EN3037 Solid Mechanics 6: Pressure Vessels 1

6 An introduction to stresses in pressurised cylinders, spheres and thin walled

shells of revolution

Notation
𝑎 inner radius of cylinder or sphere 𝑉 volume of vessel
𝑏 outer radius of cylinder or sphere 𝑤 axial displacement
𝐸 Young’s modulus 𝛼 semi-apex angle of cone
𝐿 length of cylinder 𝜈 Poisson’s ratio
𝑝 pressure 𝜌 mass density (fluid)
𝑟 radius 𝜎𝜃 circumferential or hoop stress
𝑅 pitch radius of toroid 𝜎𝜙 meridional stress
𝑡 wall thickness 𝜎𝑟 radial stress
𝑢 radial displacement 𝜎𝑧 longitudinal stress (cylinder)

6.1 Thin-walled cylinder

This elementary problem is covered in earlier years of the Solid Mechanics course but is revisited here to
provide an introduction to the more general case of pressurised vessels. The term “thin-walled” is usually taken
to apply when the thickness of the wall of the cylinder is less than about one-tenth of its radius. Under these
conditions the stresses in the wall, due to pressure, may be regarded as constant through the wall thickness and
the direct stress in the radial direction 𝜎𝑟 is small compared with the hoop (circumferential) stress 𝜎𝜃 and
longitudinal (meridional) stress 𝜎𝜙 . This is described as the state of bi-axial stress.
Consider a thin-walled cylinder closed at both ends by cover plates and subject to a uniform internal pressure 𝑝
as shown in Figure 6.1(a). The wall thickness is t and the inner radius is 𝑎. The end plates will, in practice,
restrain deformation near the ends of the cylinder and this will affect the local stresses, but these effects are
ignored in this simple treatment. To determine the circumferential stress 𝜎𝜃 consider a section of the cylinder
of length 𝐿. The free-body diagram of this section appears as shown in Figure 6.1(b).

t
𝜎𝑧
a 
pressure p p
ΔL
𝜎𝑧
p 𝜎𝜃
(a) 𝜎𝜃 (b) (b) (c)

Figure 6.1
The horizontal components of the radial pressure cancel by virtue of symmetry. In the vertical direction, we
have the equilibrium equation of a section of cylinder of length Δ𝐿 (which is sufficiently removed from the end
plates)
𝜋
∑𝐹𝑣 = −2𝜎𝜃 𝑡Δ𝐿 + ∫ 𝑝𝑎Δ𝐿 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 0
0
EN3037 Solid Mechanics 6: Pressure Vessels 2

Integrating gives
𝑝𝑎
2𝜎𝜃 𝑡Δ𝐿 = −𝑝𝑎Δ𝐿[cos 𝜃]𝜋0 or 𝜎𝜃 =
𝑡 ( 6.1 )

The same result may be obtained much more simply by noting that the resultant effect of the distributed
pressure loading is equivalent to the pressure 𝑝 acting on the plane, projected area 2𝑎Δ𝐿. To determine the
longitudinal stress 𝜎𝑧 consider a section normal to the axis of the cylinder. The free-body diagram for the
remaining portion of the cylinder is shown in Figure 6.1(c). For equilibrium,
𝑝𝑎
∑𝐹ℎ = −𝑝𝜋𝑎2 + 2𝜋𝑎𝑡𝜎𝑧 = 0 or 𝜎𝑧 = ( 6.2 )
2𝑡
Consequently, the circumferential (hoop) stress is twice the longitudinal stress. Thus if water in a closed pipe
freezes, the pipe will rupture along a line running longitudinally along the cylinder. But these rather simple
expressions for the stress components are not accurate in the vicinity of the end closure for the reason given
above.
Strains and displacements may be obtained from the Hooke’s law and strain/displacement relations for this
axisymmetric bi-axial state of stress as follows

z 
1
 z      w and  
1
    z   u ( 6.3 )
E L E r
where w is the axial elongation in the z direction and u is the radial displacement at the inner surface of the
cylinder.
The volumetric strain in a cylinder with flat end closures due to an increase in diameter d and an increase in
length L caused by internal pressure is defined as V V and is as follows:

 

  d  d  L  L   d L
V  4 
2 2


V   2
 d L
4
 1 

  2  d 2 L  2 d L d   L d   d 2 L   2 d d L   d  L   d 2 L
2 2
 ( 6.4 )
d L
 1 

  2  2 d L d   d 2 L  
d L
2 d L
 
d L
Noting that d is 2 u and L is w from the above definitions of circumferential and axial strain we have

V
 2    z ( 6.5 )
V
which leads to

V  

2
    z   1  z     p d 5  4  ( 6.6 )
V E E  4t E 
EN3037 Solid Mechanics 6: Pressure Vessels 3

6.2 Thick-walled cylinder

When the wall is relatively thick the assumption of biaxial stress is no longer valid. The hoop stress varies
significantly through the thickness of the wall and the radial stress can no longer be ignored. The expressions
for the stress components in thick-walled cylinders were derived in the year 2 Solid Mechanics course.
For a cylinder subjected to internal pressure p as shown in Figure 6.2 the radial and hoop stresses, ignoring the
effect of axial stress due to end-closure, are as follows:

a2 p  b2  a2 p  b2 
r  1  2    1  2  ( 6.7 )
b2  a2  r  b2  a2  r 

For a cylinder subjected to external pressure p the corresponding expressions are

b 2 p  a2  b 2 p  a2 
r  1  2    1  2  ( 6.8 )
b2  a2  r  b2  a2  r 
Due to end-closure of cylinders subject to internal pressure a uniform axial tensile stress will be present given
by

p a2
z  ( 6.9 )
b2  a2

 r
z
a
b r
z 

Figure 6.2

6.3 Thin-walled sphere

The treatment of thin-walled spheres is similar to that of cylinders. Consider the free body diagram of half of a
spherical shell as shown in Figure 6.3. The inside radius of the shell is a , the wall thickness is t and the
uniform internal pressure is p .
t 

a

Figure 6.3
Because of the symmetry of loading the forces acting around the edges of the shell may be represented by a
uniform tensile hoop stress   as shown. The pressure p acts normally to the inside of the shell but it is
permissible to take the pressure acting on the projection of this curved area in considering equilibrium. For
equilibrium of forces in the horizontal direction we have therefore

pa
F h    2 a t  p  a 2  0 or  
2t
( 6.10 )
EN3037 Solid Mechanics 6: Pressure Vessels 4

From symmetry this hoop (circumferential) stress is the same in all directions so the circumferential and
meridional stresses are equal. The circumferential strain and displacement relations for this state of stress give


  1    u ( 6.11 )
E r
The volumetric strain due to an increase in diameter d caused by internal pressure is defined as V V and is as
follows:
𝜋 3 3
𝛿𝑉 6 [(𝑑 + 𝛿𝑑) − 𝑑 ] 1 3 2 2 3 3
3𝑑 2 . 𝛿𝑑
= 𝜋 3 = 3 [𝑑 + 3𝑑 . 𝛿𝑑 + 3𝑑. 𝛿𝑑 + 𝛿𝑑 − 𝑑 ] ≈
𝑉 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑3
6
𝛿𝑉 3𝛿𝑑
⟹ =
𝑉 𝑑
so from equation (6.11)

V V
 3  or 
3 pa
1   ( 6.12 )
V V 2t E

6.4 Thick-walled sphere

Figure 6.4 shows a hemispherical element of thickness r and inner radius r taken from a thick-walled sphere
of inner radius a and outer radius b . Hoop and radial stresses are set up as a result of internal pressure p .

r + r
r r
r
r

r
a  
b

Figure 6.4
Symmetry requires that the circumferential (hoop) stress   is the same in all directions and the radial stress is
 r . The radial stress varies by a small amount r across the thickness of the element. Consideration of
equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction, noting the projected areas of the inner and outer surfaces of the
element upon which the radial stresses act, gives:

  2  r r   r  r 2   r   r  r  r 2 ( 6.13 )
Neglecting products of small quantities gives

d r
    r   r 2 ( 6.14 )
dr
The strain/displacement/stress equations for this tri-axial state of stress are

  r             r    
du 1 u 1
r  and   ( 6.15 )
dr E r E
Since these two strains depend upon a single displacement u , the following compatibility condition expresses
their combination.
EN3037 Solid Mechanics 6: Pressure Vessels 5

 r  2     d
r   1    r  r  ( 6.16 )
dr
which is

1      r    r d r  1   r d  ( 6.17 )
dr dr
Substituting the above equilibrium equation (6.14) into this gives

r
1   d r  r 1   d   0 or
1 d r d  
 0 ( 6.18 )
2 dr dr 2 dr dr
Integrating gives

1
 r    A ( A is a constant) ( 6.19 )
2
Combining equations (6.14) and (6.19) gives

d r
2 A  3 r  r
dr
and integrating we have

dr d r
 r

2 A  3 r 
which is

 3ln r  ln B  ln 2 A  3 r   2 A  3 r 
B
or
r3
so

1 B
r  2 A   ( B is a constant) ( 6.20 )
3 r3 
Writing A1  2 A 3 and B1  B 3 B1 = B/3 then from equations (6.19) and (6.20) the stresses are

B1 B1
 r  A1  and    A1  ( 6.21 )
r3 2r 3
where A1 and B1 may be obtained from boundary conditions. In the case of internal pressure the boundary
conditions are  r   p for r  a and  r  0 for r  b . Then equations (21) become

 b3   b3 
p a 3 1  3  p a 3 1  3 
r   r     2r  ( 6.22 )

b  a3
3
 and

b3  a 3 
The volumetric strain of any shell element of a thick-walled sphere due to internal pressure p is

V
 3  
3
       r   3   1     r 
V E E
Substituting from equations (6.22) with r  a gives the volumetric strain at the inner surface
EN3037 Solid Mechanics 6: Pressure Vessels 6


    3

1   b3 
 1 2 a 
V  3 p   2  ( 6.23 )
 
V  E  
b3  a 3 
where V is now taken to be the internal volume of the sphere.

6.5 Thin-walled cylinder with hemispherical ends

The above expressions for stresses in a cylindrical pressure vessel apply only to perfect elements. In practice
real cylinders must be provided with closures, which can disturb the distribution of stress near the ends. In the
case of a thin-walled cylinder with hemispherical closures, as shown in Figure 6.5(a), it is possible, by correct
choice of the relative thickness of the cylindrical and hemispherical parts, to match their radial displacements at
the joint and thus avoid unnecessary additional stressing.
tc

ts
pressure p a

(a) (b)
Figure 6.5
Equality of radial displacement implies equality of hoop strain. The hoop strain expressions for the thin-walled
cylinder and sphere, respectively are given by equations (6.3) and (6.11) as follows.

1   
        z       1  
E c E s
where the subscripts c and s refer to the cylinder and sphere respectively. Equating these and substituting for
the stresses from equations (6.1), (6.2) and (6.10), and assuming E , a , p and  are common gives

t s 1   

t c 2   
where t s and tc are the wall thicknesses of the sphere and cylinder, respectively. Assuming a typical value for
 of 0.3 gives ts tc  0.41 . This ratio of the wall thicknesses is illustrated (to scale) in Figure 6.5(b).

The solution of the problem of a pressurised hemispherical-ended cylinder of constant thickness (or of
thickness ratio other than that given above) is much more complicated. Since the two components would
normally strain and displace differently there will be internal force actions at the junction. When the
components are separated we can show their local discontinuity force actions as in Figure 6.6. These forces are
clearly equal and opposite on the two components. In order to solve this problem we need solutions for edge-
loading of the two parts (cylindrical and hemispherical shells). These solutions are rather complicated and will
not be pursued here.

Figure 6.6
EN3037 Solid Mechanics 6: Pressure Vessels 7

6.6 Axially-symmetric membrane theory

6.6.1 Basic equations
Thin-walled cylinders and spheres are special cases of axially-symmetric membranes. In order to obtain
expressions for stresses in other thin-walled vessels such as those of conical, ellipsoidal or toroidal form it is
necessary to derive the equilibrium equations for a shell element of more general shape. The thin-walled
assumptions continue to apply, namely that the state of stress is bi-axial with no variation of stresses through
the wall thickness. We will assume that the membrane or “shell” is a body of revolution about an axis of
symmetry. Figure 6.7(a) shows a shell of revolution formed by rotating a plane curve (the meridian) about an
axis lying in the plane of the curve. Note that any cross-section taken perpendicular to the axis of symmetry is
a circle.

axis of symmetry
shell thickness 
t
circular cross- r D
section  r
E
 d
C
 d
 A r0


axis of symmetry
parallel circle
meridian (coordinate ) B 
(coordinate )

perspective view
(a)
(b)

t   r0 d

axis of symmetry
t   r d d / 2 d
d / 2
t   r0 d
d 2
t   r d r
D
2 C
d / 2 
d / 2
d / 2 r0
d / 2 E
r
axis of symmetry B
r0

top view side view

(c) (d)

Figure 6.7
The radius of curvature of the meridian is denoted by r and this varies along the length of the meridian in
general. This radius is defined by two lines perpendicular to the shell and passing through the points B and C
of Figure 6.7(b). A second radius r denotes the radius of curvature of the shell surface in a direction
perpendicular to the meridian. This radius is defined by perpendiculars to the shell through points A and B of
Figure 6.7(b). The centre of curvature corresponding to r must lie on the axis of symmetry of the shell
although the centre for r does not in general lie there. At a particular point on the surface r may be greater or
smaller than r . An internal pressure p acting normal to the curved surface gives rise to a circumferential or
hoop stress   which acts in a plane perpendicular to the axis of symmetry, and the meridional stress   which
is at right angles to the hoop stress and acts along a meridian. These stress components appear as shown on
Figure 6.7(b). We now consider the equilibrium of the shell element under the action of these stresses and the
EN3037 Solid Mechanics 6: Pressure Vessels 8

pressure p . Figure 6.7(c) shows the hoop forces as seen by looking along the axis of symmetry: they have a
horizontal component directed toward the shell axis, namely

2 t   r d d 2

This is multiplied by sin  to obtain the component normal to the shell element. The meridional forces appear
as in Figure 6.7(d) and they have a component normal to the shell given by

2 t   r0 d d 2

Note that in Figure 6.7(d) the radius r is the length of the line FD . The pressure p acts over an area

r0 d r d 
so that the equation of equilibrium in the normal direction becomes

t   r d d sin   t   r0 d d  p r0 d r d  0 .

Since r0  r sin  , we get

  p
  . ( 6.24 )
r r t

This equation applies to axisymmetric deformations of all thin shells of revolution. Since the equation has two
unknowns a second equation is necessary in order to solve a particular shell problem. A second equation is
obtained by consideration of the vertical equilibrium of the entire shell above some convenient parallel circle as
demonstrated in the following examples.

6.6.2 Conical vessel

Figure 6.8 shows a conical vessel of wall thickness t subjected to uniform pressure p acting on its internal
curved surface.
A axis of symmetry

internal
 pressure
r 
  p
r



A
section A - A

Figure 6.8
The meridian in this case is a straight line. Vertical equilibrium for any horizontal section of radius r  r cos 
expresses the balance between the force due to the meridional stress   and the forces due to pressure. This
gives

t   2  r cos   p  r 2
pr
hence  
2t cos 
EN3037 Solid Mechanics 6: Pressure Vessels 9

Substituting this into equation (6.24) with r   gives the hoop stress as follows

pr
  ( 6.25 )
t cos 
If loading is caused by hydrostatic pressure due to the weight of a liquid then account should be taken of the
variation of pressure with depth below the surface. Figure 6.9(a) shows a conical shell of height H filled to a
depth h with a fluid of mass density  . The shell is supported around its upper rim as shown.

 

 p = g(h-y) 
r h-y

p = g(h-y)
H h  h
y

p = gh

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6.9
The meridional stress   below the fluid level at a vertical height y from the apex may be obtained by
considering vertical equilibrium of the free body shown in Figure 6.9(b) as follows:

 r 2 g y
  g h  y  r 2    cos  2  r t   0
3
With r  y tan  we obtain

 g tan   h y y 2 
     for 0 yh
t cos   2
( 6.26 )
3 

From equation (6.24) with r   the hoop stress at any height is

p r
 
t
and with r  y tan  cos   (see Figure 6.8) and p   g h  y  we obtain the hoop stress below the fluid level as:

 g h  y  y tan 
  for 0 yh ( 6.27 )
t cos 
Above the fluid level h  y  H  the weight of all the liquid is held in equilibrium by forces corresponding to  
as shown in Figure 6.9(c). This gives

 r2 g h
   cos  2  t y tan    0
3
and with r  h tan  we get:
EN3037 Solid Mechanics 6: Pressure Vessels 10

 g h3 tan 
  and   0 for h yH ( 6.28 )
6 t y cos 

6.6.3 Ellipsoidal vessel (spheroid)

Figure 6.10 shows an ellipsoidal vessel formed by rotating an ellipse about the y axis. The meridian in this
case is the ellipse with axes a and b in the x and y directions as shown. If a  b (the case shown) the body
is called an oblate spheroid (athlete’s discus), and if a  b it is a prolate spheroid (rugby ball).
a
0,b (pole ) y r0  
r


 
 x
r
r A ,0 (equator)

meridian (ellipse)



axis of symmetry r

Figure 11
Figure 6.11
Figure 6.10
The meridional stress   may be obtained from a consideration of vertical equilibrium on a horizontal section as
shown in Figure 6.11. This gives (ignoring self-weight)

2  r t   sin   p  r 2  0
Where

r  r sin 
Hence

p r
  ( 6.29 )
2t
1
where the radius r  a 4 y 2  b 4 x 2 is obtained from spheroid geometry.
b2
Substituting equation (6.29) into equation (6.24) gives the hoop stress

p r  
  1  r  ( 6.30 )
t  2r 
  

in which the meridional radius (i.e. the profile radius of the ellipse shown) is given by r   b 4  r3 Note that
2

a 
these stresses reduce to the corresponding expressions for a thin-walled sphere when a  b .
Particular stresses of interest from equations (6.29) and (6.30) are:
EN3037 Solid Mechanics 6: Pressure Vessels 11

(i) at the crown, or “pole” x  0, y  b where r  r  a 2 b the stresses are equal

p a2
    ( 6.31 )
2bt

(ii) at the equator x  a, y  0 where r  a and r  b 2 a the stresses are different

pa pa  a2 
  and    1  2  ( 6.32 )
2t t  2b 

Note that when a b  2 the equatorial hoop stress becomes compressive. This can lead to local buckling
problems in a thin-walled vessel.

6.6.4 Toroidal vessel

For a closed toroidal vessel of wall thickness t and radii a and R as shown in Figure 6.12(a) the meridional
stress   may be found by considering the horizontal equilibrium of a ring section of the vessel as shown in
Figure 6.12(b).

A
a 
=0
r r
B


B

 


section A-A

Figure 6.12
The horizontal pressure force acting on the projected area of the ring is given by  p r 2  R2  and the
horizontal component of the stress force acting on the thickness of the ring is 2  r t   sin  . Equating these
two forces gives the following expression for the meridional stress

 

p r 2  R2 
2 r t sin 
or, since sin   r  R / a ,

a p r  R 
  ( 6.33 )
2rt
Alternatively, replacing r by a sin   R , the meridional stress may be written in terms of the angle  as

p a  2 R  a sin  
 
2 t  R  a sin  

The maximum value of   occurs on the inner edge of the toroid at points B ( r  R  a ;    / 2 ) as shown,
and is therefore
EN3037 Solid Mechanics 6: Pressure Vessels 12

pa  2R  a 
 
 max    ( 6.34 )
2t  R  a 
Substituting equation (6.33) into equation (6.24) (which holds for any thin shell of revolution), with r  a
and r  a  R sin  , gives

pa
  ( 6.35 )
2t
Note that if R  0 the expressions for the stresses reduce to those for a sphere (equation 6.10).