Horizontal Design of Highways

Aleksandar Stevanovic, PhD, PE

TTE 3004 – Intro to Transportation

Engineering FAU
Class Plan
• Highway functions and classification
• Trip functions
• Elements of highway design
• Radius and degree of curvature
• Characteristics of horizontal curves
• Superelevation
• Sight distance of horizontal curves
Highway Classification
• Two primary roles:
• Accessibility
• Mobility
• Six different travel movements
• Main movement
• Transition
• Distribution
• Collection
• Access
• Termination
Trip Movements
• Main movement – through portion of the trip
• Transition – transfers from through portion to
remaining movements
• Distribution – distribute drivers from the major
facilities to the network
• Collection – brings driver closer to final
destination
• Access – approaching final destination
• Termination – final point of the trip
Hierarchy of Roadways
Function of Roadways – Through Service
Illustration of Suburban Network
Table 3.4 Maximum Relative Gradients (Δ) for Superelevation Runoff
Basic Geometric Design Elements
Controlling Features
• Functional Classification
• Location (Topography & Physical Features)
• Traffic Volume
• Design Speed
• Capacity
• Design Vehicle
Basic Geometric Design Elements
Traffic Volume
• Affects capacity and number of lanes required
• Traffic demand expressed in design-hourly volume (DHV)
• Predicted to 20 years for new construction and
10 years for rehabilitation projects
• Composition of traffic (% of trucks) affects highway and
geometrics
Basic Geometric Design Elements

Traffic Volume
• ADT Average daily traffic. Measure of traffic
flow during a given time period
• AADT Average annual daily traffic. Measure of
yearly traffic volume in both directions of
travel
• DHV Design - hourly volume. Future hourly
volume used for design, (30th highest hour
two-way traffic volume)
Basic Geometric Design Elements

Traffic Volume
• K Ratio of DHV to ADT (percentage)
• D The directional distribution of traffic
during the design hour. (One-way
volume expressed as a percentage of
DHV)
• T The proportion of trucks (percentage of
DHV)
• V The design speed (mph)
Basic Geometric Design Elements
Design Speed
• Logical with respect to topography, anticipated operating
speed, adjacent land use, and functional classification
• Used to determine the various geometric design features
of the roadway (sight distance, curvature, superelevation,
etc.)
Basic Geometric Design Elements
Design Speed vs. Posted Speed

Design Speed
Posted Speed Existing New
Highways Highways or
Alignment
20 mph 25 mph 30 mph
25 mph 30 mph 35 mph
30 mph 35 mph 40 mph
35 mph 40 mph 45 mph
40 mph 45 mph 50 mph
45 mph 50 mph 55 mph
50 mph 55 mph 60 mph
55 mph *60 mph *65 mph
* Generally, for freeways and the Interstate System, the design speed shall be 70.
Basic Geometric Design Elements
Capacity
• Maximum number of vehicles passing over a section of a roadway
during a given period of time
• Measured in passenger cars per hour
• Determines optimum number of lanes
Horizontal Alignment
General Considerations
• Location developed with respect to a calculated centerline (series of
tangents and curves) taking into consideration existing topography in
a plan view
Horizontal Alignment

General Considerations
• Provide minimum Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) for the
design speed at all points on the roadway
Horizontal Alignment

General Considerations
• Provide consistency between design speed, curvature
and superelevation
Horizontal Alignment
General Considerations
• Use generally flat curves, saving minimum radius for most critical
conditions
• Minimum curve length should be 15 times the design speed
Horizontal Alignment
Tangents
• Portion of the highway that is in a straight line
Horizontal Alignment
Curves
• Portion of the highway that provides a change in
direction
Horizontal Alignment
Curve Radii
• Controlling design element
• Minimum radius for open highways is a limiting value of
curvature for a specific design speed and is determined
from the maximum rate of superelevation
Horizontal Alignment
Minimum Radius
Table 4-5
Standards for Curve Radius

Design Min. Radius of Curve for Min. Radius of Curve for Min. Radius of Curve for
Speed Rural or Urban Urban Highways Based Low Speed Urban
(mph) Freeways Based on 6% on 4% emax (ft) Highways Based on 6%
emax (ft) emax (ft)

25 185 205 135

30 275 300 215
35 380 420 320
40 510 565 450
45 660 730 --
50 835 930 --
55 1065 1190 --
60 1340 1505 --
70 2050 -- --
Horizontal Curves
• Provide transition of a roadway between two
straight sections
• Two key factors
• Superelevation е – number of vertical feet of
rise per 100 feet of horizontal distance
• Coefficient of side friction fs - function of
design speed
Forces Acting on Vehicle on Curve
Centripetal or Centrifugal?
• As a vehicle moves in a circular path
• Centripetal acceleration acts on the vehicle in
the direction of the center of the curve
• The acceleration is sustained by
• Component of the vehicle’s weight related to
the roadway superelevation
• Side friction developed between the vehicle’s
tires and the pavement surface
• Or a combination of the two
Centrifugal Force
• Imaginary force that drivers believe is pushing
them outward while maneuvering a curve
• In fact, the force they feel is the vehicle being
accelerated inward towards the center of the
curve
Centripetal Acceleration
• Is counter-balanced by two factors:
• Superelevation
• Side Friction Factor
• Research has been conducted (dated) that has
established limiting values for superelevation
rate (e max) and side friction demand (f max)
• Applying the limiting values results in the
minimum curve radius for various design speeds
Superelevation

• Controlling design element

• Amount the roadway surface is sloped upward toward the outside of
the curve to counterbalance the centrifugal force (tendency to slide
outward)
Superelevation
• Limits of the rate superelevation are related to
• Climate
• Ice and snow can slow vehicles. Should not create a situation
where these vehicles slide into the center of the curve when
traveling slowly or standing still.
• Constructability (cost)
• Adjacent land use
• Frequency of slow moving vehicles
Superelevation
• Too much superelevation
• When traveling slowly, must steer up the slope or
against the horizontal curve to maintain proper path
• Undesirable to have such situations when slow
traveling traffic can occur often (urban areas with
congestion)
• Considerations for SUV traffic, high center of gravity,
can cause roll-overs on such designs
Maximum Rates of Superelevation
• Controlled by four factors:
• Climate conditions (snow/ice regions)
• Terrain conditions (flat, rolling, mountainous)
• Type of area (rural, urban, suburban)
• Frequency of very slow-moving vehicles
• Conclusion: no universal e max can be set
• However, for similar areas, a consistent
maximum superelevation should be selected
Superelevation

• AASHTO
• Should not exceed 12%
• Urban designs use 4% or 6%
• May be omitted on low speed urban
streets
Superelevation
Superelevation
Superelevation

6.0
Superelevation

Axis of Rotation
• Centerline
• Inside Edge
• Outside Edge
Superelevation

Axis of Rotation
Superelevation

Axis of Rotation
Superelevation

Axis of Rotation
Side Friction Factor
• The vehicle’s need for side friction to maintain
path on curve
• Upper limit of side friction is the point at which
a tire would begin to skid, point of impending
skid
• We design for safety, so f values substantially
less than this
Side Friction Factor
• How do we choose maximum side friction
factors for use in design?
• We measure the level of centripetal or lateral
acceleration that causes drivers to react
instinctively to choose a lower speed.
• We set this as the maximum side friction
factor.
Recommended Practice
• 12 percent superelevation should not be
exceeded
• 4 or 6 percent superelevation is applicable for
urban design with little constraints
• Superelevation may be omitted on low-speed
urban streets where severe constraints exist
Minimum Radius
• Controls design speed
• Can be determined from the max
superelevation and the max side friction factor
• Can be calculated from equation or
determined from Tables
Elements of a Simple Circular Horizontal Curve
Important Relationships
∆
T = R tan
2
 ∆
M = R1 − cos 
 2
π
L= R∆
180
180
100( )
D= π
R
Horizontal Curve Fundamentals
PI
∆ T Δ
T = R tan E
2
M
π 100∆ L
L= R∆ = PC Δ/2 PT
180 D

 180  R R
100 
 π  18,000 Δ/2 Δ/2
D= =
R π R
Horizontal Curve Fundamentals

 1  PI
E = R − 1 T Δ
 cos ∆ 2  E

M
L
PC Δ/2 PT

 ∆
M = R1 − cos 
 2 R R

Δ/2 Δ/2
Example – Minimum Radius
70 mph design speed; e = 8%; fs = 0.10
Determine the minimum radius of curve
(measured to the traveled path).
Example Continued

2
V
Rv =
 e 
g fs + 
 100 
(70 ×1.467) 2
Rv =
32.2(0.10 + 0.08)
Rv = 1819.40 ft
Example
Horizontal curve with 2000’ radius; 400’ tangent
length; PI is at station 103+00
Determine the stationing of the PT
Example continued
Determine the central angle, ∆. Next
determine the Length of Curve, L.

∆
T = R tan
2
∆
400 = 2000 tan
2
∆ = 22.62°
π
L= R∆
180
3.1416
L= 2000(22.62) = 789.58 ft
180
Example Continued

Knowing tangent length is 400’ and PI is at

103+00:
stationing PC=103+00 minus 4+00=99+00

Horizontal curve stationing is measured along

the alignment of the road:
stationing of PT = stationing of PC+L
=99+00 plus 7+89.58 = 106+89.58
SSD & Horizontal Curve Design
• Adequate sight distance must be provided in the
design of horizontal curves
• Cost of right of way or the cost of moving earthen
materials often restrict design options
• When such obstructions exist, stopping sight
distance is checked and measured along the
horizontal curve from the center of the traveled
lane
Sight Restrictions on Horizontal Curves
Sight Distance Relationships

πRv  Rv − M s 
−1
SSD = cos ( )
90  Rv 
Sight Distance Example
Horizontal curve with 2000’ radius; 12’lanes;
60mph design speed. Determine the
distance that must be cleared from the inside
edge of the inside lane to provide sufficient
stopping sight distance.
Sight Distance Example Continued

90 SSD
M s = Rv (1 − cos )
πRv
Rv = R − 12 / 2 = 2000 − 6 = 1994
90(570)
M s = 1994(1 − cos ) = 20.33 ft
3.1417(1994)
*SSD is determined from Table 3.1 for 60mph design speed
Type of Curves in Horizontal Alignment

Types of Curves
• Simple
• Compound
• Transition
• Reverse
• Broken back
Simple Curves

Single Curve
Connecting
Two Tangents
Compound Curves Adjacent curves that curve in
the same direction without a
tangent section
Ratio of the flatter
radius to the
sharper radius
should not exceed
2.0
Compound Curves
Transition Curves SPIRALS

Series of curves that provide a gradual change

from the tangent section to the circular curve
 Spiral Curves

No Spiral

Spiral

from AASHTO’s A Policy on

Geometric Design of Highways and
Advantages of Spiral Curves
• Provides natural, easy to follow, path for
drivers (less encroachment, promotes
more uniform speeds), lateral force
increases and decreases gradually
• Provides location for superelevation runoff
(not part on tangent/curve)
• Provides transition in width when
horizontal curve is widened
• Aesthetic

72
Disadvantages of Spiral Curves
• Involve complex geometry
• Require more surveying
• Are somewhat empirical
• If used, superelevation transition should occur
entirely within spiral
Spiral Curve Transitions
• Vehicles follow as transition path as they
enter or leave a horizontal curve
• Combination of high speed and sharp
curvature can result in lateral shifts in position
and encroachment on adjoining lanes

74
Source: Iowa DOT Design Manual 75
 Minimum Length of Spirals
Larger of L = 3.15 V3
RC
Where:
L = minimum length of spiral (ft)
V = speed (mph)
R = curve radius (ft)
C = rate of increase in centripetal
acceleration (ft/s3)
(use 1ft/s3 -> 3 ft/s3 for highway)

76
Minimum Length of Spirals

Or L = (24pminR)1/2

Where:
L = minimum length of spiral (ft)
R = curve radius (ft)
pmin = minimum lateral offset between the
tangent and circular curve (0.66 feet)

77
Length of Spirals

More practical = assume L = to length of

superelevation runoff

The radius of a spiral (by definition) varies

inversely with distance from the TS
from infinite (at TS) to circular curve
radius at SC.

78
Maximum Length of Spirals
• Safety problems may occur when spiral
curves are too long – drivers underestimate
sharpness of approaching curve (driver
expectancy)

79
Maximum Length of Spirals

L = (24pmaxR)1/2

Where:
L = maximum length of spiral (ft)
R = curve radius (ft)
pmax = maximum lateral offset between the
tangent and circular curve (3.3 feet)

80
81 Source: Iowa DOT
Design Manual
82 Source: Iowa DOT
Design Manual
 Source: Iowa DOT
83 Design Manual
84
Transition Curves
Encouraged on arterial highways 50mph or greater
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 70
Superelevation
MPH MPH MPH MPH MPH MPH MPH MPH

6% Superelevation
for rural hwys & rural
1400 2100 2900 3300 3800 4800 5700 7600
or urban fwys

4% Superelevation
for urban highways
1000 1300 1600 2300 2900 3300 3800 NA
Transition Curves
Compound Curves vs. Transition Curves
Reverse Curves
Adjacent curves that curve in opposite directions
Reverse Curves

Table 4-6
Tangent distance between Desirable Tangent
reverse curves should be Length Between
Reversing Curves
sufficient to
Design
accommodate the Desirable
Speed
Tangent (ft)
superelevation transition (mph)

50 500 – 600

60 600 – 800

70 800 – 1000
Broken Back Curves
Two curves in the same direction connected by a
short tangent
Broken Back Curves

• Unpleasant appearance and Table 4-7

Desirable Tangent
awkward for the driver Length Between Same
• Tangent distance between Direction Curves
curves should be sufficient to Design
Desirable
accommodate the Speed
Tangent (ft)
superelevation transition (mph)

• Should be avoided 50 1000

60 1500

70 2500