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A review on the Feasibility and Application of Geospatial Techniques in

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Today: Proceedings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matpr

A review on the Feasibility and Application of Geospatial Techniques in

Geotechnical Engineering Field
Farhan Khan a,⇑, Bhumika Das a, Sri Ram Krishna Mishra b, Mohan Awasthy c
a
Mats University, Raipur, India
b
Bhilai Institute of Technology, Raipur, India
c
Rungta College of Engineering and Technology, Bhilai, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Geographic Information System (GIS) a new tool for digital data management, Graphical representation
Available online xxxx of areas with actual location, analysis, planning, designing of data and many more uses. To understand
the application, significance, functions and scope of GIS a review has done, using reference of previous
Keywords: published research which will fill the gap between technology and techniques and gives a better idea
Geographic information system about the different area and use of GIS in Geotechnical engineering. We have Search more than 100
Interpolation research papers between 1980 and 2020 from different sources. The data relevant to the study was
Geotechnical Engineering
checked physically and rest discarded. From literatures different Data, methods, software’s, limitation,
Soil Maps
Digital data
and area of use is expected to determined. land use/landcover data, agricultural soil data, engineering soil
data, environmental data, interpolation of data for missing data, ground water data and different types of
data which have spatial value can be used to get different results. This review has explored scope of GIS in
different field, their application and analysis methods. The systematic collection and identification of GIS
Data can facilitate any project and save the time, cost, and effort and increase the accessibility to digital
Maps, Bore log data, lithology etc. This study will definitely help the new researcher to proper understand
the GIS and fill the research gap in areas where the GIS is used in lesser way or even not used in technical
work.
Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence on Advancement in Materials, Manufacturing and Energy Engineering (ICAMME-2021).

1. Introduction
In the last two decades, with developments in computation, GIS
is often used to manipulate and manage geo-spatial data. GIS pro-
vides data which are geographically aligned to its actual location.
This data is collected with the help of satellite in the form of raster
images which helps the researcher to reuse, store, share, analyse,
interpretation and modification of data with current condition
and requirements. Different types of data and results were used
to work on the project mapping of previous resource images relat-
ing to the previous done work and relevant legal and technical
instructions can be used on any project work [1]. Role of GIS is sig-
nificant in geotechnical engineering it can be used for surveying
interpolation for generating data of inaccessible locations visual-
ization of data analysis of data preparation of graphs and charts
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: farhan_1991@rediffmail.com (F. Khan).
[2]. The traditional approach for data integration for the develop-
ment of a working site model can be a difficult process in geotech-
nical practice. There are a range of data in hard copy format. It can
take a prodigious effort to combine these data along with images,
notices, borings, and other site-specific data. It is important to save
time on data collection and analysis, using GIS as a platform will
intensely increase productivity and yield [2].
2. Geographic information system (GIS)
GIS is widely used tool for performing number of operations in
different field like geological survey hydrological survey land use/
land cover assessment of natural hazards land selection suitability
for disposal of waste and all study related to geo-environmental
planning [3]. Various methods and methodologies have been
applied to generate the most detailed data in GIS, such as Decision
research of multi-criteria, fuzzy logic and artificial Networks of
neurons [4]. The main objective of GIS to provide assistance in

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.02.108
2214-7853/Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Advancement in Materials, Manufacturing and Energy
Engineering (ICAMME-2021).

Please cite this article as: F. Khan, B. Das, S. Ram Krishna Mishra et al., A review on the Feasibility and Application of Geospatial Techniques in Geotechnical
Engineering Field, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.02.108
F. Khan, B. Das, S. Ram Krishna Mishra et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

making decisions [5]. GIS is used for making Location maps which Table 1
have specifically distinguished latitude and longitude as shown in Summary of accuracy of different change detection techniques.

Fig. 1. Techniques Accuracy (%)

Univariate image differencing, band 2 73.16
Univariate image differencing, band 4 63.33
Image ratioing, band 2 73.71
2.1. Land use land cover
Image ratioing, band 4 64.99
Normalized vegetation index differencing 71.05
The alteration of earth surface is referred as land use/land cover Image regression, band 2 74.43
around the world. While there has been land modification by Low pass filtered image differencing, band 2 72.09
Background subtraction, band 2 72.32
humans to attain livelihoods and other needs for past many years,
High pass filtered image differencing, band 2 70.07
the scale, strength and pace of LULC is much greater today as com- Standard deviation texture (3  3) differencing, band 2 69.95
pared to the past. The main factors for these changes are local, Principal component-2, image differencing (unstandardized) 71.49
regional, and global which will affect the environment and ecosys- Principal component-2, image differencing (standardized) 64.32
tem [7]. The combination of GIS technology and remote sensing is a Post-classification comparison 51.35
Direct multidate classification 57.29
significant method for urban development and organization [8].
Several researchers have attempted to use digital satellite data to
resolve this problem. These approaches include comparison of land
cover classifications and multi-date grouping. The accuracy of the 3. GIS for agricultural use
change detection techniques is summarized in Table 1[34]. Land
use land cover are defined with various classes due to which Agriculture is the backbone for any country, it can affect the
changes take place, it is shown in Table 2 [9]. economy and development. In many developed and developing
countries in the world the GIS is used to monitor the agricultural
properties of soil which is essential for the growth of crops, vege-
tation. This soil properties gets degraded due to the improper use
2.2. Software used in GIS
and contamination by foreign particles in the soil which encourage
crops growth. Hence many researchers have work on the effect of
There are many software’s which is developed to analysing, Pro-
land change on agriculture field using GIS.[34] findings revealed
cessing and Managing GIS Data. Some of the software are ArcGIS,
that shifting land use from woodland or farm to cultivated land
QGIS, GRASS GIS, ERDAS IMAGINE and many others. Different soft-
decreased organic matter, nitrogen available, soil moisture and
ware is used by professionals as per their convenience and need as
porosity while substantially increasing bulk density and pH. The
given in Table 3.

Fig. 1. Location map of Nagpur city made by using GIS [6].

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F. Khan, B. Das, S. Ram Krishna Mishra et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 2 three major components (a) Data base (b) Graphic interface (c)
Land use land cover definition [9]. Data Analysis [37]. Author [38] show a graph in Fig. 3 which
LULC Descriptions explains how prediction is important and it depends on methods
Classes and data available, if the amount of data is more the prediction will
Open water All areas consist of less than 25% of vegetation or soil cover are be more accurate.
known as open water
Urban Includes built open spaces with a mixture of some 4.1. GIS for generating maps of geotechnical properties
materialsand lands of moderate, medium and high intensity of
growth.
Barren Bedrock fields, concrete, dirt dumps, and other earthen GIS has simplified the way of presentation of geotechnical prop-
soilaccumulations. Vegetation typically accounts for less than erties. Using GIS, the researcher can generate graphical maps
15% of the overall coverage. which can easily expresses the results. The wet density, dry den-
Forest Generally, regions occupied by trees are higher than 5 m. This
sity, moisture content, SPT value, Internal friction angle, bearing
involves deciduous woodland, evergreenwoodland and mixed
forest. capacity, cohesion value can easily be shown using GIS in Fig. 4
Grassland/ Includes graminoid or herbaceous plants dominated grassland [23]. A GIS-based user-friendly framework built using application
Shrub areas and shrub / scrub areas dominated by shrubs less than of Natural Neighbour Interpolation Method can assist to effectively
5 m tall with shrub canopy. and efficiently generate the maps of various themes dependent on
Agriculture Includes vegetables for planting, farmland and hayfields
soil properties [39].The GIS is used to make location map of study
Wetlands Woody wetlands and herbaceous wetlands include
area and all the soil properties is calculated and the soil quality for
foundation is determined it varies from excellent to good, also
bearing capacity value for strip footing is least and square footing
Table 3
List of Software’s. is highest for every location [40].
The characterization of computerised subsurface sites relies on
Researcher Software used
geotechnical data availability and use. Subsurface data processing
[10,7,11] ERDAS Imagine based on GIs is useful for gathering and preserving bore-log infor-
[8,12–17,6,7,18–25,11,26] ArcGIS, Arc/INFO
mation from various source agencies with diverse viewpoints in
[27] GeoMod
[28] Autodesk 2001 their data collection and analysis [41]. GIS is now an effective tech-
[29] IDRISI nique which engineers can use to evaluate specific geotechnical
[30] QGIS site analysis [42]. For geotechnical applications, the GIS method
[31] GeoSeism was hardly applied; however, the skills, methods and functionality
[32] GIS-SPRING-4.0
[33] Surfer 11
of GIS and its associated software have demonstrated that GIS
[26] SGEMS technology is an incredibly valuable tool in various engineering
problems. Nevertheless, a small number of experiments were per-
formed where geotechnical research used GIS principles. When it is
evolution of land use in test sites permitted the identification of georeferenced and displayed on the charts at the corresponding
land use change decision rules: forestation takes place preferably sites, the geotechnical data is more manageable. The choice-
on steep slopes and/or poorly drained soils in the study region, making and implementation process uses GIS principles with far
while deforestation takes place predominantly in relatively flat, less time than traditional approaches [25]. The geotechnical maps
well-drained areas with loamy soils. IN particular, these parame- generated from GIS for Soil classification is easy to use and eco-
ters are used to model trends of land use transition under prede- nomical [43]. GIS can be used in four ways in geotechnical site
fined conditions and the impact of these changes on soil evaluations: data processing, visualization of data and interpreta-
degradation and delivery of sediments [35]. Spatial models to help tion, site preparation and summary operations, and presentation
regional environmental planning and management need to be cre- of data [11].
ated. Satellite remote sensing data and Geographic Information
Systems (GIS) provide excellent instruments for environmental 4.2 GIS for bearing capacity map
impact measurement and assessment [17]. In the Nagpur district
of Maharashtra, soil depletion is expected to employ USLE strategy One of the most significant soil features to be addressed when
and the application of applied GIS research to priorities tehsils for constructing a database is the permissible bearing capacity. The
soil protection and the delineation of effective conservation units GIS software makes it easy to create a comprehensive database
[16]. The map for soil erosion of Nagpur district is shown in for any function and is one of the best systems for creating a
Fig. 2. Using GIS tools, the level of soil suitability for different crops detailed map [44]. The bearing capacity from SPT-N values are cal-
was also illustrated and the maps were prepared. In the processing culated for allowable bearing capacity and the GIS map is gener-
of spatial and non-spatial remote sensing data and traditional data ated for Metro manila, Philippines [45].
from the deeply folded and defective Kumaon Himalayas chain, GIS
is found to be useful in determining soil-site parameters for evalu- 4.3. GIS for contour and elevation map
ating crop suitability for optimal land use [19].
Contour and elevation map are drawn for surveying. These
maps are the base map which shows the elevated and depression
4. GIS for geotechnical use on ground surface. The cutting and filling processes can easily be
minimized by studying the contour of area. [46] has shown a con-
GIS can be used in geotechnical study in at least four distinct tour map for shear wave velocity with contour interval of 25 and
data integration, data visualisation and analysis, site planning 50 m/s using Triangulated irregular network.
and outline operations, and data arrangement [36]. Data integra-
tion in geotechnical engineering is time taking task, as they are 4.4. GIS for liquid limit plastic limit map
not available digitally. GIS can save the time and increase efficiency
of work in geotechnical field. GIS provide different option for data [47] author used GIS software to show the liquid and plastic
management and analysis for geotechnical engineering. GIS has limit using contour lines, the have shown variation in liquid and
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F. Khan, B. Das, S. Ram Krishna Mishra et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 2. Map for soil erosion of Nagpur district by [16].

plastic limit at different location on Map. From the studied
research papers author came to know that the different values of
liquid and plastic limit of soil can easily be shown with contour
lines using GIS.
4.5. GIS for geotechnical data base
and geo-environmental data and information. There are three
major components of the system: geology, geotechnical and geo-
environmental databases [50]. Another author developed a web
based geotechnical geographic information system for department
of transportation of Alabama, this system stores strata data, draw-
ing of construction, and information of design [51].

GIS can perform many purposes that are lacking in the specific
geo-statistical software and needed for geotechnical modelling due
to its high potential in geometric modelling and spatial querying
[26]. To provide more visibility to the decision makers of urban
area for different geotechnical problem different maps are made
with geotechnical data [48]. The GIS is used to determine the site
suitability for quarry sites for which different geotechnical tests
are conducted and then integrated with GIS [49]. The author
describes a geotechnical information system (GIS) designed to pro-
vide Glasgow City Council (Scotland) with geological, geotechnical
4.6. GIS for interpolating missing data
In general, interpolation is a tool used to estimate cell values at
positions where sampled points are absent [52]. ArcGIS is used to
interpolate missing data by using different interpolation technique
explained by [53]. These interpolation techniques require user
entered data to process the predicted value. Interpolation can use
by engineer if the available data is large so that prediction will
be more accurate.

GIS Tools Interpolation Parameters

Technique
Geostatistical IDW Output cell size, power, search neighborhood, major and minor semi axis, max and min
Analyst neighbour, angle
GeostatisticalAnalyst Diffusion Output cell size, number of iterations, weight field, bandwidth
GeostatisticalAnalyst GlobalPolynomial Output cell size, order of polynomial, weight field.
GeostatisticalAnalyst Kernel Output cell size, Kernel function, order of polynomial, outputsurface type
Spatial Analyst Ordinary Kriging Output surface raster, semi variogram model (spherical, circular, exponential, Gaussian,
linear), output cell size,search radius, number of points, maximum distance
Spatial Analyst Universal Kriging Output surface raster, semi variogram model (linear withlinear drift, linear with quadratic
drift), output cell size, search radius, number of points, maximum distance
Spatial Analyst Spline Output cell size, Spline type (regularized, tension), weight,number of points
Spatial Analyst IDW Output cell size, power, search radius (Fixed, Variable),number of points, Max distance

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F. Khan, B. Das, S. Ram Krishna Mishra et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

5. Methodology comparison understand that GIS is only useful to those who can understand
the software and satellite imageries. Finally, areas for further
research are determined which can be using GIS to determine
the bearing capacity, storing bore log data and analysis of different
soil properties with the help of GIS.

References Different Methodologies

[3] In determining geo environmental characteristics of the study area, the above geological and geomorphological
information is deemed important Using ArcGIS the thematic maps were digitized and with the ArcView GIS raster file of
grid 20  20 m2 iscreated each raster grid cell is considered identical and combined with their respective urban land use
category
[4] (a) Topographic map of 1:25000 and 1:5000 scale is digitized (b) 1:5000 scale map is used for making digital elevation
model of 10  10 m cell size (c) ArcGIS is used forincorporating geotechnical data of tests. (d) Inverse distance weighting
is used for deterministic modelling of study area
[6] (a)Collection of bore log data result is done (b) geodatabase is created in ArcGIS (c)rockworks software is used for
lithology map (d) generation of different maps
[12] (a)used toposheet for digitization (b) IRS-1B satellite images of 1993 was used for land use interpretation (c) collection of
census data (d) administrative boundary map collected from government offices (e) climate data, field data of soil, crop,
livestock,vegetation is taken (f) spatial data is collected and estimation land change is detected.
[15] (a)Evaluating land use changes (b) evaluating ecosystem services, Habitat quality,carbon storage, retention of sediment.
[20,54] (a)Data collection is done (b) preparation and pre-processing is done (c) analysis of data is done using GIS based on multi
criteria analysis (d) generation of suitabilitymap.
[22] (a) Selection of study are is done. (b) Digitization of study area toposheet is done. (c) Sampling is done from different
locations. (d) Analysis of soil at laboratory is done.(e) Using inverse distance weighted interpolation technique estimation
of data from location where sample is not collected is estimated.
[23] (a)Collection of information (b) locating location using GPS (c) analyze and processdata in ArcGIS for maps generation (d)
physical, geotechnical properties of soil is determined with soil layer description.
[28] Software is developed, soil data is incorporated, server is created to store data, analysis function is added.
[51] Geotechnical geographic information system was developed which consist of soil data for a state of Alabama
[55] (a) Collection of geodata from geological survey. (b) importing geodata to ArcGIS (c)interpolation for predicting depth to
bedrock
[56] Data is collected from geotechnical exploration and then analyzed using GIS
[57] (a)Different information is collected (b) suitable scale of map is selected (c) data compilation and geotechnical map
generation.
[58] (a)Geological mapping is done (b) SPT results are collected (c) kriging is used for making prediction model (d) 3D model is
developed for soil profile
[59] (a)bore log of different location is collected with SPT-N value (b) Zonation map is created (c) validation of result is done
using kriging.
[60] Different land use and lineament maps are generated using satellite imagery. Contourmap is generated using topographic
map by survey of India. Building Triangulated irregular network slope, aspect, drainage maps are created.

6. Discussion

Collectively, these studies outline the critical role of GIS in dif-

ferent ways in geotechnical engineering. Authors from different
region use GIS technique for analysis of their research work, which
shows the potential of GIS software in engineering field. The use of
GIS is increasing due to awareness of Software. The major aim of
this review was to determine the scope of GIS. The use of GIS can
help in both qualitative and quantitative methods. The GIS can
use to handle different layers of data without any limitation, it
can provide complete detail about the different layers which can
explain the quality of data. The findings from different research
paper makes a major contribution to research on GIS. There are
several important areas where GIS makes an impactful contribu-
tion, this are to determine the land cover land use of any area, in
calculation of changes from previous time period, in predicting
future land use map. The GIS is used by different researchers in dif-
ferent ways as discussed in the present paper. The reader should Fig. 3. Prediction model Accuracy.

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F. Khan, B. Das, S. Ram Krishna Mishra et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 4. showing (a) wet density & dry density; (b) moisture content; (c) SPT map; (d) Internal friction angle; (e) Bearing Capacity; (f) cohesion value [23].

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F. Khan, B. Das, S. Ram Krishna Mishra et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 4 (continued)

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F. Khan, B. Das, S. Ram Krishna Mishra et al.
7. Conclusion
From the study of different Research papers author have deter-
mined following conclusions:
GIS can be Used to develop Data management System to store
different soil properties in single place. Using GIS, the Visualization
and interpretation of data became easy. Data interpolation can per-
form using Spatial analyst tool in ArcGIS to determine unknown
data. GIS can link with different domain depending on the feasibil-
ity of work. Use of GIS can be done using different software
depending on the user affluence. GIS is used by different researcher
for analysis of location, i.e., Land use land cover, change detection.
GIS can work as inventory of various geotechnical data and used as
data management system by various researcher. Three dimen-
sional models of data can be generated using spatial tool in ArcGIS.
From above review it came to know that maximum geotechnical or
engineering data can be digitized easily. Spatial Data created using
GIS can available easily and also made open access for other
researchers so that they can use the data easily. GIS data of random
location is easy to trace. GIS is helpful in decision making for site
selection for geotechnical work depending on the soil data avail-
able. Different data set can easily combine together to generate
new map. No restrictions to the extension of data procession and
compiling hence user can add different layer of data. Previous data
stored can upgrade with new data.
This study will definitely help the researchers to determine the
correct method for their research and to choose the correct Soft-
ware which will exactly fit with the research. This will reduce
the effort in selecting the method, software for research problems.
This will help the researcher to easily determine the Social change
occurring in study area and the trend which is affecting the socio-
economical factor.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Farhan Khan: Software, Conceptualization, Methodology, Writ-
ing - original draft. Bhumika Das: Data curation, Software, Super-
vision. Sri Ram Krishna Mishra: Investigation, Supervision.
Mohan Awasthy: Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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