Department of Mathematics & Applied Mathematics

MAM103X Tutorials Book

1st Semester

Associate Professor Jonathan Shock

Department of Mathematics & Applied Mathematics
University of Cape Town
Rondebosch 7701
South Africa

Version 1 (February 16, 2023)

 Tutorial Problems 1

Each week, the problem sets will be based on what you did in class the week before. This week is a
bit different, as there was no ’week before’ at least in MAM103X time. So, we are going to give you
practice on a few of the topics that we are doing this week, as well as an introduction to some ideas
about mathematical statements.

We’re going to use this tutorial to introduce some ideas of using the mathematical language, for
that’s what it is: a language, and a way of communicating our thoughts and ideas. The beauty of
mathematics is that when we do it right it can be the most precise language in the universe. When
we use it wrong though, it can be confusing and misleading.

Part I
1. How would you go about solving the following inequalities?
(a) 2 ≤ 4x − 5 ≤ 11
(b) x2 + x + 1 > 0
For the quadratic, think about factorising it.
If you have trouble with these, check out example 2.1.6 of the resource book and pages
A4-A6 (the appendix) of Stewart Calculus

2. The following terminology will be introduced in week 1, but if you haven’t yet covered it, the
notation means: a set of numbers (in this case) where for every member, x of the set, there is
some property that must be fulfilled. If you aren’t sure about this, ask a tutor and they can talk
you through it.
Which of the following sets is the empty set?
a) {x|x is an odd integer};
b) {x|x is an integer and x + 8 = 8};
c) {x|x is a negative integer and x ≥ 1}.
3. Which of the following statements are true, and which are false?
√
a) √9 = 3 and −3.
b) √9 = 3.
c) 9 6= −3.
If x2 = 9 then x = 3 or x = −3.
d) √
e) √x2 = x for all x.
f) x2 = x for some x.

Once you have decided, check your answer with a tutor !

4. Are there integers a and b such that 18a + 3b = 1
hint: Suppose there are such integers, then what can you conclude?

Part II
1. Here are some slightly trickier inequalities to solve:
a) 2x2 + 4x > x2 − x − 6
b) x3 − x2 > 6x
c) −x2 + 6x − 9 > 0

1
2. Below are three statements, and below each statement is an “argument” or “proof” which ap-
pears to show that the statement is true. In each case:

a) say whether the statement is true or false;

b) say whether you think the argument is correct.

Here you have to be careful: a statement may be true, but the argument given for it being true may
be wrong.

Statement 1: If you square any odd number and divide the answer by 4, the remainder
is 1.

Argument: The number 3 is odd, and 32 = 9, and if you divide 9 by 4 you get
the remainder 1.

Statement 2: All lecture rooms can seat more than 200 students.

Argument: My MAM1000W lecture room can seat more than 200 students, so all
lecture rooms can seat more than 200 students.

Statement 3: If (x − 1)(y − 1) = 1 then x = 2 and y = 2.

Argument: If you put x = 2, then x − 1 = 1; similarly, if you put y = 2, then

y − 1 = 1, so (x − 1)(y − 1) = 1.

Now look at each of the three statements above and

a) if you said the statement is true and the argument is correct, do nothing;
b) if you said the statement is true, but the argument is not correct, then give a correct
argument;
c) if you said the statement is false, give an argument to show that it is false.

Suppose you are given a statement that claims that something is true generally (such as State-
ment 1, which is claimed to be true for any odd number, and Statement 2 which is claimed to
be true for all lecture rooms; the phrase for every also appears in such statements).

a) If you think such a statement is false, what would you have to do to convince an opponent
(somebody who does not want to believe you)?
b) If you think such a statement is true, what will you have to do to convince an opponent?

Statement 3 does not contain any of the words “any”, “every” or “all” . Do you think it makes
a similar general claim? Give a reason for your answer.

3. Can you see why there might be some disagreement for the following statements? Hint: Think
carefully about what the word “or” could mean.

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 √
a) √9 = ±3.
b) 9 = 3 or −3.
This is a subtle problem

4. Consider the set A = {1, 0}, state whether each of the following statements are true or false:
a) {1} ∈ A
b) ∅ ∈ A
c) {1} ⊂ A
d) 0 ∈ A
e) 1 ⊂ A.

Additional problem(s)
Feel free to attempt the following problem(s) after completing part I and II.

1. At school you often had to draw graphs of functions given in the form y = f (x) where f (x)
was some expression in x. For each value of x, you could calculate y by substituting x in the
expression f (x).
In many situations (when things are moving, for example) it is quite difficult to give a formula
that relates the x coordinates and the y coordinates of the moving object by a simple equation.
It may turn out to be much easier to say what is happening to the x coordinate and the y
coordinate in terms of the time that has elapsed (let’s call the time t). Even so, you can still
sketch the graph of y against x and, if you are lucky, perhaps get a simple equation relating y
to x. Here is an example of this type of situation.
Suppose that a moving object has x and y coordinates given in terms of time, t, as follows:

x(t) = 2 + sin(90◦ t), y(t) = 1 + cos(90◦ t), where 0 ≤ t ≤ 4.

a) Calculate and plot the points (x(t), y(t)) for t = 0, 1, 2 and 3.
b) Do this for a few more values of t.
c) Guess what curve will be produced if you plot all such points.
d) Confirm your guess by getting an equation that involves the variables x and y but not t.
(You need to remember some trigonometric identities for this.)
e) Does this confirm your guess in (c)?
f) Is the curve given the graph of a function? Why or why not?
g) What could you do to the values of t to make sure it is a function?
The function whose curve you have just sketched is said to have been given in parametric form:
t is often called a parameter on which both x and y depend.
In the last question, we have introduced an idea that has not been covered in lectures. This will
happen from time to time in this course. You will now be expected to have some idea of how a
function or perhaps just a relation may be given in parametric form. If you do not understand, ask
for help. You can also read more about this in Section 1.7 in the textbook.

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 Tutorial Problems 2

Part I
1. For each of the statements below, decide whether it is true or false. Do this quickly, but make
sure you have a reason for your answer.
a) For√every real number a, √
√ 3 √
(i) a2 = a (ii) ( a)2 = a (iii) a3 = a (iv) ( 3 a)3 = a.
b) For every real number x,
(i) |x2 | = x2 (ii) |x3 | = x3 (iii) 2|x| = |2x | (iv) | sin(x)| = sin |x|
c) For all real numbers x and y, |x − y| = ||x| − |y||.
[Hint: Each side of the equation represents a distance.]
2. Solve
a) |2x − 7| = 4;
b) |x − 7| < 2;
c) |5x − 3| ≥ 2;
If you have trouble with these, check out page A8, exercises 43-56 (the appendix) of Stewart
Calculus 8E
3. Find all x such that |2x − 3| < |x − 2| (Hint: Sketch the graphs of both functions on either side
of the inequality).
4. Find the intersection of:
a) [1, 5) and [4, ∞)
b) [1, 5) and [5, 8)
c) [1, 5] and [2, 4]
5. Write down the domains of the following functions using interval notation.
a) f (x) = 5x−2
x−3
p
b) f (x) = (8x − 4)(x − 3)
c) f (x) = xx−2
2 −4 (note that this is subtle)
d) What is the range of the previous question.

Part II
1. Solve
a) |x2 − 2x − 3| < 1;
b) |x − 1| < |x − 2| + |x − 3|.
2. Prove that there is no real number x such that |x − 4| + |x − 6| ≤ 1.
3. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, C = {2, 4, 6, 8}, D = {4, 5}, E = {5, 6}, F = {4, 6},
and let X be a set which satisfies the following conditions: X ⊂ A, X ⊂ B, and X 6⊂ C.
Determine which of the sets A, B, C, D, E, F can equal to X.
4. Given the set R of real numbers, let A = {x ∈ R| 1 ≤ x ≤ 3} and B = {x ∈ R| 2 ≤ x ≤ 4}.
Find:
a) A ∪ B;
b) (R \ A) ∩ B;
c) (R \ A) ∩ (R \ B);
d) ((R \ A) ∩ B) ∪ ((R \ B) ∩ A).
If you have trouble with these, check back at the notes on Sets in the Resource book.
5. A list of car registration numbers and registered owners is drawn up. Do you think this list
represents a function? Motivate your answer; there may in fact be more than one correct
answer.

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 2x−5|x|
6. Using the interval notation, write down the range of the function f (x) = x
7. Let f be the function with domain (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞) and rule
3x
f (x) =
x−2
a) Prove that f is one-to-one.
b) Prove that if b is any real number except 3, then there exists a real number a such that
f (a) = b
8. In this question we start with the graph of quite a simple function and then do all kinds of things
to it. Some of the things we do will be familiar from school, but the function we use is not so
familiar.
a) Let S(t) = 1 if 0 ≤ t < 1 and S(t) = 0 for all other real values of t. Draw the graph of S.
(This is the graph that we are going to use and change. Ask a tutor to check your group’s
graph.) What is the domain of S? What is its range?
b) Let T (t) = S(t) − 12 . Draw the graph of T using the same set of axes used above. What
have we really done to the graph of S to get the graph of T ?
c) Let c be a constant, and U (t) = S(t) + c. Explain how the graph of U can be obtained
from the graph of S. (If you’re stuck, look again at (b).) We have tried to generalise in
this question what we did for a specific value of c in (b).)
d) Let W (t) = S(t + 2). Draw the graph of S and W on a new set of axes. If you’re stuck,
use a table of values for t. Try to see what we have done to S here to get W .
e) Let X(t) = S(t − 2). Draw the graph of X in on the set of axes for your last question.
(Why have we asked this question? What’s the difference between this question and the
last? Get your graphs for W and X checked.)
f) Let a be a constant and Y (t) = S(t + a). Give a rule for obtaining the graph of Y from S.
(Hint: (d) and (e) should help here.)
g) Let Z(t) = S(S(t)) (What does that mean?) Draw the graph of Z on a new set of axes.
(Use tables if you are stuck.)

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 Tutorial Problems 3

Part I
1. Which of the following represents a function on finite sets, do this quick but make sure you know
why. Specify the domain and range of that function.

a)

b)

c)

2. Suppose that f, g are functions given on their domain by f (x) and g(x) respectively. For each
of the following, state
√ whether it true or false.
√ (why?)
a) If f (x) = x + 3 − 2x and g(u) = u + 3 − 2u then f = g.
2 −3x
b) If f (x) = xx−3 and g(x) = x then f = g.
3. Sketch the graph of each function given by the following equations:
a) f (x) = ||x| − 1|
b)

|x| if |x| ≤ 1
f (x) =
1 if |x| > 1.

4. Using the definition of the absolute value, solve the following inequality:

|x − 4| ≤ |2x − 3| + |x − 7|

5. Calculate the following by long division of polynomials:

4
a) xx2+2x−3
+x+3
x3 −x2 +x+1
b) x+3
2x4 +x2 +1
c) 2
x −2x−1
x3 +x
d) x−1

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 6. In this question you are going to draw a rough graph of the rational function

2x3 − x2 − 13x + 24
f (x) = .
x2 + x − 2
a) Factorize both the numerator and the denominator (using the factor theorem if you like.)
b) Use the factorized form of f (x) to determine where it is positive and where negative. (Use
a sign table.)
c) Explain why there has to be a turning point between −2 and 1.
d) What is the minimum number of turning points that f must have?
e) Divide the denominator into the numerator to get f into the form of a polynomial plus a
remainder term.
−6x + 18
f) Your remainder term should be 2 . Discuss the behaviour of this remainder term
x +x−2
for very large negative and positive x.
g) Use your answers to (f) and (g) to determine the end behaviour (the behaviour as x → ∞
and as x → −∞) of f . [Hint: For large positive and negative x, the graph of f looks very
similar to that of a much simpler function. Which one?]
h) One could argue that the graph of f has three asymptotes. Give them all. Does the graph
of f intersect any of these asymptote? If so, where?
i) Now sketch the graph of f showing the intercepts with the axes and any slant asymptotes,
and the vertical asymptotes.
7. Which of the following are odd functions, which are even, which are neither, and which are both.
For each one, prove that it is so, using the definitions of odd and even functions:
a) f (x) = 3x2
b) f (x) = 5x3
c) f (x) = x2 − 3x3
d) f (x) = 2x
e) f (x) = 2|x|
f) f (x) = 3
g) f (x) = 0

Part II
1. Suppose that a is a positive real number, that f (x) is an even function, and that g(x) is an odd
function. Which of the following is true?
a) af (x) is an even function and ag(x) is an odd function.
b) af (x) is an even function but ag(x) is not an odd function.
c) af (x) is not an even function but ag(x) is an odd function.
d) af (x) is not an even function and ag(x) is not an odd function.
2. Let f : R → R be a function.
a) Prove that the function defined by g(x) = f (x) + f (−x) is even.
b) Prove that the function defined by h(x) = f (x) − f (−x) is odd.
c) Deduce that any function f : R → R can be written as the sum of an even and an odd
function. (Can you think of a quick way of proving this for a polynomial function?)
d) Write the function f (x) = ex sin(x + 32 π) as a sum of an even and an odd function
(x + 1)2
3. Consider the function y = f (x) = 2 .
x +x−2
a) Where is the function defined?
b) Where does the graph cut the coordinate axes?
c) Where is the graph positive/negative?

7
 d) What happens near the points where the function is not defined?
e) What happens as x → ±∞?
f) Does the graph cut any of its asymptotes?
g) What is the range of the function?

HINT: Find the values of y for which the quadratic equation in x

y(x2 + x − 2) = (x + 1)2

has a solution.
h) Sketch the graph of the function.
4. In lectures we looked at the power functions, with non-negative integers as powers. In this question
we ask you to explore the power functions where the powers are negative integers. One of the skills
we would like you to acquire in this course is to draw rough graphs of functions by exploring their
properties, and not relying simply on plotting points. (There is nothing wrong with plotting some
points when you are trying to draw a graph of a function, but if you rely on this only, you may miss
out on some important points and end up with the wrong graph.)
Let n be a positive integer and define the function gn by gn (x) = x−n . Answer the following
questions. In some cases you may have to consider the cases n even and n odd separately.
a) What is the domain of gn ?
b) What is the range of gn ?
c) Find gn (1) and gn (−1).
d) What happens to gn (x) as x → 0?
e) Is gn even, or odd, or neither?
f) What happens to gn (x) as x → ∞? And as x → −∞?
g) Where is gn increasing, and where is it decreasing?
Use this information to draw, on the same system of axes, rough graphs of g1 , g2 , g3 and g4 . Try
to do this without calculating any further function values.
5. The eccentric Dr Shark has observed that attendance at his first-period lecture fluctuates during
the semester and suspects that it follows a predictable pattern. The highest attendance he has
recorded was 103, and this happened both at his introductory lecture (lecture 0) and at the
last lecture, and the lowest attendance was 23, at lecture number 30. There are 60 lectures
in a semester. Dr Shark thinks that he can use a function of the form f (t) = A cos at + b to
describe attendance, where f (t) is the number of students at lecture number t, and A, a and b
are constants. Below we try to do this.
a) Begin by drawing a graph that shows attendance for one semester, putting in the infor-
mation given above. Use one period of the cosine function to describe attendance for the
whole semester. Put the numbers of of the lectures (0 to 60) on the horizontal axis.
b) What is the amplitude you want for your graph? Since the ordinary cosine function has
amplitude 1, you will need to stretch the cosine function vertically to get the amplitude
you want. How much do you need to stretch? Which constant have you just worked out?
c) If you take an ordinary (stretched) cosine function, it oscillates about the t-axis. You want
your function to oscillate around another line. Which one? To do this you will have to
shift. In which direction, and by how much do you need to shift? Once you have answered
these questions, you will know the value of another one of the constants. Which one, and
what is its value?
d) The period of a cosine function is 2π, and there are 60 lectures in a semester. This infor-
mation enables you to find the last constant. Find it.
e) Now write down the expression for f (t), with the values of the constants filled in.

8
f) Dr Shark is happy with the function you found in (e) and plans to use it in when he
lectures to the same group of students in the second semester. Unfortunately, in the second
semester course a new group of students with a rather different pattern of attendance joins
his class. In their previous course there was a highest attendance of 75 in lecture 15 and a
lowest attendance of 15 in lecture 45. Use the same method as above to find a sine function
describing their attendance.
g) Finally find a function that describes the attendance of the combined class. [Hint: The total
attendance is the sum of the sum of the number of students from each group attending.]
Now write this function as a single sine function of the form h(t) = A sin(kt + α) + c.
h) In which lecture will the attendance in the combined class be at its lowest?

9
 Tutorial Problems 4

Part I
1. For each of the following statements, say whether it is true or false:
a) If f and g are linear functions, f ◦ g is linear.
b) If f and g are quadratic functions, f ◦ g is a quadratic function.
2. If cos(x) = − 31 , where π < x < 3π
2 , then find:
a) cot(x) and sec(x)
b) sin(2x)
c) cos(2x) √
3. a) Let f (x) = x2 + x2 , g(x) = 2x+32
and h(x) = 2x. Find:

(h ◦ g ◦ f )(4)
√ 1
b) Let f (x) = x2 , g(x) = 9 + x and h(x) = (x − 1) 3 . Find:

(h ◦ ((f ◦ g)(g ◦ f )))(4)

√
4. Let f : Df → R and g : Dg → R be functions given by f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x, respectively.
We define the composite f ◦ g : Df ◦g → R, where Dg , Df and Df ◦g are subsets of R.
a) What is the domain Df of f and Dg of g?
b) What is the range of g?
g √ f √ 2
Now consider x → − x →− ( x)
c) Which values of x do you need to put in the first block so that the expression in the third
block defines a real number?
d) Compute f (g(x)) and simplify your expression.
e) What is the domain of the simplified expression? Let us call it D∗ .
f) Use a) and b) to find the domain Df ◦g of f ◦ g.
g) Find the intersection D∗ ∩ Dg . This is the domain of the composite function.
h) Compare your answers to c, e, f and g. Note that if you had simplified the function in the
beginning, you would have come up with the wrong domain for the composite. You have
to be careful that at each stage of the map, the numbers that are passed in are within the
domain of that part of the composite function.
5. You are given that one of the functions in the table below is linear and the other is exponential.
Which is which? Find a formula for each of them.
x f (x) g(x)
−2 36 36
−1 12 20
0 4 4
1 4/3 −12
2 4/9 −28
6. Sketch the graphs of the rational functions given by:
a) f (x) = xx−3
2 −25
x3 −7x2 +12x
b) g(x) = x2 −16

10
Part II
1. For each of the following statements, say whether it is true or false:
a) If f and g are polynomial functions, f ◦ g is a polynomial function.
b) If g and f ◦ g are linear functions, then f is a linear function.
2. If sin(x) = 13 and sec(y) = 45 for 0 < x < π2 and 0 < y < π2 , then find:
a) cos(x + y)
b) tan(x − y)
√ 4
3. a) Let f (x) = x, g(x) = 5−x and h(x) = x2 . Find:

(h ◦ ((h ◦ g ◦ f ) − f ))(4)
√ 2
b) Let f (x) = x2 , g(x) = x + 11, h(x) = x−1 and j(x) = 4x − 1. Find:

(f ◦ ((h ◦ g) + (h ◦ j)))(5)
x5 +x4 √
c) Let f (x) = 3(x + 1)3 , g(x) = x+1 and h(x) = x. Find:

(h ◦ (g + (h ◦ f )))(2)

d) Find the domain and range of f ◦ g.

4. For each of the following statements, you must decide whether it is true or false.
If you think it is true, prove it. Otherwise, produce an example to show that the statement is
not always true.
a) No even function is one-to-one.
b) All odd functions are one-to one.
c) If f and g are one-to-one functions, then so is their sum f + g, their product f g, their
difference f − g and their composition f ◦ g.
d) If f and g are increasing functions, then, so is their product f g, their sum f + g, their
difference f − g and their composition f ◦ g .
5. The following shows part of a graph of a function, f , whose domain is R.

Sketch the positive half of the graph on the given axes if:
a) The function is even
b) The function is odd
c) For a) and b), draw the graph of y = |f (x)| and y = f (|x|).

11
 Tutorial Problems 5

Part I
1. For each of the following equations, write down the set of all real numbers x for which the
equation is true.
a) sin(arcsin x) = x
b) arcsin(sin x) = x
c) arcsin x = arccos x
d) ln(x2 ) = 2 ln x
2. Simplify the following expressions:
a) tan(arcsin(x))
b) sin(arctan(x))
c) sin(2 arccos(x)) √
3. Prove that sin(arccos(x)) = 1 − x2
4. Write the following expressions as a power of e.
a) 2x
b) 34x
5. Let f : R → R be a function. For each of the following statements say whether it is true or false.
Give a reason for your answer.
a) If f is even, it has an inverse.
b) If f is odd, it has an inverse.
c) If f is one-to-one, it is either increasing on R, or it is decreasing on R.
ex
6. Let f (x) = 2x .
e −1
a) Is f one-to-one? Give a reason for your answer.
b) Find the inverse of f , if it exists.
7. Claim:“No odd integer can be expressed as a sum of three even integers.”
Prove that this claim is true.
Hint: Suppose you can express some odd number n as a sum of three even integers then what can
you conclude?

Part II
1. Find the value of cos(arctan(2) − arctan(3)).
2. Write √the following expressions as a power of e.
a) x x
b) (tan(x))sec(x)
3. Let f (x) = eln(x+1) .
a) Find the domain and range of f .
b) Draw a rough graph of f .
c) Does f have an inverse? Give a reason for your answer.
4. Let f be an invertible function with domain R and inverse f −1 .
a) Prove that if f is an odd function , then f −1 is also odd.
b) Prove that if f is an increasing function, then f −1 is also increasing
5. Let f be a function given by f (x) = ln(1 − ln(x2 +e−1))
a) Find the domain of f .
b) Is f an even function?
c) Does f have an inverse function? (why?)

12
Additional problem(s)
1. The evil Dr Shark is being chased from his laboratory by a crowd. When he hears them coming,
he jumps on his bicycle and starts pedaling furiously up the mountain. He manages to get to
the top before the crowd catches him, and starts racing down to the other side. To his horror he
realises that his brakes are broken, and he has no way of slowing down. His speed continues to
increase until he manages to put his feet on the ground to slow the bicycle down to a constant
velocity (called the “terminal velocity”).
Two graphs are shown below; one shows the distance he has travelled (in metres) as a function
of time, the other his velocity (in metres per second) as a function of time, both starting at the
time he leaves his lab. See Figure 1.

Figure .1: Dr Shark’s journey

a) Which is the velocity graph and which is the distance graph?

b) Explain why the distance function s(t) has an inverse, but the velocity function v(t) does
not have an inverse.
c) Find an approximate value for s−1 (1000).
d) How far is the top of the mountain from Dr Shark’s laboratory?
e) What is the the meaning of your answer in (c), in practical terms?
f) What is s(s−1 (1000))? Explain your answer graphically and in practical terms.
g) There has been a rockfall on the mountain 500m after the top. Of what practical importance
would s−1 (600) and v(s−1 (600)) be to Dr Shark?
h) Draw a rough graph of s−1 using the graph above.

13
 Tutorial Problems 6

Part I
√
1. Let f and g be functions given by f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = x − 1, respectively. Is f ◦ g an
odd function?
2. Statement: An integer n is divisible by 3 if and only if n2 is divisible by 3.
proof:
( =⇒ ) We first prove that if n is divisible by 3 then n2 is divisible by 3.
Now, if n is divisible by 3 then n = 3k for some integer k, thus n2 = 9k 2 = 3(3k 2 ). Notice
that 3k 2 is an integer and so n2 is divisible by 3.
( ⇐= ) Conversly, we prove that if n2 is divisible by 3 then n is divisible by 3.
This is equivalent to proving that if n is not divisible by 3 then n2 is not divisible by 3.
Now if n is not divisible by 3 then n = 3k + 1 or n = 3k 0 + 2 for some integers k and k 0 , in
any case n2 = 9k 2 + 6k + 1 = 3(3k 2 + 2k) + 1 or n2 = 9k 02 + 12k 0 + 4 = 3(3k 02 + 4k 0 + 1) + 1
and thus n2 is not divisible by 3.

a) What does “if and only if” mean?

b) Is it true that if n is not divisible by 3 then n = 3k + 1 or n = 3k + 2 for some integers k
and k 0 ? (Why?)
c) Why is the statement “if n2 is divisible by 3 then n is divisible by 3” equivalent to statement
“if n is not divisible by 3 then n2 is not divisible by 3.”?
d) Let A and B be statements, is it true in general that A =⇒ B ⇐⇒ ¬B =⇒ ¬A?
( =⇒ is the logical symbol for implication and ¬ a logical symbol for negation.
One reads the above as “A implies B is equivalent to (not B) implies (not A)”.)
3. Use proof by contradiction to prove each of the following statements:
a) There is no smallest positive real number.
b) √The sum of a rational number and an irrational number is irrational.
c) √3 is irrational. (Hint: You will need to use result in 2.)
d) 6 is irrational.
4. Use mathematical induction to prove that each of the following statements is true:
a) For every positive integer n,

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2 .

b) For every positive integer n,

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 2 2 + 3 2 + · · · + n2 = .
6
c) For every positive integer n,
22n − 1
is divisible by 3.
d) For every positive integer n,
n3 − n
is divisible by 6.

14
Part II
1. Prove that an integer n is divisible by 5 if and only if n2 is divisible by 5.√
2. Use the above result and a proof technique you have learnt to show that 5 is irrational.
3. Read and make sure that you understand the following proof:

Statement: For n > 9 we have that n3 > 3n2 + 3n + 1.

proof: For n > 9, we have

n3 = n · n2
> 9n2
= 3n2 + 3n2 + 3n2
= 3n2 + 3n · n + 3n · n
> 3n2 + 3n(9) + 3(9)(9)
> 3n2 + 3n + 1

4. Use a proof technique you have learnt to show that for every integer n > 9, we have 2n > n3 .
One way of doing this uses the fact that for an integer k ≥ 10:

(k + 1)3 1
= (1 + )3 ≤ (11/10)3 < 2
k3 k
5. Find the flaw in the following proof:

Statement: All cars are the same colour.

Proof: We shall prove this using mathematical induction. To be specific, we shall prove that, for
every positive integer n, any set of n cars are the same colour.
Base Case: When n = 1, there is only one car in the set, so all the cars in the set have the same
colour. This proves the Base Case.
Inductive Step: Suppose that the statement is true for some integer n ≥ 1. Then any set of n
cars are the same colour (this is the Inductive Hypothesis). We must use this to prove that the
statement is true for the integer n + 1. Let S be a set of n + 1 cars. If x is a car in S, then the
set S − {x} contains n cars, all of which, by the Inductive Hypothesis, have the same colour.
Let’s call this colour, whatever it is, ‘red’. Let y be a car in S that is different to x. Once
again, by the Inductive Hypothesis, all the cars in S − {y} are the same colour. But since the
colours of the cars in S haven’t changed, this means that all the cars in S − {y} must also be
red. But x is in S − {y}, which means x is red. Hence, all the cars in S have the same colour.
We have proved that the statement is true for n = 1 (the Base Case) and we have proved that
whenever the statement is true for an integer n, it is also true for the integer n + 1 (the Inductive
Step). Hence, by the Principle of Mathematical Induction, the statement is true for all nonnegative
integers n.

15
 Tutorial Problems 7

A major hint for some questions here is to use the equation for the difference of two cubes, that is
x3 − y 3 = (x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 ).

Part I
1. Quickly find the following limits:
a) lim (x2 − 4x + 1)
x→2
b) lim 2x+1
x→2
2. Consider the diagram below as a graph of some function f .

a) What is f (−5)?
b) Find lim f (x), if it exists.
x→−5
c) Find lim f (x)
x→1+
d) Does lim f (x) exist? (Why?)
x→1
e) Is function f defined at x = 4?. Does the lim f (x) exist? (Why?)
x→4
3. Find the following limits:
a) lim x2 cos(x)
x→π
ln(ex )
b) lim
x→0 x √
4− x
c) lim
x→16√ 16x − x2
9+h−3
d) lim
h→0 h
t4 − 2
e) lim 2
t→−2 2t − 3t + 2

4. Find the following limits, if they exist. If a limit does not exist, say why.
x2 − 4
a) lim 3
x −8
x→2 
2x2 − 3x + 4 5x − 4

b) lim +
x→0 x x

16
 x3 − 1
c) lim √
x→1 x−1
x4 − 1
d) lim 2
x→1 |x − 2|
|x|
e) lim
−
x→0 √ 2x
x3
f) lim √
x→0+ x

Squeeze theorem: If f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and

lim f (x) = L = lim h(x),

x→a x→a

That is, both limits exist and equal to L.

Then lim g(x) = L
x→a

Example 11 in Stewart 8E, page 69.

1
Show that lim x2 sin


x =0
x→0

Notice that
we cannot use the product law
of limits in this case, that is
lim x2 sin x1 = lim x2 · lim sin x1 since lim sin x1 = 0 does not exist.


x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0

The fact that sin x1
is bounded will help us to use Squeeze theorem.

That is −1 ≤ sin x1 ≤
1, and multiplying out by x2

we get −x2 ≤ x2 sin x1 ≤ x2
Notice that the fact that x2 ≥ 0 is used here. (This is important, make sure you know why
if not ask a tutor).

Now notice that lim −x2 = 0 and lim x2 = 0

x→0 x→0
1
Therefore by Squeeze theorem we have lim x2 sin


x = 0.
x→0

π
5. Use Squeeze theorem to prove that lim x4 cos


x =0
x→0

Part II
1. Find lim x2 arctan x14 (Hint: Use Squeeze theorem)


x→0
2. Find the following
√ limits:
√
3
x + 27 − 3 2x + 27
a) lim
x→0 x
3 1
b) lim [x arctan ]
x→0 x
(3 + x)3 − 27
c) lim
x→0 √ x
x2 + 16 − 4
d) lim
x→0 x2 (
x2 , if x is a rational number
e) lim f (x) where f (x) =
x→0 x, if x is an irrational number

17
3. For each of the following statements, say whether it is true or false. If true, prove it; if false,
give a counter-example.
a) If lim [f (x) + g(x)], then both lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist.
x→a x→a x→a
b) If lim [f (x) + g(x)] and lim f (x) exist, then lim g(x) exists.
x→a x→a x→a
f (x)
c) If lim f (x) exists and lim = 0, then lim g(x) exists.
x→a x→a g(x) x→a
d) If lim [f (x)]2 exists, then lim f (x) exists.
x→a x→a

Recall: A function f is continuous at a if lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a
We will learn more about continuity next term.
√
4. If you look at the graph of the function f (x) = x, it seems as if this function is continuous
on [0, ∞). In this question you will prove that this is the case, using the Squeeze (or Sandwich)
Theorem.
a) Show that for a > 0, a + h > 0,
√ √ |h| |h|
| a + h − a| = √ √ <√ .
a+h+ a a
√ √
a+h+ a
[Hint: Multiply by √ √ .]
a+h+ a √ √
b) Use the Squeeze theorem to deduce that lim a + h = a for all a > 0.
√ h→0
c) Now show that lim h = 0 (you may assume this limit exists). Hint: try assuming that
√ h→0+
lim h = c 6= 0 and obtaining a proof by contradiction.
h→0+
d) Explain why it follows from (b) and (c) that f is continuous on [0, ∞).
5. Bonus question: The length of the edge of the Koch Snowflake.
a) Start with an equilateral triangle (call it K0 ), with sides of length L. What is the length
of this perimeter (call this P (K0 ))?

Figure .1: K0

b) Now form the following triangle (call it K1 ) by cutting out a segment from the middle
third of each side of the first triangle, and replacing it by two sides of another triangle with
length 31 that of the original sides. Now each line is length L3 . What is the length of this
perimeter (P (K1 ))?

18
 Figure .2: K1

c) Now repeat this process again by taking each line, cutting out the middle third and replacing
them by two sides of another triangle, with sides the length of the piece you’ve cut out.
Each side is now length L9 . What is the length of the perimeter of figure 3 (P (K2 ))?:

Figure .3: K2

d) Now do this again to get figure 4 (K3 ). What is the length of the perimeter (P (K3 ))?

19
 Figure .4: K3

e) and once more for figure 5 to get P (K4 ):

Figure .5: K4

f) If you keep repeating this, calculate the length of the perimeter when you’re at Kn for some
n. What is:
lim P (Kn ) (.1)
n→∞

20
 Tutorial problems 8

Part I
1. Evaluate the limit and justify each step by indicating the appropriate limit properties.
2 −3x+5
a) lim 5x2x 2 +3x+1
x→∞
q
32x3 +5x+1
b) lim 3+4x2 +2x3
x→∞

2. Consider the diagram below as a graph of some function f .

a) Is the above function continuous at 3? (Why?)

b) Give three values for which f fails to be continuous and give a reason why it is not continuous
at each of those values.
(Make sure you understand the definition of continuity).
c) In one of the values, the discontinuity can be removed by enlarging the domain of f . How
can this be done?
3. Evaluate the
√ following limits:
2 −3x+5
a) lim x x+2
x→∞
√
x2 −3x+5
b) lim x+2
x→−∞

4. Use the definition of continuity and properties of limits to show that:

2 +5t
a) f (x) = t2t−1 is continuous at x = 1.
x 2
b) g(x) = √x+2 is continuous at x = 2.
1
5. Let f (x) = .
3x − 1
a) Without finding the derivative of f , say whether you expect f 0 (1) to be positive or negative.
Give a reason for your answer.
b) Use only the definition of the derivative to find f 0 (1).
c) Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point where x = 1.
6. Find the √equation of a tangent line to the curve at the given point.
a) y = x, point (16, 4).

21
 b) y = 2x+1
x+2 , point (1, 1).
7. Find the limit
√ or show that it does not exist.
t+t2
a) lim 2t−t 2
t→∞
√
x2 −3x+5
b) lim x+2
x→∞
√ 
c) lim 9x2 + x − 3x
x→∞
2
d) lim √x
x→∞ x4 +1

8. The graph of the function f on the interval [−1, 5] is shown below.

Arrange the following numbers in increasing order, and explain your answer:
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) f 0 (1) (d) f 0 (2) (e) f 0 (4) (f) 12 (f (4) − f (2))
9. Use the intermediate Value Theorem (IVT) to show that the following functions have a zero in
the specified interval.
x4 + x − 3, interval (1, 2).
a) f (x) = √
b) g(x) = √ 3
x + x − 1, interval (0, 1).
c) h(x) = x + x2 − x, interval (2, 3).

Part II
sin(x)
1. Use the Squeeze theorem to evaluate lim x
x→∞
2. Suppose f and g are continuous functions such that g(2) = 6 and lim [3f (x) + f (x)g(x)] = 36.
x→2
Find f (2).
3. Evaluate the
√ following limits.
√ 
a) lim x2 + ax − x2 + bx
x→∞ √
t−t t
b) lim 3
t→∞ 2t 2 +3t−5

4. Find all values of a such that f is continuous on (−∞, ∞)


x + 1 if x ≤ a
f (x) =
x2 if x > a

22
5. Is there are a real number satisfying equation 2x = x5 + 4? (hint: define f (x) = 2x − x5 − 4.)
6. For each of the following, say whether it is true or false. If true, prove it; if false, give a
counter-example. (Note: Giving an example does not count as a proof for a true statement).
a) If f is continuous at a, then f is differentiable at a.
b) If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.
7. Determine whether f 0 (0) exists.
a)
x sin x1


if x 6= 0
f (x) =
0 if x = 0
b)
1
x2 sin


x if x 6= 0
g(x) =
0 if x = 0
8. Find the values of a and b that make function f continuous everywhere on (−∞, ∞)
x2 −4

 x−2 if x < 2
f (x) = ax2 −bx + 3 if 2 ≤ x < 3
2x − a + b if x ≥ 3


9. The function f is defined by

x3 for x < 0

f (x) =
x2 for x ≥ 0
a) Sketch the graph of f .
b) For each of the following statements, say whether it is true or false and prove that your
answer is correct:
i. f is continuous at x = 0.
ii. f is differentiable at x = 0 (make sure you use the limit definition of the derivative in
your answer).
iii. f 0 is continuous at x = 0.
iv. f 0 is differentiable at x = 0 (make sure you use the limit definition of the derivative in
your answer).

23
 Tutorial Problems 9

Part I
1. You are given that the function y = f (x) has the graph below.

E F G H I K L M \

Figure .1: The function y = f (x)

On the given axes, sketch the graph of y = f 0 (x) wherever it is defined (do not worry about the
values).
[Hint: Don’t try to guess a formula for f (x); there isn’t one! At each of the indicated points,
ask yourself more-or-less what f 0 (x) is at that point.]

24
2. Let f be a function with domain R. For each of the following statements say whether it is true
or false:
a) If f 00 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ R, then f is a linear function.
b) If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ R, then f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ R.
c) If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ R, then f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ R.
Now give reasons for all your answers. Remember: If you think the statement is false, it is good
enough to give an example of a function for which the statement is false. If you think it it is
true, you have to give a reason or proof.

3. Let f and g be differentiable functions, then for each of the following say whether it is true or
false— prove it if true or give a counter-example if false.
a) 
(f g)0 0 0
 (x) = f (x)g (x).
0 0
b) fg (x) = fg0 (x)
(x)
for g(x) 6= 0.
4. Differentiate the following functions:
√
a) f (x) = 3 x(4 − x)
2
b) g(x) = x √+4x+1
 x−1 2
c) h(x) = x1 − √1x
(x+2)9
d) k(x) = 1−x
√
5. If f (x) = x · g(x), where g(4) = 8 and g 0 (4) = 5, then find f 0 (4).
6. You are given the following information:
x f (x) g(x) f 0 (x) g 0 (x)

−1 1 −1 −2 2

1 −2 1 3 −1

Find the following:  

d d g(x) d
(a) [f (x)g(x)] (b) (c) [f (g(x))]
dx x=−1 dx f (x) x=1 dx x=1

d d d
(d) [g(f (x))] (e) [f (f (x))] (f) [f (xπ+1 )]
dx x=−1 dx x=−1 dx x=1

d
(g) [3(f (x))2 − 5g(x2 )]
dx x=1
7. Show from the definition of the derivative that the derivative of the function f given by f (x) =
cos(x) is f 0 (x) = − sin(x). (Hint: You may use the facts that lim sin(x)
x = 1 and lim 1−cos(x)
x = 0)
x→0 x→0
8. The graph of the derivative f 0 of a function f is given below.

25
 At which of the marked points is
(a) f (x) the largest? (b) f (x) the smallest? (c) f 0 (x) the largest?
(d) f 0 (x) the smallest? (e) f 00 (x) the largest? (f) f 00 (x) the smallest?
9. Evaluate the following limits:
a) lim sin(5x)
8x
x→0
sin(2x) sin(3x)
b) lim x2
x→0
c) lim cos(x)−1
x→0 sin(x)
2)
d) lim sin(x
x
x→0

26
Part II
1. At which of the marked points on the graph of the function f given below are
a) f 0 and f 00 both not zero and have the same sign?
b) at least two of f , f 0 and f 00 equal to 0?

2. Evaluate the following limits:

sin(x)
a) lim x+tan(x)
x→0
sin(x−1)
b) lim 2 (hint: Let u = x − 1)
x→1 x +x−2
1−tan(x)
c) lim
x→ π sin(x)−cos(x)
4
d) lim csc(x) sin(sin(x))
x→0

3. Differentiate the following functions:

a) f (x) = x4 · sin(2x) · tan(x)
sec2 (x)
b) g(x) = 1+tan(x)
p 
c) h(x) = tan 3 cos(x)
4. In class, we proved the quotient rule usingthe definition of a derivative.
 Use the product rule
f (x) 1
and chain rule to prove the quotient rule. hint: g(x) = f (x) · g(x) , where g(x) 6= 0.

5. Suppose f is a one-to-one function with f (0) = 3 and f 0 (x) = (f (x))2 − 1, the find (f −1 )0 (3).
p

(hint: (f ◦ f −1 )(x) = x).

6. If F (x) = f (xf (xf (x))), where f (1) = 2, f (2) = 3, f 0 (1) = 4, f 0 (2) = 5 and f 0 (3) = 6, then find
F 0 (1). (hint: Use chain rule and product rule carefully).

7. (Important: Comprehension question)

The following theorem gives a different way of thinking about differentiability. You have seen
in lectures a definition to say what it means for a function to be differentiable at a point. The
theorem below says that we could have given another definition, and that these two definitions
are equivalent.
Theorem. The function f is differentiable at x = a if and only if there is a constant m and a
function E of x, defined for all x 6= a, such that
• f (x) = f (a) + m(x − a) + E(x)(x − a) for all x 6= a, and,
• lim E(x) = 0.
x→a

27
(If both these conditions are satisfied, then f 0 (a) = m.)
f (x) − f (a)
Proof. If f is differentiable at x = a, then f 0 (a) = lim exists.
x→a x−a
f (x) − f (a)
For x 6= a, put E(x) = − f 0 (a). Then
x−a
 
f (x) − f (a)
lim E(x) = lim − f (a) = f 0 (a) − f 0 (a) = 0,
0
(1)
x→a x→a x−a

and
E(x)(x − a) = f (x) − f (a) − f 0 (a)(x − a). (2)
If we put m = f 0 (a), we have

f (x) = f (a) + m(x − a) + E(x)(x − a).

This proves the first half of the theorem. (3)

For the second half, suppose there is a constant m and a function E of x such that
f (x) = f (a) + m(x − a) + E(x)(x − a) and lim E(x) = 0. Then
x→a

f (x) − f (a)
lim = lim [m + E(x)] = m. (4)
x→a x−a x→a

Hence f is differentiable at x = a. (5)

f (a + h) − f (a)
a) You may be used to the definition which says f is differentiable at x = a when lim
h→0 h
f (x) − f (a)
exists. Is this the same as saying lim exists? Give a reason for your answer.
x→a x−a  
f (x) − f (a)
b) Explain what we use in line (1) to say that lim − f 0 (a) = f 0 (a) − f 0 (a).
x→a x−a
c) The function E has been defined for x 6= a. If we want to define E for x = a as well, in
such a way that E is continuous at x = a, what should E(a) be?
d) How is the equation in line (2) obtained?
e) What is the first half of the theorem mentioned in line (3), i.e., is it the “if” or the “only
if” part of the proof? Why can we say it has been proved by the time we get to line (3)?
f (x) − f (a)
f) Why can we say in line (4) that lim = lim [m + E(x)]?
x→a x−a x→a
g) How does it follow, also in line (4), that lim [m + E(x)] = m?
x→a
h) Why can we say in line (5) that f is differentiable at x = a?
i) We could say that this theorem says that a function f is differentiable at a if and only if it
can be approximated by a linear function near a. Why can we say this?

28
 Tutorial Problems 10

Part I
1. For each of the following statements say whether it is true or false, and give a reason for your
answer:
3
a) The rate at which the function h(x) = ex changes at x = −1 is 3 times as large as the rate
at which g(x) = ex changes at x = −1.
b) If f is differentiable at x = 2, then the rate at which the function g(x) = x2 f (x) changes
at x = 2 is 4 times as large as the rate at which f changes at x = 2.
dy
2. For each of the following, find dx .
a) y = ln(b) e
· (x + 1)
√
x·sin(x)
b) y = π
c) x2 + y 3 = 2018
2 +7x+1
d) y = x tan(x)
e) cos(x) y
p + sin(y) = e
f) y = arctan(x)√
g) y = arctan(x − 1 + x2 )
3. Write the following expressions as a power of e.
√
a) ( x)3x
2
b) sec(x)ln(x +1)
4. Differentiate the functions given by the following:
a) f (x) = x ln(x) − x
b) g(x) = cos(ln(x)
c) h(x) = log2 (1 + tan(x)ex )
d) k(x) = x3x
5. Use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivatives of the following:
√
a) y = q( x)x
x−1
b) y = x4 +1
√ x2 −x 2
c) y = xe (x + 1) 3

6. Let f (x) = x arctan x1 if x 6= 0 and f (0) = 0.

a) Is f continuous at 0?
b) Is f differentiable at 0?

dy
7. Find dx for each of the following:
a) arctan(y) + x4 = arcsin(x) + 2y
√
b) y = arccos( x)
c) y = cot−1 (x) + cot−1 x1

d) y = √ arcsin(ex ) + xy 2
e) y = 1 − x2 arcsin(x)

29
Part II
1. Let f (x) = cx + ln(cos(x)). Find the value of c such that f 0 ( π4 ) = 6.
d9 8
2. Find dx 9 (x ln(x))

d y n
3. Let n be a positive integer, then find a formula for dxn if y = ln(x − 1).

(hint: find the first few derivatives and make an intelligent guess, then use induction to prove
your guess.)
dy
4. For each of the following, find dx .
a) y = log2 (x log5 x)
b) 3cos(2x) + ln(y 2 + 1) = tan(xy)
c) y = ln(ln(ln(x))) q 
d) y 2 = arctan xa + ln x−a


  x+a
b+a cos(x)
e) y = arccos a+b cos(x) , where 0 ≤ x ≤ π, a > b > 0
   1
cos( x1 ) x2
f) Real challenge: y = sin e
5. Prove that for x > 0, arctan(x) + arctan( x1 ) = π2 (hint: you may use the fact that if f 0 (x) = 0
for all x in interval I, then for all x ∈ I, f (x) = C for some C ∈ R)

6. The equation
2(x2 + y 2 )2 = 25(x2 − y 2 ) (∗)
defines a curve in the xy-plane.
a) Verify that 0 is the only y-intercept of the curve.
b) Find the x-intercepts of the curve.
c) Is the curve symmetric about the x-axis? And about the y axis? Why?
d) Show that the point (3, 1) lies on the curve. Find three other points on the curve (other
than the intercepts with the axes).
e) Is the curve the graph of a function? Why?
dy
f) Find by differentiating implicitly.
dx
g) Find the slope of the tangent line at the point (3, 1), and an equation of the tangent line
to the curve at (3, 1).
h) Find all the points on the curve where the tangent line is horizontal.
i) Find the points on the curve where the tangent line is vertical.
j) (A bit more of a challenge) It is quite difficult to see from the information we have so far
what the curve will look like. Here is a way of using a change of variables to get a better idea
of the shape of the curve. Make the substitution x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, where r ≥ 0 and
0 ≤ θ < 2π. Draw a sketch to see how x, y, r and θ are related. (The r and θ are known as
the polar coordinates of the point (x, y); the polar coordinates of a point are unique, except
for the origin, where we take r = 0 and allow any θ.) Make these substitutions in the
equation (∗) to obtain an equation in r and θ, and simplify it as far as possible using trig
identities. Now try to trace the curve by starting with θ = 0 and increasing it, and finding
the corresponding r. (Remember that a square can never be negative!) Make a sketch of
the curve.

Additional problem(s)
1. We return briefly to Dr Shark on his treacherous way down Chapmans Peak Drive. We denote
by s(t) the distance he has travelled after t seconds. The graph of the function s is shown below.

30
a) We have seen before that the function s has an inverse. Use the graph to explain why
the inverse is differentiable. Do you think the derivative of the inverse function will be a
positive or negative function, or neither? Give a reason for your answer.
b) Estimate s0 (225) using the graph of s.
c) Estimate (s−1 )0 (s(225)) from the graph of s and explain how you arrived at your answer.
(Note the scale on the two axes is quite different.)
d) Exactly 225 seconds after the start of his downhill trip, Dr Shark looks up and sees a
baboon crossing the road directly ahead of him and 1 metre from him. Of what practical
importance would (s−1 )0 (s(225)) be to him?

31
 Tutorial Problems 11

Drawing a diagram for related rate problems is advisable as this makes the problem easier than it
looks when written in word form.

Part I
1. Differentiate the following:
a) f (x) = arctan(5x − 4)
1
b) g(x) = arcsin(x 2)
√ √
c) h(x) = arccos( x) + arcsin( x)
2. Consider the diagram below as a graph of some function f .

a) Is f differentiable everywhere on the open interval (a, d)?

b) Locate the critical points of f .
c) Does f have an absolute or global maximum? Does f have an absolute or global minimum?
(why?)
3. For each of the following, say whether it is true or false.
a) If f has a local minimum, then f has an absolute minimum.
b) If f has an absolute maximum, then f has a local maximum.
4. Prove the following:
a) dxd
cot−1 (x) = − 1+x
1
2
d −1
b) dx csc (x) = − x x2 −1
√ 1

d
c) dx sec−1 (x) = x√x12 −1
5. Prove that arcsin(x) + arccos(x) = π2 .
dy
6. If x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9, dx
dt = 5, dt = 4, then find
dz
dt when x = 2, y = 2 and z = 1

32
 7. Each side of a square is increasing at a rate of 6 cm/s. At what rate is the area of the square
increasing when the area of the square is 16 cm2 ?
8. Two cars start moving from the same point. One travels south at 30 km/h while the other
travels west at 72 km/h. At what rate is the distance between the cars increasing 4 hours later.
9. For each of the following, Find the absolute minimum and maximum values.
a) f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 1 on closed interval [− 12 , 4].
√
b) g(x) = x − 3 x on closed interval [−1, 4].
c) h(x) = x + cot( x2 ) on the closed interval [ π4 , 7π
4 ].
√
x
d) k(x) = 1+x2
on the closed interval [0, 2].

Part II
1. For each of the following, say whether it is true or false. Prove it if true and give counter-example
if false.
a) If f is differentiable at a, the f 00 at a exists.
b) If f 0 (a) exists and f 0 (a) = 0, then f has a local minimum or local maximum at a.
c) Suppose f has a local maximamum at a, then f 0 (a) exists and f 0 (a) = 0.
2. Prove the following identity
√
 
x−1 π
arcsin = 2 arctan( x) −
x+1 2
.
3. A particle moves along the curve y = 2 sin( πx 1
2 ). As the particle passes through the point ( 3 , 1),
√
its x-coordinate increases at a rate of 10 cm/s. How fast is the distance from the particle to
the origin changing at this instance?
4. Taken from Stewart pg 186-187
a) A light shines from the ground up towards a wall 10m away. If a man 1.8m tall walks
from the spotlight toward the building at a speed of 1.4 ms−1 , how fast is the length of his
shadow on the building decreasing when he is 3m from the building?
cm3
b) Water is leaking out of an inverted conical tank at a rate of 10, 000 min at the same time
that water is being pumped into the tank at a constant rate. The tank has height 6m and
cm
the diameter at the top is 4m. If the water level is rising at a rate of 20 min when the height
of the water is 2m, find the rate at which water is being pumped into the tank.
c) A lighthouse is located on a small island 3 km away from the nearest point P on a straight
shoreline and its light makes four revolutions per minute. How fast is the beam of light
moving along the shoreline when it is 1 km from P ?
d) A runner sprints around a circular track of radius 100m at a constant speed of 7 m s . The
runners friend is standing at a distance 200 m from the center of the track. How fast is the
distance between the friends changing when the distance between them is 200 m?
I highly recommend completing as many questions in Stewart on related rates as you can.
They take time and practice to master.
5. If a and b are positive numbers, then find the maximum value of f (x) = xa (1 − x)b .
6. Prove that p(x) = x3 + x − 1 has exactly one real root in interval [0, 1].
7. Prove that the function given by f (x) = x2017 + x1995 + x + 1 has neither a local maximum nor
a local minimum. (hint: Prove by contradiction)
8. Show that the equation x4 + 4x + c = 0 has at most two real roots.
9. Verify that f (x) = x3 − 2x2 − 4x + 2 satisfies the three hypotheses of Rolle’s theorem on the
interval [−2, 2] and find all numbers c that satisfy the conclusion of Rolle’s theorem.

33
10. Read the statement and proof of the following theorem and then answer the questions following
it.
Theorem: If a function f is differentiable at x = c and f (c) is a local maximum, then f 0 (c) = 0.
Proof: There is an open interval I which contains c such that
for all x ∈ I, f (x) ≤ f (c). (1)
It follows that if h is small enough, f (c + h) − f (c) ≤ 0. (2)
f (c + h) − f (c)
If h < 0, we therefore have ≥ 0, (3)
h
f (c + h) − f (c)
and if h > 0, ≤ 0. (4)
h
f (c + h) − f (c)
From this we can deduce that lim ≥0 (5)
h→0− h
f (c + h) − f (c)
and lim ≤ 0. (6)
h→0 + h
f (c + h) − f (c)
Since f is differentiable at x = c, lim =0 (7)
h→0 h
and so f 0 (c) = 0.

a) From which assumption in the statement of the theorem does line (1) in the proof follow?
b) Why does h have to be “small enough” for the inequality in line (2) to follow from line (1)?
c) How do the inequalities in lines (3) and (4) follow from line (2)?
d) State the limit rule we seem to be using in lines (5) and (6).
e) Why can we say, in line (7), that since f is differentiable at x = c,
f (c + h) − f (c)
lim = 0?
h→0 h
f) The theorem stated here is also true if we replace “local maximum” by “local minimum”.
This can be proved in the same way, with appropriate changes to the inequality signs.
Here is another possibility: Try to prove the theorem for a local minimum by applying the
theorem for a local maximum to the function g(x) = −f (x).
g) Is the following limit theorem true: If f (x) < k for all x near a and lim f (x) exists, then
x→a
lim f (x) < k? Give a reason for your answer.
x→a
h) Is it true that every stationary point is a local maximum or local minimum?

34
 Tutorial Problems 12

At this stage we expect you to be very comfortable with differentiation - comfortable in the sense that
you can open any First Year Calculus textbook and be able to differentiate any function (with very
few requiring brief thought process) you come across — Try the following exercises, and remember,
although the functions look very complicated, you just have to use the simple rules for differentiation
in logical ways to get the answers:

Differentiate:
√
3
√
x− x2 +2
1. f (x) = x4 +(2x−1)6
 
1 3
2. f (x) = x5
− arcsin(x) (x − tan(x))
2(x+sin(arctan(x)))5 +4x8 −ln(ex +23)
3. f (x) = x2018 +1

If you had trouble with those or feel you need more practice - do lots of examples from Stewart
8E— 2.3 Exercises 1-44, 2.4 Exercises 1-16, 2.5 Exercises 1-54, 2.6 Exercises 1-32

Part I
1. Consider the diagram below as a graph of some function f .

a) Find open intervals on which f is increasing. Similarly open intervals on which f is de-
creasing.
b) Locate stationary points and specify their nature (local minimum or local maximum).
c) Find open intervals on which f is concave up. Similarly open intervals on which f is concave
down.
d) Locate or estimate points of inflection on the graph of f .
2. Suppose f (3) = 2, f 0 (3) = 21 , and f 0 (x) > 0 and f 00 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ R.
a) Sketch a possible graph for f . (Confirm your answer with a tutor.)
b) How many solutions does the equation f (x) = 0 have?
c) Is it possible that f 0 (2) = 31 ? (Why?)
3. Let f (x) = x3 e−x .
a) Find f 0 (x) and f 00 (x).

35
 b) Find a sign table for f , f 0 and f 00 . [This means that you have to draw up a table which
indicates for which x each of f (x), f 0 (x) and f 00 (x) will be positive, and for which x each
of them will be negative. You should also mark the point(s) (if any) where each of them
equals 0.]
c) For which x is f increasing, and for which x is f decreasing?
d) Where (if anywhere) does the graph of f have a horizontal tangent?
e) For which x is the graph of f concave up? And concave down?
f) At which values of x does the concavity of the graph of f change (i.e., what are the points
of inflection)?
g) What is lim f (x)?
x→−∞
x3
h) What is lim f (x)? [Hint: We can write f (x) = . You need to decide which grows
x→∞ ex
faster as x → ∞: x3 or ex .)]
i) Draw a rough graph of f using all this information.
4. For each one of the following statements, say whether it is true or false.[Give a proof if true,
otherwise a counter-example].
a) A polynomial of degree four cannot have exactly one point of inflection.
b) A point of inflection cannot be a critical point.
c) A local minimum cannot be a point of inflection.
d) At a point of inflection of the graph of a function the second derivative is zero.
e) If f 0 (a) = 0 = f 00 (a), then the graph of f has a point of inflection at x = a.
f) If the graph of f has a point of inflection at x = a, then f 0 (a) = 0 = f 00 (a).
g) If f 0 (a) does not exist, then f cannot have a local maximum or minimum at x = a.
h) If f 00 (a) does not exist, the graph of f cannot have a point of inflection at x = a.
5. Let f (x) = (x−3)−2 . Show that there is no value of c in (1, 4) such that f (4)−f (1) = f 0 (c)(4−1).
Why does this not contradict the Mean Value theorem.
6. Let f (x) = 2 − |2x − 1|. Show that there is no value of c such that f (3) − f (0) = f 0 (c)(3 − 0).
Why does this not contradict the mean value theorem?
7. Use l’Hospital’s Rule to evaluate the following limits:
2
a) lim sin(xx +x)
x→0
b) lim xx
x→0+
ln(x)+2018
c) lim √
3x
x→∞
x
5 −4 x
d) lim x x
x→0 3 −2
e) lim xex
x→−∞
f) lim x ln x
x→0+
8. Sketch the following curves:
2
a) y = x2x+9
√
b) y = √(x − 3) x
c) y = x2 + x − 2
d) y = 4 + x1 + x12
√
2
e) y = 1−x x
x −x
f) y = e −e2
g) y = x + cos(x)
9. Suppose that f and g are continuous functions on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Suppose also
that f (a) = g(a) and f 0 (x) < g 0 (x) for a < x < b. Prove that f (b) < g(b). (Hint: Apply the
Mean Value Theorem (MVT) to the function h = f − g)

36
Part II
1. Does there exist a differentiable function f such that f (0) = −1, f (2) = 4, and f 0 (x) ≤ 2 for all
x?
2. A number a is called a fixed point of a function f if f (a) = a. Prove that if f 0 (x) 6= 1 for all
real number x, then f has at most one fixed point.
3. Consider a sequence of real numbers given by Tn = ln(n) n+1 (where n is a positive integer), what is
the limit of this sequence as n approaches infinity? (Hint: Define a function f for x ≥ 1 given
by f (x) = ln(x)
x+1 ). √
4. Sketch f (x) = sin(x) + 3 cos(x) on the interval [−2π, 2π].
5. Suppose f is a continuous function where f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ R, f (0) = 4, f 0 (x) > 0 if x < 0 or
x > 2, f 0 (x) < 0 if 0 < x < 2, f 00 (−1) = 0 = f 00 (1), f 00 (x) > 0 if x < −1 or x > 1, f 00 (x) < 0 if
−1 < x < 1.
a) Can f have an absolute maximum? If so, sketch a possible graph of f . If not, explain why.
b) Can f have an absolute minimum? If so, sketch a possible graph of f . If not, explain why.
c) Sketch a possible graph for f that does not achieve an absolute minimum.
6. Let n be a positive integer, then
x
a) Prove that lim xen = ∞
x→∞
ln(x)
b) Prove that lim n =0
x→∞ x
c) What can you say about the behaviour of ex and ln(x) at large values in comparison to xn ?
7. Consider √ √
2a3 x − x4 − a3 3 aax
y= √4
,
a − ax3
find the limit of y as x approaches a, where a > 0. [This is the example that Marquis de l’Hospital
used in his 1696 Analyse des Infiniment Petits book where the Rule made its first appearance. It
was common to write aa instead of a2 then.]
8. Sketch the following curves:
5 2
a) y = x 3 − 5x 3
sin(x)
b) y = 1+cos(x)
sin(x)
c) y = 2+cos(x)
d) y = e−x sin(x) on interval [0, ∞)
9. Evaluate   
2 1+x
lim x − x ln
x→∞ x
10. Let ( 1

f (x) = e− x2 if x 6= 0
0 if x = 0
a) Use the definition of the derivative to find f 0 (0).
b) Show that f has derivatives of all order, that is, f (n) (x) defines a function f (n) on R for
each positive integer n. [hint: First show by induction that for each nonnegative integer n
there is a polynomial pn (x) and a nonnegative integer kn such that f (n) (x) = pn (x)f
xkn
(x)
for
x 6= 0.]

37
Additional problem(s)
1. Dr Shark has made himself very unpopular by setting an impossibly difficult class test. As he
is leaving his office, he hears an angry mob of students approaching and he jumps on his trusty
bicycle. He plans to shake off his pursuers by crossing a nearby lake in a getaway boat he has
left on the one shore for such eventualities. We’ll assume that the lake is circular with radius 2
km. The boat is at point A on the shore, and a friend is waiting for him in a car at point B on
the opposite shore. A and B lie on a diameter of the circular lake. Dr Shark decides to go from
A to B by rowing across the lake from A to another point C on the shore, and then walking
from C to B. He can row at 2 km/h and walk at 4 km/h. To which point C should he row to
make the total time for the trip as short as possible?
[Hint: C is determined by the angle CAB; call it θ. Draw a sketch of the lake, indicating A, B
and C. It may be helpful to draw the line joining C to the center O of the circle.]
Remember to check that you have found the θ that gives you the minimum time, not the
maximum time!

38
 Tutorial Problems 13

Drawing a diagram for optimization problems is advisable as this makes the problem easier than it
looks when written in word form.

Part I
1. You are asked to make a gutter out of a flat sheet of metal 30cm wide. The gutter has to be
10cm deep. The gutter is made by bending the sheet in the shape shown in the diagram below,
which shows a cross-section of the gutter. How should you bend the sheet so that the gutter will
contain as much water as possible?

a) At first sight, this looks as though it’s a problem in 3 dimensions (since volume is a 3
dimensional idea.) In fact the problem we are looking at can be reduced to a 2 dimensional
problem. Explain why. What 2 dimensional quantity must you maximize?
b) What dimensions do you have to know before you can bend the sheet into the best shape,
i.e. the shape that will carry the most water? (What are the unknowns, or variables?)
c) Assign symbols to all the variables you mentioned in (b).
d) The variables you listed in (c) may be related to one another. Write down any equation(s)
you can think of that expresses these relationships.
e) Write down an expression for the quantity in (a) in terms of the variables you listed in (c).
f) The expression you wrote down may contain several variables. Try to use the equation(s) in
(d) to eliminate all but one of the variables. You should now have the quantity mentioned
in (a) as a function of just one variable.
g) What values of this one variable make sense for this problem? Put differently, if we want
to maximize the function, what interval of values for the variable should we consider?
h) Differentiate the function you obtained in (f) and put the derivative equal to 0 to obtain
the critical point(s) of the function in this interval.
i) For each critical point, determine whether it gives a local maximum, minimum or neither.
There are two ways of doing this; try both.
j) Find the values of the function at the endpoints of the interval obtained in (g). Use this to
find the absolute maximum and minimum of the function on the interval.
k) You should now be able to answer the original question. A few calculations still need to be
made; use your answers in (b) and (d) for this.
2. A field needs to be enclosed with a rectangular fence. If there is only 500 m of fencing material
and a building is on one side of the field and so won’t need any fencing. Determine the dimension
of the field that will enclose the largest area.
3. A manufacture needs to make a cylindrical can that will hold 1.5 liters of liquid. Determine the
dimensions of the can that will minimize the amount of material used in its construction.
4. Find all antiderivatives of the functions given by:
(Check your answers by differentiating.)
a) y = 4x + 9
b) y = 2x3 + 23 x2 + 3x
√ √
c) y = 5 x − 2 3 x

39
 d) y = x(2 − x)2
e) y = 2 sin(x) − sec2 (x)
√
f) y = 2 x − sec(x) tan(x)
5. Given a piece of cardboard that is 140 cm by 100 cm. Determine the height of the box that will
give a maximum volume if the box is constructed by cutting out the corners and folding up the
sides as shown below.

6. A printer needs to make a poster that will have a total area of 400 cm2 and 2 cm margins on
the sides, a 4 cm margin on top and a 1.5 cm margin on the bottom. What dimensions of the
poster will give the largest printed area?
7. For each of the following, find f .
a) f 0 (x) = x+1
√ , and f (1) = 5
x
b) f 0 (x) = x − x13 , x > 0 and f (1) = 6
c) f 0 (x) = sec(x)[sec(x) + tan(x)], − π2 < x < π
2 and f ( π4 ) = −1

Part II
1. For each of the following, find f .
a) f 0 (x) = 1+x2 π
2 , and f (1) = 4 .

b) f 00 (x) = −2 + 12x − 12x2 , and f (0) = 3, f 0 (0) = 12.

c) f 00 (x) = sin(x) + cos(x), and f (0) = 3, f 0 (0) = 4
√
d) f 00 (x) = 3 x − cos(x), and f (0) = 2, f 0 (1) = 2
2. A window is being built and the bottom is a rectangle and the top is a semicircle. If there is 16
m of framing material, what must be the dimensions of the window to let in the most light?
3. Find a function f such that f 0 (x) = x3 and the line given by x + y = 0 is a tangent to f at some
point. (Is this function unique?)
4. Determine the points on y = x2 + 1 that are closest to (0, 2).

40
5. A man launches his boat from point A on a bank of a straight river which is 3 km wide and
wants to reach to point B, 8 km downstream on the opposite bank, as quickly as possible.
If he can row at 6 km/h and run at 8 km/h, Find the point D where he should land and run to
point B so to minimize time spent on a trip from A to B.

6. ABCD is a square piece of paper with sides of length 1 m. A quarter-circle is drawn from B to
D with center A. The piece of paper is folded along EF , with E on AB and F on AD, so that A
falls on the quarter-circle. Determine the maximum and minimum areas that the triangle AEF
can have. [Hint: Draw the diagram.]
7. An oil tanker has developed a leak in one of its tanks. During the first hour oil leaks from the
10
tank at a rate of r(t) = tonnes per hour, where t is measured in hours from the time the
1 + t2
leak started.
a) Write down expressions giving the amount of oil that leaked from the tanker (i) in the
first 15 minutes (ii) between 30 and 60 minutes
after the leak started. You need not evaluate these expressions.
b) If the expression in (a)(i) is approximated by a right-hand sum, will it be an under- or
over-estimate? Give a reason for your answer
10
c) Give an anti-derivative for the function r(t) = .
1 + t2
d) Use your answer to (c) to evaluate the expressions in (a).
e) Thirty minutes after the leak started, an anti-pollution team starts spraying a chemical
solvent on the oil slick in an attempt to disperse it. The solvent removes oil from the sea
at a constant rate of 2 tonnes per hour. Write down an expression for the amount of oil in
the sea after 1 hour and evaluate it.
f) If oil continues leaking from the tanker at a rate given by r(t) after the first hour, and the
dispersant is sprayed at the same constant rate, when will the amount of oil in the sea reach
a maximum? What is this maximum amount?
1
8. a) Use Newton’s method to find the fifth root of 3. ie. Find x for x = 3 5 . Hint: rearrange
this to give you a function whose zero you are trying to find.
b) One can tell from inspection that x = 2 and x = 4 are solutions to equation 2x = x2 . Use
Newton’s method to find the third solution.

41
 Tutorial Problems 14

Part I
In mathematics, you will often encounter sums consisting of many terms, that are too long to
write out term by term. Σ notation allows such sums to be representedPin a much more compact
form. For example,Pwe can write the sum S = 3 + 6 + 9 + 12 as S = 4n=1 3n.
• The symbol 4n=1 indicates a summation where n (known as the summation index) takes
on consecutive integer values
P4 beginning with 1 and ending with 4.
• The 3n on the right of n=1 is what we add up.

(See more on sigma notation in the appropriate appendix to the Stewart textbook - the appendix
may vary according to which edition of the Stewart textbook you are using).

1. Write the following sums in sigma notation:

a) S =1+2+3+4 e) S = (4+5)2 +(5+6)2 +(6+7)2 +(7+8)2
b) S =2+3+4 f) S =1−2+3−4+5−6+7−8
c) S = 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 g) S = 41 + 1 + 94
d) S = 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 h) S = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4) − (1 + 4 + 9 + 16)

2. First expand, then evaluate the following sums given in sigma notation (note that sometimes we
can collect together terms to make it easier. (For instance 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = (1 + 6) + (2 +
5) + (3 + 4) = 7 + 7 + 7 = 3 × 7). For the sum with exponentials, you don’t need to evaluate the
total.:
6 4 5 17
X X 1 X X
(a) n2 (b) (c) n (d) 1
k2
n=1 k=1 n=1 n=1
3 1 4  2 4
X
2n
X X n(n + 1) X k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
(e) e (f) 17 (g) (h)
2 6
n=1 n=1 n=1 k=1

3. Prove the following results:

n
X n
X n
X n
X n
X n
X n
X n
X
(a) cak = c ak (b) (ak + bk ) = ak + bk (c) (ak − bk ) = ak − bk
k=m k=m k=m k=m k=m k=m k=m k=m
n n n  2
X n(n + 1) X n(n + 1)(2n + 1) X n(n + 1)
(d) k= (e) k2 = (f) k3 =
2 6 2
k=1 k=1 k=1

Two of the last three of these are explained in detail here: http://www.mathemafrica.org/?p=13557

42
 4. For the diagrams below with Riemann sum approximations shown (all are drawn to scale):
(i) Identify x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 and x6 1 . Hence, identify ∆x.
(ii) Each diagram is labeled with the rule to be used for the Riemann sum. Identify all the
sample points x∗i and find f (x∗i ) for all x∗i in part (i).
(iv) Write down and evaluate an expression that approximates the area between the curve and
the x-axis using the rectangles as the approximation.
(v) Write down an expression that approximates the area between the curve and the x-axis and
holds for any general function and the type of sample points (left endpoints, right endpoints,
etc.) you are using. [Hint: You should use sigma notation.]

y y

y = x3 − 6x y = x3 − 6x

3 x 3 x

(a) Left endpoints (b) Right endpoints

y y

y = x3 − 6x y = x3 − 6x

3 x 3 x

(c) Midpoints (d) Trapezoidal

5. Use the left, right and midpoint rules with the given number of subintervals, n, to approximate
the following integrals. What do you notice?
Z 10
a) x2 dx, n=4
Z2 5
b) (1 + 2x3 )dx, n=5
0

6. Intuitively, for a well-behaved function, we expect our approximations to get better as we let
n → ∞ regardless of which sampling points we use. Write the following Riemann sums as
definite integrals.
n n
X X cos xi
(a) lim xi ln(1 + xi )∆x, [2, 6] (b) lim ∆x, [π, 2π]
n→∞ n→∞ xi
i=1 i=1
Xn q Xn
2x∗i + (x∗i )2 ∆x, 4 − 3(x∗i )2 + 6(x∗i )5 ∆x,
 
(c) lim [1, 8] (d) lim [0, 2]
n→∞ n→∞
i=1 i=1
1
In the previous version, this was x1 to x7 which is consistent but different from the notation you may have used
before.

43
 7. Explain why the following is true:
n n    
X X 4(i − 1) 4(i − 1) 4
lim xi ln(1 + xi )∆x, [2, 6] ≡ lim 2+ ln 1 + 2 +
n→∞ n→∞ n n n
i=1 i=1

and show how you would write the other Riemann sums in question 6 in the same way. In the
previous version, there were factors of n − 1. This was correct, but less clear. Why are the limits
the same?

8. There are eight properties of definite integrals given in Stewart on pages 313-315, write them all
down and prove the first four. You will need to prove them by writing each one as a Riemann
sum and using the properties of sums to prove the integral properties.

9. Express the following integrals as Riemann sums.

Z 6 Z 10
x
(a) 5
dx (b) (x − 4 ln x)dx
2 1+x 1
Z π Z 10
(c) sin 5xdx (d) x6 dx
0 2

10. Combining the Chain Rule with FTC1. Evaluate the following integrals.
Z x4 Z 3 Z 1/x
d d d 1
(a) sec tdt (b) sin (y 2 )dy (c) √ dy
dx 1 dx tan x dx − x3 1 + y2

11. Solve the following definite integrals.

π
Z 4 Z Z π/2 Z 4
2
4 1 1
(a) sec tdt (b) √ dx (c) dy (d) ax dx
2 0 − 1 − x2 −π/2 1 + y2 −1

44
Part II
1. Prove (without using a calculator!) that
Z π √
1 3 sin x 3
≤ dx ≤ .
4 π x 2
6

[[Hint: Do not try to evaluate the integral.]

2. The function
1 2
f (x) = √ e−x /2
2π
describes the standard normal distribution, probably the most frequently used distribution in
statistics. Definite integrals of this function are used in statistical tests. The following table
gives the values of a few such integrals:
Z b
b f (x) dx
0
1 0.3413
2 0.4772
3 0.4987
4 0.5000
UseZthe table to find the value ofZ each of the following integrals:
3 0
(a) f (x) dx (b) f (x) dx
Z 1−4 Z−13
(c) f (x) dx (d) f (x) dx
0 −2
3. Let F be an antiderivative of f . On the graph of F shown below, indicate
a) a slope representing f (b);
Z b
b) a length representing f (x) dx;
a
1 Rb
c) a slope representing f (x) dx;
b − a Za
1 a+h
d) a slope representing lim f (x) dx.
h→0 h a

45
4. The graph of the function f on the interval [0, 3] is shown below. Let F be the antiderivative of
f for which F (0) = 1.
In this question you have to find various approximations. Rough approximations will do; do not
spend a lot of time trying to get accurate answers.
a) Use a left-hand sum and a right-hand sum, in both cases with a division into 10 subintervals,
Z 1
to find approximations to f (x) dx.
0
b) Find an approximate value for F (1).
c) List the numbers F (1.5), F (2), F (2.5) in increasing order. (You need not find approxima-
tions to them.)
d) Does the function F have any local maximum or minimum values on the interval [0, 3]? If
so, find the approximate x-coordinate of each such point and say whether it is a maximum
or minimum.
e) For which value of x does F attain its absolute maximum value on [0, 3]? Find this maximum
value approximately.
f) What is the absolute minimum value of F on [0, 3] and where is it attained?
g) Does the graph of F have any points of inflection on [0, 3]? If so, give the (approximate)
x-coordinates of each of these points.

46
 Tutorial Problems 15

Part I
1. For each of the following statements, say whether it is true or false. If it is true, explain why; if
it is false, give the correct statement.
[Hint:Z One can check whether a given indefinite integral is correct without having to integrate.]
1
a) u
du = u − ln(1 + eu ) + C
Z 31 + e
x2 1 3 du
Z
b) √ dx = 5√ .
1 x 3+8 3 9 Zu
Z
tann−1 t
c) tann t dt = − tann−2 t dt
n−1
[Hint: You may Zhave to use a trig identity here.]
2. Consider the integral cos 2xdx.

a) Which differentiation rule is integration by substitution the inverse of?

b) Using the substitution u = 2x, find an expression to replace dx and interpret what this
says in words. Z
c) Using the expressions for 2x and dx, rewrite and solve cos 2xdx.
Z π Z π
d) Evaluate cos 2xdx and sin 2xdx.
−π Z a −π
e) What can be said about f (x)dx when f is even and when f is odd?
−a
f) Using your answer to part (e), re-evaluate your answers in part (d).
3. Solve the following integrals using substitution.
x3
Z p Z Z
(a) x2 x3 + 1dx (b) sin2 θ cos θdθ (c) dx
(x4 − 5)2
√
Z Z
(d) 2t + 1dt (e) tan xdx
Z
4. Consider the integral x sin xdx.
a) Which differentiation
Z rule is integration Zby parts the inverse of?
b) Show that f (x)g (x)dx = f (x)g(x) − f 0 (x)g(x)dx
0

c) For the considered

Z integral, what are sensible choices for f (x) and g 0 (x)?
d) Rewrite x sin xdx using part (b) and solve for it.
Z π
e) Evaluate x sin xdx [Hint: Consider whether f (x) = x sin x is even or odd.]
−π Z 2π
f) Hence or otherwise evaluate x sin xdx.
−π
5. Solve the following integrals by parts.
Z Z Z
(a) ln xdx (b) t2 et dt (c) e2x sin xdx
Z Z
(d) arctan xdx (f) xm cos x, m ∈ Z+

47
6. Extra problems from Stewart. These are a mixture of integration by substitution and integration
by parts problems. (See Stewart 5.5 and 5.6).
6.1. Suppose f is continuous
Z on [−a, a]. Show
Z that
a a
(a) If f is even, then f (x)dx = 2 f (x)dx
−a 0
Z a
(b) If f is odd, then f (x)dx = 0
−a
(c) Solve the following integrals:
π/2 π/4 a
x2 sin x
Z Z Z p
3 4


(i) dx (ii) x + x tan x dx (iii) x a2 − x2 dx
−π/2 1 + x6 −π/4 0

6.2. (a) Prove the reduction formula

n−1
Z Z
n 1 n−1
sin xdx = − cos xsin x+ sinn−2 xdx where n ≥ 2 is an integer.
Z n n
(b) Evaluate sin6 5xdx.
6.3. (a) Use
Z integration by parts
Z to show that
f (x)dx = xf (x) − xf 0 (x)dx.
(b) If f and g are inverse functions and f 0 is continuous, prove that
Z b Z f (b)
f (x)dx = bf (b) − af (a) − g(y)dy.
a f (a)
Z e
(c) Use part (b) to evaluate ln xdx.
1
6.4. A particle that moves along a straight line has velocity v(t) = t2 e−t meters per second after
t seconds. How far will it travel during the first t seconds?
6.5. Suppose that f (1) = 2, f (4) = 7, f 0 (1) = 5, f 0 (4) = 3 and f 00 is continuous. Find the value
Z 4
of xf 00 (x)dx.
1
6.6. Solve the following additional problems

(ln x)2
Z Z Z
dx x
(a) dx (b) (c) dx
x 5 − 3x (x2 + 1)2
√
Z Z Z
8
(d) x(2x + 5) dx (e) cos xdx (f) ecos t sin tdt

x2
Z Z Z
x cos 2x arctan x
(g) dx (h) 2
dx (i) dx
2 cot 2x x +4 x2 + 1
Z Z T /2 Z
2x sin x 1
(j) dx (k) sin (2πt/(T − α))dt (l) √ dt
cos3 x 0 1 − t2
Z 1 Z e4
dx dx
(m) √ 4 (n) √
0 (1 + x) e x lnx

48
Part II
1. Find Zthe following integrals. In each case there is a quick way of doing it; try to find it.
1
a) tan3 x dx
Z−1π
2
b) | sin x| dx
π
Z−12 p
c) x 1 − x4 dx [Hint: Try to obtain an integral that you can interpret as the area of
0
something
Z 1 p familiar.]
d) x 1 − x4 dx
−1
2. a) Prove that for every continuous function f
Z π Z π
2 2
f (sin x) dx = f (cos x) dx.
0 0
Z π Z π
2 2
b) Use (a) to find sin2 x dx and cos2 x dx.
0 0
3. ProveZ the following reduction Zformulas:
a) (ln x) = x (ln x) − n (ln x)n−1 dx.
n n
Z Z
b) x e = x e − n xn−1 ex dx.
n x n x

Z π/2
4. Let In = sinn xdx.
0 Z π/2
1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) π
a) Show that sin2n xdx = .
0 2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · 2n 2
b) Show that I2n+2 ≤ I2n+1 ≤ I2n .
I2n+2 2n + 1
c) Using part (a), show that = .
I2n 2n + 2
2n + 1 I2n+1
d) Use parts (b) and (c) to show that ≤ ≤ 1 and deduce that
2n + 2 I2n
I2n+1
lim =1
n→∞ I2n
.
5. Solve for the following definite integrals (You have to decide what techniques will be most
efficient):
√
Z e Z 33 Z π/4
2 5 sec2 x
(a) sin (ln x) dx (b) x x − 1dx (c) dx
1 0 0 1 + tan x
Z 2 Z π/4 Z π/4
ln x 2
(d) 2
dx (e) sec xdx (f) tan2 xdx
1 x −π/4 −π/4
Z
1
6. Solve √3
√
3
dt t > 0.
t + t + 2 t2
Hint: Use the substitution u = t1/3 . After this you can either make another substitution or use
integration by parts. You will find that you get different answers these ways...or at least it seems
so. Why are they actually the same answer?

49
 Tutorial 16

1. What general procedures would you employ when trying to integrate the following functions
where
Z n is a positive integer?Z Z Z
2n 2n 2n+1
(a) sin xdx (b) cos xdx (c) sin xdx (d) cos2n+1 xdx

2. Solve the following trigonometric integrals. It may be useful to recall the following identities:
cos2 x + sin2 x = 1, cos 2x = 1 − 2 sin2 x, cos 2x = 2cos2 x − 1, 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x
Z Z Z
5 3 6 4
(a) sin x cos xdx (b) tan x sec xdx (c) sin 4x cos 5xdx

tan3 θ
Z Z Z
2 4
(d) (tan x − tan x)dx (e) sec xdx (f) √ dθ
sec θ
Z π/2
1 − tan2 x
Z Z
5 3
(g) cot φ csc φdφ (h) csc 6xdx (i) dx
π/4 sec2 x
3. Proving the area of a circle of radius r is πr2 .
(a) The circle is symmetric about both axes, if the area of the
y circle is A, what is the area of the part of the circle in the
r first quadrant?
(b) What is the equation and domain of the part of the circle in
quadrant one?
(c) Express your answer to part (a) as an integral.
-r r x
(d) Use the substitution x = r sin θ to solve this integral. Ensure
that the bounds of your integral are correct.
(e) Using your answers in part (d) and (a), what can you say
-r
about the area of the whole circle?
√
4. When we perform trig substitution where the integrand has an expression of the form x2 − a2
we choose x = a sec θ where 0 ≤ θ < π2 or π ≤ θ < 3π 2 . Why do we make this choice for the range
of θ? Think about inverting the substitution as well as the sign of the resulting trig function.
5. Z √2
1
√ dx.
1 x x2 − 1
2

Hint: You might have to take a limit here.

Use an appropriate trigonometric substitution to find
Z
3
(4 − x2 )− 2 dx.
Z
1
a)
6. a) Find the integral dx by completing the square in the denominator of the
x2
+ 6x + 18
integrand and then making a suitable substitution.
b) Use your answer to (a) to find the integrals
Z 3
x + 6x2 + 18x + 5
Z
2x + 7
(i) 2
dx (ii) 2
dx
x + 6x + 18 x + 6x + 18
7. Let the interval [a, b] be divided into n subintervals each of length h = n1 (b − a), using the
points x0 = a, x1 , x2 , . . . , xn = b. Let f be a continuous function defined on [a, b]. Write
Rb
Ln , Rn , Mn , Tn for the approximations to a f (x) dx obtained by using the left endpoint, right
endpoint, midpoint and trapezoidal rule respectively, using n subintervals.

50
 a) Write down expressions for Ln , Rn , Mn and Tn using sigma-notation.
b) Prove that Rn = Ln + (f (b) − f (a))h.
c) Prove that Tn = Ln + 21 (f (b) − f (a))h
d) (A bit more of a challenge.) Prove that L2n = 12 (Ln + Mn ).
e) Suppose that f 0 (x) ≥ 0, f 00 (x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b].
Rb
Write the numbers Ln , Rn , Mn , Tn , a f (x) dx in increasing order. Illustrate your answer
with a sketch.
8. Use an appropriate trigonometric substitution to evaluate the following integrals (for part e,
a > 0):
Z 3√3/2
x3
Z Z Z
1 x dx
(a) √ dx (b) 2 3/2
dx (c) √ dx (d) √
2
x x +42 (4x + 9) 3 − 2x − x 2 x x2 − 2
4
0
Z xp Z p Z Z π/2
dx cos t
(e) a2 − t2 dt (f) 5 + 4x − x2 dx (g) √ (h) √ dt
2
x + 2x + 5 1 + sin2 t
0 0

9. Partial fraction decomposition allows us to express rational functions as a sum of much simpler
rational functions. The following talks you through the rationale

a) (i) Write the following with a single denominator:

2 1
−
x−1 x+2
(ii) Using part (i), evaluate Z
x+5
dx
x2 + x − 2
b) When the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator
(i) Perform long division:
x3 + x
x−1
(ii) Using part (i), evaluate Z 3
x +x
dx
x−1
Remember: Once we have written our polynomial in proper rational form we will be left
R(x)
with a quotient of the form Q(x) where the order of R is less than the order of Q. Now,
depending on Q, we will have a combination of the following:.

Unrepeated linear factors in Q. For each linear term in Q of the form a1 x + b1 , write
A
a separate term of the form a1 x+b1
.

Repeated linear factors in Q. For a linear term in Q raised to a power of the form
(a1 x + b1 )r where r is a positive integer, write a separate term for every power up to r:
A1 A2 Ar
(a1 x+b1 ) + (a2 x+b2 )2 + ... + (a1 x+b1 )r .

Unrepeated irreducible quadratic factors in Q. For every distinct term in Q of the form
A1 x+B1
ax2 + bx + c, where b2 − 4ac < 0, write down a term ax2 +bx+c .

Repeated irreducible quadratic factors in the denominator. For an irreducible quadratic

term in Q raised to a power of the form (ax2 + bx + c)r where r is a positive integer, write
A1 x+B1 A2 x+B2 Ar x+Br
a separate term for every power up to r: ax2 +bx+c + (ax2 +bx+c)2 + ... + (ax2 +bx+c)r .

51
 c) If Q(x) = (a1 x + b1 )(a2 x + b2 )4 (a3 x2 + b3 x + c3 )(a4 x2 + b4 x + c4 )2 where b2i −4ai ci < 0 for
i = 3, 4, for a given R(x), what would be the partial fraction expansion? (Given that you
don’t know R(x) you can’t solve for the unknown coefficients here.)
10. Evaluate the following integrals:
Z 4
x − 2x2 + 4x − 1 2x2 − x + 4
Z Z
x
(a) dx (b) dx (c) dx
x2 + x − 2 x3 − x2 − x + 1 x3 + 4x
1 − x + 2x2 − x3 x2 − 2x − 1
Z Z Z
1
(d) dx (e) dx (i) dx
x (x2 + 1)2 x3 + 2x2 + x (x − 1)2 (x2 + 1)
x4
Z Z
1
(g) 3 2
dx (h) dx
(x + x)(x − x + 3) (x − 9)2
2

Z 0
11. Consider xex dx. It is an Improper Integral of Type I and by definition (:= means ’defined
−∞
to be’)
Z 0 Z 0
x
xe dx := lim xex dx.
−∞ t→−∞ t

a) What makes this a Type I Improper Integral? What classifies as a Type II improper
integral?
b) Give examples of a Type I and Type II Improper Integrals.
Z 0
c) Evaluate xex dx.
t Z 0
d) Now solve for xex dx. (you may need to make use of L’Hospitals rule)
−∞

12. Classify the following integrals as Type I or Type II (or neither or both) and state whether they
are convergent or divergent. Evaluate the convergent ones.
Z ∞ Z 2π Z 14 Z ∞
1 dx ln x
(a) √ dx (b) sec2 xdx (c) √
4
(d) dx
e x ln x 0 −2 x + 2 1 x
Z 1 Z 1 Z ∞ Z ∞
1 ex −x2 1
(e) dy (f) x
dx (g) xe dx (h) 2
dx
0 4y − 1 −1 e − 1 −∞ −∞ 1 + x

13. Using the comparison theorem, say whether the following integrals converge or diverge.
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
1 + e−x x2 x 2 + e−x
(a) dx (b) √ dx (c) √
4
dx (d) dx
1 x e ln x 0 x3 + 1 1 x
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z 1 Z π
x+1 arctan x sec2 x sin2 x
(e) √ dx (f) dx (g) √ dx (h) √ dx
1 x4 − x 0 2 + ex 0 x x 0 x

52
 Tutorial 17

1. The birth rate of a population of dassies is b(t) = 2200 + 52.3t + 0.74t2 dassies
year and the death rate
dassies
is d(t) = 1460 + 28.8t year . Find the area between these curves for 0 ≤ t ≤ 10 years. What
does this area represent?

2. For what values of m is there an enclosed region in between the line y = mx and the curve
y = x/(x2 + 1). Find the area of the region for a given m.

3. By integrating, find the area of the triangle with the given vertices.
a) (0, 0), (3, 1), (1, 2)
b) (0, 5), (2, −2), (5, 1)

4. Sketch the area enclosed by the following regions. Find the area of the region if it is finite.
5. S = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x ≥ 2, 0 ≤ y ≤ e−x/2 }
6. The region enclosed by the graphs y = cos x and y = 1 − cos x and the lines x = 0 and x = π.
7. The region bounded above by y = ex , bounded below by y = x, and bounded on the sides by
x = 0 and x = 1.
8. The region enclosed by the parabolas y = x2 and y = 2x − x2 .
9. The area enclosed by the line y = x − 1 and the parabola y 2 = 2x + 6.
3
10. Proving that the volume of a sphere of radius r is 4πr
3 .
(a) We can conceptualize a sphere as an object formed when
many infinitesimally thin disks of appropriate sizes are
put together. In the picture one such disk is shown.
What is the radius of this disk as a function of the
position of the disk, x?
(b) If the disk has thickness ∆x, what is the volume of the
disk?.
(c) Write an expression for the sum of all such disks if there
are n of them.
(d) Take the limit of this expression as n → ∞ and express
it as a definite integral.
(e) Evaluate this definite integral

[Stewart, J. 2010. Calculus: Concepts and Contexts.

Fourth Edition. Page 440.]

53
 πr2 h
11. Prove the that the volume of a cone of radius r and height h is given by .
3
12. If we take a region in two dimensions (between two or more curves in the x − y plane) we can
form a solid by rotating this region around a vertical line (a line of constant x). We could also
obtain a different solid by rotating the region around a horizontal line (a line of constant y). In
each case, depending on whether we use the disks method or the cylindrical shells method we
will have a different looking integral. Say whether the integral representing the volume of the
solid is going to be in terms of dx or dy.
[Hint: It may help to draw a function and a typical approximating disk or cylindrical shell.
Consider whether the radius of the disk or shell is in terms of x or y.]

Volume by Disks Volume by Cylindrical Shells

Rotated around a line of constant x d? d?

Rotated around a line of constant y d? d?

13. Volumes by cylindrical shells: The figure below shows a cylindrical shell of with inner radius r1 ,
outer radius r2 and height h.
(a) Prove that the volume of the cylindrical shell is
r2 + r1
V = 2π h(r2 − r1 )
2
(b) What is the average of r1 and r2 ? What does this correspond
to? What is the thickness of the cylindrical shell?
What happens to the thickness of the shell, ∆r, when we in-
crease the number of cylindrical shells used when calculating
the volume
(c) Let r = 21 (r1 + r2 ) and ∆r = r2 − r1 and rewrite the
expression in (a). What do you notice?

[Stewart, J. 2010. Calculus: Concepts and Contexts.

Fourth Edition. Pages 449-450.]

14. Consider the solid obtained by rotating about the y-axis the region bounded by and y = 2x2 −x3
and y = 0.
(a) What is r (the average radius) in this case?
(b) What is h in this case?
(c) What is V in this case?
(d) Write down an expression that adds up infinitely many
cylindrical shells when x ∈ [0, 2].

[Stewart, J. 2010. Calculus: Concepts and Con-

texts. Fourth Edition. Page 451.]

54
15. Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by the given curves about
the (i) x-axis; (ii) y = −2. It may help to sketch the region, the solid, and a typical disk or
washer.
a) y = 2 − 12 x, y = 0, x = 1, x = 2.
b) y = 41 x2 , y = 5 − x2 .
c) y = x3 , y = x, x ≥ 0.
d) y = x2 − 4x + 4, x − y = 1.
e) y = 1 + sec x, y = 3, x ∈ [−π/2, π/2].

16. Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by the given curves about
the (i) y-axis; (ii) x = −1. It may help to sketch the region, the solid, and a typical disk or
washer.
a) y = x3 , y = 8, x = 0.
b) x = y 2 , x = 2y.
c) y = x3 , y = x, x ≥ 0.
√
d) y = x5 , y = x.
e) y = x2 − 4x + 4, x − y = 1.

17. Using cylindrical shells, find the volume of the solids obtained by rotating the given regions
about (i) the y-axis; (ii) x = −1. It may help to sketch the region, and a cylindrical shell.
a) The region between y = x and y = x2 .
√
b) The region under the curve y = x from 0 to 1.
c) The region bounded by y = x − x2 and y = 0 about the line x = 2.
d) y = 1/x, y = 0, x = 1, x = 2.
2
e) y = e−x , y = 0, x = 0, x = 1.

18. Using cylindrical shells, find the volume of the solids obtained by rotating the given regions
about (i) the x-axis; (ii) y = −1. It may help to sketch the region, and a cylindrical shell.
a) x = 1 + y 2 , x = 0, y = 1, y = 2.
√
b) x = y, x = 0, y = 1.
c) x = 1 + (y − 2)2 , x = 2.
d) y = 1/x, y = 0, x = 1, x = 2.
2
e) y = e−x , y = 0, x = 0, x = 1.

Questions from Stewart (check for diagrams if the descriptions are not clear):
19. Find the volumes of the following solids:
a) The base of the solid is a circular disk with radius r. Parallel cross-sections perpendicular
to the base are squares.
b) The base of the solid is an elliptical region with boundary curve 9x2 + 4y 2 = 36. Cross-
sections perpendicular to the x-axis are isosceles triangles with hypotenuse in the base.
c) The base of the solid is the region enclosed by the parabola y = 1 − x2 and the x-axis.
Cross-sections perpendicular to the y-axis are squares.
d) A hole of radius r is bored through the middle of a cylinder of radius R > r at right angles
to the axis of the cylinder. Set up, but do not evaluate, an integral for the volume cut out.
e) Find the volume common to two spheres, each with radius r, if the center of each sphere
lies on the surface of the other sphere.
f) Try and define your own shape and post it in the comments on Vula to see if you can stump
your classmates.

55
 Tutorial 18

1. Parametric curves. So far you have mainly worked with functions of the form y = f (x). Where
x is the independent variable and y is the dependent variable. Some functions have x and y both
being independent variables. In other words, x and y are both functions of a third variable t,
which is the independent variable. These functions are known as parametric functions. Consider
the parametric curves given by x = cos(t) and y = sin (t) for t ∈ [0, π].
a) Sketch in the xy-plane what you think this function will look like.
b) To draw these parametric functions we often use algebra to eliminate the independent
variable t. In that way, we can relate y to x directly and then draw that curve on the
xy-plane. For the given parametric equations, what is x2 + y 2 ?
[Note: It’s not always possible to eliminate the variable t. But for the purposes of this
tutorial, you can assume that all examples can be handled by means of elimination.]
c) Draw the curve given by your equation in (b).
dy dy
d) Find dxdt and dt . Hence find dx .

2. Sketch the following parametric functions on the xy-plane.

a) x = t, y = t,√ 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
b) x = t2 , y = t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 4
c) x = cos2 t, y = 1 − sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ π/2

3. Deriving the arc-length formula.

a) Draw any short, continuous curve on [0,5] that is not a straight line and mark any 5 points
on your curve. Label the first point (x0 , y0 ), the second point (x1 , y1 ) . . . and the last point
(x4 , y4 ).
b) Draw a straight line joining (x0 , y0 ) to (x1 , y1 ), . . . , (x3 , y3 ) to (x4 , y4 ). What is the purpose
of these straight lines?
c) What is an expression for the length of each line? What is the total length of all the lines?
d) As we mark more points on the line and have lines joining consecutive points, our approxi-
mation to the length of the curve gets more accurate. Imagine infinitely many such points
and lines and let ∆xi = xi − xi−1 and ∆yi = yi − yi−1 . Write down an expression that
approximates the total length of the curve.
[Hint: Your answer should look like a Riemann sum.]
e) Suppose now that your curve has been traced out by a parametric function x = f (t) and
dy ∆y
y = g(t). Show that dx ∆x
dt ≈ ∆t and dt ≈ ∆t . [Hint: Use the definition of the derivative
according to first principles. What can be said for small enough values of h?]
f) Rewrite your Riemann sum in (d) using what you have shown in (e). Finally write it as an
integral.
g) How can functions of the form y = f (x) be written in parametric form? Write your answer
in (f) for functions of the form y = f (x).

4. Find the length of the following curves

a) The arc of the curve x = t2 , y = t3 that lies between the points (1,1) and (4,8).
b) x = √y 3/2 , 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 √
c) y = x − x2 + arcsin( x)
d) The length of the parabola y 2 = x from (0,0) to (1,1).

e) Z x q√
y= t − 1dt
1
for 1 ≤ x ≤ 16

56
 5. The hyperbolic sine (sinh) and hyperbolic cosine (cosh) functions are defined by

ex − e−x ex + e−x
sinh x = , cosh x = , x ∈ R.
2 2
a) Prove that (cosh x)2 − (sinh x)2 = 1.
b) Find the derivatives of sinh x and cosh x.
c) The curve y = cosh x is called a catenary and represents the shape of a hanging cable.
Find the length of this curve between the points where x = −1 and x = 1.
6. Mean value theorem for integrals.
Let f be a function that is continuous on the interval [a, b]. Then there is an s ∈ [a, b] such that
Z b
f (s)(b − a) = f (x) dx. (∗)
a

Proof. We can find c ∈ [a, b], d ∈ [a, b] such that

f (c) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (d) for all x ∈ [a, b]. (1)
Z b Z b Z b
Therefore f (c) dx ≤ f (x) dx ≤ f (d) dx. (2)
a Z b a a
1
Hence f (c) ≤ f (x) dx ≤ f (d). (3)
b−a a
It now follows from the Intermediate Value Theorem that there is an s ∈ [a, b] such that f (s) =
Z b
1
f (x) dx, (4)
b−a a
from which the theorem follows.

a) In the case where f (x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b] the equation (∗) in the statement of the theorem
can be interpreted as saying that the areas of two regions are equal. Draw a sketch to show
the two regions with equal area.
b) The theorem can be interpreted as saying something about the average value of the function
f on the interval [a, b]. How is this average value defined, and what does the theorem say
about it?
c) Why can we find numbers c and d as in line (1)? What property of f allows us to do this?
d) How does line (3) follow from line (2)?
e) How does line (4) follow from the Intermediate Value Theorem?
f) Find a number s such that ln s is equal to the average value of ln x on [1, 3].
7. Find the average value of the following functions on the given interval:
a) f (x) = (x − 3)2 , [2, 5]
b) h(x) = cos4 (x) sin(x), [0, π]
c) k(x) = ln x, [1, 3]
8. Use the Binomial Theorem to expand (x + 5y)3 and (x + 2y + 1)3 .
4
3 x2

9. Use Yang Hui’s triangle to expand − .
x 2
(2n)! b(n + 1)
10. Let b(n) = . Find . Simplify your answer.
n! b(n)
11. Prove using induction that:
dn
(xn ) = n!
dxn
for positive integers n.

57
    
n n
12. Solve for n if = .
7 5
13. Let n be a nonnegative
  integer.
   
n n n
a) Prove that + + ··· + = 2n .
0 1 n
b) Hence prove that the number of subsets
  ofa set elements is 2n .  
 ofn 
n n n n
14. Let n be a positive integer. Prove that − + − · · · + (−1)n = 0. (Hint: Use
0 1 2 n
the Binomial Theorem with appropriately chosen values for x and y.)
15. Prove that for integers n, k with 2 ≤ k ≤ n,
       
n n n n+2
+2 + = .
k k−1 k−2 k

16. For each of the following, find the indicated term(s) [Hint: Do not write out the expansion in
full!]:
a) The term in x31 in the expansion of (2 + x)100 .
1 20
 
5
b) The constant term and the term in x in the expansion of 2x − 23 .
2x
c) The term in x3 y 2 z 4 in the expansion of (x + y + z)9 .

2 15


d) Find the coefficient of the term independent of x in the expansion of 3x − x2

e) Find the coefficient of x3 y 5 in the expansion of (1 + xy + y 2 )n , where n be a positive integer.

Bonus Problem (not examinable)
17. The binomial distribution is a discrete probability distribution of the amount of successes in
a certain number of trials. The probability of success remains constant in each trial. The
probability of observing x successes in n trials where the probability of successes is p for all
trials is given by:  
n x
f (x) = p (1 − p)n−x
x
a) Suppose you are tossing ten fair coins and that you are interested in the number of heads.
How many different ways can you arrange x ∈ {1, 2, ..., 10} heads amongst ten coins?
b) What is the probability of observing x heads in 10 trials?
Xn
c) Prove that f (x) = 1. [Hint: Use the binomial theorem.]
x=0
n
X
d) Prove that xf (x) = np.
x=0
[Hint: It may be necessary to change the summation index at some stage.]
n n
!2
X X
e) Prove that x2 f (x) − xf (x) = np (1 − p)
x=0 x=0
18. In Statistics, a function p defined for all real numbers x such that
• Z
p(x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ R;
∞
• p(x) dx = 1
−∞

58
is called a probability density function. It is used to describe how the quantity x is distributed,
in the sense that the probability that x has values between a and b is given by the integral
Z b
p(x) dx. The mean µ and median m of the quantity x are defined by
a
Z ∞ Z m
1
µ= xp(x) dx, p(x) dx = .
−∞ −∞ 2

Associated with such a probability density function p is its cumulative distribution function P
defined by Z x
P (x) = p(t) dt (x ∈ R).
−∞
In this question we look at a special case of a probability density function often used in Statistics
(the density function of a Student’s t-distribution). This density function is given by
 − 3
1 2
p(x) = C 1 + x2 ,
2

where C isRa constant. √

a) Find p(x) dx [Hint: Try the trigonometric substitution x = 2 tan θ.]
b) Determine the value of C. [Hint: p(x) has to be a density function.]
c) Find the mean and median of a quantity x which has density function p(x).
d) Find the cumulative distribution function P (x) of the density function p(x).
e) If the quantity x has has density function p(x), what is the probability of x having values
between 2 and 4?

59
 Tutorial 19

1. Suppose f is any function that can be approximated by an nth order polynomial close to a point
x=a
f (x) ≈ c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + c3 (x − a)3 + ... + cn (x − a)n
a) Solve for ci by taking i derivatives of the above approximation and equating the two sides
at x = a.
b) Write the approximation for f (x) in sigma notation.
c) Repeat steps (a), (b), (c) and (d) for the polynomial approximated around x = 0: f (x) ≈
c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + ... + cn xn .

2. The signs of the coefficients of the Taylor polynomials of a function about a point are determined
by the shape of the graph of the function near that point. Let p(x) = a + bx + cx2 be the Taylor
polynomial of degree two for the function f , about the point x = 0. In each of the cases below,
what can you say about the signs of a, b and c if f has the graph shown?

3. Find the general nth order Maclaurin polynomial and the general nth order Taylor polynomial
about x = 1 for the following functions:
a) f (x) = sin x
b) f (x) = (1 + x)k where k ∈ R
1
c) f (x) = √
4−x
1
d) f (x) =
2−x
4. Use known Maclaurin polynomials to find the general nth order polynomial approximation for:
a) f (x) = cos(5x)

b) f (x) = sin 3x2
c) f (x) = e2x sin
4x
d) f (x) = tan x2
5. Use a known polynomial approximation to find the following limits (not L’Hôpital’s rule)
3x + x3 − 3 tan x x − tan x x − ln (1 + x)
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim
x→0 x3 x→0 x3 x→0 x2
1 − cos x sin x − x − 16 x3 tan x − x
(d) lim (e) lim (f) lim
x→0 1 + x + ex x→0 x5 x→0 x3

60
 6. a) Use a known Taylor polynomial to write down the first four (non-zero) terms in the Taylor
expansion of the function f (x) = cos(x2 ) about x = 0.
b) Use a Taylor polynomial of degree 10 to find an approximate value for the integral
Z 1
cos(x2 ) dx.
0
1
7. a) Write down the first four terms of the Taylor series about u = 0 for f (u) = (1 + u)− 2 .
b) Use integration and your answer to (b) to find the first four non-zero terms of the Taylor
series about x = 0 for h(x) = arcsin x.

8. If f (x) = sin(x2 ), find f (10) (0).

9. Write the following
√ complex
√ numbers in Cartesian
√ form
√ (that is, in the form a + ib):
(a) (1 + 3i)(1 + 3i) (b) (1 +√ 3i)(1 − 3i)
1 1 + 3i
(c) (d) √
−2 − 3i 1 − 3i
10. a) Plot the following points on an Argand diagram (the complex plane):
√ √
(i) 4i (ii) 1 + 3i (iii) 3 − i (iv) −2 − 2i.
b) Find the distance from the origin of each of the numbers in (a). (It may help you to think
of complex numbers just as ordered pairs or points for this.)
c) Find, for each of the numbers in (a), the angle that a line joining the number to the origin
makes with the positive real axis.
d) Use your answers to (b) and (c) to write down the modulus-argument form of the complex
numbers in (a).
e) Suppose that a complex number z is a distance 3 from the origin and that a line joining it
to the origin makes an angle of 23 π with the positive real axis. Write z in the form a + ib.
(zz)2
11. Let z ∈ C. Simplify the expression as far as possible and then find its value when
z|z 2 |
z = 7 − 11i.
12. Find all the complex solutions of the equation

z2 + z + 1 = 0

in two ways:
(a) let z = x + iy where x, y ∈ R, and solve for x and y;
(b) use the quadratic formula.
Compare your answers.
13. Sketch each of the following regions in the complex plane on separate Argand diagrams:
a) {z ∈ C : 0 ≤ Re z < 1, Im z ≥ −3}
b) {z ∈ C : Re z + Im z ≤ 2}
c) {z ∈ C : 1 < |z − 1 + i| ≤ 2}
d) {z ∈ C : |z − 4i| = |z|}

e) {z ∈ C : 1 < |z| ≤ 2 and an argument of z is in the interval [ π2 , π]}

61
 Tutorial 20

1. Two complex numbers, z and w, are shown on the Argand diagram below. Use the position of
these two numbers on the diagram to indicate where each of the following complex numbers will
lie on the same diagram:
(a) −z (b) w (c) 21 w (d) w + i (e) iw (f) w − z (g) zw

√
i(7 + 3i) (1 − i)( 3 − i)
2. Convert to a + bi form: a) b) √
3 − 4i (1 + 3i)2
3. Find integers p and q such that (3 + 7i)(p + qi) has real part 0.
4. Find real numbers x, y such that (1 + 3i)x + (2 + 5i)y − 2i = 0.
5. Find complex numbers z, w which simultaneously satisfy

(1 − i)z + 2w = 2
2z + (1 + i)w = 1

6. Prove√that in = in√
(−1)n for every positive integer n.
7. Plot 3 + i and ( 3 + i)2√on the Complex plane. Do this in two ways:
a) by multiplying√out ( 3 + i)2 , and,
b) by expressing 3+i in modulus-argument form and then using Theorem 4(a) in the complex
numbers notes.
8. Express the following in modulus-argument form:
√ √ √ √
a) 1 + 3i b) 3−i c) −1 − 3i d) − 3 + i
9. This question shows you how we can use the modulus-argument form of a complex number
and de Moivre’s theorem to simplify expressions. √ √
In Question 8 you found the modulus-argument form of the complex numbers 1+ 3i and 3−i.
Use your answer to find the Cartesian form of:
√ √
(1 + 3i)23 ( 3 − i)2 .

(Think how long it would take you to do this without modulus-argument form!)

10. For complex z, find the real and imaginary parts of e3iz
11. Find the real and imaginary parts of the following complex numbers:
a) e2πi/3 b) e−iπ c) 5e−iπ/3 d) 3eiπ/4 e2πi
12. This question uses the complex exponential function and shows that solving equations involv-
ing such functions is a little more complicated than just “taking logarithms”. In fact, since the
complex exponential function is not one-to-one, we cannot expect it to have an inverse. In the

62
 question we lead you through the steps of solving such an equation.

We are going to solve the equation

ez = 1 + i (1)
a) To make progress, it is important to express both sides of the equation in modulus argu-
ment form.
Now let z = x + iy where x and y are real as usual; write down ez in terms of x and y in
the form ec eid where c and d are real numbers.

b) Use your answer to (a) to determine the modulus and an argument of ez in terms of x and y.

c) Complete: Two complex numbers in modulus-argument form are equal if and only if ...

d) Use your answers so far to write down two equations that will enable you to solve for x and
y, and hence to find all complex numbers z satisfying the equation (1).

e) Use the same ideas to solve the following equations for z ∈ C and plot the solutions on the
Argand diagram:

a) ei2z = −2 b) ez = 1 c) e3z = 1 + i d) eiz = 1 − i e) |ez | = 2

|z|
f) e = i iz
g) e = e iz

13. (a) Sketch the set A = {z ∈ C : Re(z) ≥ 1, |z| ≤ 2}.

Now sketch the following subsets of the complex plane:

(b) {z + 2 : z ∈ A}, (c) {z ∈ C : z + 2 ∈ A} (d) {z ∈ C : 3z ∈ A},

π
(e) {iz : z ∈ A}, (f) {ei 6 z : z ∈ A}.
14. Sketch the following sets:
(a) {ez : z ∈ C, 1 ≤ Re(z) < 2, − π6 < Im(z) ≤ π3 },
(b) {eiz : z ∈ C, π6 ≤ Re(z) < π3 , 0 < Im(z) ≤ 1},
(c) {z 2 : z ∈ C, 1 ≤ |z| ≤ 2, 0 ≤ arg(z) ≤ π4 },
(d) {z 2 : z ∈ C, 1 ≤ |z| ≤ 2, −π ≤ arg(z) ≤ − 3π 4 },
(e) {z ∈ C : 1 ≤ |z| ≤ 4, 0 ≤ arg(z 2 ) ≤ π2 },
(f) {z ∈ C : Re( z1 ) ≤ 12 }.
15. Below we make some statements about real and complex numbers. The statements about the real
numbers are all true (and well-known.) What about the same statements for complex numbers?
For each of the following statements say whether it is true for complex z. If a statement is true,
give a proof for it; if it is false, give a counter-example.
For real x: For complex z:
2
(a) If x = 0, then x = 0. (a) If z 2 = 0, then z = 0
2
(b) x = |x| 2 (b) z 2 = |z|2
(c) |x| ≥ 0 (c) |z| ≥ 0
2
(d) x ≥ 0 for all real x. (d) z 2 ≥ 0 for all complex z.
16. Solve the following equations a) cos z + sin z = 2. b) cos z = 4i c) sin(iz) = 4ez
17. Solve the equation
z 6 − 2z 3 + 2 = 0
and then plot your solutions on an Argand diagram.

63
18. Find a quadratic function f (z) with real coefficients such that f (3 + i) = 0 and f (0) = −10.

19. The complex number 2 + i is a zero of the polynomial

p(z) = 3z 3 − 14z 2 + 23z − 10.

Use this information to factorize 3x3 − 14x2 + 23x − 10 into real linear and irreducible quadratic
factors. Explain carefully how you obtain your answer.

20. Plot the complex number −i on an Argand diagram, and then plot all the solutions to the equa-
tion z 5 = −i on the same diagram. Also write all the solutions in modulus-argument form.

21. How many distinct complex zeros could the polynomial z 91 + 3z 34 + 5z − 6 have? Does it have
an even or an odd number of real zeros? What is the largest number of irreducible quadratic
factors it can have? Give clear reasons for your answers.
22. Prove properties 2.2, 3.1 and 5.1 in the complex numbers notes.

23. The real numbers are ‘ordered’: if you pick any two (unequal) real numbers, then one of them
is greater than the other. In particular, the real numbers satisfy the following two properties:
P1: If x ∈ R and x 6= 0, then either (but not both) x > 0 or −x > 0, and,
P2: If x, y ∈ R and x, y > 0, then xy > 0
Show that it’s not possible to order the complex numbers by proving that no ordering of them
can satisfy P1 and P2.

24. Express 1 + cos θ + i sin θ in modulus-argument form. [Hint: express everything in terms of θ/2.]
Do the same for 1 + cos θ − i sin θ.
25. If z + 1/z is real, show that either |z| = 1 or z is real.
26. If π/6 ∈ arg(z + a) and 2π/3 ∈ arg(z − a) and a ∈ R, find z.

1. Express
 in the form  a + bi:
cos θ + i sin θ 5
a)
sin θ + i cos θ
b) [1 + cos(2π/5) − i sin(2π/5)]2
2. Prove that  
n n φn nφ nφ
(1 + cos φ − i sin φ) = 2 cos cos − i sin
2 2 2
[Hint: Conversion from Cartesian to modulus-argument form and back will be useful].
3. Find the solutions of the following equations and plot them on Argand diagrams:
a) z 2 = −2 + 2i
b) z 6 = −64√
c) z 5 = 1 + 3i
d) z 4 = −1 − i
e) z 2 + 4z + 29 = 0
f) z 2 + 2iz + 1 = 0
g) z 3 + 10z 2
√ 3+ 37z + 42 = 0 [Hint: find a root by inspection]
6
h) z + 2z + 1 = 0
4. Find a quadratic equation with real coefficients which has 3 + i as one of its roots.
5. Given that 1 + i is a root, express z 4 + 2z 3 − z 2 − 2z + 10 as a product of linear and irreducible
quadratic factors.
6. Given that g(2i) = 0, do the same for: g(z) = z 4 + 2z 3 + 6z 2 + 8z + 8

64
7. If z = z0 is a solution of the equation az + b = 0 (a, b ∈ C), show that z0 is also a solution of the
equation az + b = 0. Can you extend the principle to quadratic equations?
8. (a) Use the Binomial Theorem to write cos5 θ as the sum of terms of the form b cos (bθ), where
b ∈ R and k ∈ Z. Hint: Use R cos θ = 12 (eiθ + e−iθ ).
5
(b) Use this to integrate cos θ dθ. Is there another way of finding this integral?

65
 Tutorial 21

1. Describe and sketch in 3-D space

a) y = x + 2
b) x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4
Harder:
a) z = y 2
b) xy = 0
2. Find the equation of the sphere
a) With centre (2, 1, 0) and radius 3.
b) With the points (3, 5, 0) and (1, 1, 2) on each end of a diameter.
c) With centre (1, 3, 4) and which is tangent to the yz-plane.

3. Find the distance between the centeres of the spheres x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4 and x2 + y 2 + z 2 =

4x + 4y + 4z − 11. What is the closest the spheres come to each other?
4. Suppose that a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i , b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i and c = hc1 , c2 , c3 i, show that
a) a · a = |a|2
b) a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c
c) a · b = |a||b| cos θ
[ Hint: Draw vectors a, b and a − b. Then apply the cosine rule. ]

5. Find the angle between the following vectors.

a) a = h2, 2, −1i , b = h5, −3, 2i
b) a = h−1, 3, 4i , b = h5, 2, 1i
c) a = 4i − 3j + k, b = 2i − k

6. Determine whether the given vectors are orthogonal, parallel, or neither.

a) a = h4, 5, −2i , b = h3, −1, 5i
b) a = 9i − 6j + 3k, b = −6i + 4j − 2k
c) a = −8i + 12j + 4k, b = 6i − 9j − 3k
7. Show that the expression for the scalar projection of b onto a is given by
a·b
compa b =
|a|
Then, using this result show that the vector projection of b onto a is
a·b
proja b = a
|a|2
8. Express b =< −4, 1, −2 > as a sum of two vectors, one parallel to a =< 1, 3, −3 > and the
other orthogonal to a.
9. A(−1, 1, −1), B(3, 3, 2) and C(1, 4, 4) are three points in R3 , and O is the origin.
−−→ −→ −−→
a) Find the vectors AB, AC and BC.
b) Is the triangle ABC a right-angled? Is it isosceles? Give reasons for your answers.
c) Find the sizes of the interior angles of the triangle ABC. (This should be quick.)

10. A rectangular box has its faces parallel to the coordinate planes. Four of the vertices of the box
lie at the points (1, 1, 3), (1, 6, 3), (−2, 1, 3) and (1, 1, −1).
a) Find the coordinates of the other vertices of the box.
b) Find the volume of the box.

66
 c) Find the coordinates of the point at the centre of the box.
d) Which of the vertices of the box lies closest to the origin? Which one lies furthest away
from the origin? Find the distances of these points from the origin.
e) What does the set {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 : y = −3x} look like? (Describe it in words.) Are any of
the vertices of the box in this set? If so, which ones?
f) What does the set {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 ; x = 1, 5z = 4y − 9} look like? Does the box have any
points in common with this set? [Hint: look at the vertices.] If so, which points?

11. a) Let l1 be the line passing through the point A(5, 6, 7) parallel to the x-axis. Write down
the coordinates of the point B on l1 which is closest to C(1, 3, 4).
b) Let P1 be the plane passing through the point A(5, 6, 7) parallel to the xy-plane. Write
down the coordinates of the point D on P1 which is closest to C(1, 3, 4).
c) Let l2 be the line passing through the point C(1, 3, 4) parallel to the y-axis. Write down
the coordinates of the points E and F on l1 and l2 which are closest to one another. What
is the distance between these two points?
d) Let P2 be the plane passing through the point C(1, 3, 4) parallel to the xz-plane. Do P1
and P2 intersect one another? If so, where?

12. Prove that for any vectors ~a and ~b, |~a + ~b| ≤ |~a| + |~b| , this is the triangle inequality.
13. Prove the parallelogram law: For two vectors ~a, and ~b,

|~a + ~b|2 + |~a − ~b|2 = 2(|~a|2 + |~b|2 ).

[Hint: For any vector ~u, |~u|2 = ~u · ~u.] Why do you think this is called the parallelogram law?

14. Let O be the origin, and A and B be respectively the points (1, 2, 3) and (3, 6, 9), all in R3 .
a) Find the distance between A and B.
b) Find the point halfway between A and B.
c) How many points are there in R3 at an equal distance from A and B? Is O one of them?
d) What do you think the set of all points in R3 at an equal distance from A and B will look
like? Describe this set as accurately as you can in words.
e) Let P be the point (x, y, z). Write down an equation (in terms of x, y and z) expressing the
fact that the distance between A and P is equal to the distance between B and P . Simplify
your equation as far as possible. Does your equation make sense in the light of your answer
to (d)?
f) Let A0 be the projection of the point A onto the xy plane. Give the coordinates of A0 .
−−→
g) Find the vector AB (that is, write down its components).
−→ −−→ −−→
h) How are the vectors OA, OB and AB related? Write down an equation or equations giving
the relationship.
−→
i) Find a unit vector in the direction of OA. How many such vectors are there?
−→
j) How many unit vectors perpendicular to OA are there? If there are any, find one.
−→ −−→
k) Find OA · OB.

15. Let ~a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and ~b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) be fixed vectors in R3 and ~r = (x, y, z).
a) Find the set of all points (x, y, z) ∈ R3 such that (~r − ~a) · (~r − ~b) = 0.
[Hint: Write the vector equation in terms of components, and then say what the equation
you get in this way represents.]
b) (A bit more of a challenge.) Answer the same question as in (a), but this time by interpreting
the equation (~r − ~a) · (~r − ~b) = 0 geometrically.
[Hint: What does the equation say about the vectors ~r − ~a and ~r − ~b?]

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 Tutorial 23

1. For each of the following statements decide whether it is true or false. Give reasons for your
answers. Keep in mind that one solution of a system of equations in n unknowns consists of n
values, one for each unknown.
a) A system with more equations than unknowns always has at least one solution.
b) A system with fewer equations than unknowns does not have any solution.
c) A system with the same number of equations as unknowns always has exactly one solution.
d) In any Gauss reduction, if there is a row of zeros, the system has infinitely many solutions.
2. Five systems of linear equations were Gauss reduced and the following augmented matrices in
reduced row echelon form were obtained:
     
1 0 0 4 1 0 0 4 1 0 0 4
(a)  0 1 0 −3  (b)  0 1 0 −3  (c)  0 1 0 −3 
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0
 
1 0 0 3 0  
 0 1 0 4
1 0 4 0 
 (e)  0 1 −3 
(d) 
 0 0 1 5 2 
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

In each case, say whether there are any solutions. If there are solutions, give all the solutions in
vector form.
3. Use Gauss Reduction to solve each of the following systems of linear equations:

3x − y = 2 x + 2y = 4
(a) (b)
x + 3y = 5 −2x − 4y = −6

−x + 4y − 2z = 1 2x + 2y + 2z = 8
(c) x + 4y + z = −3 (d) x + 3y + z = 4
−x + 3y − 2z = 2 −x + 2y + 3z = −2

x + 2y + 3z = −2 2x + 3y + 4z = 8
(e) x − 2y + 3z = −6 (f) x + y − 2z = −1
x − y + 3z = −5 x + 3y + 14z = 5

x1 − x2 + 2x3 + 2x4 = 0
x1 + x2 + 2x3 − x4 + x5 = 1
3x1 + x2 + x3 = 2
(g) (h) −x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 − x4 + 2x5 = 4
2x1 + x2 + 2x3 + x4 = −4
2x1 + x2 − x3 + 4x4 − x5 = 3
x1 + 3x2 + 3x3 + x4 = 3

4. Gauss reduction on the augmented matrix of a system of linear equations leads to the matrix
 
1 0 5 2+k
 0 1 3 5−k 
0 0 k(k − 1) k

where k is some constant. For which values of k will the system have
a) no solution
b) infinitely many solutions?

68
5. For each of the following statements decide whether it is true or false. Give examples or proofs
to substantiate your answers. [Hint: Think of matrices representing mappings of the plane.]
a) If the product of two 2 × 2 matrices is the 2 × 2 zero matrix (i.e., the matrix with all its
entries equal to 0), then at least one of the matrices must be the 2 × 2 zero matrix.
b) If a 2 × 2 matrix A has the property that A2 = A, then A is the 2 × 2 zero matrix or the
2 × 2 identity matrix.
c) There are two different 2 × 2 matrices A and B, neither of them the zero matrix or the
identity matrix, such that AB = BA.
6. Below we give you three 2 × 2 matrices:
     
1 0 0 −1 1 0
(i) A= (ii) B= (iii) C=
0 −1 1 0 0 0

For each one of them:

a) Say what the matrix does to points in the plane. (If A is the matrix and x the position
vector of the point, how is Ax related to x?).
b) Use your answer to (a) to decide whether the matrix has an inverse or not. Explain how
you arrived at your answer.
c) Write down the inverse in the case(s) where it exists.
7. Here are four matrices:
  1 3 
3 −1 2
A= B = 12 4
−2 0 1 3 −1
   
1 −2 −1 2 −3
C = 5 0 3 D =  0 −2
2 1 −1 −1 4
a) Which of the following products are defined:

AB, AD, A2 , BA, BC, BD, CA, DA, DC?

b) Find the products that are defined.

c) Is AB = BA? Is AD = DA?
[Hint: Do not do any unnecessary work to answer this question!]
8. a) Find the matrix M which represents a projection onto the x-axis, followed   by a clockwise
1
rotation through π/4 radians. To what point does the matrix M take ? Draw a sketch
4
to illustrate this.
b) If refx−axis and refy−axis are the matrices representing the reflection of the plane in the x
and y axes respectively (see p.37 of the notes), what effect would you expect the linear
transformation
refx−axis ◦ refy−axis ◦ refx−axis ◦ refy−axis
 
a
to have on a point ? Check your answer by multiplying the matrices representing these
b
linear transformations together.

69
 9. The following is a question in which you use matrix multiplication to produce a matrix which
does a specific job. Remember that matrices are like functions, and so you must be careful about
what order you use to “hook” them up, i.e compose them.
a) Your task is to find the matrix that√will have the effect of projecting points of the plane
perpendicularly onto the line y = 3x. Since you already know how to project points
perpendicularly onto the x-axis, it would be a good idea to somehow use this knowledge.
What rotation matrix would have the effect of transforming the given line into the x-axis?
Write down this matrix.
b) Now you could think of using your known projection matrix, (i.e. the one that projects
perpendicularly onto the x-axis.) Write this one down too.
c) To complete the problem, you could rotate everything back until the given line is back
where it started. Write down the matrix that will do that.
d) The product of these three matrices has the effect of projecting perpendicularly onto the
given line. Make sure you write down the product in the correct order, and then compute
the product. Make sure that you understand the basic idea in this problem and could use
it in other similar problems.
e) To which points are the points (1, 0), (0, 1) and (2, 2) sent by the matrix ?
10. Find the inverse of each of the following matrices, or prove that the matrix has no inverse. If
the inverse exists, show that the product of the matrix and its inverse is an identity matrix:
   
1 3 2 1
(a) (b)
2 −1 −1 −1/2
   
−1 1 1 1 2 2
(c)  1 1 1 (d) 2 2 −1
2 1 1 1 2 1

11. Use a matrix inverse to solve each of the following systems of linear equations:

−3x + y + 2z = 1 x+y+z = 6
(a) x+y+z = 2 (b) 2x + 5y + z = 4
2x + y + z = 0 x − 2y − 2z = −4

12. Solve the following systems of equations, all having the same coefficient matrix, using the matrix
inverse method.

x + 2y − z = b1
x + y + 2z = b2
x − y − z = b3
       
b1 1 0 5
for b2 = 2 , 1 ,
       2 .
b3 3 4 −3
13. Suppose that A and B are square, invertible matrices of the same size. Prove that

(AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 .

14. For each of the following matrices A, find

• the determinant of A,
• the matrix of cofactors of A,
• the adjoint of A,

70
 • the inverse of A (using determinants, not row reduction). If the inverse does not exist, state
why.
 
5 1
a)
−3 2
2 −1
b)
6 −3
 
1 2 1
c) −3 2 −2
1 0 2
 
3 1 −4
d) 2 5 6 
1 4 8
 
1 2 −3
e)  4 −1 2 
−5 8 −13
15. Show that the matrix  
cos θ sin θ 0
− sin θ cos θ 0
0 0 1
is invertible and find its inverse.
16. Find the determinant of the matrix
 
2 1 −1
1 1 −1
−1 −2 3

and hence solve the system of linear equations

2x + y − z = 5
x+y−z =4
−x − 2y + 3z = −8

17. Prove that two matrices A and B are invertible if and only if their product AB is invertible.

18. Let A be the matrix  

2 0 3
0 3 1 
1 2 −1
a) Find a vector equation for the plane with cartesian equation 2x − y + 3z = 4.

b) Find the image of the plane 2x − y + 3z = 4 under the linear map represented by A.(Did
you expect your answer to be a plane?)

19. For what value(s) of x is the matrix not invertible?

 
1 0 x 0
 4 0 2 2 
 
 0 2 −1 1 
1 0 −1 0

71
 Tutorial 25

1. Someone gives you the differential equation

d2 y dy
2
+4 = −4y
dx dx
and claims that the following three functions are all solutions of this differential equation:
(a) y = e−x (b) y = e−2x (c) y = xe−2x .
You can tell whether they are right without having to solve the differential equation. For each of
the functions above, check whether it is a solution.

2. Show that x3 + x2 y − 2y 3 = C is an implicit solution of the differential equation

dy 3x2 + 2xy
= .
dx 6y 2 − x2
3. For each of the following differential equations say what type (e.g., linear, separable, etc.) it is
and then find the general solution:
dy
a) 2y + (xy + 3x) =0
dx
dy
b) x − 2y = x2
dx
du π π
c) − u tan t = 1, for − < t < .
dt 2 2
4. Find particular solutions for the following differential equations subject to the given conditions:
a) y 00 + 6y 0 + 9y = 0, y(0) = 2, y 0 (0) = −1
b) y 00 + 4y 0 + 13y = 0, y(0) = 0, y(1) = 2
c) y 00 + 3y 0 − 10y = 0, y(0) = 2, y 0 (0) = −1.

5. Give the orders of the following differential equations:

a) x(y 00 )3 + (y 0 )4 = y
dy d3 y
b) xy + ( )2 = 3 .
dx dx
6. Which of the following first order equations are separable and which are linear? (They may be
both or neither.)
dy
a) 2xy = y 2 x + y sin x
dx
1 dy
b) − 1 = x2
1 + y 2 dx
c) yy 0 = t
d) y 0 = 2 + y

7. Solve the following differential equations and then evaluate the arbitrary constants using the
initial conditions where provided.

dy
a) = 2y, y(0) = 200
dt
0 3
b) (4 + x)y = y , y(3) = 1
dy
c) 2x = 3y, y(2) = 2
dx
dy
d) x cos2 y + tan y =0
dx

72
 p dy
e) x + 3y 2 x2 + 1
= 0, y(0) = 1
dx
p
f) x ln x = y(1 + 3 + y 2 )y 0 , y(1) = 1

dθ t sec θ
g) =
dt θet2
h) xy 0 − 2y = x2

dy
i) sin x + (cos x)y = sin(x2 )
dx
j) x2 y 0 + 2xy = ln x, y(1) = 2

du
k) t = t2 + 3u, u(2) = 4
dt
dy
l) (x2 + 1) + 3x(y − 1) = 0, y(0) = 2
dx
dθ
m) t + (1 + t)θ = t.
dt
dy
n) x = x5 + 3y, y(1) = 1
dx
o) y 0 = t − 2y

p) y 0 = csc x + y cot x
8. A thermometer reading 75◦ is brought into a room with ambient temperature 20◦ . Four minutes
later the reading is 30◦ . What is the temperature reading 7 minutes after the thermometer was
brought into the room?

9. It is possible to find a family of curves such that for every point (x, y) on a curve in this family,
the tangent to the curve at this point cuts the x-axis at the point (5x, 0).
a) Draw a rough sketch of a curve satisfying this condition.
b) Write down a differential equation which describes the situation in your sketch.
c) Solve this differential equation.
d) Is there a curve in this family passing through the point (1, 1)? If so, find its equation.
y
10. Given f (x, y) = 2xy + calculate:
x + y2
a) fx (1, 1)
b) fy (1, 2)
c) fxy (2, 1)
d) fxx (2, 2)
e) fxxy (2, 3)

73
 Extra Problems 23

p
1. If f (x, y) = 4 − x2 − y 2 , find fx (1, 0) and fy (1, 0) and interpret these numbers as slopes.
Illustrate your answer
 π  with sketches.
y
2. If f (x, y) = sin xy − 2 , find fx (1, 1), fy (1, 1), fxy (1, 1), fyx (1, 1), fxx (1, 1) and fyy (1, 1).
2 x
3. Consider f (x, y) = x4 cos(y). Calculate fxxyy , fxyxy and fyyxx . What do you notice?
4. The wave equation
∂2u 2
2∂ u
= a ,
∂t2 ∂x2
where a is a constant, describes the motion of some waveform - be it a wave on a string, a light
wave or sound wave. Show that if f and g are twice differentiable functions of a single variable
then u(x, t) = f (x + at) + g(x − at) is a solution of the wave equation.

74