have at least six years of combined education
and experience.

about Courtney Sloane.
265
Alternative Design/Courtney Sloane
8.1 Types of Sectional Views
Preview Sectional views of hidden details add clarity; How can a drawing show these details?
Content Vocabulary
• cutting plane • full section • broken-out section • auxiliary section
• section lining • offset section • revolved section • phantom section
• crosshatching • half section • removed section • aligned section
Academic Vocabulary
• method • section
Graphic Organizer
Use a chart like the one below to organize your notes about sectional views.
Sectional Views
Types Special Cases
Academic Standards
Mathematics NCTE National Council of
Teachers of English
Number and Operation Understand numbers, ways of representing numbers, NCTM National Council
relationships among numbers, and number systems (NCTM) of Teachers of
Mathematics
English Language Arts ADDA American Design
Students should read a wide range of print and non-print texts to acquire new information (NCTE) ASME American Society of
Industry Standards
ADDA Section 15
Standards and Practices Listing (ASME Y14.3M)
266 Chapter 8 Sectional Views

The basic section lining pattern that uses
Understanding Sectional thin, evenly spaced lines is used in most
Views cases. It is a general-purpose symbol used for
objects made of any material. It is used espe-
How can a drafter show interior features of
cially when only one kind of material need be
an object?
shown, such as on a drawing of a single part.
Technical drawings must show all parts of Section lining symbols are provided by
an object, including the insides and other ASME to indicate specific materials for a sec-
parts not easily seen. Such details can be tioned object (see Figure 8-2). Under this
drawn with hidden lines, but this method system, the general-purpose symbol can also
works well only if the hidden part has a sim- mean that an object is made of cast iron.
ple shape. If the shape is complicated, the hid- These special symbols are most useful on a
den lines can be confusing (see Figure 8-1A). drawing that shows several objects made of
In these cases, a special view called a section, different materials. However, do not depend
or sectional view, should be drawn. A sectional on these symbols alone to describe the mate-
view shows an object as if part of it were cut rials to be used. Specify the exact materials
away to expose its insides (see Figure 8-1B). needed in a note or in a list of materials.
To best understand sectional views, imag-
ine that a wide-blade knife has cut through an The Cutting-Plane Line
object. Call the path of this knife a cutting The cutting-plane line represents the edge
plane. Then imagine that everything in front view of the cutting plane (see Figure 8-3).
of the cutting plane has been removed so that ASME specifies two forms for cutting-plane
the cut surface and whatever is inside can lines, as shown in Figure 8-4. The first form
be seen (see Figure 8-1B). On a normal view, is more commonly used. The second shows
a special line called a cutting-plane line shows up well on complicated drawings. At each
where the cutting plane passes through the end of the line, draw a short line with an
object (see Figure 8-1C). On the sectional arrow to show the direction for looking at the
view, the cut surface is marked with thin, section. Draw the arrows at right angles to the
evenly spaced lines, known as section lining line. Place bold capital letters at the corners as
or crosshatching. shown, if needed to reference the section.
Figure 8-1
A
(A) When an object’s
ARROW SHOWS internal structure is
DIRECTION OF complex, hidden lines
SECTIONAL
VIEW
become confusing
or hard to read.
CUTTING PLANE
LINE (B and C) A sectional
view provides a much
clearer description
of the inside of the
CUT SURFACE IS SHOWN BY SECTION LINES object.
B C
Section 8.1 Types of Sectional Views 267

CAST IRON AND STEEL BRONZE, BRASS, WHITE METAL, MAGNESIUM,
MALLEABLE IRON. ALSO COPPER, AND ZINC, LEAD, BABBITT, ALUMINUM
FOR GENERAL USE COMPOSITIONS AND ALLOYS AND ALUMINUM
FOR ALL MATERIALS ALLOYS
RUBBER, PLASTIC, CORK, FELT, FABRIC, SOUND INSULATION THERMAL INSULATION FIREBRICK AND
ELECTRICAL LEATHER, FIBER REFRACTORY MATERIAL
INSULATION
ELECTRIC WINDINGS, CONCRETE BRICK AND STONE MARBLE, SLATE, EARTH

ELECTROMAGNETS, MASONRY GLASS, PORCELAIN,
RESISTANCE, ETC. ETC.
ROCK SAND WATER AND WOOD ACROSS GRAIN THIN PARTS

OTHER LIQUIDS WOOD WITH GRAIN
Figure 8-2
ASME symbols for section lining
A cutting-plane line is not needed when

it is clear that the section is taken along an
EDGE VIEW OF
CUTTING PLANE object’s main centerline or at some other
obvious place. See Figure 8-5 for an example
of a symmetrical object in which the center-
line serves as the cutting-plane line.
Sections Through Assembled

Pieces
If a drawing shows more than one piece in
section, place the section lines in a different
direction on each piece using common angles
Figure 8-3 of 30°, 45°, or 60° (see Figure 8-6). Avoid using
horizontal or vertical section lining. Remem-
The cutting-plane line represents the edge view
ber, however, that any piece can show several
of the cutting plane.
cut surfaces. Make sure that all cut surfaces of
A A
.06" .75" TO 1.50" .12"
1.5 mm 20 TO 40 mm 3 mm
Figure 8-4 B B
.25" .06"
ASME-specified 6 mm 1.5 mm
cutting-plane lines
NOTE: ALL SIZES ARE ESTIMATED, NOT MEASURED.

Figure 8-5
A centerline may be
used to represent a Figure 8-6
cutting-plane line. When a sectional view contains more than one
assembled piece in section, the section lines
must be drawn at different angles for each piece.
any one piece have section lines that go in the

same direction, as shown in Figure 8-6.
The various types of sectional views are
described here.
Identify Why are different section lining Full Sections

patterns sometimes used in drawings? A full section is a sectional view that
shows an object as if it were cut completely
across from one end or side to the other (see
Types of Sectional Views Figure 8-7). Such views are usually just called
sections. The vertical section—a full section
How does a drafter know where to place
taken from an object’s vertical or front view—
the cutting plane?
and the profile section—a full section taken
Sectional views can be drawn in different from an object’s profile view (see Figures 8-8
ways to make the internal features as clear as and 8-9, respectively)—are the two most com-
possible while keeping the drawing simple. mon types of full sections.
FRONT OF BRACKET
MOVED AWAY TO
A B C EXPOSE CUT SURFACE
BRACKET BRACKET WITH CUTTING PLANE
D TOP VIEW E TOP VIEW
FRONT VIEW FRONT FULL-SECTIONAL VIEW
Figure 8-7
Full section
Offset Sections Half Sections
The cutting plane of a section is usually A half section is one-half of a full
taken straight through the object. However, it section. While a full section shows the object
can also be offset, or shifted, to show a detail as if half has been cut away, a half section
or avoid a part. See Figure 8-10 for this type shows one-quarter cut away. Imagine that
of section, known as an offset section. The two cutting planes at right angles to each
cutting plane in this figure is offset to pass other slice through the object as shown
through the two bolt holes. If it were not, the in Figure 8-11A through Figure 8-11C.
bolt holes would not show in the sectional Figure 8-11D shows the object’s exterior (not
view. Show an offset section by drawing it on in section). The half section shows one-half of
the cutting-plane line in a normal view. the front view in section (see Figure 8-11E).
B
B
A
B
A
A A

Profile section
Vertical section
C FRONT OF FLANGE
A B MOVED AWAY
VIEW OF BEARING FLANGE FLANGE WITH CUTTING PLANE
TO EXPOSE CUT SURFACE
TOP VIEW TOP VIEW
D E
FRONT VIEW OFFSET-SECTIONAL VIEW
Figure 8-10
Offset section

A B C
VIEW OF PACKING GLAND PACKING GLAND WITH ONE QUARTER MOVED AWAY
CUTTING PLANE TO EXPOSE CUT SURFACE
D E
TOP VIEW TOP VIEW
FRONT VIEW FRONT VIEW
Figure 8-11
Half section
Half sections are useful when drawing a sym- line could have been left out, because there is no
metrical object. Both the inside and the out- doubt where the section is taken.
side can be shown in one view. Use a centerline
where the exterior and half-sectional views meet Broken-Out Sections
because the object is not actually cut. In the top A view with a broken-out section shows
view, show the complete object because no part an object as it would look if a portion of it
is actually removed. If the direction of viewing is were cut partly away by a cutting plane and
needed, use only one arrow (see Figure 8-11E). In then “broken off” to reveal the cut surface and
the top view of Figure 8-11E, the cutting-plane insides (see Figure 8-12). This view shows
A B C
VIEW OF DOUBLE PACKING GLAND GLAND WITH CUTTING PLANE PART OF GLAND MOVED
AWAY TO EXPOSE CUT SURFACE
Figure 8-12
Broken-out section
D TOP VIEW E TOP VIEW
FRONT VIEW FRONT VIEW WITH BROKEN-OUT SECTION

A
PARALLEL (SAME SLOPE)
MOST COMMON METHOD LENGTH
51.62
B
Figure 8-14
OTHER ACCEPTABLE METHODS Revolved sections in long parts
B
Figure 8-13
to position removed sections. Use bold letters
Revolved section to identify a removed section and its corre-
sponding cutting plane on the regular view.
A removed section can be a sliced section
some inside detail without drawing a full or (the same as a revolved section), or it can
half section. Note that a broken-out section is show additional detail visible beyond the cut-
bounded by a short break line drawn freehand ting plane. You can draw it at the same scale
with the same thickness as a visible line. as the regular views or at a larger scale to show
greater detail.
Revolved Sections
Think of a cutting plane passing through Auxiliary Sections
part of an object, as shown in Figure 8-13A. When a cutting plane passes through the
Now think of that cut surface as revolved 90°, object at an angle (see Figure 8-16A), the
so that its shape can be seen clearly, as shown resulting sectional view is called an auxiliary
in Figure 8-13B. The result is a revolved section, and it is drawn like any other auxiliary
section (also called a rotated section). view. Auxiliary views are discussed in Chapter 9.
Use a revolved section when the part is long On typical working drawings, only the aux-
and thin and when its shape in cross section iliary section is shown on the cut surface. How-
is the same throughout, as in Figure 8-14. ever, if needed, other background features or
In such cases, the view may be shortened, but parts beyond the auxiliary cutting plane may be
the full length of the part must be given by a shown. In Figure 8-16B, notice that the auxil-
dimension. This lets you draw a large part with iary section contains hidden lines. It also con-
a revolved section in a shorter space. tains three incomplete views.
Removed Sections Phantom Sections

When a sectional view is taken from A phantom section, also called a hidden
its normal place on the view and moved section, shows in one view both the inside
somewhere else on the drawing sheet, the and the outside of an object that is not sym-
result is a removed section. Because the metrical. Figure 8-17 shows an object with a
removed section is easier to understand when circular boss on one side. Because the object is
positioned to appear in its normal place on the not symmetrical, the inside cannot be shown
view, it cannot be rotated in just any direction. with a half section, so a phantom section is
See Figure 8-15 for correct and incorrect ways used instead.

CORRECT INCORRECT
Figure 8-15
Correct and incorrect positions of
removed sections
SECTION A–A
SECTION
A–A SECTION
SECTION B–B
B–B
SECTION
C–C
SECTION C–C
B C D SECTION
E
D–D
A
SECTION D–D
D
E
C SECTION
B E–E
A
SECTION E–E
AUXILIARY
AUXILIARY SECTION
SECTION
A B
Figure 8-16
Auxiliary sections
Describe When should a revolved section

A A be used?
Special Cases
What parts of an object are usually not
sectioned?
Sometimes drafters make exceptions to gen-

SECTION A-A eral sectioning rules, and these exceptions
have become standard practice. For example,
Figure 8-17 although showing hidden lines in a section
Phantom section view is undesirable, it is allowed in special cases
to improve accuracy and clarity.

Ribs and Webs in Section Think of the plane passing just in front of
the rib.
Ribs and webs are thin, flat parts of an
If a cutting plane passes through a rib, a
object that are used to brace or strengthen
web, or any other thin, flat part at right angles
another part of the object. Often a true sec-
to the flat side, draw in section lines for that
tion of the object that contains ribs or a web
part. Figure 8-19 shows an example.
structure does not appear to describe the part.
For example, the section in Figure 8-18A
would give the idea of a very heavy, solid Hidden and Visible Lines
piece, which does not truly describe it. There- Do not draw hidden lines on sectional
fore, when a cutting plane passes through a rib views unless they are needed for dimension-
or web parallel to the flat side, section lining ing or for clearly describing the shape. In
is not drawn for that part. See Figure 8-18B. Figure 8-20A, a hub is described clearly
RIB RIB
A B
RIB
POOR PRACTICE PREFERRED

SECTION THROUGH RIB CONVENTIONAL SECTION
Figure 8-18
Ribs in section
WEB
Figure 8-19
Web in section
CORRECT INCORRECT
Figure 8-20
Omit hidden lines when not
needed for clarity.
A B
PREFERRED POOR PRACTICE!
HIDDEN LINES
NOT SHOWN

1 2 3 4 5
CORRECT
A
1
2
3
4
5
INCORRECT
Figure 8-21 B C
Omit hidden lines to keep the drawing from
becoming confusing. Figure 8-22
Show all visible lines beyond the sectioned
surface.
using no hidden lines. Compare it with the

incorrectly drawn section in Figure 8-20B.
On sectional assembly drawings or sectional
views of how parts fit together, hidden lines
are generally omitted. This keeps the drawing
from becoming cluttered and difficult to read RIB
(see Figure 8-21). Sometimes a good way to
avoid using hidden lines is to draw a half sec-
tion or partial section.
In a sectional view, you should normally
include all lines that would be visible on or
beyond the plane of the section. In Figure 8-22,
for example, the section drawing in part A cor- A
rectly includes the numbered lines, which match
the lines on the drawing in part B. A drawing
without these lines, as shown in part C, would B
have little value.
RIB SHOWN BY ALTERNATE
Alternate Section Lining SECTION LINING
Alternate section lining is a pattern made by Figure 8-23

leaving out every other section line. It can be
Alternate section lining
used to show a rib or another flat part in a sec-
tional view when that part otherwise would not
show clearly. In Figure 8-23A, an eccentric
piece is drawn in section. (An eccentric piece is because its top and bottom are both even with
one that has two or more circular shapes that the surfaces they join. In fact, without the top
do not use the same centerlines.) A rib is visible view, you might not know that the rib was
in the top view, but in the sectional view, it is there. A drawing of an eccentric piece without
not shown by any section lining. a rib would look exactly the same. This prob-
The omission of section lining is standard lem is solved in Figure 8-23B, where alter-
practice with a flat part such as a rib. There nate section lining is used with hidden lines
are no visible lines to represent the rib either, to show the extent of the rib.

PHANTOM LINES REPRESENT
BALL
GEAR TEETH SHAFT
GEAR TOOTH
SHAFT
BREAK
BALL BEARING
BUTTON
HEAD
SPOKE
NUT
Figure 8-24
Spokes and gear teeth should not be sectioned.
ROUND TOP STUD
COUNTERSUNK
HEAD
Other Parts Usually Not

Sectioned CONE
HEAD
Do not draw section lines on spokes and gear
RIVETS STUD BOLT
teeth when the cutting plane passes through
them. Leave them as shown in Figure 8-24. In
Figure 8-25
addition, do not draw section lines on shafts,
bolts, pins, rivets, or similar items when the Shafts, bolts, screws, rivets, and similar parts are
usually not sectioned if the cutting plane passes
cutting plane passes through them lengthwise
through them lengthwise (along the axis).
(through the axis) as in Figure 8-25. These
objects are not sectioned because they have
no inside details. Also, sectioning might give
a wrong idea of the part. However, when such
parts are cut across the axis, they should be sec-
tioned (see Figure 8-26). The sectional assem-
bly in Figure 8-27 shows names and drawings
of other items that should not be sectioned.
Identify What kinds of parts are usually not Figure 8-26

sectioned? Section bolts, screws, rivets, and similar parts
are sectioned when the cutting plane cuts
across the axis.
Rotated Features in Section
A section or an elevation (side, front, or rear
view) of a symmetrical piece can sometimes follow the example in Figure 8-28B. In this
be difficult to read if drawn in true projection. drawing, the ribs and lugs have been rotated
See Figure 8-28A for the true projection of a on the vertical axis until they appear as mirror
symmetrical piece with ribs and lugs. Notice images of each other on either side of the cen-
that the true shapes of the ribs and lugs are terline. Their true shape is now shown. Note
not shown. When drawing such a view, that only the parts that extend completely

BROKEN-OUT PIN
KEY SECTION
SETSCREW
PIN REVOLVED
SECTION
REVOLVED
Figure 8-27 NUT SECTION
Examples of features not sectioned

RIB
STUD
RIB
RIVET
SHAFT
BREAK (GROUND SECTION)
A
TRUE PROJECTION
Figure 8-29
(POOR PRACTICE) Do not section lugs.
B
When the section passes through spokes,
CONVENTIONAL PRACTICE do not draw section lines on the spokes. Leave
(PREFERRED)
them as shown in Figure 8-30A. Compare
Figure 8-28 this drawing with the section drawing for a
solid web in Figure 8-30B. It is the section
Some features should be rotated to show true
shape. lining that shows that the web is solid rather
than made with spokes.
When drawing a section or elevation of
a part with holes arranged in a circle, follow
around the vertical axis are drawn with sec- the preferred example in Figure 8-31. In this
tion lining. See Figure 8-29 for another example, the holes have been rotated for the
example in which the lugs are rotated to show section drawing until two of them lie squarely
true shape. Note that they are not drawn with on the cutting plane. These views then show
section lines. the true distance of the holes from the center,

A
Figure 8-32
Rotation of a part of a view to show true shape
Figure 8-30 of the view should be rotated, as shown by

A section through spokes the bent lever in Figure 8-32.
Conventional Breaks, Symbols,

and Intersections
Conventional breaks and symbols are used to
show that a uniform part of a very long object
has been cut out of the drawing. This makes
some details easier to draw and easier to
understand. See Figure 8-33 for examples
of long, evenly shaped objects whose parts
have been broken out in the drawing. Using
a break lets you draw a view in a larger scale.
Because the break shows how the part looks
in cross section, an end view usually need not
DIA DIA be drawn. Give the length by a dimension.
Board drafters usually draw the symbols for
conventional breaks freehand. However, on
larger drawings, they often draw conventional
PREFERRED POOR PRACTICE
breaks with instruments to give a neat appear-
ance. In CAD, polylines are used for breaks.
Figure 8-31
See Figure 8-34 for breaks drawn for cylin-
Preferred and poor practice for showing holes ders and pipes.
Intersections in Section
In this discussion, an intersection is a point
whereas a true projection would not. This is where two parts join (see Figure 8-35). Draw-
often called an aligned section. ing a true projection of an intersection is diffi-
Rotating features in drawings is very use- cult and time consuming. Also, such accuracy
ful when you want to show true conditions or of detail is of little or no use to a print reader.
distances that would not show in a true pro- Therefore, approximated or conventional sec-
jection. Moreover, for some objects, only part tions are usually drawn (see Figure 8-36).

RECTANGULAR LONG BREAK
SOLID ROUND
PICTORIAL BREAK STRUCTURAL SECTIONS

PIPE OR TUBING
ROLLED SHAPES
PIPE OR TUBING
CHAIN
RECTANGULAR WOOD ROPE OR CABLE
Figure 8-33
Conventional breaks and
symbols
1
3R
1
R 2
3
30°
SOLID ROUND
1
2R
1 30°
R
2
30° 30°
PIPE OR TUBING
Figure 8-34
Drawing the break
symbols for cylinders
and pipes

USE CIRCLE TRUE
TEMPLATE TO PROJECTION
APPROXIMATE
ARCS
Figure 8-35 CONVENTIONAL PRACTICE

PREFERRED
Intersecting parts
Figure 8-36
Approximated and conventional sections

After You Read 7. Make a two-view drawing of the col-
lar shown in Figure 8-37. Draw a full
section.
Self-Check
.50 2.50
1. Explain the purpose of a sectional view.
2. List and describe the different types of .75
sectional views.
3. Identify symbols used in sectioning.
O10.50 O 5.50
4. Explain how to use the correct tech- O12.00
O 7.00
niques for section lining.
5. Identify features that are not sectioned.
R.25
English Language Arts 5.00
6. Section 8.1 discussed nine types of sec-
tional views. Choose a sectional view Figure 8-37
and create a poster for your class that
illustrates the view. Your poster should Go to glencoe.com for this
include a label that shows which view book’s OLC for help with this
you have chosen, its definition, and a drafting practice.
drawn example.

8.2 Techniques for Sectioning
Connect Some special techniques are available for more efficiently creating sectional views.
How do these techniques save a drafter time and effort?
Content Vocabulary
• hatching • associative hatch
Academic Vocabulary
• primary
Graphic Organizer
Use a chart like the one below to organize notes about sectioning.
Sectioning Techniques Go to glencoe.com for this

Board Drafting: CAD: book’s OLC for a downloadable
1. ___________________ 1. ___________________ version of this graphic organizer.
2. ___________________ 2. ___________________
3. ___________________ 3. ___________________
4. ___________________ 4. ___________________
Academic Standards
Teachers of English
Apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and appreciate texts (NCTE) NCTM National Council
of Teachers of
Specify locations and describe spatial relationships using coordinate geometry and other Drafting Association
representational systems (NCTM) ASME American Society of
Industry Standards
ADDA Section 15
Standards and Practices Listing (ASME Y14.3M)
Section 8.2 Techniques for Sectioning 281

Board-Drafting
Techniques .10
.06
.12
What board-drafting techniques can be
used to efficiently draw sectional views?
Creating a sectional view using board-drafting Figure 8-38

techniques is similar to creating any other type
Space section lines by eye. The distance between
of view. However, because section lining must
section lines varies according to the size of the
be drawn, creating one can become very time- space to be sectioned.
consuming. Techniques to help you create good
sectional views with minimal effort and drawing
time are discussed next. be evenly spaced, and they are usually slanted at
a 45° angle. The drawing will be neater and will
Section Line Spacing take less time if you do not space section lines
Section lines are spaced close together or far extremely close together. In most cases, the lines
apart, depending on how much space must be will look best spaced about .10″ apart.
filled (see Figure 8-38). According to ASME, The distance between section lines need
section lines can be spaced from about .03″ (1.0 not be measured; you may space them by
mm) to .12″ (3.0 mm) apart. However, they must eye. If the area to be covered is large, space
Metric Conversions Example 1:

Convert 3.25″ to millimeters.
In drafting, the primary working unit of
3.25″ × 25.4 = 82.55 mm
measure in the metric system is the millime-
In drafting, millimeters are generally given
ter. It is often necessary for the drafter
to one decimal place, so 82.55 mm becomes
to convert inches to millimeters or from
82.6 mm.
millimeters to inches. This is especially true
in industries involved in international trade. Example 2:
Convert 4.5 inches to millimeters and Convert 82.6 millimeters to inches.
250 millimeters to inches. 82.6 mm ÷ 25.4 = 3.25196850393″
In drafting, inches are generally rounded
to two decimal places, so 3.25196850393″
The metric standard of mea- becomes 3.25″.
sure is the meter, which is subdivided into
100 centimeters, 1,000 millimeters, etc. The
English standard is the yard, subdivided into
3 feet or 36 inches. For help with this math activity, go
to the Math Appendix at the back of
this book.
Academic Standards
Mathematics
Number and Operation Understand numbers,
ways of representing numbers, relationships among
numbers and number systems (NCTM)

POOR
PRACTICE
CORRECT
A B
Figure 8-39
You may blacken in the entire sectioned area instead
of using section lines when the area is very small. Figure 8-42
Do not draw section lines parallel to or
perpendicular to a main line of the view.
suitable angle and spacing. Section lines at

different spacing and angles are commonly
used to identify different sectioned parts.
Figure 8-40
Outline sectioning
Drawing Practice
To develop a sectional-view drawing, first
determine which normal views are necessary.
Then you can decide what type of sectional
the lines farther apart. If the area is small, view is needed to show interior detail clearly
space them closer together. If the area is very with few, if any, hidden lines. As for any mul-
small, as for thin plates, sheets, and structural tiview drawing, you may then find it useful to
shapes, blackened (solid black) sections may prepare a freehand sketch with dimensions and
be used (see Figure 8-39). Note the white notes to help determine the amount of space
space between the parts. required before starting on the final drawing.
Figure 8-43 is a pictorial drawing of a flat-
Outline Sectioning belt pulley. It will serve as the basis for the
When you are drawing a large sectioned drawing developed in Figure 8-44. A circular
area, one way to save time is to use outline sec- front view and a side or profile view will be
tioning. This method is shown in Figure 8-40. required. Because it is a symmetrical object, a
Drafters who use it often draw the section half-section on the profile view will be suffi-
lines freehand and spaced widely apart. You cient to show the interior detail.
can also shade the sectioned area as shown in Begin the drawing by blocking in the
Figure 8-41. Shade only along its outline as two views. For the circular view, use center-
shown in Figure 8-41B, or rub pencil dust lines to establish the location of the center
over it. Apply a fixative to prevent smudging. point and draw a light circle (R3.00) to lay
Do not draw section lines parallel to or out the view. Project light lines from the cir-
at right angles to an important visible line cle to block in the profile view, as shown in
(see Figure 8-42). Draw them at any other Figure 8-44A.
Figure 8-41
A cut surface may be
shaded (A) or have
a shaded outline (B).
A B

.01:1
MATL–MI
O 6.00 1.80
.50
O2.40
O 5.40 1.50
A
KEY SEAT 1.252
O
1.250
Figure 8-43
The flat-belt pulley developed in the practice drawing
Next, use light construction lines to fin- B

ish blocking in both views as shown in
.01:1
Figure 8-44B. Darken visible lines and
add section lining. Finally, complete the
drawing by adding dimensions and notes .65 .50
.250 1.252
as shown in Figure 8-44C. Ø
1.250
The drawing process is essentially the same Ø2.40
Ø5.40
for all sectional-view drawings. 1.365
Ø6.00
1.50 .15
Ø2.40
Identify When may solid black sectioning

.90
be used instead of section lining? MATL – MI ROUNDS AND FILLETS R.16 1.80
C
Figure 8-44
CAD Techniques Steps in making a sectional-view drawing
What advantages does CAD give for
creating sectional views?
Hatch Angle
Hatching The default angle of 0 results in a hatch
Among CAD operators, the more common that looks exactly like the swatch, with lines
term for section lining is crosshatching, or sim- slanted at 45°. This is considered 0 because it
ply hatching. Most CAD programs provide is the most common angle. When you need
an easy method for creating a hatch. to set a different hatch angle, pick the arrow
Depending on your version of AutoCAD, to the right of the Angle text box to choose
you will use the Hatch and Gradiant dialog box from a list of other common angles.
or the Boundary Hatch dialog box to specify
the type of hatch, its scale, and its location on Line Spacing
the drawing (see Figure 8-45). Notice that the The scale of the hatch determines the
default pattern is ANSI 31, the general-purpose line spacing. In small areas, the lines should
symbol. The swatch just below the pattern be closer together, and in larger areas, far-
window allows you to see the pattern. ther apart. Generally, you can start with the

A
Figure 8-47
(A) Pick a point inside each area to be hatched.
(B) AutoCAD hatches both areas simultaneously.
The two hatched areas are created as a single
AutoCAD object.
Defining Hatch Boundaries

Figure 8-45
Use the Pick Points and Select Objects but-
AutoCAD’s Hatch and Gradient dialog box tons return to specify the area to be hatched.
Pick Points allows you to pick a point any-
where within each area to be hatched and
default scale of 1.0000. AutoCAD allows you let AutoCAD calculate the boundaries. This
to preview the result on your drawing. There- allows you to hatch more than one area at
fore, if the scale does not seem right, you can one time (see Figure 8-47). Select Objects
return to the dialog box and change the scale allows you to pick an object to be hatched.
as many times as necessary to achieve the
right effect before you apply the hatch to the Associativity
drawing (see Figure 8-46). The Hatch and Gradient dialog box allows
you to choose an associative hatch. An
associative hatch updates the hatch as the
hatched object changes. For example, sup-
pose you hatch a Ø3.00 circle, as shown in
Figure 8-48A. Later, the design changes, and
HATCH SCALE .5 you need to change the diameter of the circle
to Ø2.25. When you change the diameter,
the associative hatch updates automatically,
as shown in Figure 8-48B. If you use a non-
HATCH SCALE 1.0 associative hatch, the hatch does not update
(see Figure 8-48C).
After you have set up the hatch, pick the
Preview button in the lower left corner to
HATCH SCALE 2.0 see the hatch in place on your drawing.
Press Enter to accept the hatch, or right-click
Figure 8-46 to return to the dialog box and make any
The scale of a hatch controls the spacing of the necessary changes. When you are satisfied
section lines. with the hatch, pick OK to apply the hatch to
the drawing. To remove a hatch, just enter the

Ø3.00 tion lines and the OFFSET command. If you
Ø2.25 Ø2.25
draw the circles for the front view first, you
can snap horizontal construction lines to the
quadrants of the circles to identify key points
on the profile view. Using those lines and the
vertical centerline of the profile view, you can
use OFFSET to place most of the features in
ORIGINAL ASSOCIATIVE NONASSOCIATIVE
HATCH HATCH the profile view. For example, offset the verti-
A B C cal centerline .90 to the right and left to locate
the edges of the profile view.
Figure 8-48
There is an incline noted at the top right
When a hatch is associative (A) it changes when of the profile view: .01:1. With CAD, it is pos-
the boundaries that define it change (B). A sible to draw this incline exactly, and it is
nonassociative hatch does not change (C).
tempting to do so. However, drawn at its true
proportions, this incline is far too subtle to
be seen by print readers. Therefore, common
ERASE command (or press E and Enter). The practice is to exaggerate the incline in the
entire hatch pattern disappears. drawing and place the true angle in a note, as
shown in Figure 8-49. It is important, how-
Preparation for Drawing ever, to be consistent. Use the same angle for
This section describes creating a drawing of a the inclines at both the top and the bottom
flat-belt pulley (see Figure 8-43). A circular front of the view. In Figure 8-49, construction lines
view and a side or profile view will be required. were used to transfer the top and bottom
Because the pulley is a symmetrical object, a points from the top and bottom quadrants of
half-section on the profile view is sufficient to the largest circle in the front view. Then these
show its interior detail. Figure 8-43 serves as the lines were offset .10″ to the inside, as shown
basis for the drawing developed in Figure 8-49. in Figure 8-50, and the inclines were con-
structed using the Intersection object snap to
Planning pick the points shown by Xs.
Study the views in Figure 8-49 carefully
before you begin. It is important to plan how Setting Up the Drawing
to use AutoCAD most efficiently. For this After you have determined the best way to
drawing, you may well decide that the views draw the views, create a new drawing file and
are easiest to draw by liberally using construc- set it up for a B-size sheet. Set up the units and
.01:1
.10
.65 .50
.250 1.252
Ø
1.250
Ø2.40
1.365 Ø5.40
Ø6.00
1.50 .15
Ø2.40
.10
.90
MATL – MI ROUNDS AND FILLETS R.16 1.80
Figure 8-50
Figure 8-49 Offset the top and bottom construction lines by
Sectional-view drawing of the flat-belt pulley .10 to establish the incline for the profile view.

layers. In addition to the usual Objects, Hidden Places. If you base the style on Standard,
Lines, and Centerlines layers, create a Hatch you will have to specify the settings all
layer to hold the hatches. Specify a thin line over again. To avoid this, base this new
width, such as .13 mm, for the Hatch layer. style on the Two Decimal Places style you
Notice that some of the dimensions are created in step 2. Now the only change
given to two decimal places, and others you will need to make is to set the pri-
are given to three decimal places. One of the mary units to three decimal places. Then
dimensions is a limit dimension. It is pos- pick OK to return to the Dimension Style
sible to use a single dimension style for the Manager.
entire drawing and simply override the attri- 4. Pick the New ... button a third time to
butes for individual dimensions. However, create the third new style. Name this
this is considered poor practice, and it takes style Limits. Because the limit dimension
extra time. Instead, you should set up three in the flat-belt pulley drawing has three
distinct dimension styles to use in this draw- decimal places, base the Limits style on
ing. Follow these steps: the Three Decimal Places style you cre-
1. Enter DIMSTYLE or pick the Dimension ated in step 3. Now you will have to
Styles button on the Dimension toolbar change only the tolerance. Pick the Toler-
or the Dashboard to open the Dimension ances tab and set Method to Limits. Then
Style Manager. set the upper value and lower value to
2. Instead of modifying the Standard style, .001. By doing this, you can later create
pick the New ... button to begin a new the hole with an actual radius of 1.251.
dimension style. Name the style Two When you dimension the hole using the
Decimal Places, as shown in Figure 8-51. Limits dimension style, the upper and
Accept the defaults to base the style on lower tolerances of .001 will produce the
the Standard style and apply it to all required dimension. Pick the box next to
dimensions. Pick Continue to display Zero suppression to activate it, and then
the same tabbed dialog box you used in pick OK to return to the Dimension Style
Chapter 7. Set up this dimension style Manager.
exactly as you set up the Standard style 5. Pick Close to close the Dimension Style
in Chapter 7, including all of the text Manager. On the Dimension toolbar, the
and line attributes. Be sure to set the pri- Dim Style Control dropdown box says
mary units to two decimal places. Pick Standard. This refers to the Standard
OK to return to the Dimension Style dimension style. To change the style,
Manager. pick the down arrow and select the style
3. Pick the New ... button of the Dimension you want. See Figure 8-52. All of the
Style Manager again to create another styles you have created will appear in
new style. Name this style Three Decimal this list.
Figure 8-52
The Dimension Style Control dropdown box on
Figure 8-51 the Dimension toolbar allows you to change
Create a new style named Two Decimal Places. dimension styles quickly and easily.

Drawing the Views and pick the down arrow that appears.
Follow these steps to create the two-view Select Off to turn the second extension
drawing of the flat-belt pulley: line off. Repeat this procedure for the
Ø2.40 dimension.
1. Draw both of the views shown in 7. Create the 1.50 interior dimension in
Figure 8-49, using the discussion in the the profile view. Then pick the Continue
previous sections for guidance. Dimension button on the Dimension
2. From the Dimension Style Control box toolbar to add the .15 dimension in exact
on the Dimension toolbar or on the alignment with the 1.50 dimension.
Dashboard, select Three Decimal Places. Notice that AutoCAD does not ask you
Then place the two three-place dimen- for a first point; the first point is auto-
sions in the front view of the pulley. matically set to the end of the 1.50
3. From the Dimension Style Control box, dimension. Use the Perpendicular object
select the Limits dimension style. Then snap to snap the second point of the
place the diameter dimension for the dimension to the exterior line of the pro-
hole in the front view. file view. Press Enter twice to leave the
4. Activate the Two Decimal Places dimen- Continue Dimension mode.
sion style. Create the overall Ø6.00 8. Create the .65 and .50 interior dimen-
dimension and the .90 and 1.80 dimensions. Notice the dot that takes the place
sions at the bottom of the profile view. of arrowheads between the dimensions.
5. To create the partial dimensions in the To create the dot, display the proper-
profile view (Ø5.40 and Ø2.40), offset ties of the .65 dimension (double-click
temporary lines from the horizontal it), and change the second arrowhead
centerline to place the lower end of the to None. Then display the properties of
dimension. Create the dimensions, and the .50 dimension, and change the first
then delete the two temporary lines. The arrowhead to Dot.
text of the two dimensions may overlap
the Ø6.00 dimension. If so, pick one of
the dimensions to activate it. Notice the
blue grip box on the dimension text.
Pick the grip so that it becomes solid red.
Then drag the text straight up (using
Ortho will help) so that it no longer
interferes with the other text, as shown 3D CAD Sections
in Figure 8-49. Some CAD software makes it easy
6. Notice that the Ø5.40 and Ø2.40 dimen- to create 3D sectional views. This
sions have an incomplete lower dimen- is more difficult in AutoCAD since
sion line, no lower arrow, and no lower the software was not designed for
extension line. To achieve this effect, this purpose. The simplest method
double-click the Ø5.40 dimension to dis- is to create a 3D model and use the
play its properties in the Properties dialog 3DCLIP command to “clip” away a por-
box at the left of the drawing area. Pick tion to show the interior. The 3DCLIP
Lines & Arrows to see a list of proper- command activates front and back
ties of the lines and arrows that make up clipping planes that you can position
the dimension. From the list, pick Arrow to display a full section at any loca-
2 so that a down arrow appears next to tion on the object. However, only full
the property. Pick the down arrow, scroll sections can be created using 3DCLIP.
almost all the way to the end of the list To create other types of sections,
of available arrowheads, and select None.
such as rotated, offset, and half sec-
tions, the best method in AutoCAD is
This removes the second arrowhead.
to create a 2D isometric drawing that
Then, in the Lines & Arrows section of
shows the section in 3D.
the Properties dialog box, pick Ext line 2

9. Use the Quick Leader on the Dimen- the Roman text style and a height of
sion toolbar or the Multileader button .12, to create the text, and position it as
on the Dashboard to place the leader shown.
for the incline note. Use the Nearest 10. Add the notes using TEXT.
object snap to snap to the top of the
profile view, and pick a second point Creating the Hatch
up and to the right for the second point Finally, you can add the hatch to the sec-
of the leader. Then keep pressing Enter tioned area of the drawing. Pick the Hatch
to accept all of the prompts. When the icon in the Draw toolbar to the left of the
text editing box appears, pick OK with- drawing area or on the Dashboard. Use the
out adding any text. Pick OK to place ASME 31 general-purpose pattern with an
the leader on the drawing without any angle of 0 and a scale of 1. Select Pick Points,
text. Then use lines or a polyline to and pick a point anywhere inside the area to
create the small triangle, and position be hatched. Preview the hatch, and if it looks
it as shown in Figure 8-49, next to the like the hatch in Figure 8-49, pick OK to set
leader. Use the TEXT command, set to the hatch in place.
Section 8.2 Assessment 2.62 (.62)

After You Read
Self-Check .25 R.25
1. Explain sectioning techniques that O4.75

increase efficiency. O2.00
O 5.75
2. Describe how to prepare a drawing with O1.00 O 3.75

sectional views using board-drafting and
CAD techniques. .50
Mathematics .75
1.00 (1.50)
3. Convert 2″ to millimeters and convert 3.25
50.8 mm to inches.
Use Variables and Figure 8-53

Operations
See this section's Do The Math activity Go to glencoe.com for this
for help with this problem. book’s OLC for help with this
drafting practice.
Drafting Practice
4. Make a two-view drawing of the steam
piston shown in Figure 8-53. Show a
half section.

Chapter Summary
• Sectional views are used to show complex • Sectioning techniques are available for
interior details. board drafting and CAD to help save time
• Special section-lining patterns, or in creating sectional views.
symbols, are used to represent specific • Accurate sectional views can be drawn
materials. with board techniques by using section
• Each of the various types of sectional line spacing and outline sectioning.
views has a specific purpose; these views • To develop a sectional-view drawing, first
should not be used interchangeably. determine which normal views are neces-
• Cutting-plane lines or centerlines may be sary. Then decide what type of sectional
used to show where a section is taken. view is needed to show interior detail with
• Hidden lines are used on sectional views few, if any, hidden lines.
only if they are needed for clarity. • In CAD, section lining is often referred to
• Bolts, shafts, pins, and other similar parts as hatching.
are usually not sectioned even if the cut- • When developing sectional views,
ting plane passes through them. planning is important to maximize
efficiency.

Content Vocabulary • broken-out section (p. 271) Academic Vocabulary
• cutting plane (p. 267) • revolved section (p. 272) • method (p. 267)
• section lining (p. 267) • removed section (p. 272) • section (p. 267)
• crosshatching (p. 267) • auxiliary section (p. 272) • primary (p. 282)
• full section (p. 269) • phantom section (p. 272)
• offset section (p. 270) • hatching (p. 284)
• half section (p. 270) • associative hatch (p. 285)
Review Key Concepts

2. Describe the purpose of a sectional view.
3. List and describe the different types of sectional views.
4. Identify symbols used in sectioning.
5. Explain how to use the correct techniques for section lining
6. Identify features that are not sectioned.
7. Explain sectioning techniques that increase efficiency.
8. Describe how to prepare a drawing with sectional views using board-drafting and CAD
techniques.

Technology
Prep
9. What Do Engineers Do? Multiple Choice Questions For
Webster’s Dictionary defines engineering Directions Choose the letter
as “the application of science and mathemat- of the best answer. Write the
ics by which the properties of matter and the letter for the answer on a
sources of energy in nature are made useful to separate piece of paper.
people.” How are engineers making things use- 12. What is the name for a sectional view
ful for people? Research a type of engineering, that has been taken from its normal
such as architectural or biomedical engineer- place on the view and moved some-
ing. Then, in a one-page paper, summarize where else on the drawing sheet?
what makes the field important and name one A. Revolved section
major innovator working in the field. B. Broken-out section
C. Off-set section
D. Removed section
10. Ethics and Design TEST-TAKING TIP

A client of your interior design firm specified
the wood to use in her conference room table. When studying for a test, write important
It is very expensive. The wood company repre- ideas, definitions, and formulas on flash
sentative, who owes you a favor, offers to sell cards. Make a tape of your notes. Use these
you a look-alike wood of inferior quality and
tools to review and prepare for test day.
lower cost. You could use this wood but charge
the client for the wood she ordered. What are
the issues here, and what would you do?
Win
11. Calculate Distance
A team from a landscaping firm is designing
Events
13. Job Skills
a garden for a library. First the team must deter-
mine how much fencing is necessary to enclose
the garden. The garden is in the form of a right
triangle. If the two legs measure 8 yards and
6 yards, how much fencing is needed in all?
Pythagorean Theorem Activity Design a golf caddy that
In a right triangle, the sides adjacent to the attaches easily to the handle of a golf pull-
right angle are called legs. The side opposite cart. It must hold three golf balls, ten tees,
the right angle is the hypotenuse. The Pythag- a divot repair tool, a scorecard, and a pen-
orean Theorem describes the relationship cil. Each must be easily removed. Material:
between the legs (a and b) and the hypote- optional. Include various types of sec-
nuse (c): a2 + b2 = c2. tional views. Begin with design sketches.
Step 1: Determine the lengh of the hypot-
enuse by taking the square root of the sum of
the lengths of the legs squared. Go to glencoe.com for this book’s
Step 2: Add the lengths of all the sides (6,
competitive events.
8, and the length of the hypotenuse) to deter-
mine the amount of fencing needed.

8 Problems
Drafting Problems
board-drafting techniques or CAD.
1. Parts A and B of Figure 8-54 show through L of Figure 8-54, take dimen-
examples of half and full sections. In sions from the printed scales at the
the half sections, the hidden line is bottom of the page. Make a full or half
optional. Study these examples carefully section as assigned. Add dimensions if
before attempting any of the drawing required by your instructor. Estimate the
assignments in this chapter. For parts C sizes of fillets and rounds.
A B C
HALF SECTION FULL SECTION
D E F
G H I
J K L
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
DECIMAL INCH METRIC
Figure 8-54

2. Take dimensions from the printed scale sectional view as assigned. Add dimen-
for each of the two-view drawings in sions if required by your instructor. Esti-
Figure 8-55. Draw both views. Make a mate the sizes of fillets and rounds.
A B C
D E F
G H I
J K L
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
DECIMAL INCH METRIC
Figure 8-55
Problems 293
8 Problems
3. Take dimensions from the printed scale indicated by the cutting-plane line. Add
for each of the drawings in Figure 8-56. dimensions if required by your instructor.
Draw both views and section the view Estimate the sizes of fillets and rounds.
A B C
D E F
G H I
J K L
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 0 20 40 60 80 100 120140
DECIMAL INCH METRIC
Figure 8-56

4. Make a two-view drawing of the shaft 6. Make a two-view drawing of the water-
cap shown in Figure 8-57. Show a full piston body shown in Figure 8-59.
or half section as assigned. Show a full or half section as assigned.
METRIC
TRIC 16 32 24
2 HOLES
12
R20 R6
R4
24
54
O164
O28 140 88
O120 O140
164 50
12 12
R6
R6 66
12
64
116 (78) 22
100
Figure 8-57 METRIC

Figure 8-59
5. Make a two-view drawing of the 7. Make a two-view drawing of the cylinder

protected bearing shown in Figure 8-58. head shown in Figure 8-60. Show a full
Show a full or half section as assigned. or half section as assigned.
O12
6 HOLES
EQL SP
10
O 5.25
O 4.50 O 5.75 8
O 4.00 O 4.75 6
O158 O 100
.50 2.00 O136 O 58
O 38 O 38
O 82 O22
R3
2.00 R3
3.00
R.25
12 32
Figure 8-58 64
METRIC
Figure 8-60
Problems 295
8 Problems
8. Make a two-view drawing of the cylinder 10. Draw the rod guide shown in Figure 8-63,
cap shown in Figure 8-61. Show a full using the scale shown in the figure. Make
or half section as assigned. top and front views. Show a broken-out
section as indicated by the colored screen.
O12
6 HOLES
EQL SP
10
8
6
O158 O 100
O136 O 58
O 38 O 38
O 82 O22
R3
R3
R.25
12 32
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
64
DECIMAL INCH
10 0 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150
Figure 8-61 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
METRIC
Figure 8-63
9. Make a two-view drawing of the cone 11. Draw the chisel shown in Figure 8-64,
spacer shown in Figure 8-62. Show a using the scale from problem 12. Make
full or half section. revolved or removed sections on the
colored centerlines. A is a .25″ × 3.00″
24 (6.3 × 76 mm) rectangle; B is a 1.25″
(32 mm) octagon (measured across the
flats); and C and D are circular cross sec-
tions. Determine the scale for the drawing
O130 before you begin.
O 86
O 38 O106
O 70 O 86
44 10 20
84
B C D
A
Figure 8-62
Figure 8-64

12. Draw the structural joint shown in 14. Draw the grease cap shown in
Figure 8-65, using the scale shown in Figure 8-67, using the scale from
the figure. Make a full-sectional view of problem 12. Make front and right full
the joint with rivets moved into their or half sections as assigned.
proper positions on the centerlines.
Figure 8-67
1 0 1 2 3 4 5
DECIMAL INCH
10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
METRIC
Figure 8-65
13. Draw the adjusting plate shown in 15. Draw the rotator shown in Figure 8-68,
Figure 8-66, using the scale from using the scale from problem 12. Com-
problem 12. Draw front and top views. plete the right-side view and make a full
Make the broken-out section as indi- or half section.
cated by the colored screen.
Figure 8-68
Figure 8-66
Problems 297
8 Problems
16. Draw the screwdriver shown in 18. Shaft base. See Figure 8-71. Material:
Figure 8-69. Use the scale from prob- cast iron.
lem 12, and draw the screwdriver
twice the size shown. Add removed or NOTE: ALL FILLETS R6
O 38 22 REAM
revolved sections on the colored cen-
terlines. The overall length is 6.60″. 82
100
BLADE FERRULE HANDLE R12
38 26
6 TYP
.10 X .30 O .25 O .50 O .48 OCTAGONAL METRIC

.75 ACROSS FLATS
Figure 8-71
Figure 8-69
For problem 17 through 25, draw the required

views at a suitable scale. Make one of the
views a sectional view, as appropriate.
17. Base plate. See Figure 8-70. Material: 19. Step pulley. See Figure 8-72. Material:
cast iron. cast iron.
O2.50
O1.75 O .75 THRU O2.25
O 1.25 X T.12 .188 X .094 DP
O2.75 KEYWAY
4X O.50 O2.00
R.50
.62
.62
.25 .75
.38 .75
3.00 .75 O2.00
2.62
4.00
3.50 O1.00
Figure 8-72
Figure 8-70

20. Lever bracket. See Figure 8-73. Material: 22. Retainer. See Figure 8-75. Material: cast
cast iron. aluminum.
Ø32
Ø44 CBORE 28
4 DEEP
O 64 14
R36
O 16 O134
2 HOLES
6 O100
4
24
50
O58
100
4
50
10 METRIC
O 44 METRIC
O 80
Figure 8-73
Figure 8-75
21. Idler pulley. See Figure 8-74. Material: 23. Rest. See Figure 8-76. Material: cast
cast iron. aluminum.
NOTE: FILLETS AND ROUNDS

R.25 UNLESS NOTED
.62 2.50
1.25
4.75
.38
3.00
.38
2.50 Ø1.12
Ø1.75
Ø3.50
NOTES: FILLETS R.12 .25
KEYWAY .25 WIDE X .12 DEEP Ø3.88 .62
4.50 .50
.62
Problems 299
8 Problems
24. Draw three views of the swivel base shown in Figure 8-77. Draw the front view in section.
O 22
82 METRIC
METRIC
44 22 NOTE: FILLETS AND ROUNDS R3

UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED
84 50
88
50 20 50
SWIVEL 24
30 42
24
2X 45
30 CHAM
26
PIVOT
58 20
22 44 BASE 11
3
6
20 16
16
6 Figure 8-77
24 20 64 20
25. Draw three views of the swivel hanger shown in Figure 8-78. Draw the right-side view in
section. There are two pieces: the hanger and the bearing.
6.75
2.00 .75
1.00 2.75 .25
1.00 .38
1.75
9.00
3.00 3.00
.75
3.38 2.25
.25
2.25
1.12
1.00 .75
4.50 Figure 8-78

NOTE: FILLETS R.12

26. Make a three-view drawing of the jacket shown in Figure 8-79. Show the front and right-side
views in section to improve clarity.
.38–16 UNC–2B
O .50 SLOT
O .40 SLOT
.70
.40
.80 1.38 2.00
2.96
O .40 .48
3 HOLES
1.75 .86
3.50 1.00
.40
.24
2.00
1.34
1.00
.30
O.50 O .86 Figure 8-79

.30 1.40
27. Make a three-view drawing of the guide block shown in Figure 8-80. Show the front and right-
side views in section to improve clarity.
R
O 20 SLOTS
20 12 R18
R25
56 120 METRIC
METRIC
60
18 20
12
200 ROUNDS AND FILLETS R3

326 MATL – MALLEABLE IRON
120 40
O 31.8
2 HOLES
R32
20 90
8
50
18
Figure 8-80
Problems 301
8 Problems
28. Prepare a working drawing of the bearing bracket shown in Figure 8-81. Show three views,
one in section. Make all changes (shown in color) as specified by the design engineer. Refer
to the appendix tables on limits and fits and dimension the precision holes accordingly. Add
geometric dimensioning and tolerancing symbols to specify the following:
a. Datum A to be parallel to datum B to within .003″ at MMC.
b. Datum C to be perpendicular to datum A to within .002″ at MMC.
c. Datum C to be perpendicular to datum B to within .002″ at MMC.
d. Datum C to be flat to within .001″.
2X
O .62
(RC 1 FIT)
O 1.50
(RC 2 FIT) O .88
.38 .50
.30
4.00
2.36
.50 2.00
.82
.50
3.75 4.00
DATUM B 8.75
2.50
DATUM C .20
.50 1.30 .80
2.00
DATUM A
5.12 2X
2.30 O .88
(FN 2 FIT)
1.88 NOTES: FILLETS AND ROUNDS R.10

MATL—MALLEABLE IRON
1.12 Figure 8-81

29. Draw three views of the thrust bearing shown in Figure 8-82. Draw the right-hand view in
section. There are three parts: the shaft, the hub, and the base.
SYMMETRY SYMBOL
METRIC
22
R.6 4.5
HUB 11
BASE
9
86
9 48 15
SHAFT
O100
O96
O32 O95 O24 O76
O44 O50
210
9
86
R20
19 57 19 9
24
R6 96 19
Figure 8-82
44
NOTE: FILLETS R6
Design Problems
Teamwork Teamwork
1. Work as a team to design an organizer for 2. Design a pencil and pen caddy for your
your school lockers. It should include spe- board-drafting or CAD station. It must
cially designed compartments for books, hold a minimum of five pencils or pens.
tablets, pencils and pens, and other items Material: optional. Include various types
that the team decides are important. Mate- of sectional views. Begin with design
rial: optional. Include various types of sec- sketches.
tional views. Begin with design sketches.
Problems 303
9 Auxiliary Views
Section 9.1
Developing Auxiliary
Views
Section 9.2
Drawing Secondary
Auxiliary Views
Chapter Objectives
• Determine when
an auxiliary view is
required.
• Analyze the situ-
ations in which a
partial auxiliary view
is required.
• Develop a primary
auxiliary view.
• Project and draw an
auxiliary section view
techniques.
• Develop a second-
ary auxiliary view
techniques.
Space Saver The Citation from

the Pritzker Jury describes Gehry
buildings as ‶juxtaposed collages
of spaces.″ Explain how that
description could be appropriate
for his work.
304
Drafting Career
Frank Gehry, Architect
Frank Gehry has said that he is not a theorist but a

vacuum cleaner. He listens. He looks. And then he re-
presents with his tools. He thinks the blurring of the
lines between art and architecture has got to happen.
He finds the collaboration of the two much more
interesting than each alone.
In presenting Gehry the Pritzker Architecture Prize

for Lifetime Achievement, the Pritzker jury noted
“his sometimes controversial, but always arresting
body of work, has been … described as iconoclastic
[and] rambunctious.” However, the jury added, “One
cannot think of anything he has done that does not
make one smile.”

• Math
• Physics
• English
• Social studies
• Computer use
• Drawing
Career Pathways
Visual orientation, creativity, computer literacy,
and the abilities to conceptualize and understand
spatial relationships, communicate ideas visually to
clients, and work independently and in a team are
important for architects. They must have a bache-
lor’s degree and complete a licensure examination.

about Frank Gehry.
305
Douglas Kirkland/Corbis
9.1 Developing Auxiliary Views
Connect When the true size and shape of an inclined surface do not show on a drawing, you
can make an auxiliary view or draw a revolution. How do auxiliary and revolution apply in this
situation?
Content Vocabulary
• auxiliary • primary • partial • edge view
view auxiliary auxiliary • reference plane
• auxiliary view view
plane
Academic Vocabulary
tests.
• elements
Graphic Organizer
On a chart like the one below, organize notes about auxiliary views and revolutions.
Auxiliary Views Revolutions

Primary Secondary CAD book’s OLC for a downloadable
Academic Standards
Read a wide range of print and non-print texts to build an understanding of texts (NCTE) NCTM National Council
of Teachers of
Mathematics
Mathematics
Use visualization, spatial reasoning, and geometric modeling to solve problems (NCTM)
306 Chapter 9 Auxiliary Views

See Figure 9-3A for an anchor with a
Primary Auxiliary Views slanting surface. The three normal views are
Why do technical drafters need to use shown in Figure 9-3B. Not only are these
auxiliary views? views difficult to draw and understand, but
also they show three circular features of the
When an object has an inclined surface,
anchor as ellipses. In Figure 9-3C, the anchor
none of the normal views shows the
is described completely in two views, one of
inclined part in its true size and shape (see
which is an auxiliary view.
Figure 9-1A). However, a view on a plane
In Figure 9-4A, a simple inclined wedge
parallel to the inclined surface does show its
block is shown in the normal views. In none
true size and shape (see Figure 9-1B). An
of these views does the slanted surface (surface
auxiliary view is a projection on an auxil-
A) appear in its true shape. In the front view,
iary plane that is parallel to an inclined sur-
the only thing that shows is its edge line MN.
face (see Figure 9-2). It is a view that looks
In the side view, surface A appears, but it is
directly at the inclined surface in a direction
foreshortened. Surface A is also foreshortened
perpendicular to it. Auxiliary views provide
in the top view. Line MN also appears in both
a clear image of the inclined surfaces on an
views but appears shorter than its true length,
object.
which shows only in the front view. To show
surface A in its true size and shape, you need
to imagine an auxiliary plane parallel to
A it as in Figure 9-4B. Figure 9-4C shows
the auxiliary view revolved to align with the
plane of the paper. By following this method,
TOP VIEW you can show the true size and shape of any
inclined surface.
H
NORMAL VIEWS
V P V P
AUXILIARY VIEW IS PREFERRED THREE NORMAL PLANES OF PLANES UNFOLDED
TRUE SIZE AND TRUE SHAPE PROJECTION HINGED TOGETHER
A B
B

VERTICAL PLANE Y PROFILE
PLANE
PARTIAL VIEWS
BOTTOM VIEW
AUXILIARY VIEWS C D

Compare the information given in the normal Basic relationship of the auxiliary plane to the
views (A) with that given in the auxiliary views (B). normal planes
Section 9.1 Developing Auxiliary Views 307

CU
LAR Primary Auxiliary Views
DI
A R P EN INE
L
Auxiliary views are classified according to
PE INC
TO their origin and from which of the three nor-
mal planes they are developed. A primary
A auxiliary view is one that is developed
directly from the normal views. There are
three primary auxiliary views. Each is devel-
B TOP VIEW oped by projecting the height, width, or
depth obtained from a normal view as a pri-
mary reference. See Figure 9-5 for the three
primary auxiliary views.
When an auxiliary view is hinged on the
front view, the view is a front auxiliary view.
The primary reference of the front auxiliary
view is depth. See Figure 9-5A for an exam-
ple. An auxiliary view that is hinged on the
NOT TRUE SIZE top view is a top auxiliary view, as shown in
Figure 9-5B. The primary reference of the
C THREE CIRCULAR FEATURES top auxiliary view is the height of the object.
IN TRUE SIZE AND
TRUE SHAPE AU Finally, a view hinged on the right-side view is
X
IL
IA a right-side auxiliary view. Its primary reference
RY
VI
EW
is the width of the object (see Figure 9-5C).
Partial Auxiliary Views

FRONT VIEW If you use break lines and centerlines prop-
A
erly, you can leave out complex curves and still

describe the object completely (see Figure 9-6).
An auxiliary view in which some elements have
Figure 9-3 been left out is known as a partial auxiliary
The pictorial view (A) and the three-view drawing view. In Figure 9-6, a half view is sufficient
(B) are difficult to draw. The auxiliary view (C) is because the symmetrical (balanced) object is
easier to draw and describes the inclined surface presented in a way that is easy to understand.
completely.
A B C TRUE SIZE
AUXILIARY PLANE AUXILIARY VIEW
X
A TOP PLANE AI
D
M N A X
M A
Y M H
A A
N
N
W H W D
FRONT VIEW RIGHT-SIDE PERPENDICULAR TO
VIEW INCLINED SURFACE
Figure 9-4
Basic relationship of the auxiliary view to the three-view drawing

Auxiliary Sections using the cutting plane line AA. See Chapter 8
for more information about sections.
Sometimes it is useful to show a sectional
view of an object. When the cutting plane is
not parallel to any of the normal views, the
section is known as an auxiliary section. In
Figure 9-7, the auxiliary section was located by Describe What is the primary reference for
the front auxiliary view?
HINGED TO
TOP VIEW
N
W
M N
D
N H M
M
HINGED TO HINGED TO RIGHT SIDE

FRONT VIEW
H
H
H
IAL
RT A
PA W
VIE
P
A V P
A V B V C
FRONT AUXILIARY TOP AUXILIARY RIGHT-SIDE AUXILIARY
Figure 9-5
Three types of auxiliary views showing how the auxiliary plane is hinged
TOP VIEW
AUXILIARY SECTION
PARTIAL
AUXILIARY CUTTING
VIEW PLANE
A
FRONT VIEW A
TOP VIEW

Partial auxiliary views provide a practical method Drawing an auxiliary section is another way of
for explaining details. explaining details clearly.

convenient distance from it. The reference
Construction of a line is shown in magenta in Figure 9-8C.
Primary Auxiliary View 7. Transfer the depth dimension to the ref-
erence line.
How is the reference plane helpful in
8. Project the important points and con-
constructing primary and secondary
nect them in sequence to form the auxil-
auxiliary views?
iary view (see Figure 9-8C). If you labeled
To construct any primary auxiliary view, use the points for reference, do not leave the
the following steps, as illustrated in Figure 9-8. labels on the final drawing.
The method shown is for a front auxiliary
view. Drawing a View of a
1. Examine and draw the normal views Symmetrical Object
given for an inclined surface, as shown Figure 9-9 shows how to make a primary
in Figure 9-8A. auxiliary view of a symmetrical object. In
2. Find the view that shows the edge view Figure 9-9A, the object is shown in a picto-
given for an inclined surface. The inclined rial view. Follow these steps:
plane appears as a line in this view. The 1. Use a center plane as a reference plane, a
plane associated with this view is the plane that is parallel to an inclined sur-
reference plane—a plane that is paral- face and is used for creating auxiliary
lel to an inclined surface and is used for views (see Figure 9-9B). This is center-
creating auxiliary views—from which the plane construction.
auxiliary plane will be developed. 2. Find the edge view of the inclined plane.
3. In this view, draw a light construction line In Figure 9-9B, the edge view of this
at right angles to the inclined surface, as plane appears as a centerline, line XY, on
shown in magenta in Figure 9-8A. This is the top view.
the line of sight. 3. Label the points on the top view for
4. Think of the auxiliary plane as being reference.
attached by hinges to the view from 4. Transfer these points to the edge view of
which it is developed (Figure 9-8B). the inclined surface on the front view, as
5. From all important points on the refer- shown in Figure 9-9B.
ence view, draw projection lines at right 5. Parallel to this edge view and at a conve-
angles to the inclined surface (parallel nient distance from it, draw the line X′Y′
to the line of sight). In Figure 9-8, the (see Figure 9-9C).
important points are labeled 1 and 2. 6. In the top view, find the distances from
6. Draw a reference line parallel to the edge the numbered points to the centerline.
view of the inclined surface and at a These represent the depth measurement.
A B C
DEPTH
AUXILIARY
1 VIEW
PARTIAL TOP VIEW H 1 TOP VIEW 1
V V
X 1
2 2
2
Y 2
LINE OF
LEFT-SIDE FRONT SIGHT LEFT-SIDE FRONT
VIEW VIEW VIEW VIEW
Figure 9-8
Steps to construct an auxiliary view.

4 4 4 4
CENTER PLANE 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5
D2
X Y X Y X Y DI
DI DI
2 6 2 6 2 6 D2 2 6 D2
X 1 1 1 1
CENTER TRUE SIZE AND SHAPE

XI PLANE XI XI 3
PARALLEL 4
2
2,3 2,3 2,3 2,3
Y 5
1,4 1
1,4 DI 1,4
YI 1,4 DI D2 6 DI
YI
6,5 6,5 D2 Y I 6,5 D2
FRONT 6,5
FRONT VIEW
A B C D E
Figure 9-9
Steps in drawing an auxiliary view using the center-plane reference method
Transfer them onto the corresponding Using a Vertical Reference Plane

construction lines you just drew, measur- Figure 9-10 shows how to draw a front aux-
ing them off on either side of line X′Y′ iliary view of a nonsymmetrical object by using
(see Figure 9-9D). The result will be a a vertical reference plane. Follow these steps:
set of points on the construction lines.
7. Connect and number the points on the 1. Place the object on reference planes (see
construction lines (see Figure 9-9E) Figure 9-10A). These planes are located
to finish the front auxiliary view of the strictly for convenience in taking refer-
inclined surface. ence measurements. The vertical plane
8. If desired, project the rest of the object can be in front or in back of the object.
from the center reference plane. In this case, it is shown in back.
2. Construct the view as described for sym-
metrical objects except lay off the depth
measurements D1, D2, and D3 in front of
the vertical plane. Figure 9-10B shows
Explain What is the purpose of a reference the entire object projected onto the front
plane? auxiliary plane.
X
TRUE SIZE
AND SHAPE D3
A B
VERTICAL
VERTICAL REFERENCE
REFERENCE PLANE
PLANE
Y
D2
D1
D3
D3
D2
D1
D2 Figure 9-10
Drawing a front auxiliary view
D1
using a vertical reference plane.
FRONT VIEW
LEFT-SIDE VIEW

A B
6,5 TOP VIEW
D2 FRONT AUXILIARY
1 XI
2
6 1
3,4 3
1
2 W
XI
H2
H2 2 X W1
30° 5 W W
D2 3
3 3
D2 2 1 1
4 1 1 2
2 2 2
3 REFERENCE YI
H2
HORIZONAL PLANE
X Y Y SIDE
REFERENCE 5 4
PLANE XY LEFT-SIDE VIEW FRONT
Figure 9-11
Drawing (A) a top auxiliary view with a horizontal reference plane and (B) a front auxiliary view using a
vertical reference plane.
Using a Horizontal Reference Plane view of the curved cut surface of a cylinder.
Figure 9-11 shows how to draw a top aux- The cylinder is shown in a horizontal posi-
iliary reference plane. The object is a molding tion. It has been cut at an angle, so the true
cut at a 30° angle. Follow these steps: shape of the slanting cut surface is an ellipse.
This auxiliary view is a front auxiliary view
1. Imagine a reference plane XY under the
with the depth as its primary reference. To
molding (see Figure 9-11A).
draw it, follow these steps:
2. Find points 1 through 6 in the top and
left-side views. In the top view, find the 1. Locating the vertical centerline XY in the
edge line of the slanted surface. side view (see Figure 9-12A). This line
3. Draw reference line X′Y′ parallel to it represents the edge of a center reference
and at a convenient distance away. plane.
4. From every point in the top view, proj- 2. Locate a number of points along the rim
ect a line out to the line X′Y′ and at right of the side view (see Figure 9-12B). The
angles to it. more points you locate, the more accu-
5. In the side view, find height measure- rate your curve will be.
ments for the various numbered points by 3. Project lines from these points over to
measuring up from XY. Lay off these same the edge view of the cut surface in the
measurements up from X′Y′ along the front view.
lines leading to the corresponding points 4. Parallel to this edge view and at a conve-
in the top view. Locate more points on nient distance from it, draw the new cen-
the curve as needed to draw it accurately terline X′Y′.
(see the following section, “Drawing 5. From the points you have located on the
Curves on Auxiliary Views.”) The result is edge view, project lines out to line X′Y′
a top auxiliary view with its base on line and perpendicular to it. Continue these
X′Y′ (see Figure 9-11A). Figure 9-11B lines beyond X′Y′.
shows the same process. However, in this 6. Find the depth measurements in the side
illustration, a vertical reference plane is view by measuring off the distances D1,
used. D2, and so on between the centerline XY
and the points located along the rim.
Drawing Curves on Auxiliary Views Take these distances and measure them
To draw an auxiliary view of a curved line, off on either side of X′Y′.
locate a number of points along that line. 7. Draw a smooth curve through the points
Figure 9-12 shows how to make an auxiliary marked to form the ellipse as shown.

A X
XI
1
2 LOCATE X I Y I
1
CONVENIENT
D 3
DISTANCE AND
2
D PARALLEL TO X Y
4
Y
5 Figure 9-12
X
YI
X Drawing a curve (in this case,
1
1 1
an ellipse) in an auxiliary view
D 2
2
2
about the centerline of the cut
D
3 surface of a cylinder
3
4 4
5
5
Y B Y
FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW
.38
.76
Summarize Explain how to draw a front
auxiliary view of an asymmetrical object
using a vertical reference plane. .88
.76 1.50
.50
Developing a Primary .62
135°
Auxiliary View in CAD .50
.32
How does the CAD technique apply .28
principles discussed earlier for developing
a primary auxiliary view? Figure 9-13
Figures 9-13 through 9-18 show the pro- Steps to draw an auxiliary view using AutoCAD.
cedure for creating an auxiliary view using
AutoCAD. Follow these steps:
1. Create the front and side views and a
partial top view (see Figure 9-13). Do
not dimension the views.
2. Create a construction line (XLINE com-
mand) perpendicular to the line that rep- PICK THESE TWO POINTS
resents the inclined plane at the lower TO CREATE THE FIRST
CONSTRUCTION LINE
end of the inclined line in the front view.
To do this, pick the two endpoints of the Figure 9-14
short end line (see Figure 9-14).
3. Copy the construction line to each
important point in the front view. See
Figure 9-15.
4. Copy the inclined line to another location
on the construction lines (see Figure 9-16).
Use the Nearest object snap to ensure that
the endpoint of the inclined line is on the
lowest construction line.
5. Offset the line you created in step 4 to
the right by the depth dimension, .76 Figure 9-15

(Figure 9-16). This defines the depth of
.76
the object in the auxiliary view.
6. Trim the construction lines to form the
other boundaries of the auxiliary view.
Use the Layer Control above the drawing
area or on the Dashboard to move the
lines to their appropriate layers: Hidden,
Centerline, and so on (see Figure 9-17).
7. Add the other centerline, the hole, and
other details based on the dimensions
Figure 9-16 given in Figure 9-13. The finished
drawing should look like the one in
Figure 9-18.
Figure 9-17
Figure 9-18

After You Read 6. For Figures 9-19 and 9-20, only the
top view is given. Draw the top and
front views and either complete the
Self-Check auxiliary view or just the inclined sur-
1. Explain when an auxiliary view is face, as directed by the instructor. The
required. total height of each front view is 3.75″.
2. Describe the situations in which a
partial auxiliary view is acceptable.
2.00
3. Outline the steps to develop a primary 1.00
1.00
.50
auxiliary view using board-drafting
.50 .50
techniques.
2.00
4. Describe how to create a primary .50 1.00
2.00 SQ
auxiliary view using CAD.
Academic Integration Figure 9-19 Figure 9-20

5. The Industrial Revolution paved the Go to glencoe.com for this
way for modern business and industry. book’s OLC for help with this
Using the Internet or library, research drafting practice.
the Industrial Revolution and write
three paragraphs that summarize the
impact of the Revolution on people’s
lives and how it changed agriculture,
transportation, and manufacturing.

9.2 Drawing Secondary Auxiliary Views
Preview Secondary auxiliary views can be used to show the true size and shape of a surface
that lies along an oblique plane. Skim this section and write down the definitions of the content
vocabulary terms secondary auxiliary view and oblique plane.
Content Vocabulary
• secondary auxiliary view • oblique plane
Academic Vocabulary
• inclined • projected
Graphic Organizer
Use a list like the one here to organize notes about drawing secondary auxiliary views using CAD
techniques.
Six Steps in Drawing Secondary Auxiliary Views Go to glencoe.com for this

1.
book’s OLC for a download-
able version of this graphic
2. organizer.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Academic Standards
Teachers of English
Use spoken, written, and visual language to accomplish their own purposes (e.g., for learning, NCTM National Council
enjoyment, persuasion, and the exchange of information) (NCTE) of Teachers of
Mathematics
Mathematics
Problem Solving Build new mathematical knowledge through problem solving (NCTM)
Geometry Analyze characteristics and properties of two- and three-dimensional geometric
shapes and develop mathematical arguments about geometric relationships (NCTM)
Section 9.2 Drawing Secondary Auxiliary Views 315

a first auxiliary view has been drawn. It is on a
Secondary Auxiliary plane perpendicular to triangle surface 0-1-2.
Views Note that line 1-2 in the top view appears as
point 1-2 in this auxiliary view and that the
Why must you understand the development
triangle now appears as an edge line 0′-1-2.
of a primary auxiliary view before you can
In Figure 9-22B, a secondary auxiliary view
draw a secondary auxiliary view?
has been drawn. It is on a plane parallel to the
A view projected from a primary auxiliary edge view of triangle surface 0′-1-2 in the first
view is called a secondary auxiliary view. auxiliary view. This secondary auxiliary view
It is used to find the true size and shape of a shows the true shape of triangle 0-1-2.
surface that lies along an oblique plane. An
oblique plane is one that is inclined to all
three of the normal planes.
In Figure 9-21, surface 1-2-3-4 is inclined Explain What is the purpose of a secondary
to the three normal planes. In Figure 9-21A, auxiliary view?
a first auxiliary view has been drawn. It is on a
plane perpendicular to the inclined surface. Note
that, in this view, points 1, 2, 3, and 4 appear as a Constructing a Secondary
line or edge view of the plane. In Figure 9-21B, Auxiliary View
a secondary auxiliary view has been drawn from Before you begin to draw a secondary aux-
the first auxiliary view and is on a plane paral- iliary view, you must first clearly understand
lel to surface 1-2-3-4. This secondary view shows the development of a primary auxiliary view.
the true shape of the surface.
Figure 9-22 shows an example of an
octahedron (eight triangles making a regular A
solid) in three views. Triangle surface 0-1-2 is FIRST AUXILIARY
EDGE VIEW OF 0-1-2 X'
inclined to all three views. In Figure 9-22A,
3,4
2,1
1 2 A
FIRST AUXILIARY VIEW
4 0'
3 2 OCTAHEDRON
2
X2
3 0
2,1 4 2
3 0 2
4
3 02 1
2 1
2 0 4
D1 1
3 SECOND AUXILIARY
D2 1
TRUE SIZE AND TRUE SHAPE OF PLANES 0-1-2
2
D2 B
D1 3
0 0
1 4 1
4 3 4
SECOND AUXILIARY VIEW
B 4
1,3
2 1
2,4
3
1 1 1 1
4 4
X X
3 3
Figure 9-22
Figure 9-21 A secondary auxiliary view is needed to develop
A secondary auxiliary view assists in finding the the true shape of a triangular surface on this
true shape of surface 1-2-3-4. octahedron.

As mentioned earlier in the chapter, a second-
ary auxiliary view is projected from a primary
auxiliary view. Notice in Figure 9-23 that only
partial front and top views are drawn initially.
The auxiliary views will be used to complete
these views.
Center-Plane
To construct a secondary auxiliary view of Construction
the part shown in Figure 9-23A, follow these One way to use the vertical con-
steps: struction line you created in step 5 is
to use it as a centerline. Notice in the
1. Draw partial front and top views (see
top view that the object is vertically
Figure 9-23B). Be sure to allow suffi-
and horizontally symmetrical. There-
cient space to complete these views later.
fore, you can use the center plane,
2. Project lines perpendicular to the inclined
represented by a centerline, as the
line in the top view and draw the primary
basis for constructing the revolved
auxiliary view (see Figure 9-23C). view. Simply offset the centerline to
3. Project lines perpendicular to the auxil- the right and left at the appropriate
iary surface of the primary auxiliary view distances to create the object lines.
and draw the second auxiliary view (see This method is known as center-plane
construction.
Angles of Rotation There is an easier way,

By default, AutoCAD rotates objects however. To specify an angle of rotation in a
counterclockwise. clockwise direction, simply change the sign
At what degree should the angle be of the angle. Instead of entering 45°, enter
entered if an object is to be rotated 45°? –45°. The effect is the same as entering a
positive angle of 315°.
90° 360
– 45
315
Academic Standards
315°
180° 0° Mathematics
Geometry Analyze characteristics and properties
45° of two- and three-dimensional shapes and develop
mathematical arguments about geometric relationships
(NCTM)
270°
Recall that angles in AutoCAD can be For math help, go to the Math
specified up to 360°, as shown in the figure. appendix located at the back of this
Therefore, you can determine the correct book.
angle to enter by subtracting 45 from 360 to
get 315. If you enter a rotation value of 315°,
AutoCAD will rotate the view correctly.

PRIMARY AUXILIARY VIEW
120°
15°
75° SURFACE M
90°
A THE PART B DRAW PARTIAL TOP C DRAW THE PRIMARY AUXILIARY VIEW
AND FRONT VIEWS
B
A
SURFACE N E
D
A
B
C
SECONDARY
TRUE SIZE
AUXILIARY VIEW
AND SHAPE TRUE SIZE
AND SHAPE
D DRAW THE SECONDARY E COMPLETE THE TOP VIEW
AUXILIARY VIEW
PRIMARY AUXILIARY
VIEW
.62
I20°
3.50
75°
2.00 2.25
I5°
I.25
2.25
2X I.50
Ø.531
4.90
4.50 I.00
6.50
HEXAGON
I.50 ACRFLT
D SECONDARY AUXILIARY VIEW
E
NOTE: MANY UNNECESSARY
.75 HIDDEN LINES ARE OMITTED
FOR CLARITY.
F COMPLETE THE FRONT VIEW G ADD DIMENSIONS AND NOTES TO THE DRAWING
Figure 9-23
Steps in drawing a secondary auxiliary view

Figure 9-23D). Notice that the top edge Revolving Solid Models
of the secondary auxiliary view is parallel
In practice, many companies create solid
to surface N.
models instead of orthographic drawings
4. Complete the top view by projecting
of parts or objects that contain oblique sur-
lines from the primary auxiliary view
faces. These models can be revolved using
(see Figure 9-23E).
AutoCAD’s ROTATE or ROTATE3D command
5. Complete the front view by projecting
to show the true size and shape of an oblique
lines from the top view and distances,
surface. The advantage of using solid models
such as D and E, from the primary auxil-
is that they do not require you to draw extra
iary view (see Figure 9-23F).
views. You can revolve the model to show
6. Darken all lines and add dimensions
all of the necessary views, including normal
and notes to complete the drawing
views and auxiliary views that show the true
(Figure 9-23G).
size and shape of an oblique surface.

After You Read 3. Draw the front, top, and complete aux-
iliary views, as shown in Figure 9-24.
Then change the angle of incline to 45°.
Self-Check Is there any difference in the solution?
1. Describe how to develop a second-
2.00
ary auxiliary view using board-drafting R L
techniques. R
2.00
Academic Integration .75

2. Finding Surface Area
Rudy is designing a pool for a client.
30°
The client would like to know the sur-
5.00
face area of the pool if Rudy’s design L
3.75
would make a pool 12 feet in diameter,
with a height of 4 feet.
Calculating Surface Area 1.00

RL = REFERENCE LINE
To find the surface area for a cylinder,
find the area of the base, and add the
Figure 9-24
area of the face.
drafting practice.
4 ft.
12 ft.

Chapter Summary
• An auxiliary view is required to solve • A view projected from a primary view is a
problems involving inclined surfaces. secondary auxiliary view. It is used to find
• A partial auxiliary view is acceptable when the true size and shape of a surface that
some curves can be left out but the object lies along an oblique plane.
is still described completely. • An oblique plane is one that is inclined to
• A primary auxiliary view is one that is all three of the normal planes.
developed directly from the normal views. • The steps used to construct a secondary
Secondary auxiliary views are projected auxiliary view are to draw partial and top
from primary auxiliary views. views; project lines perpendicular to the
• Drawing an auxiliary section is another inclined line in the top view and draw the
way to explain an object’s details. primary auxiliary view. Then project lines
• Auxiliary views are developed by revolv- perpendicular to the auxiliary surface of
ing the plane of projection. the primary auxiliary view and draw the
• The creation of an auxiliary view in CAD second auxiliary view. Complete the top
is similar to that used in board drafting view by projecting lines from the top
but can be done in less time because the view and distances. Darken all lines and
CAD software automates many of the add dimensions and notes to complete
more time-consuming tasks. the drawing.
Review Content and Academic Vocabulary

Content Vocabulary • edge view (p. 310) Academic Vocabulary
• auxiliary view (p. 307) • reference plane (p. 310) • elements (p. 308)
• auxiliary plane (p. 307) • secondary auxiliary view • inclined (p. 316)
• primary auxiliary view (p. 308) (p. 316) • projected (p. 317)
• partial auxiliary view (p. 308) • oblique plane (p. 316)
Review Key Concepts

2. Explain how to determine when a full auxiliary view is required.
3. Analyze the situations when a partial auxiliary view is required.
4. List the steps to develop a primary auxiliary view using board-drafting techniques.
5. Develop a primary auxiliary view using CAD techniques.
6. Create a secondary auxiliary view using board-drafting techniques.

Technology
7. Trend Analysis Prep
Have you ever heard a classmate or friend
Short-Answer Questions For
Directions Answer the follow-
use the word ‶trendy″ to describe a new hair-
ing questions in one to three
cut or a hot new singer? You may have also
sentences.
heard or used the word ‶trend″ or ‶trendy″ to
10. What is an axis of revolution?
describe an especially popular clothing style.
11. How should you place an auxiliary
In business and industry, trend analysis is a
plane in relation to the inclined sur-
concept that product developers use when
face it describes?
developing new products for the market-
place. Using the Internet or library, research
TEST-TAKING TIP
the term trend analysis and write a one-page
summary that defines the term and gives spe- When you sit down to take a math test,
cific examples of how trend analysis has been jot down on your scrap paper important
used in the development of current and future equations or formulas that you are trying
products and technologies. to remember. This way, you will not worry
about forgetting them during the test.
8. 21st Century Tools: Communication

Electronic mail, or e-mail, is one of the
most important methods of communication
in today’s workplace. Use the Internet to find Win
an e-mail provider, such as Gmail or Yahoo!
Set up a personal e-mail account that you can
Competitive
use to send résumés and cover letters to pos- Events
sible employers. Set up the address book to 12. Total Quality Management
manage important professional contacts, and Organizations such as SkillsUSA offer a
use the options features to create a profes- variety of architectural, career, and draft-
sional signature to attach to correspondence. ing competitions. Completing activities
Mathematics Activity Work with a partner to define
9. Calculating Age Total Quality Management (TQM). What is
Courtney wants to know the age of her the goal of TQM? How does TQM relate
brother’s wife. Her brother would only tell to customer satisfaction? How might it
1 of their mother’s age
her that his wife is __ affect your mechanical drawing projects?
8
younger than he is. If Courtney’s mother At what stage of your project would you
is 64 and her brother is 35, how old is her apply TQM? Create a fact sheet about
brother’s wife? TQM and its effect on the profession of
drafting.
Algebra
Some problems can be made easier if Go to glencoe.com for this book’s
you write an equation. An equation can be OLC for more information about
thought of as a sentence that explains how to competitive events.
solve a problem. The unknowns can be repre-
sented as letters such as x or y.

9 Problems
Drafting Problems
The problems in this chapter can be performed using board drafting or CAD
techniques. The problems are presented in order of difficulty, from least to
most difficult.
1. For each object in Figure 9-25, only the top view is given. Draw the top and front views
and either complete the auxiliary view or just the inclined surface, as directed by the instruc-
tor. Figure 9-26 has been developed as an example. The angle X in Figure 9-26 may be 45°
or 60°, as assigned. The total height of the front view is 3.75” for Figure 9-25A through
9-25L.
45°
2.00 2.00
1.00 SQ .50 1.00 2.00
45°
.50 45°
1.00 2.00
2.00 SQ 1.50 .50
A B C D
30°
60° 2.00 45°

2.00
1.50 2.00 2.00
1.00
60°
30°
2.00 1.50 2.00
2.00
E F G H
R1.00
.50
2.00 R1.00
30° 1.00 2.00 1.00
2.00
.50
.50 .50 .50

1.00 .50
1.75 1.00
I J K L
Figure 9-25

2 SQ
3 4 2. For each object in Figure 9-27, only
6 5 the top view is given. Draw the top and
D .50
.50 1.00 3 front views and either complete the aux-
8
.50 7 iliary view or just the inclined surface, as
2 1 D directed by the instructor. The height of
2 8
6
each object is 95 mm.
2.25 4
1 7
5
2,3 For problems 3 through 6, draw the views
1,8 according to the instructions given for each
problem.
X 7,6 2.25
3.75 5,4
3. Draw the front, top, and side views and
X = 45°
the front auxiliary projection of the
object shown in Figure 9-28. Then
.75 1.00 change the angle of the inclined surface
to 30° and redraw the problem.
Figure 9-26
Example for problem 1
4. Draw the front, top, and side views and
the front auxiliary projection of the
object shown in Figure 9-29. Then
change the angle of the inclined surface
to 45° and redraw the problem.
METRIC
R36
50 R36
12 48 48 R36
12
R18
R24
50 Ø24
36 36
24 SQ
A B C D E
Figure 9-27
.75
1.50
.50
TRACK WEDGE
.50 .50 1.25 1.25 .75 1.00 .75

1.50
B
2.00
A
2.00
SLOTTED GUIDE
Figure 9-29
Figure 9-28
Problems 323
9 Problems
5. Draw the front, top, and complete auxiliary views, as shown in Figure 9-30. Then change
the angle of incline to 30°. Is there any difference in the solution?
48 2.00 1.50 2.00 48
30° 12
48 R L 1.00 30°
2.00 2.26 1.38 2.00 48
60° R12
R1.50
72 .44
32 1.25 12
2.25 2.25 58
.75
110 45° 45°

4.25
3.25 82 45°
4.25 45°
24
RL = REFERENCE LINE
A B C D E
Figure 9-30
6. Draw the front, top, and auxiliary views of the object shown in Figure 9-31.
ANGLE
1.38
A
TOP VIEW
4.75
REFERENCE
R1.12 PLANE
1.75
TRUE SIZE
TRUE SHAPE
R
REVERSE MOLD GUIDE
RIGHT SIDE
Figure 9-31

7. Develop the three views of the object shown in Figure 9-32. Draw angle A at 45° and
develop the top auxiliary projection.
SLOTTED LOCK BLOCK
3.88 1.20
1.94
2.06
30°
A
.80 .25
60°
.25
1.75
Figure 9-32
8. Determine the views necessary to complete the front auxiliary view of the object shown in
Figure 9-33. Develop views with angle A = 60°. Alternate problems may be assigned with
angle A at 45° or 75°.
3.00 3.75
.62
1.62 60° 1.62
1.00 1.00
R.62 1.50
60° 1.00
1.00 1.62
2X
6.00 1.00 1.50 O .50
1.50 .50
4.00
.88 R.12
2.00 R.88 2X
O .75
2.88
.38 ANGLE PLATE
Figure 9-33
Problems 325
9 Problems
9. A partial front view, a right-side view, and a partial auxiliary view of an angle cap are shown
in Figure 9-34. Draw the views given and another auxiliary view where indicated on the
layout. This will be a rear auxiliary view. Dimensioning is required.
O16, 4 HOLES 70
12
18
45
28 30° R3
28 28 28 32
45
O76
O48
R10
90 12
ACROSS
90 FLATS
R3 22
OF OCTAGON
12 76
Figure 9-34
10. Figure 9-35 shows a pictorial and layout of an inclined locator. The complete view in the
middle is the right-side view. Draw the complete view and the partial views as necessary.
Draw an auxiliary view of the inclined locator, as indicated in the layout.
3.50 .50 .50 2.00

R1.00 Figure 9-35
1.50
.75
.50
O1.00
1.25 O 3.00
3.00 .75
2.75 45° .75
.12
TO BORDER
.25
.50 .50
O 2.25 .25 2.50

2.00
2.75
5.38
1.00
TO BORDER NOTE: FILLETS AND ROUNDS R.10
.50 2.75 3.62

TO BORDER

11. The engineers in your company have redesigned the connecting bar shown in Figure 9-36
to be used on a new tractor hitch. Use the drawing setup shown and make all the design
changes the engineer marked in color on the pictorial drawing. Draw front, top, and two
auxiliary views. Include all shape and size information necessary for the manufacture of the
part. Scale: 1:1.
12 50
12
26
38
12
2X
O 38 O 14 SLOTS 4X
CENTERED O 12
ON SURFACE
13
76 76
50 30n
40n
40n 6 38
19
62
12 25
20
30n 50
30 75 12
25
45
6 63
SURFACES MARKED TO BE 2
O20 SLOT ROUNDS AND FILLETS R2
2X MATL–G1
O 12
Figure 9-36
R12
Design Problems
teams of students. In these problems, you should apply skills learned mainly
Teamwork
1. Work as a team to design an automatic pet 3. Design a device to store and dispense up
food dispenser. Provide all the information to 50 plastic grocery bags. The bags should
necessary to manufacture the dispenser. be inserted at the top and removed from
2. Design a desk caddy to hold a hand-held the bottom, one at a time. Design it to
calculator, paper clips, 77 mm diameter hang on a wall.
insert clock, and a 75 mm × 125 mm 4. Design a cup rack to display up to 20 col-
notepad. The clock should be set at an lectable cups. The rack can be either a wall
angle for easy reading. unit or a counter-top unit.
Problems 327
13 Working Drawings
Section 13.1
Understanding
Working Drawings
Section 13.2
Preparing a Working
Drawing
Chapter Objectives
• Identify types of
working drawings.
• Understand the parts
of working drawings
and their layout.
• Set up a working
drawing using board
and CAD techniques.
• Create detail
drawings, assembly
drawings, and
assembly working
drawings.
• Design and draw a
title block.
• Develop a bill of
materials.
Developing 21st Century

Auto Concepts Welburn
started at GM in an entry-
level position and is now its
top designer. He is clearly a
distinguished professional. What
personal characteristics do you
think enabled him to reach this
position?
456
Drafting Career
Ed Welburn, Product Designer
When he heard some years back that his General

Motors bosses wanted to develop a 1,000-horsepower
racer to break the land-speed record, Ed Welburn
dashed off a teardrop-shaped road rocket design on
a napkin and handed it to his boss, who declared:
“This is it!” And Ed’s Aerotech was it.
Today, Welburn is vice president of global design

for GM. He tells his design staff to take risks to see
their wildest dream cars on the road. On the horizon
could be electric cars and designs reminiscent of the
Aerotech or other futuristic concepts—but preferably
not handed to him on napkins!

• Math, especially precalculus or calculus
• Language arts
• Science
• Social studies
• Foreign language
• Computer technology
Career Pathways
A bachelor’s degree in design and a good portfolio
are required to obtain most entry-level positions
in product design. Advancement generally requires
one to three years of training. Creativity, technical
knowledge, and a strong sense of aesthetics, detail,
balance, and proportion are crucial.

about Ed Welburn.
457
General Motors/Joe Polimeni/Handout/Reuters/Corbis
13.1 Understanding Working Drawings
Preview Working drawings give complete information needed to build a single part or a complete
object. What type would you use that could go, for example, to both a welder and an electrician?
Content Vocabulary
• working • combination • assembly • reference • bill of
drawing drawing drawing assembly materials
• detail • tabulated • assembly working drawing • FAO
drawing drawing drawing
Academic Vocabulary
• assemble • formats
Graphic Organizer
Use a table like the one below to organize notes about working drawings.
Type of Parts of Go to glencoe.com for this

Working Drawings a Working Drawing
Academic Standards
Read text to acquire new information (NCTE) NCTM National Council
of Teachers of
Mathematics
Mathematics
Use mathematics to express mathematical ideas precisely (NCTM) Drafting Association
Industry Standards
ADDA Section 4
Drawing Types (ASME Y14.24, Y32.10)
458 Chapter 13 Working Drawings

drawings become critical working documents
Types of Working for the production of parts and products.
Drawings A good working drawing follows the
style and practices of the industry in which
What types of drawings are needed to
it is made. Most industries follow ASME-
manufacture a product?
recommended standards. Because of these
A working drawing must give all infor- standards, plans can be easily read and under-
mation needed to manufacture or build a part stood from one industry to another.
or a complete machine or structure. It has
to identify precisely the required shape and Detail Drawings
size of the finished product. It also specifies A drawing of a single piece that gives all
the materials, finish, and degree of accuracy information for making it is called a detail
required. In addition, it provides all necessary drawing. An example is the drawing of a sim-
information to assemble the final product. ple part in Figure 13-2. A detail drawing must
Working drawings are usually multiview be a full and exact description of the piece. It
drawings with complete dimensions and notes should show carefully selected views and include
added. See Figure 13-1 for an example. These well-placed dimensions (see Figure 13-3).
A O .25 THRU TOP WALL 45°

O.58 .38 OF BUSHING ONLY .12
.38–18 NPS
ASME B1.20.1
T.38 .25
.50 R.75
1.00 3.75
.66 .88
R.56 4.50
O. 38 2.75 .75
.53
(HOUSING
ONLY) 3.25 O.55 THRU ONE
3.50 WALL OF
6.50 .12 BUSHING
R.12
2.1960
O.50 O 2.1940 .38 O.50 THRU CAP ONLY
.56 R.12 O.42 THRU BASE ONLY
.312 .50–13 UNC–2B THRU FOR
.12 130° .50–13 X 1.75 HEX HD
.75
CAP SCREW
WITH MEDIUM–SPRING
R1.75 BUSHING R.12 R.12
O.38 FAO 1.88 LOCK WASHER
.12 1.00
.50 R.12 .50 FILLETS AND ROUNDS R.25
.75 EXCEPT WHERE NOTED
3.00 DODGE MANUFACTURING CORP.
8.50 MISHAWAK, INDIANA
2.564
O 2.562 SPLIT BRONZE BUSHED
JOURNAL BEARING
B
Figure 13-1
(A) A working drawing for a split bronze-bushed journal bearing and
(B) the bearing described in the working drawing
Section 13.1 Understanding Working Drawings 459

Courtesy of the Hartford Special Machinery Company
1 2 3 4 5 6
2S3048
A A
O5
2 HOLES
O10.5 IE421 H O L E TO L
B B
2 HOLES
C C
HEAT TREATMENT
50 I357 HR STEEL
28 3.5mm THK
1 NOV. 8,
MATERIAL CHG DATE
D D
12 N OT E S : DATE
DRN
DIMENSIONS IN CHK
MILLIMETERS APPD.
TO L - + 0 . 5 PROVE DES PROD.
E 60 12 3.5 E
C AT E R P I L L A R
84 THIS PRINT IS THE PROPERTY OF CATERPILLAR TRACTOR CO.
AND/OR ITS SUBSIDIARIES AND MUST NOT BE USED IN ANY
MANNER DETRIMENTAL TO THEIR INTERESTS.
Figure 13-2 P L AT E – T O P B A F F L E
F SCALE -1:1 F
A detail drawing REMOVE BURRS 2S3048
DES CONTROL
PE
1 2 3 4 5 F O R M N O. G P 12 6 - / 6 16 - /
1.88
1.00 O.50 3.00
A .12 X 45°
2.004
O2.002 O1.75 60°
O1.25 O1.25
2.990
O 2.982 O2 .22
R.06 A R .12
30° CHAMFER
.06 X 45° 1.50 M 52
.25
ASME B1.13M
30°
(1.50) 5.88 .38
9.50
.75 NPT, ASME B1.20.1
Figure 13-3 FAO
MATERIAL: 1034 STEEL
A single view and an
extra section provide a SPECIAL ADAPTER
SECTION A–A
complete description of 1.75 COMPANY PLACE
DRAWN CHECKED DATE
this special adapter. A.B.C.

TRACED
D.E.F.
G.H.I.
APPROVED
J.K.L.
12 - 22 -
SCALE
When a large number of machines are to

be produced, detail drawings of each part are
often made on separate sheets, especially when
a part is used on more than one machine. In
some industries, however, several parts of a
machine are detailed on the same sheet. Some- A B
times a separate detail drawing is made for
each of several workers involved, such as the
pattern maker, machinist, and welder. This sep-
arate drawing shows the dimensions and infor-
mation needed by only the worker for whom it Figure 13-4
is made. Figure 13-4 shows an index-plunger (A) A forged index-plunger operating handle and
operating handle. This figure shows the piece (B) the same handle after machining
as a forged handle (A) and after it has been

machined (B). Figure 13-5 shows a detail Figure 13-6 shows a two-part detail draw-
drawing of the same piece. Notice that the ing known as a combination drawing. One
drawing shows the part after the machining half gives the dimensions for the forging. The
process has removed the material. Notice also other half gives the machining dimensions
the detailed list of machine operations. and notes.
Figure 13-5
Working drawing of the part shown in Figure 13-4
32
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED FINISH IS
4.00
1.092 TOLERANCE ON DIMENSIONS .02
O1.085
1.00 .936
O.930
.50
1.10 10°
.12
O1.76 .24 O1.50 4.00 .05
O1.00 O.88
10° 10°
.80 .72
1.60 1.44 1.34 1.24
.68 .60
(A) FORGING DRAWING (B) MACHINE DRAWING FOR FORGED

PART SHOWN IN (A)
Figure 13-6
Two-part detail drawing showing separate information for forging and machining

Detail drawings are often made for stan-
dard parts that come in a range of sizes. A
tabulated drawing is one in which the Explain How are dimensions identified in a
dimensions are identified by letters. See Figure tabulated drawing?
13-7 for a tabulated drawing of a bushing. A
table placed on the drawing identifies what
each dimension is for different sizes of the
part. Either all or some of the dimensions can Assembly Drawings
be given in this way. A similar type of draw- A drawing of a fully assembled construction
ing shows the views and leaves blank spaces is called an assembly drawing. This shows
for dimensions and notes (see Figure 13-8A). how the parts fit together, the look of the con-
The required information is then entered on struction as a whole, the dimensions needed
these blanks (see Figure 13-8B). The views in for installation, the space needed, and so
tabulated drawings are not to scale except per- forth. Such drawings vary greatly in terms of
haps for one size. the completeness of detail and dimensioning.
A
C
BUSHING
Figure 13-7 E PART
A B C D E
NO.
A tabulated drawing
CB 1 1.500 2.000 1.000 0.500 0.375
B
CB 2 1.625 2.125 1.125 0.625 0.437
CB 3 1.750 2.250 1.250 0.750 0.500
E CB 4 1.875 2.375 1.375 0.875 0.562
CB 5 2.000 2.500 1.500 1.000 0.625
74
64
Ø 57.65
57.40 Ø72
38.10
Ø 38.00
Ø42
R10
.20
A B
AMOUNT REQ'D AMOUNT REQ'D 12
TOOL NO. TOOL NO. CT-976-F
MATERIAL MATERIAL STEEL
REQ. NO. REQ. NO. E-1152
Figure 13-8
Detail drawing of a standard part with dimensions blank (A) and filled in (B)

1 - FRAME 5 - WASHER
2 - SHAFT 6 - NUT
O .438 3 - PULLEY 7 - BOLT
R1.20 4 HOLES
4 - COLLAR 8 - WASHER
1.50
PARTIAL TOP VIEW OF PART 1 ONLY R.20
O 1.24
8
.20
3
1.25 R1.20 O .60 CORE
O .50
4.00
7
.16 3.00 2.60 1.00
1.20 1.00 -12UNF-2A
.06 X 45° .12
3.00 ASME B1.1
CHAMFER
1.20 .12 NPT

3.00 O 2.60 O 1.06 O 2.00
1.10 ASME 1.20.1
O 1.80 O1.20 O 1.80
O 5.00 O 2.25
R1.20
4
O .328 6
1.40
.44 2 5
R3.00
3.50
3.20 .40
.40 R.20
1
.10 .60
.60 .36 2.80

4.00 4.00
5.20
Figure 13-9
An assembly working drawing for a belt tightener
When an assembly drawing gives complete assembled constructions are large, you may
manufacturing information, it can be used need to draw different views on separate
as a working drawing. It is then called an sheets. However, you must use the same
assembly working drawing. This type of scale on all sheets.
drawing is used only when there is little or no A reference assembly drawing is a spe-
complex detail (see Figure 13-9). cial assembly drawing that identifies parts to
Assembly drawings of machines are gen- be assembled (see Figure 13-11). Note the
erally made to a small scale. Dimensions are material list in the upper right-hand corner
chosen to specify overall distances, impor- and the dimensions shown.
tant center-to-center distances, and local Other types of assembly drawings made
dimensions. All, or almost all, hidden lines for special purposes include part assem-
may be omitted. Also, if the drawing is made blies for groups of parts, drawings for use in
to a very small scale, unnecessary detail may assembling or erecting a machine, drawings
be omitted. This has been done, for exam- to give directions for upkeep and use, and so
ple, in the drawing in Figure 13-10. Draw- forth.
ings in which details have been omitted are
called outline assembly drawings. Either exte-
rior or sectional views may be used. When
the main purpose is to show only the gen- Explain What is the purpose of an outline
eral look of the construction, only one or assembly drawing?
two views need to be drawn. Because some

Figure 13-10 15.25
8.50
An outline assembly 32 31 13
drawing 19 3 24
21 15
12
23 17
24
11 32.00 18
14
16 30
29 7
28 17
4
SECTION A–A
2
20 A
5 10
25 11
21 A
26 1 6 8 22
9
10.38 18.00
Figure 13-11
A reference assembly drawing of the hanger assembly shown in the pictorial view
162Y259 PART NUMBER

MATERIAL LIST
SYM-
BOL
GROUP QUAN- PIECE NAME OF PART MATERIAL
REQ'D DRAWING NO. OF
GROUP
1 126257 20 U - BOLT A
1 2 3Y104 K FRAME BABBITED B
2 HEX NUT C
A 2 LOCK WASHER D
1 PIPE NIPPLE E
1 1041Y33 FRAME F
1 PIPE COUPLING G
342 44
300 Ø12 26
G . 25–18 NPT
ASME B1.20.1 24
C
D
E
F 152
B
38 50
R W R L R N R C
DIMENSION TOLERANCES EXCEPT AS SPECIFIED R J C BRONZE CAP NOTE ADDED E.F.C.

R D B PART No. 283Y112-C ADDED R.C.
TITLE GROUP B, NOTES & DIMENSIONS FOR
No. 198 HANGER ASSEMBLY R T A
GROUP C, REMOVED - FRAME WAS
I M 1041 Y 33 - B FOR GROUP C ONLY C.W.
O R REV DATE DESCRIPTION OF REVISION
DRAWING CHECKED APPROVED FORM REFERENCE
DATE
SCALE LINK - BELT COMPANY 162Y259

For complete assemblies, a small scale is
Layout of Working generally used. The scale is often fixed by the
Drawings size of the paper the company has chosen for
assemblies. For part assemblies, choose a scale
What are the parts that make up a working
to suit the drawing’s purpose. This might be
drawing?
to show how parts fit together, identify the
Whether you use board or CAD techniques, parts, or explain an operation.
your drawings will be easier to draw and use if
you set them up properly. For example, the views Grouping and Placing Parts
and scales you choose greatly affect the draw- Another part of planning a set of working
ing’s readability. Therefore, you must take the drawings is deciding where to place each view
time to plan the drawing before you begin. or part on the drawing sheet. When many
details are used for a single machine, it is often
Choosing Views a good idea to group them on a single sheet or
The views you choose should always be set of sheets. A convenient method is to group
those that are easiest to read. Each view you the forging details together, the materials
use must add information to the description details together, and so on. In general, show the
of the object. parts in the positions they will occupy in the
Though two views are usually sufficient, assembled machine. That way, related parts will
complex pieces may require three or more appear near each other. Long pieces, however,
views. As you plan the views you need, con- sometimes must be drawn parallel to the long
sider whether the additional views should be dimension of the sheet (see Figure 13-12).
partial, auxiliary, or sectional.
If you have any question about which views
to draw, think about why you are making the
drawing. A drawing should clearly and precisely
give the information needed for its purpose. Contrast What scale is used for general
assembly and part assembly drawings?
Choosing a Scale
The scale for a detail drawing is chosen
according to three factors:
Title Blocks
Every sketch or drawing must have some
• how large the drawing must be to show type of title block to record important refer-
details clearly
ence details. The form, completeness, and
• how large the drawing must be to include location of the title block can vary. On work-
all dimensions without crowding
ing drawings, it can be placed in a box in the
• the size of the paper
lower right-hand corner (see Figure 13-13A),
Whenever possible, an object should be or it can be included in a record strip running
drawn full size (1:1). Other scales that are com- as far as needed across the bottom or end of
monly used are half, quarter, and eighth. Avoid the sheet as in Figure 13-13B.
scales such as 1:6, 1:3, and 1:1.33. If a part is Most title blocks contain some or all of the
very small, you can draw it at an enlarged scale. following information:
When you draw a number of details on • name of the construction, machine,
one sheet, use the same scale if possible. If or project
you must use different scales, note the scale • name of the part or parts shown, or simple
near each drawing. It is often useful to draw details
a detail, or part detail, to a larger scale on • manufacturer, company, or firm name and
the main drawing. This saves both time and address
effort in making separate detail drawings. For • date (usually the date of completion)
general assembly drawings, choose a scale that • scale or scales used
shows the details you want and looks good on • heat treatment, working tolerances, and so
the size of paper you are using. forth

SR.94 O.38 O.50 X .12
.62–8 ACME–2GA .10
2
ASME B1.5
O1.00 .31 O.75
O .6250 7.00 3
.12 .6240
O.48
.50 8.50 FAO
9.50
4 O.14
2X .03 X 45° ASSEMBLE AND
REAM FOR NO. 0
2X O .14 TAPER PIN
LOCATE AT ASSY 5
O.38
6.50
SO .62 .3804
O .3800
6 O.34 X .12
.06 X 45°
.38–16UNC–2A TECHNICAL GRAPHICS
ASME B1.1 701 GREEN BELT ROAD – BROWNVILLE. PA 15417
O.50
WOODWORKING VISE
.62
DWN BY: K. BAKOS DATE: 02/08/20--
8.00 SCALE: 1:1 DWG NO.
2 OF 2
APPROVED: 03/02/20-- JDH
Figure 13-12
Several machine parts drawn on one sheet
RIVETS EXC. NOTED

HOLES EXC. NOTED
CENTRAL TEXAS IRON WORKS
WACO TEXAS ABILENE
PAINT
BUILDING
BLUEPRINT RECORD LOCATION
NO. DATE ISSUED FOR CUSTOMER
Figure 13-13 ARCHITECT

MADE BY CHK. BY SHEET NO.
Title blocks: (A) boxed A
DATE REVISIONS ORDER
NO.
title and (B) strip title

B
UNIT NAME OF PIECE
DR. DATE SYMBOL OF MACHINES USED ON SUPERSEDES DRAW. STOCK

CASTING
DR. DROP FORGING
TR.
THE LODGE & SHIPLEY MACHINE TOOL CO. SUPERSEDED BY DR. MATERIAL PIECE NO.
TR. CH. FORM 795 CINCINNATI, OHIO. U. S. A.
• drawing number, shop order number, or The title block can be preprinted on the
customer’s order number, according to the drawing sheet or can be attached using a
system used by the company preprinted sticker. With CAD, the title block
• drafting-room record: names and initials, appears on the drawing template.
with dates, of drafter and checker; approval
of chief drafter, engineer, and so forth Change or Revision Block
A change or revision block is a table where
A basic layout for a title block based on drawing revisions are recorded. It is attached
ASME standards is in Figure 13-14. to the title block (see Figure 13-11) or placed

OPTIONAL BLOCK BILL OF MATERIALS FOR IDLER PULLEY
FOR RECORD OF
PRINT DISTRIBUTION .75 (20) NAME REQD MATL NOTES
IDLER PULLEY 1 C1
IDLER PULLEY FRAME 1 C1
.25 (6)
IDLER PULLEY BUSHING 1 BRO
RESERVED FOR GENERAL NOTES
IDLER PULLEY SHAFT 1 CRS
AND OTHER INFORMATION
(HEIGHT OF SPACE OR TITLE Ø.62 HEX NUT 1 PURCHASED
BLOCK AS REQUIRED) WOODRUFF KEY #405 1 PURCHASED
.12 OILER 1 PURCHASED
5.75 (146)
1.50 (38) 4.25 (108) Figure 13-15
SCALE, A simple bill of materials
WEIGHT,
SPECIFICATIONS, TITLE OR NAME OF PART 1.00 (26)
STD PRINTED
2.00
NOTES SUCH AS (52)
TOLERANCES,
FINISHES,
SIGNATURE & APPROVALS .50 (13)
Bill of Materials
ETC.
Most working drawings include a list of parts,
DRAWING NO.
FIRM'S NAME AND CONT ON SHEET NO. .50 (13)
the materials of which they are made, identifi-
ADDRESS SHEET cation numbers, and other important informa-
2.50 (64) tion. On assembly drawings, this information is
especially important, as well as on detail draw-
Figure 13-14 ings that show several parts on one sheet.
Basic layout for a title block. Dimensions shown The names of parts, materials, quantities,
are ASME recommendations and may vary to part numbers, and so forth are often given in
accommodate the user’s requirements. notes near their views. It is better, however, to
place only the part numbers near the views, link
them to the views with leaders, and then place
down the right-hand side or along the bot- all other information in a tabulated list called
tom of the drawing sheet. If the revision block a bill of materials. ASME’s official term for
header appears at the top of the sheet, revi- this is a parts list. ASME provides formal speci-
sions are listed and numbered consecutively fications for a parts list, but other formats
from the top down. If it is at the bottom of are used. See Figure 13-15 for an example of
the sheet (see Figure 13-11), the revisions are a simple bill of materials. Figure 13-16 shows
listed and numbered consecutively from the the recommended format. The column widths
bottom up. and names may vary as needed.
BILL OF MATERIALS .25

GROUP NO. AND QUANTITY PART NAME DRAWING NO. OR DESCRIPTION
NO.
.30
1.80 .03
.40 1.40
7.60
Figure 13-16
Recommended form for a bill of materials

For working drawings created using board The materials in general use are wood,
drafting techniques, the bill of materials is plastic, cast iron, wrought iron, steel, brass,
usually placed above the title block or in the aluminum, and various alloys. All parts that
upper right corner of the sheet. It can also go together must be of the proper size so that
be written or typed on a separate sheet with they will fit. Pieces may be left rough, partly
a title such as “Bill of Materials for Drawing finished, or completely finished.
No. 00” to identify it. This method is espe- After a part has been cast or forged, it must
cially useful with CAD drawings. be machined on all surfaces that are to fit with
other surfaces. Round surfaces are generally
Notes and Specifications refined on a lathe. Flat surfaces are finished
Information that you cannot make clear or smoothed on a planer, milling machine, or
in a drawing must be given in lettered notes shaper. Holes are made with drill presses, bor-
and symbols. Special trade details such as the ing mills, or lathes. Extra metal is allowed for
following are often given in this way. surfaces that are to be finished. To specify fin-
• quantity needed ish on surfaces, place a finish symbol on the
• material lines that represent their edges. If the entire
• type of finish piece is to be finished, add a note such as
• type of fit FINISH ALL OVER, or FAO. No other mark is
• method of machining needed.
• types of screw threads In current dimensioning practice, the
• types of bolts and nuts drafter usually does not specify the method
• sizes of wire or tool to be used. Only the finished size and
• thickness of sheet metal shape are given.

After You Read 4. Plan and draw the layout for an assem-
bly drawing of the cement float shown
in Figure 13-17. Block in space for the
Self-Check views and draw in the spaces for title
1. Identify three types of working draw- block, revision block, and bill of mate-
ings and their purposes. rials, as well as notes and specifications.
2. Name all the parts of a working draw-
ing and explain their positions on the
DRILL AND COUNTERSINK 10 WHITE
drawing sheet. 3
FOR 1 4 NO. 10 FH WOOD 4
OAK
SCREWS, 2 REQD 1R
1
Mathematics 1R
61
2
3. What would the clearance be for a hex

1
24
1R
114
nut where the constant is 1.155 with a 3

4 X 4 X 18
REDWOOD
measurement of .750 across the flats? 1
What about a hex nut with a measure- Figure 13-17 SECTION THROUGH
HANDLE
ment of .475?
Use Variables and Go to glencoe.com for this

Operations book’s OLC for help with this
Use the formula c⫽1.55f. If necessary, drafting practice.
refer to this chapter’s Do the Math.

13.2 Preparing a Working Drawing
Connect Here you will follow principles from the previous section to create a working drawing
using both board-drafting and CAD techniques. What technique similarities and differences do
you think you will find?
Content Vocabulary
• multiple layouts
Academic Vocabulary
• estimate
Graphic Organizer
Use a table like the one below to organize notes about working drawing board drafting and CAD
techniques.
Steps in Creating a Working Drawing

1. 5. book’s OLC for a downloadable
2. 6. version of this graphic organizer.
3. 7.
4. 8.
Academic Standards
Teachers of English
Use language to accomplish individual purposes (NCTE) NCTM National Council
of Teachers of
Number and Operations Understand numbers, ways of representing numbers, relationships Education Standards
among numbers, and number systems (NCTM) ADDA American Design
Algebra Understand patterns, relationships, and functions (NCTM) Drafting Association
Science
Science in Personal and Social Perspectives Science and technology in local, national, global
challenges (NSES)
Industry Standards
ADDA Section 3
Working Drawings
Section 13.2 Preparing a Working Drawing 469

1. Develop a freehand sketch of the views
Board-Drafting you have chosen for the part or parts
Techniques given. The sketches need not be to scale
but estimate the sizes relatively close to
Why is it important to carefully plan the
the finished drawing size.
drawing layout before beginning a working
2. Add dimensions and notes to your
drawing?
sketches. This will help you determine
In preparing to make working drawings, the overall space needed for each view or
drafters and students often find developing a drawing on the sheet.
good layout of the various views on the sheet 3. Choose the appropriate scale based
difficult. Sheet layout for a simple detail draw- on the size and complexity of the part.
ing is relatively easy. However, sheet layout You may have done this as part of step
for a drawing with several parts on one sheet 1. However, at this point, you can make
is somewhat more difficult. With experience, any necessary changes. For the marking
you will find preparation easier and less time gage, an appropriate scale is 1:1.
consuming. 4. Determine the amount of space needed
Regardless of how simple or complex the on the sheet for each part or view.
drawing is, some basic steps are necessary to 5. Select the sheet size that will best accom-
develop it. This exercise gives you practice in modate your drawing. Try not to crowd
setting up a working drawing of the marking the sheet, but do not select one that is
gage shown in Figure 13-18. Follow these excessively large. If you are working on a
steps: large and complex set of drawings, select
one standard sheet size for the entire set
O.50 3 KNURLED SCREW, 2 REQD 4 SCRIBER
MEDIUM DIAMOND KNURL

O.12 X 1.00
DRILL ROD
.25
.03 X 45° CHAMFER
.25
.88
FLAT .20 WIDE
10-32-UNC-2A X .50 LG
ASME B1.1
O.50 X 8.00
2 BEAM
1.50 .20
.50
.03 X 45°
CHAMFER
BOTH ENDS
O1.12
O2.00 R.12
Ø.50
.06 X 45° CHAMFER
1 HEAD
Figure 13-18
Marking gage

NO. NAME REQD MATL NOTES
BILL OF MATERIALS
TECHNICAL GRAPHICS
701 Greenbelt Road – Brownsville, PA 15410
DWN BY: DATE:

SCALE: DWG NO.
APPROVED: OF
Figure 13-19
Sheet layout for a working drawing of the marking gage
of drawings. For the drawing in this exer- part on separate sheets of paper. Then follow
cise, we have chosen an A-size sheet. these steps:
6. Draw borderlines, title block, and bill of
1. Select a drawing sheet of appropriate
materials or parts list (if required). See
size. Then rough in the borderlines, title
Figure 13-19.
block, and bill of materials or parts list, if
7. Block in spaces for the various views or
required. This sheet will be used for lay-
parts (Figure 13-19). Use only very light
out purposes only.
layout lines for this purpose. For draw-
2. Place the individual rough drawings on
ings of multiple parts, try to group draw-
the layout sheet and move them around
ings of individual parts according to
to develop a pleasing layout. Be sure to
where and how they fit in the assembly
allow adequate space for general notes
of the final product.
and other details as necessary.
8. Develop the individual drawings in the
3. Tape the individual rough drawings in
spaces provided as in Figure 13-20.
place. Carefully review what you have
9. Darken all lines, add general notes, and
done. Make certain that nothing has been
fill in the bill of materials as required.
missed in developing the rough draft.
Another method that may be used to 4. Tape a piece of tracing material over the
develop a good sheet layout is first to prepare rough drawing. Trace the entire drawing. The
rough mechanical drawings of each view or result should appear as in Figure 13-20.

.09 3
2 4 3
1.00
.34
4 SCRIBER 1 MARKING GAGE
10–32 UNC–2B Ø.50
.50 2X .03 X 45° CHAMFER

Ø2.00 10–32 UNC–2A X .50 LONG
Ø1.12 Ø.19
Ø.50
R.12 .25
.88 3 KNURLED
.20 .06 X 45° SCREW
1.50 CHAMFER THREAD CONTROLLING ORGANIZATION
AND STANDARD–ASME B1.1-2003
1 HEAD 4 SCRIBER 1 90 PT CARBON STL HARDEN
3 KNURLED SCREW 2 SAE 1050 STEEL
2 BEAM 1 SAE 1050 STEEL
8.00 10-32 UNC-28 1 HEAD 1 CAST IRON
X .70
.25 NO. NAME REQD MATL NOTES
BILL OF MATERIALS
TECHNICAL GRAPHICS
Ø.50 .20 701 Greenbelt Road – Brownsville, PA 15410
MARKING GAGE
Ø.095 DWN BY: K. BAKOS DATE: 06/08/20--
2X .06 X 45° CHAMFER 2 BEAM SCALE: 1:1 DWG NO.
APPROVED: 06/11/20-- JDH 1 OF 1
Figure 13-20
Completed working drawing
an appropriate scale. You must become profi-

cient at these tasks.
Identify What is the first step in setting up a
working drawing? Using Layers
CAD systems greatly reduce the amount
of time needed to create a full set of working
drawings, particularly when separate drawings
CAD Techniques are needed for various workers, such as electri-
How important is layout planning when cal contractors and welders. You need to create
working in CAD? the basic views only once in a CAD drawing.
Then you place the information needed by
In most ways, working drawings are eas- each contractor on a separate layer. For exam-
ier to set up using a CAD system than using ple, you might place the basic views on a layer
board-drafting techniques. Indeed, many called Machine. Then you could include a
companies that use CAD systems have their Welding layer, an Electrical layer, and as many
own drawing templates. However, you must other layers as necessary to provide the appro-
still take care to set up the drawing correctly. priate information to the various contrac-
CAD software cannot choose the correct tors. Then to supply the drawings needed by
views of an object for you, nor can it select the electrical contractor, you simply freeze all

of the layers for other contractors and either Creating Multiple Layouts
print the drawing or supply it to the contrac-
The AutoCAD software has the ability to
tor electronically. You do not need to create
include one or more layout views in a draw-
an entirely new drawing for each purpose.
ing file. These multiple layouts are tabbed
This approach also is often beneficial from
at the bottom of the drawing area in a man-
a record-keeping standpoint, too. By using
ner similar to the worksheets in Microsoft
layers to provide the various contractors with
Excel. By default, each drawing contains two
information, you are keeping all of this infor-
layouts called Layout1 and Layout2. However,
mation in a single drawing file. You do not
you can rename them and add as many lay-
have to keep track of a large number of bulky
outs as you want. For example, in the drawing
drawings. Instead, you simply keep backups
in Figure 13-21, the drafter has included five
of the one drawing file.
A
Figure 13-21
An entire set of working drawings can be included in a single drawing file by using custom layout views in
paper space. (A) One of the layouts for a roller assembly. (B) Notice how the drafter has labeled each tab.

Follow these steps to create a working
drawing:
1. Analyze the part or parts carefully to
determine the views that will be needed.
Displaying the Layout In the case of Figure 13-18, you will need
two-view drawings of the head and beam,
Tabs a two-view detail drawing of the knurled
In some versions of AutoCAD, screw, a detail drawing of the scriber, and
the layout tabs may not be visible an assembly drawing shown in section.
by default. If the tabs are missing,
2. Assume that the company you work for
right-click the Model tab in the status
requires that orthographic drawings be
bar and choose Display Layout and
drawn on a separate sheet from assem-
Model Tabs.
bly drawings. Decide how many draw-
ing sheets you will need. For the marking
gage, you will need two layout sheets,
one for the four orthographic drawings,
layouts to detail different parts of an assem-
and one for the assembly drawing.
bly. You can see in the close-up of the tabs
3. Select an appropriate size for the drawing
shown in Figure 13-21 that they have been
sheets. For the marking gage, we have
given names that make the content of the lay-
selected an A-size drawing sheet. Auto-
outs clear.
CAD allows you to set each layout on a
All of the layout views are in paper space
different size sheet if you prefer, but this
and include the border and title block speci-
is not good practice. You should keep all
fied by the drawing template. However, you
pages of a set of working drawings on
can choose what parts of the model-space
drawing sheets of the same size.
drawing to include in each layout. For exam-
4. Decide what layers to use for the draw-
ple, in Figure 13-21, all four of the drawings
ing. The layers you might want to cre-
shown in layout views actually exist in model
ate for the marking gage include Object
space. The drafter simply chose to show differ-
lines, Dimensions, Centerlines, Hidden
ent areas of model space in each layout view.
lines, Hatches, Border, and Title Block.
Creating a Working Drawing (Note: In practice, layer names and con-
In this section, you will create a working tents are often specified by the individual
drawing of the marking gage shown in Figure companies. In some cases, the layers are
13-18. The initial procedures are basically the even set up in the company’s template
same as those for creating any other CAD drawings. You should check company
drawing. However, working drawings require guidelines before completing this step.)
more planning. As in board drafting, you 5. Create a new drawing using an A-size
must decide on an appropriate sheet size and template. Call the file Marking Gage.
scale. However, you should also consider the 6. If your version of AutoCAD does not
layers that will be needed and what informa- include a standard A-size template, cre-
tion each layer will contain. ate an appropriate border and title block
Keep in mind that you should label each (see Figure 13-22).
layout so that others who use the file will 7. Set up the layers that you have identi-
understand immediately what each layout fied as necessary, and set the text style to
contains. Refer again to Figure 13-21. For the Roman Simplex.
marking gage drawing, you could simply use Now you should set up the layout views.
one of the layout tabs for the entire working Follow these steps:
drawing. However, some industries require 1. Right-click the Layout1 tab and select
that separate drawing sheets be used for vari- Rename. Name the layout Orthograph-
ous views. Therefore, it is good to know how ics. Note: If you used one of AutoCAD’s
to use multiple layouts. sheet-specific templates to create the new

VIEWPORT
Figure 13-22
Use a window to create a
viewport that covers most of the
blank space on the layout sheet.
file, the Layout1 and Layout2 tabs may 2. Delete the default viewport and create a
have been replaced by a tab specific to the new one using a window to enclose most
drawing sheet. Proceed as if this tab were of the blank area on the drawing sheet as
named Layout1. For the second layout tab, in Figure 13-22.
right-click the first one and select New Lay- 3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for the other layout
out. Then proceed as described in Step 3. view. Name it Assembly.
Calculating Corner Clearance Calculate corner clear-

for a Hex Nut ance by determining the distance across
When designing a product with a hex nut, the corners of a hexagon. Do this by using
care must be taken to ensure that there is a formula that contains a constant, or
clearance to tighten the nut in assembly. unchanging value. In this case, the constant
Find the corner clearance for a hex nut that is is 1.144, and the formula for determin-
.625” across the flats, as show below. ing the distance across the corners when
you know the distance across the flats is
.625
c=1.155f, as shown below.
F = FLATS
C
C = CORNERS
F
CONSTANT = 1.155
Academic Standards For help with this math activity, go

to this book’s OLC at glencoe.com
Mathematics and click on Math Handbook.
Algebra Understand patterns, relations, and functions
(NCTM)

You should now have three tabs at the bot- drawing. You will have to rearrange the
tom of the drawing area, one for each paper- internal details and reapply the hatch,
space layout view and one for model space. but that is faster than starting from
Follow these steps to continue building the scratch. The scriber can be used without
working drawing: modification. The screw can simply be
1. Pick the Model tab to return to the work- copied, rotated, and placed as necessary.
ing area of the drawing. All of the follow- 4. Set up the orthographic layout view
ing steps should be done in model space. as in Figure 13-24. To do this, pick
2. Create the orthographic views (see the Orthographics layout tab. Notice
Figure 13-23). Be sure to create the that the entire drawing appears on the
views at full size (scale of 1:1). Draw the layout sheet. To show only the ortho-
views in the positions you want them to graphic views, you will need to move
appear in the layout. them. To do this, pick the PAPER button
3. Move to another part of the drawing area, at the bottom of the screen. The but-
well away from the orthographic views, ton changes to MODEL, indicating that
and create the assembly view. Because you are now in model space. This allows
the orthographics have already been you to work directly with the objects you
drawn, you can copy parts of them to use drew in model space. Use the PAN com-
in the assembly drawing. For example, mand to move the entire drawing so that
you can copy the beam, then delete the the orthographic views are centered on
interior break, extend the lines to the full the sheet and the assembly drawing is
8″, and move the ends to their new posi- hidden from view. If you need to move
tions. Copy the head and rotate the copy individual views, you can use MOVE or
180° to form the basis for the head in the any other drawing command because
.09
8.00 10-32 UNC-28
X .70
.25
1.00
.34 .20
ø.50
Ø.095
4 SCRIBER 2X .06 X 45° CHAMFER 2 BEAM
10–32 UNC–2B ø.50
2X .03 X 45° CHAMFER

.50
ø2.00 10–32 UNC–2A X .50 LONG
ø1.12 ø.19
ø.50
R.12
.25
.88 3 KNURLED
.20 .06 X 45° SCREW
1.50 CHAMFER
THREAD CONTROLLING ORGANIZATION

1 HEAD AND STANDARD–ASME B1.1-2003
Figure 13-23
Draw the orthographic views in model space.

you are in model space, even though the Attribute Tag Prompt Default
border and title block are visible. Material What material? CRS
5. Pick the Assembly layout tab and repeat Notes Add any notes:
the procedure in step 4 to center the
assembly view on the sheet, as shown in (Note that you do not want to set a
Figure 13-25. The orthographic views default for the Notes tag.) Explode each
should not show on this sheet. block on the screen, if necessary, and
6. Fill in the title block with the appropriate reblock to include the attributes. Refer to
information. Chapter 11 for more information about
7. Generate the information for the bill of adding text attributes to blocks.
materials. By looking at the exploded 8. Before you generate the actual bill of
assembly drawing in Figure 13-18, you can materials, notice that, although you need
see that the completed assembly will need only two knurled screws to complete the
one head, one beam, two knurled screws, assembly, the knurled screw block is used
and one scriber. Create a block for each three times in the drawing. To avoid erro-
item, including the knurled screw if you neously including three screws in the bill
did not create it earlier. Add invisible, vari- of materials, explode one of the screws.
able attributes to each block as follows: To do this, pick the Explode button or
REVISIONS
.09
8.00 10-32 UNC-28

1.00 X .70
.25
.34
ø.50 .20
4 SCRIBER Ø.095
2X .06 X 45° CHAMFER 2 BEAM
10–32 UNC–2B ø.50 2X .03 X 45° CHAMFER
.50 10–32 UNC–2A X .50 LONG
ø.19
ø2.00
ø.50
ø1.12
.25
.88 3 KNURLED
R.12
SCREW
.20 .06 X 45° AND STANDARD–ASME B1.1-2003
1.50 CHAMFER
1 HEAD
MARKING GAGE
A
SCALE 1:1 SHEET 1 OF 2
Figure 13-24
Position the drawing so that only the orthographic views appear on the drawing sheet.

enter EXPLODE at the keyboard, and with blocks you have inserted into the drawing.
select one of the screws. When you The advantage of this method is its accuracy.
explode a block, it loses its associated Each time you insert a block, AutoCAD stores
attributes. the attribute information in the drawing data-
9. Generate the bill of materials. (See the base. When you want to create the bill of mate-
next section for details.) rials, you extract the attribute information.
10. Check the drawing.
Attribute Extraction
AutoCAD povides a wizard for extracting
the attributes from blocks in a drawing file.
You can either create a table in the drawing
Identify What command is used to center to display the information or save the infor-
orthographic views on the layout sheet? mation to a spreadsheet document. Note that
the wizard’s pages and appearance vary in dif-
ferent AutoCAD versions. In general, follow
Generating the Bill of Materials these steps to extract the attributes from the
AutoCAD and many other CAD programs marking gage drawing. Pick the Next bottom
allow you to generate a bill of materials auto- at the bottom of each page of the wizard to
matically based on the attributes associated proceed to the next page.
REVISIONS
4
2
3
MARKING GAGE
1
MARKING GAGE
A
SCALE 1:1 SHEET 2 OF 2
Figure 13-25
The Assembly layout sheet.

Figure 13-26
Finished bill of materials for
the marking gage
1. From the Tools pull-down menu, select If you wish, you may add formatting to
Attribute Extraction to display the first make the file more easily readable. For exam-
page of the Attribute Extraction wizard. ple, you may wish to make the BILL OF MATE-
2. Pick the top radio button to create a table RIALS label and the column heads bold. To do
from scratch. this, simply double-click the text you want to
3. For the data source, choose to use the change. The Text Formatting toolbar appears,
current drawing. allowing you to make changes to the font and
4. Choose the blocks you want to include appearance of the text.
and the attributes from those blocks that
you want to extract.
5. Choose to extract the attributes to an Checking the Drawing
AutoCAD table. When a drawing is finished, it must be
6. If your version of AutoCAD provides the reviewed very carefully before it is used.
options, enter Bill of Materials for the This critical step is called checking the draw-
name of the table, and choose the default ing. Though you should check all your
table style. drawings, it is important to have someone
7. Choose Finish on the last page of the else check it, as well. A person who has not
wizard and pick a point in the drawing worked on the drawing will be better able to
to place the bill of materials. spot errors. A thorough check should follow
8. Pick a point in the drawing file to place a set order of procedures. See Appendix B for
the completed bill of materials in the a checklist you can use to check any work-
drawing (see Figure 13-26). ing drawings.

After You Read
5. Thinking about the fact that all manu-
factured items must be designed, write
Self-Check a one-page essay on the role of design/
1. Outline the steps in creating a working engineering businesses in the economy.
drawing using board or CAD techniques.
2. Explain how to create detail drawings, Drafting Practice
assembly drawings, and assembly work- 6. Prepare a detail drawing of the journal
ing drawings. bearing shown in Figure 13-1. Deter-
3. Name the information that is included mine an appropriate scale and dimen-
in a bill of materials. sion the drawing.
4. Explain the purpose for the bill of
materials. Go to glencoe.com for this
drafting practice.

Chapter Summary
• The main types of working drawings are • Every working drawing has a title block
detail and assembly working drawings. located at the bottom border which
• The setup for a working drawing includes includes important reference information
choosing the views and scale, grouping about the drawing.
and placing parts, and adding the title • Most working drawings include a bill
block, revision block, bill of materials, and of materials which can appear on the
notes. drawing sheet or as a separate attached
document.
• A working drawing should always be
carefully checked according to standard
procedures.

Content Vocabulary • assembly drawing (p. 462) • FAO (p. 468)
• working drawing (p. 459) • assembly working drawing • multiple layouts (p. 473)
• detail drawing (p. 459) (p. 463) Academic Vocabulary
• combination drawing • reference assembly drawing • assemble (p. 459)
(p. 461) (p. 463) • formats (p. 467)
• tabulated drawing (p. 462) • bill of materials (p. 467) • estimate (p. 470)
Review Key Concepts

2. List the types of working drawings discussed in this chapter.
3. Identify the parts of a working drawing layout.
4. Contrast creating a working drawing with board techniques and CAD techniques.
5. Outline the steps for creating a detail working drawing.
6. Locate the two positions for placement of a title block.
7. Explain how to compile a bill of materials with board-drafting and CAD techniques.

Technology
8. Understanding Communications Prep
Technology
Directions Read the following
Communications technology is all around us
statements and determine
and is rapidly advancing. Using different sources
whether each statement is
for research, such as the Internet and technol-
true or false.
ogy magazines, identify in a two-page essay
11. A pictorial drawing usually works best
some recent advances in communications tech-
as a detail drawing.
nology. Outline the steps for how one advance
T
led to another. Explain how you think commu-
F
nications technology might advance in the near
12. The primary characteristic of a per-
future. Give reasons for your predictions.
son you would want to check your
finished working drawing is speed.
T
F
9. Communication Skills
You have been asked to handle a request for TEST-TAKING TIP
drawings by one of your firm’s overseas cli-
ents. In meeting with their representative over If each item on a test is worth the same
the phone and in person, you find communi- number of points, do not spend too much
cation difficult because of his strong French time on questions that are confusing or that
accent. You realize that it is imperative to
you are really uncertain about.
understand exactly what he needs. Brainstorm
problem-solving techniques that might help
you approach the situation in the best way.
Win
10. Solving Word Problems
Igor is interested in getting a Master’s Degree
Events
13. Leadership Characteristics
in engineering, but he can only do so by tak-
ing night classes since he has a full-time job.
He has to complete 36 credits in all, and he can
take only 3 credits per quarter. Since there are
four quarters in a year, how long will it take?
Understanding Word Problems Activity Identify people you know or
When a word problem involves multiple know about whom you consider to be
steps, it is helpful to outline the information leaders. Then list the characteristics these
before you solve it. people share. Next write a 100-word para-
Step 1: Make a list of the information you graph explaining whether you agree with
already have and the information you are inves- the statement “Good leaders are born,
tigating, then decide how to use the informa- not made.” Explain the reasons for your
tion to solve the problem. position and give examples for support.
Step 2: Start working with the information
to see what you come up with: 3 credits per
quarter ⫻ 4 quarters per year ⫽ 12 credits per
competitive events.
year. Is 36 divisble by 12? Solve.

13 Problems
Drafting Problems
For problems 1 through 25, follow the instructions for each drawing prob-
lem. Detrmine an approporate scale if the scale is not given, and dimension
the drawings.
1. Make a working drawing of each part of the coupler shown in Figure 13-27. Ends: die-cast
aluminum. Spacer: rubber.
2. Make an assembly drawing of the coupler shown in Figure 13-27. Estimate all sizes and
details not given.
KEYWAY 188 WIDE X T 09
.50
1.38 .25
•
.62 O2.00
.44
.31
O1.50
.25-20 UNC-2B
ASME B1.1
O1.25
O2.00
O .625
Figure 13-27

3. Make a working drawing of each part of 5. Make a working drawing of each part of
the depth gage shown in Figure 13-28. the trammel shown in Figure 13-29.
All parts: cold-rolled steel. Specify “2 REQD” for the point, body,
and knurled screw. The point is to be
heat-treated after machining.
4. Make an assembly drawing of the depth
gage shown in Figure 13-28. Estimate
all sizes and details not given. 6. Make an assembly drawing of the tram-
mel shown in Figure 13-29. Estimate all
sizes and details not given.
0.8
0.8
MEDIUM O14
4
KNURL
22
3 R4
DEPTH ROD M6
.12 X 6.00 12 LONG
O DRILL ROD
O16
2 X 45°
O8 X 600
CRS ROD WITH
10 5 WIDE FLAT
20
8 R4
60
O9.5
M5
.1207 12 LONG O8
O .1200 METRIC
O.50 MEDIUM
.03 X 45° CHAMFER 2 KNURL
12
MEDIUM HANDLE
6
KNURL
54
.3805
O .3803 28
THREAD CONTROLLING
.1207
O .1200 2.38 O2.5 ORGANIZATION
AND STANDARD–ASME
.38025 B1.13M-2001
O .38000
T .44 .38
1.00 Figure 13-29

.75
.25 1
BASE
.38
.75
MEDIUM .25
KNURL 3.00
12–24 UNC–2A .62

O.50 ASME B1.1
.03 X 45° CHAMFER
4 KNURLED SCREW
Figure 13-28
Problems 483
13 Problems
7. Make a working drawing of each part 8. Make an assembly drawing of the arbor
of the arbor shown in Figure 13-30. shown in Figure 13-30 with a Ø6.00 ⫻
Flanges: die-cast aluminum. Shaft: cold- 1.00 grinding wheel between the flanges.
rolled steel. Show sectional views where practical.
Draw all fasteners. Estimate all sizes and
details not given.
O1.50
.03 X 45° CHAMFER
BOTH SIDES
4.00 O 5.00
O1.20 .02
DRILL AND TAP .12
FOR 12-28 NF O2.00 .25
SET SCR
1.50
.50
.31• .50-20 UNF-3A X 2.00 LONG

.88 .03 X 45° CHAMFER
O5.00
T 1.25 Figure 13-30

9. Making a working drawing of each part 10. Make an assembly drawing of the power
of the power expansion bit shown in expansion bit shown in Figure 13-31.
Figure 13-31. Cutter: tool steel. Body: Estimate all sizes and details not given.
cast iron. Use sectional views where
necessary.
2X .25
12–28 NF FOR
.06 X 45°
.25 LONG SET SCREW
.62 .18
.56
70°
.07 65°
A .18
1.38 O.25 TWIST DRILL 40° 1.25
VIE SECTION A–A

A
W
“A
”
VIEW "A"
Figure 13-31
Problems 485
13 Problems
11. Make a working drawing of each part of 12. Make an assembly drawing of the level
the level shown in Figure 13-32, except shown in Figure 13-32. Redesign the
do not draw the level glass. Body: die- level to include vertical and 45° angle
cast aluminum. Top plate: cold-rolled level glasses if desired. Estimate all sizes
steel. Use sectional views where neces- and details not given.
sary. Fillets ⫽ 1/8 R.
.62
3.00
.06
1.00 R.12
DRILL AND COUNTERSINK

R.12
FOR 6–32 UNC X .25 LONG
FLAT HEAD MACHINE SCREWS
3.00
O.25 X 1.75 LEVEL GLASS TO .06 .62

BE ATTACHED WITH LATEX 9.00
CALK. STRIPES TO BE .75
ADDED AFTER ASSEMBLY 2.62
3.00
2.25
.38
R.56
.10
.12
.62
.25
1.12 .12
R.38
Figure 13-32

13. Make a working drawing of each part of 14. Make an assembly drawing of the circle
the circle cutter shown in Figure 13-33. cutter shown in Figure 13-33. Show
Cutter: tool steel. Body and tool holder: sectional views where necessary. Draw
cold-rolled steel. all fasteners. Estimate all sizes and details
not given.
1.00
O.50
NOTE: ALL CHAMFERS

.03 X 45°
.25-20 UNC-3B FOR SET SCREW

3.75
.25 SQ X 2.25
CUTTER BIT TO
BE SHARPENED .88
AS DESIRED 1.38
4.75 .5004
O
.5000
.25.50
.49975
O .49945
Ø.75
.50
.12
SLOT .16 WIDE X .04 DP
3.25
.12
O .25 X 1.75 LONG

.25 SQ HOLE TWIST DRILL
O .62
THROUGH
O .80
.25-20 UNC-3B FOR THREAD CONTROLLING ORGANIZATION
SET SCREW AND STANDARD–ASME B1.1-2003
Figure 13-33
Problems 487
13 Problems
15. Make detail working drawings of each 16. Make an assembly drawing of the bever-
part of the beverage server shown in age server shown in Figure 13-34.
Figure 13-34. Material: hardwood.
17. Make a complete bill of materials for the beverage server shown in Figure 13-34. Based on
the bill of materials, estimate the cost to manufacture the server, and prepare an estimated
budget.
112
1
1 8 X 45° CHAMFER
2
114
3
7
8
2 12 DIA, 5 HOLES
3
4
3
5 10 DIA X 8 THICK
8 3
14 DIA
14
5
1
16 1 3
7 2 DRILL, 4 DEEP
8
1
4
3
8
3
8
1 6
14
3
8
1
2 DRILL
5 3
16 DRILL,
5 HOLES 9 DIA X 8 THICK
EQUALLY SPACED
Figure 13-34

18. Make a working drawing of the housing shown in Figure 13-35. Use partial and sectional
views where needed. Material: cast iron. Estimate all sizes not given.
L
C
45°
45° 1.06 1.75 2.75

7.00 O 4.322 1.933
1.75 4.312
1.931 .40 +
_ .010
1.06 1.75 .137 .137
2.75 .132 .132
3.00 .12 X 45°
2.80 BOTH SIDES
1.75
R.90 R.25
R.80 R.12
8.25 .25 10°
3.00 SECTION A-A
O5.12 O4.125
4.126 .12-27 NPT, ASME B1.20.1
ONE END ONLY
O4.62
.25 7.44
.62 R.38
O1.25 R2.50 L
C
A B
3.50
R1.38 .06 X 45°

BOTH SIDES
7.50 A 1.75
ROUNDS .12
FILLETS R.25 SECTION B-B
B
.25
Figure 13-35
19. Make detail working drawings of each part of the hung bearing shown in Figure 13-36.
Fully dimension each part. All bolts are 16 mm in diameter. Do not draw bolts and nuts.
Estimate sizes not given.
58
432
42
128
104 104 22 64 29
120 16
18
436
76
120
76
R68
74
METRIC
Figure 13-36
Problems 489
13 Problems
20. Make a working drawing of the end base shown in Figure 13-37. Use partial and sectional
views where needed. Material: cast iron. Estimate all sizes not given.
M12, ASME B1.13M "X"
R6 0
24 58
10 32
38
22 R14
45°
22
6
2 R6
12 R6
VIEW "X" 250
8 188
10
8
SECTION A–A
8 20
24
22 A
METRIC
12
8
A
100 88
Figure 13-37

21. Make a front view and section of the 22. Make a complete set of detail drawings, full
cushion wheel shown in Figure 13-38 size, with a bill of materials, for the cush-
at full size. This type of wheel is used on ion wheel shown in Figure 13-38. Three
warehouse or platform trucks to reduce sheets will be needed. Rivets are purchased
noise and vibration. and therefore need not be detailed, but they
should be listed in the bill of materials.
.12
O.31 RIVETS, 6 REQD
EQUALLY SPACED
.70
.20 1.00–16 UN O.25
.50
.31
O1.38 O3.50 O1.88

O1.25 O1.00 O4.75
O2.12 O2.38 .25
O2.25
O5.00
O6.62 O.120 30°
O8.00 .25
.75
OILLESS BUSHING
3.00
.88
1.50
Figure 13-38
23. Make detail drawings of the crane hook parts shown in Figure 13-39.
O4 X 38 11 50 11
R55 COTTER PIN
86
2 REQUIRED O110
O58
O25
O82
92
42
104
120
12 PEEN OVER END R20
RADIU AT ASSEMBLY R15
S TO S
R6 UIT
R44
80
11 R4
METRIC
O38
R26 R32 O28
42 44 32 O44
R4
58 R3
R50 110
O26
R6
R6
30
9.5 R44
R24 R50 12
R60 Figure 13-39
R3
Problems 491
13 Problems
.12 NPT, ASME 1.20.1 1.00–16 UN–3A, ASME B1.1
.56
WOODRUFF KEY #809 .06 24. Make detail drawings of
3 RIBS EQ SPACED the base, pulley, bush-
.31 THICK .31
O2.12 ing, and shaft shown in
.69 R.25 1.50
O.405
.12 1.38
Figure 13-40. Include
R.25 O1.12
a bill of materials for
.50+ .38 the complete pulley-
30°
and-stand unit. Scale:
O2.75
O5.00 5.00 Full size. Use three
.12 NPT
O4.38 sheets. Top view may
5.30
O1.75 be drawn as a half-plan
O1.38 3.56 view.
O.50 X 2 HEX HD
CAP SCREW
4 REQUIRED
18.75
O1.00
R1.62
R.38 R.50
TER 1.75
1.12 CUT IUS .88 .50
R A D
.50 R.62 .50

13.75
O6.25
O8.00
SPLINE–.31 WIDE X T .22 Figure 13-40
25. Make a two-view assembly drawing in section of the universal joint shown in Figure 13-41.
NO. 4 TAPER PIN

DRILL AND REAM
IN POSITION
3 WIDE X T 1.6 41 M12 X 1.25
M12
3
O14 O8
3 14
6 10 R16
3 3.2 10
27 32
1 60
38
AND STANDARD–ASME B1.13M-2001 R10
BILL OF MATERIAL FOR UNIVERSAL JOINT 2
NO. NAME QTY MATL NOTES 66 24
38 R12
1 FORK 2 C1 O44 O19 O19
2 RING 1 STEEL 38 19 O36
3 STUD 4 STEEL 60
O8
4 NO. 4 TAPER PIN 2 PURCHASED
20
METRIC R 24
Figure 13-41

Design Problems
teams of students. In these problems, you are to apply skills learned mainly in
this chapter but also in other chapters throughout the text. They are designed
to be completed using board drafting, CAD, or a combination of the two. Be
creative and have fun!
Metric 4. In the real world, companies must do

1. Design a collapsible sawhorse. Height is more than just create comprehensive
560 mm. Length is 800 mm. Make a set of working drawings for their products. To
working drawings, a bill of materials, and sell the products, they must bid on suit-
an assembly drawing. Material optional. able jobs and bill the client for the work
performed. Research and analyze the bid-
Teamwork ding and billing structures used by design
and engineering firms. Then choose at
2. Design a series of tool holders for use in least two of the products for which you
a home workshop. Begin by developing a have created working drawings in this
list of tools you would expect to find in chapter. Write a report explaining which
a home workshop. Divide the list among bidding structure and which billing struc-
the team members. Each team member is ture would be most appropriate for a com-
responsible for preparing working draw- pany that makes these products, and why.
ings for each holder on his or her list.
Prepare design sketches for team review. 5. CAD solid models are frequently used to
Material optional. drive manufacturing processes directly.
To be used this way, the models must be
Teamwork extremely accurate. One error that can shut
down a manufacturing process completely
3. Design a portable, collapsible stadium seat.
is a gap between surfaces in the model. In
Begin with design sketches. Consider fac-
most cases, this costly error can be avoided
tors such as weight and cost of materials.
by careful modeling. However, gaps may
How can you minimize costs while pro-
still occur occasionally, often due to incor-
viding all of the required features? Prepare
rectly performed alterations to the origi-
assembly working drawings with a materi-
nal model. Some CAD software provides a
als list. Other design considerations:
query function to check for the existence
• Add storage for a rain poncho. of such surface-to-surface gaps. Other soft-
• Add a removable cup holder. ware, including AutoCAD, requires you to
• Create a bill of materials for the zoom in to view each intersection at close
stadium seat.
range. Choose three solid models that
• Estimate the cost to produce the seat, you have created in this book. Zoom in
and prepare a budget. (Hint: Remem-
on all of the surface-to-surface and point-
ber to include any sales tax in the cost
to-point intersections to see whether they
of materials so that your budget will
meet exactly. If your software is capable of
not be underfunded.)
checking for gaps automatically, perform
If time allows, form a student business the appropriate query functions. List any
to market the stadium seat. gaps you find in your models. Explain why
the gaps occurred. What caused them?
Then fix the gaps and resave the files.
Problems 493
14 Pattern Development
Section 14.1
Principles of Pattern
Development
Section 14.2
Drawing Pattern
Developments
Chapter Objectives
• Explain how pattern
development is used in
the packaging industry.
• Identify the methods
for processing sheet-
metal patterns.
• Describe the general
principles of pattern
development.
• Discuss the three
main types of pattern
development.
• Prepare patterns
using the three main
types of pattern
development.
• Prepare patterns for
intersecting prisms
and cylinders.
Pack it Up The use of yellow

and gray is important to these
packaging designs. How do these
colors complement the packaged
items? Would you use these
colors? Why or why not?
494
Drafting Career
Design Guys, Packaging Specialists
Philippe Starck is a French designer who created

a line of everyday items for Target. Design Guys, a
Minneapolis-based firm, was asked to create the
packaging for the Starck product line. The team
at Design Guys wanted to showcase Starck’s work
using an understated look that could still grab the
customer’s attention. They wanted their packaging
to reflect Starck’s elegance and artistry, and his belief
that joy can be found in simple things.
The team at Design Guys invented unique fold-up

forms using plastic shrink-wrap. They chose a joyful
yellow color set off by a neutral gray. They included
Philippe Starck’s face and commentary about his
design on the packaging. Their packaging is powerful
because it says something about the joy of using the
item inside, about the artistry of Philippe Starck, and
about Target, the store that makes high quality and
great design available to a mass audience.

• Graphic design
• Engineering technology
• Marketing
• Problem solving
• Sketching and visualizing
Career Pathways
Designers are both creative and practical. A
bachelor’s degree is required for most entry-level
positions. Helpful high school courses include Eng-
lish, mathematics, business, family and consumer
sciences, computer-aided design (CAD), and art.

about Design Guys.
495
DesignGuys
14.1 Principles of Pattern
Development
Preview Patterns are essential in making industrial products and those we use at home. Look at
the packages the products you buy every day. Did you ever think these were made from patterns?
Content Vocabulary
• pattern • development • parallel-line • measuring line • triangulation
development • pattern development • radial-line • transition piece
• stretchout • stretchout line development
Academic Vocabulary
tests.
• diverse • approximate
Graphic Organizer
Use a table like the one below to organize notes about pattern development.
Type of pattern development: Application:

1.
2.
3.
Academic Standards
Teachers of English
Students use a variety of technological and information resources (e.g., libraries, databases, Language Arts
computer networks, video) to gather and synthesize information and to create and communicate NCTM National Council
knowledge (NCTE) of Teachers of
Mathematics
Mathematics Drafting Assocation
Solve problems that arise in mathematics and in other contexts (NCTM) ASME American Society of
Industry Standards
ADDA Section 14
496 Chapter 14 Pattern Development

The cover on this book is an example of
Understanding Pattern a pattern development. It was initially flat,
Development then was wrapped around the book to make
a protective covering. Notice that it fits neatly
How are patterns used in designing
around all surfaces. It does so because each
products for industry?
part has been carefully measured and laid out
Making patterns or pattern developments in relation to other parts.
is an important part of industrial drafting.
Many different industries use them. Familiar
items such as pipes, ducts for hot- or cold-
air systems, parts of buildings, aircraft, auto- Describe How are pattern developments
mobiles, storage tanks, cabinets, boxes and different from other technical drawings?
cartons, frozen food packages, and count-
less other items are designed using pattern
developments.
To make such items, a drafter must first The Packaging Industry
draw them as a pattern or pattern develop- What are some materials used for pattern
ment. A pattern development, also called developments?
a stretchout or simply a development, is a
full-size layout of an object made on a single Packaging is a very large industry that
flat plane. A development that is not full size uses pattern developments. Creating pack-
is not a pattern; it is simply a drawing or rep- ages takes both engineering and artistic skill
resentation of the pattern. Therefore, outlines because each package design must meet
for very large objects drawn at a reduced scale specific requirements. They must be cost-
are not pattern developments. effective for mass production, and at the same
The pattern is the original part of the pat- time resilient and durable enough to protect
tern development from which flat patterns what they contain. Some packages must look
can then be cut from flat sheets of material attractive for sales appeal.
that are folded, rolled, or otherwise formed To meet these requirements, designers use
into the required shape (see Figure 14-1). many diverse materials in various thick-
Materials used include paper; wood; fiber- nesses, that can be folded easily into the
board; fabrics; various cardboards, plastics, desired shape or form.
and films; metals such as steel, tin, copper, Packages made of cardboard, corrugated
brass, and aluminum; and so on. board, and other materials require an allowance
E Figure 14-1
E G
D
Pattern for a one-piece
H C package with fold-down tabs
B
D A
F C F
H G B G H
F A F
Section 14.1 Principles of Pattern Development 497

for thickness. Examples are boxes made up of a 41.82 pounds per square foot per inch of
Courtesy of Friedr Dick Corp.

separate container and cover (see Figure 14-2) thickness. Gauges for other metals like alu-
and a slide-in box (see Figure 14-3). minum or copper are calculated differently.
Standard gauges for sheet metals are avail-
able from ASTM.
Sheet-Metal Pattern Sheet metal is used to make patterns for
many objects. The metal is shaped by bending
Drafting (see Figure 14-4), folding, or rolling and fas-
What processes are used to form metal tened by riveting, seaming, soldering, or weld-
objects made from patterns? ing. For each sheet-metal object, two drawings
are usually made. One is a pictorial drawing of
Metal that has been formed into very thin,
the finished product, and the other is a devel-
flat sheets is called sheet metal. It is available
opment, or pattern, that shows the shape of
in many different thicknesses, or gauges.
the flat sheet that, when rolled or folded or
For steel, gauges are based on a weight of
fastened, will form the finished object (see
Figure 14-5).
Some metal objects without seams are
formed by die stamping, or pressing a flat
sheet into shape under heavy pressure
(see Figure 14-6A). Others are made by spin-
BEND MARK
ning (see Figure 14-6B). Die stamping and
spinning stretch the metal out of its original
FOLD
LINES
FOLD OR
shape and into a new one.
BEND
LINES
BOX COVER
Figure 14-2
Pattern for a box and cover
E
Figure 14-4
The bends in this metal spatula make it easier
S S
to use.
DRAWER
PATTERN FOR DRAWER
CASE
PATTERN FOR CASE
PATTERN
Figure 14-3
A two-part package with a slide-in box. The fold Figure 14-5
lines on the drawer are positioned so that the box Pictorial drawing and stretchout of a
will slide in correctly after assembly. sheet-metal box

Courtesy of Matfer Inc., Courtesy of Sitram Cookware
Figure 14-6
Examples of products created by (A) die stamping and (B) spinning sheet metal
Calculating Volume
Familiar items such as pipes, storage tanks,
cabinets, and boxes are designed and patterns 4
are prepared using pattern development. 2

When these items are meant to hold a
specific quantity or amount of fluid, solid, or RIGHT CIRCULAR CYLINDER
gaseous material, the designer must calculate
the volume of the items to make sure they 50.28 cubic inches
will hold the specified amount of material. The volume of a right circular cone is
For some shapes, calculating the volume is determined using the formula:
easy. For example, to find the volume of a (area of base)(height)
Volume ________________
cube, simply multiply the length times the 3
Area of base πr2
width times the height. Calculating the
(3.1416) (22)
volumes of other shapes requires the use of
(3.1416) (4)
other mathematical formulas.
12.57 square inches
(12.57)(6)
Volume ________
The volume of a right cylin- 3
der is determined using the formula: 25.14 cubic inches
Volume = (area of base) (height)
For example, the calculations to find the
6
volume of the cylinder shown here are:
Area of base πr2
(3.1416) (22) 2
(3.1416) (4)
12.57 square inches RIGHT CIRCULAR CONE
Volume (12.57) (4)
Academic Standards For help with this math activity, go

to the Math Appendix located at the
Mathematics back of this book.
Geometry Use visualization, spatial reasoning, and
geometric modeling to solve problems.

4 5
Finishing a Pattern
1
In dealing with sheet-metal patterns,
CUBE drafters must also know about the processes
2 3
of wiring, hemming, and seaming and the
material quantity required for each pro-
6 PLANE cess. Wiring is one method to reinforce open
ALL SIX SURFACES SURFACE
ARE PLANE SURFACES ends of an item by enclosing a wire in its
CYLINDER edge (see Figure 14-10A). To allow for wir-
CURVED
ing, a drafter must add a band of material
SURFACE to the pattern equal to 2.5 times the wire’s
PLANE
diameter.
Figure 14-7 SURFACE Hemming is another way to stiffen edges of
Plane and curved surfaces a sheet-metal product by folding the edges.
Single- and double-hemmed edges are shown
in Figures 14-10B and C. Edges can also be
Surface Geometry fastened by soldering on lap seams (see Fig-
Sheet-metal patterns, like all other patterns, ure 14-10D), flat lock seams Figure 14-10E,
are developed using principles of surface geom- or grooved seams Figure 14-10F. See Fig-
etry. Two general classes of surfaces are plane ure 14-10G and H for other types of seams
(flat) and curved. The six faces of a cube are and laps. The material required for each pro-
plane surfaces. The top and bottom of a cylinder cess depends on the thickness, the fastening
are also plane surfaces. However, the side surface method, and the application. In most cases,
of the cylinder is curved (see Figure 14-7). the corners of the lap are notched to make a
Curved surfaces that can be rolled in con- neater joint.
tact with a plane surface, such as cylinders
and cones, are called single-curved surfaces.
Exact pattern developments can be made for
them. The other curved surface is called double
Differentiate What are the three methods
curved and is found on spheres and spheroids. used to finish the edge of a sheet metal part?
Because exact pattern developments cannot
be made for objects with double-curved sur-
faces, drafters approximate.
Figure 14-8 shows the pattern for a cube. Types of Developments
Refer to Figure 14-9 for the patterns for four What specific shapes can be formed using
other regular solids. To understand pattern pattern development?
development better, lay these patterns out on
The type of development needed for an indi-
paper. Then cut them out and fold them to
vidual object depends on the object’s shape.The
make the solids. Secure the joints with tape.
three basic types are parallel-line development,
Any solid that has plane surfaces can be made
radial-line development, and triangulation.
in the same way.
E D
E
A B C D
B
A
F
Figure 14-8
Pattern for a cube

Parallel-Line Development in Figures 14-8 and 14-11 are made in this
way. In the patterns for prisms and cylinders,
Making a pattern by drawing the edges
the stretchout line, which shows the full
of an object as parallel lines is known as
length of the pattern when it is completely
parallel-line development. The patterns
unfolded, is straight, and the measuring
lines, or vertical construction lines, are per-
pendicular to it and parallel to each other.
Radial-Line Development
TETRAHEDRON The edges on cones and pyramids are not
parallel. Therefore, the stretchout line is not
a continuous straight line. Also, instead of
being parallel to each other, measuring lines
radiate from a single point. This type of devel-
OCTAHEDRON
opment is called radial-line development.
Imagine the curved surface of a cone as
being made up of an infinite number of trian-
gles, each running the height of the cone. To
understand the development of the pattern,
imagine rolling out each of these triangles,
one after another, on a plane (flat surface).
DODECAHEDRON
The resulting pattern would look like a sec-
tor of a circle. Its radius would be equal to an
element of the cone, that is, a line from the
cone’s tip to the rim of its base. Its arc would
be the length of the rim of the cone’s base.
See Figure 14-12 for the developed pattern
of a cone.
ICOSAHEDRON
Figure 14-9 Triangulation

Patterns for four regular solids Some surfaces, such as double-curved
surfaces, cannot be developed exactly. The
method used to make approximate devel-
opments of these surfaces is known as
triangulation. It involves dividing the sur-
B
A face into triangles, finding the true lengths of
C the sides, and then constructing the triangles
in regular order on a plane. Because the tri-
.12" TO .25" angles have one short side, on the plane they
D approximate the curved surface.
E
Transition Pieces
OUTSIDE
A piece that is used to connect pipes, such
G
as hot- and cold-air ducts, and openings of
different shapes, sizes, or positions is known
F
INSIDE as a transition piece. Transition pieces have
H a surface that is a combination of different
forms, including planes, curves, or both, and
Figure 14-10 are usually developed by triangulation. Refer
Methods of wiring, seaming, and hemming to Figure 14-13 for a few examples of transi-
tion pieces that require triangulation.

Arnold and Brown
F F
E E
F
D
E B C D
A B C D A
C A 1 S L
1 2 3 4 1
B
STRETCHOUT LINE (SL)
G G LAP
3 2
G
Figure 14-11
A pattern for a prism, showing stretchout
line and lap
Figure 14-12
Figure 14-13
Developed surface of a cone
Examples of transition pieces
a one-page essay, tell how the event or

Section 14.1 Assessment trend discussed could affect pattern
After You Read drafting. Identify the source for each
article and tell how you found it. Indi-
cate whether or not you feel the infor-
Self-Check mation is valid and reliable, and why
1. Explain why pattern development is you feel that way.
important to packaging industry.
2. List methods for processing sheet-metal Drafting Practice
patterns. 6. Referring to Figure 14-2, draft a full-size
3. Differentiate between pattern drafting pattern development for a box which,
and other kinds of technical drafting. when assembled, will measure 6″ wide, 4″
4. Identify the three main types of pattern long, and 2.5″ tall. Draft another pattern
developments and the purpose for each. development for a suitable cover for the
box. Assemble the box and cover. Mate-
Academic Integration rial: card stock or cardboard.
5. Using research resources such as the Go to glencoe.com for this
library, the Internet, or a business peri- book’s OLC for help with this
odical, find two articles about an event drafting practice.
or trend in the packaging industry. In

14.2 Drawing Pattern Developments
Connect Sometimes you can solve problems by using board drafting techniques and Auto-
CAD commands to develop CAD pattern developments on your own. What types of patterns do
you think you might create this way?
Content Vocabulary
• elbow
Academic Vocabulary
• convenient
Graphic Organizer
Use a table like the one below to organize notes about pattern development using board
drafting and CAD techniques. Add rows as needed.
Steps in drawing patterns

Parallel line Radial line Triangulation Intersections book’s OLC for a downloadable
1. 1. 1. 1. version of this graphic organizer.
2. 2. 2. 2.
3. 3. 3. 3.
4. 4. 4. 4.
5. 5. 5. 5.
6. 6. 6. 6.
Academic Standards
NCTM National Council
Mathematics of Teachers of
Mathematics
Organize and consolidate mathematical thinking though communication (NCTM)
NSEM National Science
Education Standards
Science
Structure and properties of matter (NSES) Drafting Assocation
Industry Standards
ADDA Section 14
Section 14.2 Drawing Pattern Developments 503

Parallel-Line Figure 14-14
Developments Pictorial drawing of a
rectangular prism
Why is accuracy so important when
drawing pattern developments?
Pattern development drawings are often

prepared in board drafting on buff, light
green, or light brown paper rather than on 2. Draw the stretchout line (SL). Find the
tracing materials such as vellum or film, and lengths of sides 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, and 4-1 in
nearly always in pencil. Remember that pat- the top view. Mark off these lengths on
tern developments are prepared at full size the SL (see Figure 14-15B).
and that accuracy in layout and measure- 3. At points 1, 2, 3, 4, and 1 on the SL, draw
ments is of key importance. vertical crease (fold or bend) lines. Make
Because accuracy is crucial, lines are often them equal in length to the height of the
drawn somewhat thinner than they are for prism (see Figure 14-15C).
other types of drawings, but they still need to 4. Project the top line of the pattern from the
be sharp and black, and of good quality. top of the front view. Make it parallel to
The easiest type of development to create the SL. Darken all outlines until they are
is the parallel-line development. It is used to sharp and black (see Figure 14-15D). Use
develop patterns for prisms, cylinders, and a small circle or X to identify a fold line.
elbows. 5. Add the top and bottom to the pattern by
transferring distances 1-4 and 2-3 from the
Prisms top view, as shown in Figure 14-15E.
See Figure 14-14 for a pictorial view of a 6. Add laps or tabs as necessary for the
rectangular prism. To draw this pattern, pro- assembly of the prism. The size of the
ceed as follows: laps will vary depending on how they
1. Draw the front and top views full size. are to be fastened and the type of mate-
Label the points as in Figure 14-15A. rial used.
Figure 14-15
4 3 4 3 Parallel-line development
TOP of a rectangular prism
VIEW
1 2 1 2
FRONT
VIEW
S L
1-4 2-3 1 2 3 4 1 1-4 2-3 1 2 3 4 1
A B C
4 3 4 3
1 2 1 2
S L
1-4 2-3 1 2 3 4 1 1-4 2-3 1 2 3 4 1
D E

3 2 PICTORIAL DRAWING
OF TRUNCATED PRISM
Figure 14-16
TOP VIEW
Development of a
4 1 pattern for a
D truncated prism
C
C AUXILIARY VIEW
C C D
D
A
B
B
A B
FRONT VIEW A-B A
S L
3-4 1-2 1 2 3 4 1
3 2
A slight variation is the pattern for a trun-

cated prism (see Figure 14-16). To draw it,
first make the front, top, and auxiliary views A
at full size. Label points as shown. The next
two steps are the same as steps 2 and 3. Then
project horizontal lines from points A-B and
C-D on the front view to locate points on the CIRCUMFERENCE
OF CIRCLE
pattern. Connect the points to complete the C= D
top line of the pattern. Add the top and bot-
B
tom as shown. Tabs may be added.
Cylinders
Figure 14-17A shows a pattern devel-
opment for a cylinder. It is made by rolling
the cylinder out on a plane surface. In the
pattern for cylinders, the stretchout line is
straight and equal in length to the circum- Figure 14-17
ference of the cylinder (see Figure 14-17B). Developed surface of a right circular cylinder
If the base of the cylinder is perpendicular
to the axis, its rim will roll out to form the
straight line. are infinite in number. For your purposes,
In developing a cylinder, imagine that it however, you need to mark off elements
is actually a many-sided prism. Each side at convenient equal spaces only around
forms an edge called an element. Because the circumference of the cylinder. (Refer to
there are so many elements, however, they Figure 14-18 for various methods of divid-
seem to form a smooth curve on the surface ing a circle.) Then add up these spaces to
of the cylinder. Imagining the cylinder in make the stretchout line. This must equal
this way will help you find the length of the the circumference of the cylinder.
stretchout line. This length will equal the Figure 14-19 is a pictorial view of a trun-
total of the distances between all of the ele- cated right cylinder, showing the imaginary
ments. Technically, of course, the elements elements.

10 18 19 20 10
9 11 17 21 9 11
Figure 14-18 16 22
8 12 15 23 8 12
Dividing a circle 14 24
7 1 1 7 1
13
12 2
6 2 6 2
11 3
10 4
5 3 9 5 5 3
4 8 7 6 4
12 PARTS AT 30° = 360° 24 PARTS AT 15° = 360° 12 PARTS AT 30° = 360°
Figure 14-19 9 10 11
Pictorial drawing of a 8 12
truncated right cylinder 1
7
65 2
3
4
Figure 14-20 shows how to develop a pat-

tern for this cylinder. To draw this pattern,
proceed as follows:
1. Draw the front and top views at full size. S L
Divide the top view into a convenient 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1
number of equal parts (12 in this case) to
locate a set of equally spaced points in Figure 14-20
the top view. Development of a pattern for a truncated right
2. Transfer the points in the top view to the cylinder
front view to locate points at intervals on
the inclined surface.
3. Begin the stretchout line. You will deter- Because the surface of a cylinder is a smooth
mine its actual length later when you curve, your pattern will not be entirely accu-
mark off the elements. Again, the stre- rate. This happens because it was made by
tchout line must equal the circumference measuring distances on a straight line (chord)
of the cylinder. rather than on a curve. Figure 14-21 repre-
4. Using dividers, find the distance between sents part of the top view of the cylinder just
any two consecutive elements in the top discussed. The drawing shows that the dis-
view. Then mark off this distance along tance from point to point is slightly shorter
the stretchout line as many times as there along the chord than along the arc. The dif-
are parts in the top view. Label the points ference can be found by calculating the actual
thus found (see Figure 14-20). Then draw length of the arc using the following formula
a vertical construction line upward from in which d stands for diameter:
each point. Note: In this and subsequent
steps, the colored arrows on the figure Circumference d
show the direction in which the various
lines are projected.
5. From these intersection points on the Figure 14-21
A
front view, project horizontal construc- The chords used
tion lines toward the development. to approximate a
6. Locate the points where the horizontal X cylinder are slightly
X shorter than the radial
construction lines intersect the measur-
Y Y distance they represent
ing lines (vertical lines) from the stre- because a straight line
tchout line. Connect these points in a B
is the shortest distance
smooth curve. between two points.
7. Darken outlines and add laps as necessary.

LAP
B
1 S
7 L
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
6 2 1
7
5 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
4
6 2
5 3
Figure 14-22 4
Development of a pattern for a truncated right Figure 14-23

cylinder using a combined front and half-bottom
view. This forms the pattern for a square elbow. Both parts of the pattern may be made on one
stretchout.
As long as you include enough elements to

represent the cylinder adequately, however,
Radial-Line
the difference is negligible. Developments
Another method for developing a cylin- When might a pattern for a cone-shaped
der is shown in Figure 14-22. In this case, object be needed?
the views of the front and half-bottom are
used. Attaching the two views saves time and Objects that have conical or pyramidal shapes
increases accuracy. cannot be developed using parallel-line develop-
ment because the stretchout line is not a straight
Elbows line. If a conical or pyramidal object has an
An elbow is a joint, a place in a pipe or axis at 90° to its base, it can be developed using
duct where two pieces meet at an angle other radial-line development. The procedures in this
than 180°. The simplest type of elbow is a section show how to develop a pattern for right
square or is composed of two pieces. More (90°) cones and pyramids.
complex elbows provide smoother curves.
Right Circular Cone
Square Elbows A right circular cone is one in which the base
A square elbow consists of two cylinders is a true circle and the tip is directly over the
cut off at 45°. Therefore, only one pattern is center of the base (see Figure 14-24A). The
needed (see Figure 14-22). Allow a lap for the pattern for a cone is shown in Figure 14-24B.
type of seam to be made if required. To draw the pattern, proceed as follows:
If a lap is not needed on the curved edges, 1. Draw front and half-bottom views to the
both parts can be developed on one stre- desired size.
tchout (see Figure 14-23). Notice that the 2. Divide the half-bottom view into several
seam in Figure 14-23A is on the short side equal parts. Label the division points as
and in Figure 14-23B it is on the long side. shown.
In Figure 14-22, the seam on both pieces is 3. On the front view, measure the cone’s
on the short side. In most cases, this place- slant height, which is the true distance
ment is not critical. from the apex to the rim of the base (line
A1). Using this length as a radius, draw an
arc of indefinite length as a measuring arc.
Draw a line from apex A to the arc at any
Explain Why are the chords used to point a short distance from the front view.
approximate a cylinder slightly shorter than 4. Using dividers, find the straight-line dis-
the radial distance they represent? tance between any two division points
on the half-bottom view. Then use

1 1 2
2
3 3
4 4
LAP FOR SEAM 5
5
6
6
7
7
6
A 6
RIGHT CIRCULAR CONE 5
5
TRUNCATED RIGHT
CIRCULAR CONE 4
A 4
A 3
3
2
2
1
1
7 1 7 1
B
6 2 6 2
B
5 3 5 3
4 4

Development of a pattern for a cone Development of a pattern for a truncated right
circular cone
this length to mark off spaces 1-2, 2-3,

5. In the front view, find the points on the
3-4, and so forth, along the arc. Label the
miter line that were located in step 3. Proj-
points to be sure none have been missed.
ect horizontal lines from them to the edge
Complete the development by drawing
of the front view. Continue these lines as
line A1 at the far end.
arcs through the development. Mark the
5. Add laps for the seam as required. How
points where they intersect the element
much to allow for the seam depends on
lines. Join these points in a smooth curve.
the size of the development and the type
Complete the pattern by adding a lap.
of joint to be made.
Pyramids
Truncated Circular Cone Before you can begin to develop a pattern
A circular cone that has been cut along a for a pyramid, you must find the true length
plane that is not parallel to the base is known of its edges. For example, in the pyramid in
as a truncated circular cone (see Figure 14-25A). Figure 14-26A, you need to find the true
The pattern for such a cone is shown in length of OA. Figure 14-26B shows the top
Figure 14-25B. To draw it, proceed as follows: and front views of the pyramid. In neither
1. Draw the front, top, and bottom (or half- view does the edge OA show in true length.
bottom) views. However, if the pyramid were in the posi-
2. Proceed as in Figure 14-24 to develop tion shown in Figure 14-26C, the front view
the overall layout for the pattern. would show OA in true length. In this figure,
3. Project points 1 through 6 from the bot- the pyramid has been revolved about a ver-
tom view to the front view and then to tical axis until OA is parallel to the vertical
the apex. Label the points where they plane. In Figure 14-26D, line OA is shown
intersect the miter (cut) line to avoid mis- before and after revolving (OA′).
takes. These lines, representing elements The construction in Figure 14-26D is a simple
of the cone, do not show in true length way to find the true length of the edge line OA.
in the front view. Their true length shows Revolve this view to make the horizontal line
only when they are projected horizon- OA′. Project A′ down to meet a base line pro-
tally to the points on the arc. jected from the original front view. Draw a line
4. Project the elements of the cone from from this intersection point to a new front view
the apex to the points on the arc. of O. This line will show the true length of OA.

O O
Finding the true length of a line Developing a pattern for
an oblique pyramid
1
A'
3
A
A
2
4
O A' O A O A' 1
3 4
A
O
O O O
2
2 1 O
TRUE O
LENGTH TRUE
LENGTH
1
1 A A' A 1 A A'
B C D
2 2' 1 1' 2 3 4
Figure 14-27 4. Connect the points and draw crease lines.

Development of a pattern for Mark the crease lines.
a right rectangular pyramid 5. Add base 1-2-3-4 as shown.
3 4 1 Oblique Pyramids
1' See Figure 14-28 for the development of an
4 oblique pyramid. To draw it, proceed as follows:
2 1 1
O O 1. Find the true lengths of the lateral edges.
TRUE
Do this by revolving them parallel to the
LENGTH vertical plane as shown for edges O2 and
O1. These edges are both revolved in the
3
2 top view, and then projected to locate 2′
2-3 1-4 1 2 and 1′. Lines O2′ and O1′ in the front view
are the true lengths of edges O2 and O1.
Edge O2 edge O3. Edge O1 edge O4.
2. Start the development by laying off 2-3.
Right Rectangular Pyramids Because edge O2 edge O3, you can locate
Figure 14-27 shows the pattern for a right point O by plotting arcs centered on 2
rectangular pyramid. To draw it, proceed as and 3 and with radii the true length of O2
follows: (O2′). Point O is where the arcs intersect.
1. Find the true length of one of the edges 3. Construct triangles O-3-4, O-4-1, and
(O1 in this case) by revolving it until it is O-1-2 with the true lengths of the sides
parallel to the vertical plane (O1′). to complete the development of the
2. With the true length as a radius, draw an pyramid as shown.
arc of indefinite length to use as a mea-
suring arc.
3. On the top view, measure the lengths
of the four base lines (1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-1). Explain How do you find the true length of
Mark these lengths off as the straight-line the lateral edges of an oblique pyramid?
distances along the arc.

Triangulation
What is another word for “triangulation”?
Summarize How are triangulation pieces
Refer to Figure 14-29 for the use of trian- usually developed?
gulation in developing an oblique cone. To
draw this pattern development, proceed as
follows:
1. Draw elements on the top- and front-
CAD Pattern
view surfaces to create a series of trian- Developments
gles, as shown in Figure 14-29A and B. Why is it important to learn to draw
Number the elements 1, 2, and so pattern developments in CAD?
forth. For a better approximation of the
curve, use more triangles than shown in In industry, special third-party softwares
Figure 14-29. are often used for pattern developments. This
2. Find the true lengths of the elements software may be a stand-alone product or an
by revolving them in the top view until add-on to a basic drafting program such as
each is horizontal. From the tip of each, AutoCAD. This type of software is parametric,
project down to the front-view base line that is, it builds the shapes you select accord-
to get a new set of points 1, 2, and so ing to the parameters you set.
forth. Connect these with the front view For example, in Figure 14-30, the user has
of point O to make a true-length diagram specified a truncated circular cone with an
(see Figure 14-29C). upper diameter of 24″, a lower diameter of 36″,
3. To plot the development in Figure and a height of 18″. The software uses those
14-29D, construct the triangles in the parameters to automatically create a full-size
order in which they occur. Take the pattern for the cone.
distances 1-2, 2-3, etc., from the top view. It is important, however, to know how to
Take the distances O1, O2, etc., from the draw developments in CAD independent of
true-length diagram. Connect the curve automated software. The procedures parallel
and add tabs if needed. those for board drafting.
PARTIAL DEVELOPMENT
Figure 14-29
D
Triangulation is used
A O O A
5 in developing an
oblique cone.
4
3 ELEMENTS 1
2 1
A
TOP VIEW
2
B C
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5
FRONT VIEW TRUE-LENGTH DIAGRAM

TOP VIEW
.10
FRONT VIEW
Figure 14-32
CAD development of the rectangular prism from
An example of parametric pattern development
software. The user specifies the dimensions
in the box on the left, and the software
automatically creates the pattern development of the development. The last vertical
in the drawing window. line should lie exactly at the end of the
stretchout line. Add the top horizontal
across the entire development.
4. Add small circles as shown in Figure 14-32
to identify the crease lines.
5. Add the top and bottom to the pattern
2.00
Figure 14-31 by copying the top view and placing it
A rectangular prism as shown on the development. Use the
COPY command to create both the top
and the bottom.
6. Add laps or tabs as necessary for the
1.50
.50
assembly of the prism. The size of the
laps will vary depending on how they are
to be fastened and the type of material
used. Here you should use the OFFSET
CAD Parallel-Line Development
command to create .1″ tabs and chamfer
Figure 14-31 is a pictorial view of a rectan-
the corners of the tabs at 45°.
gular prism. A pattern for this prism is made by
parallel-line development (see Figure 14-32).
To draw this pattern, proceed as follows:
1. Use the PLINE command to draw the
front and top views at full size. Describe How do you create a pattern
2. Select the top view and then enter the development using parametric software?
LIST command. A text window appears
listing information about the rectangle.
The perimeter equals the length of the CAD Radial-Line Development
stretchout line you need. Draw the stre- AutoCAD provides tools to make radial-
tchout line. line development a fast, accurate process. See
3. At the beginning of the stretchout line, Figure 14-33 for a pictorial of a frustum of a
create a 2″ vertical line to represent the right circular cone. The top radius is .75″, the
beginning of the pattern. Offset this bottom radius is 1.25″, and the height is 1.12″.
line to the right by 1.5″, .5″, 1.5″, and .5″ Develop the cone as shown in Figure 14-34.
(the dimensions of the top view) to cre- 1. Draw front and half-bottom views.
ate the crease lines and the right end Extend a line through the center of the

front view to about 1.5″ above the top
of the front view. Use the EXTEND com-
mand to extend the sides of the front
view to find the virtual apex of the cone A A
(see Figure 14-34A).
2. Enter PDMODE and 3 to change the
point display to an X that is easily visible.
Enter the REGEN command to see the B B
C
points. Then use the DIVIDE command
to divide the half-bottom view into 6 A B
equal parts (see Figure 14-34B).
A
3. Enter the DIST command and select
points A and B to find the true distance
D
from the apex to the rim of the base.
Using this length as a radius, create a B
C
Figure 14-33 C D E
A frustum of a cone with a top
radius of .75″, a bottom radius Figure 14-34
of 1.25″, and a height of 1.12″
Development of the frustum of a cone from
Figure 14-33
circle with its center at the apex. Draw

line AC from apex A to the circle at
point C (any point a short distance from
Zooming Dynamically
the front view). See Figure 14-34B. Trim
To create the tab chamfers accu-
away the part of the circle between the
rately, you will need to zoom in for a
closer look. After you have zoomed in front view and line AC to form arc BC.
to complete one tab corner, enter the 4. Use the DIST command again to find the
ZOOM command and enter D for the straight-line distance between any two
Dynamic option. The entire drawing division points on the half-bottom view.
reappears, and a dashed green box (Use the Node object snap to snap to two
shows your current location and level of the division points.) Enter the MEASURE
of magnification. A white box of the command and pick arc BC near line AC.
same size appears at the cursor with For the segment length, enter the straight-
an X at its center. Move the cursor so line distance that you found using the
that the white box is located at the DIST command. AutoCAD marks points
next tab to be chamfered, and right- along the arc at the interval you entered.
click to finish the zoom. 5. For the development, you need only the
If you want to change the zoom first 12 of these intervals. Create a line
magnification, you can do so while from the twelfth division mark to the apex
the Dynamic option is active by (point A). This determines the other end
left-clicking. The X at the center of of the development. Trim away the rest
the cursor box changes to an arrow. of arc BC, and delete the rest of the points
Moving the cursor changes the size of (see Figure 14-34C).
the white box. The size and location 6. Enter the DIST command and find the
of the box correspond to the size and distance from the apex to point D. With
location of the viewing area when this distance as a radius, create another
you complete the ZOOM command.
circle with its center at the apex. Trim
the circle to the lines that represent the

beginning and end of the development (see Figure 14-36). When a plane surface meets
(see Figure 14-34D). a curved surface, or where two curved surfaces
7. Clean up the drawing by trimming away meet, the line of intersection may be either a
unneeded lines. Enter PDMODE and straight line or a curved line, depending on the
enter a new value of 0 to hide the divi- surfaces and their relative positions.
sion points, using REGEN to change the Package designers, sheet-metal workers, and
points on-screen. To finish the draw- machine designers must be able to find the
ing, add .1″ tabs with 45° chamfers (see point at which a line pierces a surface and the
Figure 14-34E). line where two surfaces intersect to find the
true length of each side. Figure 14-37 shows
some ways in which different surfaces intersect.
Explain How do you locate the virtual apex

Drawing Intersections
of a frustum of a cone? The intersection of two 3D objects requires
special attention. The exact location of the
line of intersection must be determined before
Intersections a pattern can be developed.
What is the first step in developing a Intersecting Prisms

pattern for intersecting objects? See Figure 14-38 for a drawing of the
As you may recall from Chapter 10, a line intersection of two prisms. To draw the com-
intersects a plane at the piercing point, or point plete front and top views of the intersecting
of intersection (see Figure 14-35). When two prisms, proceed as follows:
plane surfaces meet, the line where one passes 1. Draw the hexagon shape in the top view
through the other is called the line of intersection at 2.00″ across the flats.
POINT OF
INTERSECTION Figure 14-35
The intersection of a line and a
plane is a point
A B C D
Figure 14-36
The intersection of two planes
is a line. The arrow points to
the line of intersection.
A B C D
Figure 14-37
Examples of intersections

HEX 2.00 ACROSS FLATS distances on the diamond shape in the
F H H F top view. Do likewise on the left side.
10. Draw a horizontal layout line through
G G'
the center of the top view (G-G′).
G' G
11. Establish points F and F′ in the top view
1.00
G by projecting both points F-F′ from the
F' H' H' F'
F front view to the top view. This com-
A B pletes the top view.
I 12. Add the lines of intersection on the front
3.50 F'
F-F'
G' view by projecting points H-H′ down
AUXILIARY from the top view to the front view. Con-
H-H' G' VIEW
nect points I and I′ with points H-H′ to
I X
I' complete the drawing.
G H-H' 120°
F-F'
I'
G'
C
2.00 Define Why does the intersection of two
D
3D objects require special attention?
4.00
Intersecting Cylinders
See Figure 14-39A for a drawing of the line
of intersection of two cylinders. Because cylin-
Figure 14-38 ders have no edges, you must assume positions
Intersecting prisms for the cutting planes. Draw plane AA to con-
tain the front line (element) of the vertical cyl-
inder. This plane will also cut a line, or element,
2. Project downward from the corners of on the horizontal cylinder. The intersection of
the hexagon to establish the vertical these two lines in the front view identifies a
lines for the front view. point on the required curve. Similarly, planes
3. Measure the 3.50″ vertical distance to estab- BB, CC, and DD cut lines on both cylinders
lish the top and bottom of the front view. that intersect at points common to both cylin-
4. Locate the exact center of the front view. ders. See Figure 14-39B for a drawing indicat-
You can do this easily and quickly by ing the development of the vertical cylinder.
striking diagonals from corner A to cor-
ner C and from corner B to corner D.
5. Draw a light construction line through
the center point X at 60° to the horizon-
9 10 11
tal (120° to the vertical). 8 12
D 7 1D
6. Measure 2.00″ along the inclined line in C C
B 6 2 B
both directions from point X to establish A 5 4 3 A
the ends of the square prism. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1
7. In any convenient location to the right

or left, construct an auxiliary view of the
A BC D
square prism. In Figure 14-38, it is to the DEVELOPMENT OF CYLINDER
right of the front view.

8. Project back to the front view to establish
the top and bottom edges of the square A B
prism. The lines of intersection on the
front view will be added later. Figure 14-39
9. Project lines upward from G, F-F′, and G′ Intersection of cylinders at a right angle
on the right side to establish horizontal

G
G
F F Figure 14-42
E E
D D A cutting plane
C C
B B7 a
A A
6
5 a
4 1
3 2
7
6 a a
5 PLANE
1
4 2
3
3 4
2 5
1
6
7
HALF DEVELOPMENT
Figure 14-40
Intersection of cylinders at an angle
Intersection of Cylinders and Cones
To find the line of intersection of a cylin-
der and a cone, use horizontal cutting planes
M
(see Figure 14-41). Each plane cuts a circle
on the cone and two straight lines on the
cylinder. Points of intersection occur where
the straight lines of the cylinder cross the
circles of the cone in the top view. Project
these points onto the front view to get the
intersection line. Figure 14-42 shows this
PLANE construction for a single plane. Use as many
planes as needed to make a smooth curve.
Intersection of Planes and Curved

Surfaces
Refer to Figure 14-43 for a drawing of the
intersection of a plane MM and the curved sur-
face of a cone. To find the line of intersection,
use horizontal cutting planes A, B, C, and D.
Figure 14-41
Each plane cuts a circle from plane MM. Thus,
Intersection of a cylinder and a cone. you can locate points common to MM and the
cone as in the top view. Project these points onto
the front view to get the curve of intersection.
In Figure 14-40, the line of intersection
of two cylinders joined at an angle is shown. CAD Intersections
In this drawing, cutting planes are located by Some companies that use CAD systems
an auxiliary view. To make the development create complex solid models of intersecting
of the inclined cylinder, take the length of the objects. The pattern development is then cre-
stretchout line from the circumference of the ated directly from the solid model using third-
auxiliary view. Choose a cutting plane that party software. However, you can develop an
divides this circumference into equal parts so intersection in CAD using a technique similar
that the measuring lines are equally spaced to that used in board drafting.
along the stretchout line. Project the lengths See Figure 14-38 for drawing of two inter-
of the measuring lines from the front view. secting prisms. Note: Construction lines are in
Join their ends into a smooth curve. color in the illustration for clarity only. It is not

ners to establish the vertical lines for the
Figure 14-43 hexagon in the front view.
Intersection of 3. Place line AB horizontally across the
ABCDE
a plane and construction lines as shown in Figure
a curved surface 14-44A. Offset the line downward by
M M 3.50″ to create the bottom line of the
front view. Trim the construction lines
to the boundaries of the front view.
4. Locate the exact center of the front view.
You can do this easily and quickly by
striking a diagonal from corner A to cor-
A
B ner C. Start a new line at the midpoint of
C
D line AC (the center of the front view), and
E
use polar coordinates to extend it 2.00″
at 30°. Copy the new line using its right
necessary or desirable to use a different color for endpoint as the base point. Place the
these lines because parts of them are incorpo- copy so that the right endpoint is at the
rated into the final drawing. Create the intersec- intersection of the diagonals. Enter the
tion shown in Figure 14-44 by following these PEDIT command and use the Join option
steps. to change the two lines into a single
1. Draw the hexagon shape in the top view polyline, a line of any length as defined
at 2.00″ across the flats. in Chapter 4, that defines the length and
2. Use the XLINE command to place con- location of the rectangular prism.
struction lines downward from the cor- 5. To the right of the front view, construct
an auxiliary view of the square prism.
A B
AUXILIARY
D VIEW
A B A B
D'
"THROUGH"
POINTS
C C
C D
D D' D D'
D
D E E
A B A B
F
D' D'
F E
E F'
F' Figure 14-44

C C
Developing intersecting prisms.

6. Enter the OFFSET command. Instead DD′ by this amount above and below
of selecting the line to offset, enter T to to establish the edges of the rectangular
activate the Through option. Select the prism in the top view.
polyline you created in step 4 as the line 9. Establish the right and left ends of the rect-
to offset. For the through point, choose angular prism in the top view by creating
point D in Figure 14-44B, at the top of vertical construction lines from key points
the auxiliary view. This creates the top on the front view (see Figure 14-44C).
edge of the rectangular prism. Then repeat Finish the top view by drawing the con-
this operation, choosing point D′ at the necting lines on both sides and trimming
bottom of the auxiliary as the through the horizontal construction lines. Notice
point to establish the lower edge of the that two of the lines are hidden on the left
rectangular prism. Connect the ends to side of the prism. Clean up the drawing by
complete the front view of the rectangu- deleting the vertical construction lines.
lar prism. Erase the diagonal line AC. 10. Add the lines of intersection on the front
7. Use XLINE to draw horizontal construction view by creating vertical construction
line DD′ through the center of the top view. lines through points E. Connect points
8. In the auxiliary view of the rectangular F and F′ with points E in the front view
prism, draw both diagonals. Use the DIST and trim away the unneeded portions
command to find the actual distance of the lines (see Figure 14-44D). Delete
from the intersection of the diagonals to the two remaining vertical construction
any corner of the square. Then offset line lines to complete the drawing.

After You Read 4. Draw the front and top views of each
object shown in Figure 14-45, and
then develop the pattern. Add the top
Self-Check in the position it would be drawn for
1. Explain how a pattern is developed fabrication.
using parallel-line development, radial-
line development, and triangulation.
2. Identify the steps for developing pat- 2.50 2.50 Ø64
terns for intersecting prisms and cylinders.
Academic Integration 2.50 2.50

METRIC
Mathematics
60°
3. Calculate Costs Miller Box and Packag-
ing Supply manufactures a one-size-fits-
4.00 100
all packing box. It plans to manufacture 45°
750,000 boxes to be sold at $0.44 each. The

fixed costs to make them are $142,570.
The variable costs to make them are $0.19 A B C
each. How many boxes must Miller sell to
break even? Figure 14-45
Number and Operations
To find the break-even point in units,
use the following formula: Total Fixed
drafting practice.
Costs (Selling Price per Unit Variable
Costs per Unit)

Chapter Summary
• Pattern development is used extensively • On parallel-line developments, the stre-
in the packaging industry for many tchout line is always straight, while on
products. radial-line development, it is curved. Tri-
• Pattern development involves drafting a angulation developments involve approx-
usually full-size drawing for an item that imating the surface geometry for objects
is either folded, rolled, or stamped into its that cannot be precisely patterned.
shape using different methods. • Patterns can also be developed for inter-
• The three main types of pattern develop- sections, or combined shapes, such as
ment are parallel-line, radial-line, and prisms and cylinders.
triangulation.

Content Vocabulary • stretchout line (p. 501) Academic Vocabulary
• pattern development (p. 497) • measuring line (p. 501) • diverse (p. 497)
• stretchout (p. 497) • radial-line development • approximate (p. 500)
• development (p. 497) (p. 501) • convenient (p. 506)
• pattern (p. 497) • triangulation (p. 501)
• parallel-line development • transition piece (p. 501)
(p. 501) • elbow (p. 507)
Review Key Concepts

2. List uses for pattern development in the packaging industry.
3. Describe how sheet metal is used in pattern development.
4. Describe the general principles of pattern development.
5. Identify the three main types of pattern development.
6. Explain when parallel-line, radial-line, and triangulation developments are used.
7. Explain how patterns are developed for intersecting prisms and cylinders.

Technology
8. History of Technology Prep
There have been many technological events
Multiple Choice Question For
11. In pattern development,
in history that have powerfully changed the
a method that is used
world. Brainstorm three major technology-
for making approximate
related events in history. For example, you
developments of surfaces that
might choose the invention or the automo-
cannot be developed exactly is
bile, or the first successful heart transplant.
a. parallel-line development
Research these events and in a two-page
b. triangulation
report, tell how each has shaped history in
c. radial-line development
terms of culture, politics, the economy, and
d. approximation
the way in which people relate to each other.
Also tell how one or more event has helped
TEST-TAKING TIP
advance the field of science or mathematics.
When you answer multiple-choice ques-
tions, ask yourself whether each choice is
true or false. This may help you find the best
option if you are unsure.
9. Problem-Solving Tools
Because of a recent fire in your area, you want
to become more aware of practices that would
help prevent fires at your school. Use the library,
the Internet, and any safety rules posted in your
classrooms to research fire prevention. Then
Win
create a poster to encourage safety awareness at Competitive
school. In your poster, explain fire prevention,
safety precautions, and practices for extinguish- Events
ing fires. Also outline the different types of fires 12. Time Management Skills
that can start in a school environment. Organizations such as SkillsUSA offer a
Mathematics such as the one below will help you pre-
10. Calculate Dimensions pare for these events.
Determine the length of side c in the trian- Activity Time management involves
gle below. five basic steps: list all tasks, break big
tasks into small steps, prioritize all tasks,
estimate the time to complete each, and
schedule each. With a partner, follow
c these steps for two weeks. Analyze the
5 a
ones each of you found challenging.
Write a brief paper identifying ways the
b two of you will work to improve those
6
steps that challenged you.
Calculating the Hypotenuse Go to glencoe.com for this book’s

To find the length of side c, the hypotenuse, OLC for more information about
use the formula c2 = b2 + a2 competitive events.

14 Problems
Drafting Problems
Problems 1 through 9 are planned to fit on an 11.00″ × 17.00″ or 12.00″ ×
18.00″ drawing sheet. Draw the front and top views of each problem. Develop
the patterns as shown in the example in Figure 14-46. Include dimensions and
numbers as required by your instructor. Patterns may be cut out and assembled.
2.50
5 6
.50
4
3 8 7
2.50 2 1
2 1
.50 4 3 8 6
4-5 2-3 1-8 6-7 5 7
4.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 Figure 14-46
Pattern development example
1. Draw the front and top views of each object shown in Figure 14-47, and then develop the
pattern. Add the top in the position it would be drawn for fabrication.
2.50
.50 2.50 2.50
1.00
.50
1.50 .50 2.50 2.50
2.50
30°
4.00 4.00 4.00
30°
A B C
Figure 14-47

2. Draw the front and top views of each 3. Draw the front and top views of each
object shown in Figure 14-48, and then object shown in Figure 14-49, and then
develop the pattern. develop the pattern.
Ø64 Ø2.50 Ø2.50 Ø2.50 Ø64 Ø2.50

90°
Ø1.50
100 90° 4.00

100 45° 4.00 4.00
R4.00
2.00
12
A B C A B C
METRIC METRIC
4. Draw the front and top views and then develop the pattern for each object shown in
Figure 14-50.
Ø64 Ø2.50
135°
Ø2.00
1.00
Ø2.50 56 2.20 2.20
METRIC
A B C D
Figure 14-50
Problems 521
14 Problems
5. Draw two views of each pair of objects shown in Figure 14-51. Develop the line of
intersection, and complete the top views. Develop patterns for both parts of each pair.
Ø35
50
1.25 Ø1.25
Ø2.50 Ø2.50
45°
4.38
45°
3.50 5.50 3.50 88
1.75 44
Ø1.62
METRIC
A B C
Figure 14-51
For problems 10 and 11, follow the directions to create patterns and drawings of the objects as
assigned.
6. Make a pattern drawing for the tool tray 7. Make a pattern drawing of the cookie
shown in Figure 14-52. No other views sheet shown in Figure 14-53. No other
are necessary. views are necessary.
NOTE: HEM ALL EDGES .25"
.50
8.00
4.00
3.00
14.00
8.00 18.00
12.00
NOTES: 1. ALL HEMS AND TABS .25"

2. HANDLE Ø.50

8. Make a complete set of working drawings for the model racer shown in Figure 14-54,
including all necessary views and patterns. Take dimensions from the printed scale.
Figure 14-54
METRIC
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

10 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150
METRIC
Design Problems
Design problems have been prepared to challenge individual students or teams of students. In
these problems, you are to apply skills learned mainly in this chapter but also in other chapters
throughout the text. They are designed to be completed using board drafting, CAD, or a combi-
nation of the two. Be creative and have fun!
1. Design a carton to be used in shipping Remember, all patterns must be full size. A
the model racer shown in Figure 14-58. paper model can then be constructed by
The overall dimensions of the racer are cutting out the individual patterns, form-
4.50″ × 5.00″ × 11.00″. The carton should ing them, and assembling them into the
be designed as a one-piece development, finished model.
easily assembled. Design it in a way that
will require no adhesive for assembly. Use Teamwork
a computer paint program to design the
outside surface of the carton. Use various
3. Design a porch lamp to be installed
against an outside wall. The top is to be
colors. Trace the pattern onto stiff card-
either a right rectangular pyramid or a
board, cut it out, and assemble it.
right circular cone. The mounting base is
Teamwork to include a right circular cone, a frustum
of a cone, or a frustum of a right rectan-
2. Work as a team to design a CO2 racecar. gular pyramid. Material: sheet brass or
Be creative and make it an ultramodern copper with decorative glass inserts. Pre-
concept car. Each team member should pare a working drawing and all patterns
develop design sketches for the team to needed for the manufacture of the lamp.
review. As a team, select the final design 4. Design a carton for the porch lamp
choice. Prepare a drawing at full size. Each designed in design problem 3. Transfer
team member should then be assigned the pattern to stiff cardboard. Cut it out
the development of one part of the car. and assemble it.
Problems 523

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Advantages of CAD Disadvantages of CAD

6 Chapter 1 Drafting Careers

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Figure 1-1 Figure 1-2

Section 1.1 Identifying Drafting Careers 7

Basic Drafting Jobs

8 Chapter 1 Drafting Careers

Section 1.1 Identifying Drafting Careers 9

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List What beneﬁts does entrepreneurship

Board and Computer-

Traditional drafting involves drawing

10 Chapter 1 Drafting Careers

Section 1.1 Assessment Academic Integration

Section 1.1 Identifying Drafting Careers 11

Short-Term Goals Long-Term Goals

12 Chapter 1 Drafting Careers

CAREER PROFILE Date:

Personal Information Career Information

Section 1.2 Preparing for a Career in Drafting 13

14 Chapter 1 Drafting Careers

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Section 1.2 Preparing for a Career in Drafting 15

Assembling Your Portfolio

16 Chapter 1 Drafting Careers

Objective To gain experience as a drafting technician. Desire position with

Education ADDA drafter certiﬁcation, March 2009

Courses in mechanical drawing, AutoCAD design, and technology.

Mathematics club member, 2008-2009

Experience Junior Drafter, Benjamin Design & Drafting, Dubuque, Iowa,

Drafting Trainee at Johnson & Co., September 2006-June 2008

Section 1.2 Preparing for a Career in Drafting 17

July 21, 20--

Ms. Carol Albiner

Dear Ms. Albinger:

18 Chapter 1 Drafting Careers

Section 1.2 Preparing for a Career in Drafting 19

Estimated Living Expenses Interest on savings ⫹ 6.50

20 Chapter 1 Drafting Careers

Time Management Leadership

Section 1.2 Preparing for a Career in Drafting 21

22 Chapter 1 Drafting Careers

Section 1.2 Assessment Academic Integration

Section 1.2 Preparing for a Career in Drafting 23

Review Content Vocabulary and Academic Vocabulary

Review Key Concepts

24 Chapter 1 Drafting Careers

Review and Assessment 25

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