Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Exploring Social Constructivism Theories and Practicalities - Adams
Exploring Social Constructivism Theories and Practicalities - Adams
Paul Adams
To cite this article: Paul Adams (2006) Exploring social constructivism: theories and
practicalities, Education, 34:3, 243-257, DOI: 10.1080/03004270600898893
Paul Adams*
Centre for Educational Studies, University of Hull, UK
In the drive to improve standards, the collection and dissemination of numerical data still directs
much contemporary educational policy. However, recent publications and debates seemingly
attempt to reorient discussion from performance to learning. In support, constructivism is often
referenced as a contributor in this endeavour. However, constructivism is not a single unified theory
either of knowledge or pedagogy. This article identifies one version of constructivist thinking, social
constructivism, both in terms of its underlying epistemology (theory of knowledge) and related
pedagogy. Contemporary educational theories are then outlined to demonstrate that many practical
solutions and theoretical ideas now presented as ‘good learning and teaching’ have much in
common with social constructivist thinking. Finally, the article concludes by identifying two issues
that require further discussion and debate if pedagogy of a social constructivist nature is to be
considered.
Introduction
For some time, educational policy over and above that required for exam success has
been at best sidelined and at worst ignored; tests and other forms of objectively
measuring educational quality have held sway (Easen & Bolden, 2005). Successive
governments have used ever-increasing resources and centralized powers to attempt
to raise standards by the manipulation of school curricula and teacher behaviour
(Silcock, 2003). In this vein, learning at Key Stage 2 (via a simplistic belief in its
association with performance) is measured by controlling for context, task and time
whilst pupils undertake a series of predetermined and moderated tasks, marked
against clear and agreed criteria; in short, Standard Attainment Tests (SATs).
Subsequently, pupil performance is evaluated, attainment judged and standards
commented upon.
Although the rhetoric speaks of assessing pupil learning, the practice is the
moderation of a form of behaviour judged to be associated with learning (Easen &
Bolden, 2005); mental activities and processes are indirectly observed through the
prism of actions and reactions, which in turn are seen to provide reliable information
about the type, scale and quality of learning. In many ways this is unsurprising:
*Centre for Educational Studies, Loten House, University of Hull, Cottingham Road, Hull HU6
7RX, UK. Email: p.adams@hull.ac.uk
in many social situations evaluations based upon actions often provide the mainstay
of interpretation. However, when considering learning, to use such observations to
comment upon anything other than specific, context-bound performance misses two
fundamental points: learning, or at least aspects of it, occurs in the mind; and
behaviour is not a priori a reliable indicator of cognitive processes. That which a pupil
demonstrates through ‘performance’ is but a surface manifestation of possible
underlying competences (Easen & Bolden, 2005, p. 53). Although it might occur
that success or failure in the test situation accurately indicates cognitive development,
it might also be conjectured that such performance is nothing more than an indication
of the child’s ability to read the requirements of the test. What is interesting (and
troubling) is the way that performance as judged by test results can be modified
without much attendance to underlying cognitive development. Here, teaching trains
pupils to understand the intricacies of the exam question and thus become adept at
reading what is required to glean maximum marks. Teaching for procedural or
conceptual understanding becomes at best sidelined; at worst, ignored.
This surely poses questions as to whether short-term gains in attainment scores are
being achieved at the expense of a commitment to learning in the long term
(MacGilchrist, 2003, p. 61). Certainly, Pollard and Triggs note that ‘a significant
proportion of pupils seem to have become instrumentally concerned with ‘‘playing
the system’’, with superficial learning and trying to avoid boredom’ (2000, p. 297).
However, given that if they are not to depress a school’s league table position,
children must and should succeed in a linear fashion and reach prescribed targets
(Silcock, 2003), this may not come as too much of a surprise.
It would appear therefore that regular testing within such performance paradigms is
in danger of closing down learning opportunities for young people now and in the
future (MacGilchrist, 2003, p. 63). However, output-oriented conceptions of educa-
tion have always been resisted. Indeed, Woods and Jeffrey (2002) note the ways in
which teachers actively rein in, mediate or mollify the stultifying effects of perfor-
mativity culture. For many teachers, discussion about learning and not performance
is that which provides the staple, professional diet. In such discussions, deliberation
and debate about what learning is and how best to promote it take centre stage.
The first casualty in such discussions is any notion that the connection between
learning and performance is simplistic (MacGilchrist, 2003). Secondly, common
themes seem to become distilled, which when examined concur both with informal
and formal theorizing. In turn, these themes promote learning as an active process of
meaning-making (Silcock, 2003); describe effective learners as those able to engage in
the process of meta-learning (the ability to make sense of one’s experience of
learning); acknowledge the role for emotions in learning (Goleman, 1996); and locate
learning as the product of socio-cultural contexts (compare Vygotsky, 1978).
Although educational interventions or initiatives all too often remain measured in
terms of national test results, these emergent themes seem firmly rooted in a desire to
develop the quality of pupils’ learning. For example, implicit to the idea of meta-
learning is the belief that learners need to learn about learning and reflecting
and begin to make sense of their own learning experiences and those of others
Exploring social constructivism 245
(Biggs & Moore, 1993; Ertmer & Newby, 1996). Rather than attempt to teach how to
rapidly converge on ‘the correct answer’, meta-learning encourages pupils to examine
thought processes, thereby avoiding overly simplistic acceptance and/or the adoption
of ‘fact’; the thinking with which pupils engage is seen as vital to the learning process.
Under intense political pressure, test scores are likely to go up without a corresponding
improvement in student learning. In fact, distortions in what and how students are taught
may actually decrease students’ conceptual understanding. (2000, p. 9)
A ‘true’ education is exactly that where learners grasp what is worthwhile for its own sake
rather than as means to other ends (such as passing tests or hitting learning targets).
Implicit in this are two beliefs. First, the teacher’s role is fundamentally different from
that lauded in the behaviourist paradigm, most specifically during teacher–pupil
interaction at the point of celebrating learning. Unfortunately, all too often in primary
education extrinsic reward provides the mainstay of motivational techniques.
Paradoxically, the use of such reward systems (e.g. stickers, smiley faces) can
actually undermine interest and demotivate (Black & Wiliam, 1998); it does nothing
Exploring social constructivism 251
to close the gap between learning and understanding how to do better. There is
nothing in the reward or its conferral that gives the learner an understanding of
intricate cognitive change, neither do they connect meaningfully with the learning
process.
Secondly, there is therefore a need to consider transference of control from teacher
to pupil. The aforementioned problems with extrinsic reward systems denote a need
to separate such rewards from the celebration of successful learning. Whereas
behaviourist techniques for behaviour management at times may be both successful
and necessary (even though such theories are predicated on particular views of the
learner, teacher and indeed education, a discussion all of its own), their role in
supporting pupil self-control for learning is at best minimal. Certainly, reward
systems can and do achieve increases in the frequency and quality of pupil behaviour,
including working with peers (Porter, 2000). However, mindful commitment is not
required (Desforges, 1993, 1997); that is, a commitment to the learning in hand, due
to purpose and a deep sense of self-awareness. A sense of purpose and the way a task
situates a pupil are that which provide meaning, meaning which in turn provides
motivation. However, motivation in this sense should not be taken to simply mean
feelings of intrinsic worth; rather it should signal that pupils can persist even when a
real desire to intellectually engage is not present. Mindful commitment recognizes
that interest alone is not enough to engender persistence (Silcock, 2003, p. 49).
The above creates a new set of challenges. Although teachers cannot learn on
behalf of the pupil, nor can they in all honesty make someone learn, they can do
certain things to help. The idea of ‘common knowledge’ has been previously
mentioned in relation to bridging the gap between the worlds of home and school
(Easen & Bolden, 2005). This idea along with mindful commitment present an
interesting opportunity to engage with social constructivist thinking. The significance
of socio-cultural issues offered as part of learning in the idea of ‘common knowledge’
sits neatly with the underlying basis for social constructivism. Providing pupil-world
perspectives on learning situations not only makes school learning authentic but also
turns the knowledge and skills gained back in on themselves. Research demonstrates
(Bereiter, 2001) that school learning which connects to a learner’s wider, personal
agenda is more likely to transfer between home and school. Thus, by providing a
socio-cultural context for tasks that is wider than school, those aspects of school
learning that are transferable due to their occurring as part of the social milieu
become not only embedded in the processes of school learning, but also alter the
cultural context of the classroom; in effect learning shapes school into something
tangible rather than ephemeral and obscure.
Practically, these points draw attention to two aspects. First, when designing
learning opportunities, the question needs to be asked: ‘How is this meaningful for
my students given their life-world?’ The requirement to reflect on that which has been
personally constructed within the social world can only carry meaning if it can be
related to personal reference points. When supporting pupils in their efforts to
construct knowledge and meaning, opportunities must be provided that require the
deconstruction of views within the social realm. Thus, rather than being asked what
252 P. Adams
they think and why, learners must be encouraged to explain what they think, why, and
how such changes seem to fit with the requirements of the socio-cultural context.
Secondly, design of learning opportunities and methods for demonstrating and
mediating knowledge into the socio-cultural space should rest at least partly with
pupils. Asking pupils what they wish to consider and how they wish to investigate and
present their work engenders feelings of importance and worthiness.
Conclusion
This article has attempted to shed light both theoretically and practically on a theory
of learning: social constructivism, a term which has pervaded the annals of
educational theory for some time. However, whilst it seems to offer a number of
254 P. Adams
Notes on contributor
Paul Adams is a lecturer at the Centre for Educational Studies at the University
of Hull. His special interests are in Personal, Social and Health Education,
citizenship, moral education and pastoral care.
References
Adams, P. (2003) Thinking skills and constructivism, Teaching Thinking, 10, Spring, 50–54.
Adams, P. (2006) Demystifying constructivism: the role for the teacher in new-technology
exploiting learning situations, in: L. Tan Wee Hin & R. Subramaniam (Eds) Handbook of
research in technology at the K–12 level (Hershey, Idea Group), 493–514.
Assessment Reform Group (1999) Assessment for learning: beyond the black box (Cambridge,
University of Cambridge School of Education).
Ball, S. J. (1999) Labour, learning and the economy: a ‘policy sociology’ perspective, Cambridge
Journal of Education, 29(2), 195–206.
Bereiter, C. (2001) Situated cognition and how to overcome it, in: J. Collins & D. Cook (Eds)
Understanding learning: influences and outcomes (London, Paul Chapman/Open University
Press), 71–83.
Biggs, J. B. & Moore, P. J. (1993) The process of learning (3rd edn) (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice
Hall).
Black, P. & Wiliam, D. (1998) Inside the black box (London, School of Education, King’s College).
Brooks, J. G. & Brooks, M. G. (1993) In search of understanding: the case for constructivist classrooms
(Alexandria, VA, American Society for Curriculum Development).
Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (1991) Some thoughts about constructivism and
instructional design, in: T. M. Duffy & D. H. Jonassen (Eds) Constructivism and the technology
of instruction: a conversation (Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum), 115–120.
Copley, J. (1992) The integration of teacher education and technology: a constructivist model,
in: D. Carey, R. Carey, D. Willis & J. Willis (Eds) Technology and teacher education
(Charlottesville, VA, Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education), 617–622.
Crowther, D. T. (1997) Editorial, Electronic Journal of Science Education, 2, 2. Available online at:
http://www.unr.edu/homepage/jcannon/ejse/ejsev2n2ed.html (accessed 17 January 2004).
Daniels, H. (2001) Vygotsky and pedagogy (London: Routledge Falmer).
Desforges, C. (1993) Children’s learning: has it improved?, Education 3–13, 21(3), 3–10.
Desforges, C. (1997) Children’s application of knowledge, paper presented at the 9th Annual
Association for the Study of Primary Education Conference, Dartington Hall, Dartington, Devon.
Driver, R., Aasoko, H., Leach, J., Mortimer, E. & Scott, P. (1994) Constructing scientific
knowledge in the classroom, Educational Researcher, 23(7), 5–12.
Dweck, C. (1999) Self-theories: their role in motivation, personality and development (Philadelphia,
Psychology Press).
Easen, P. & Bolden, D. (2005) Location, location, location: what do league tables really tell us
about primary schools?, Education 3–13, 33(3), 49–56.
Ernest, P. (1995) The one and the many, in: L. Steffe & J. Gale (Eds) Constructivism in education
(Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum), 459–486.
Ertmer, P. & Newby, T. (1996) The expert learner: strategic, self-regulated and reflective,
Instructional Science, 24, 1–24.
256 P. Adams
Goleman, D. (1996) Emotional intelligence: why it can matter more than IQ (London, Bloomsbury).
Goodman, Y. M. & Goodman, K. S. (1990) Vygotsky in a whole language perspective,
in: L. C. Moll (Ed.) Vygotsky and education: instructional implications and applications of
sociohistorical psychology (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press), 223–250.
Graue, M. E. (1993) Integrating theory and practice through instructional assessment, Educational
Assessment, 1, 293–309.
Hanley, S. (1994) On constructivism. Maryland Collaborative for Teacher Preparation.
Available online at: http://www.towson.edu/csme/mctp/Essays/Constructivism.txt (accessed
12 February 2004).
Hein, G. E. (1991) Constructivist learning theory, the museum and the needs of people, paper
presented at CECA (International Committee of Museum Educators) Conference, Jerusalem,
Israel, 15–22 October.
Heylighen, F. (1993) Epistemology: introduction, Principia Cybernetica. Available online at: http://
www.pespmc.vub.ac.be/EPISTEMI.html (accessed 2 March 2004).
Jonassen, D. H. (1994) Thinking technology, Educational Technology, 34(4), 34–37.
Kanuka, H. & Anderson, T. (1999) Using constructivism in technology-mediated learning:
constructing order out of the chaos in the literature, Radical Pedagogy, 1, 2. Available online
at: http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue1_2/02kanuka1_2.html (accessed 9 August
2006).
MacGilchrist, B. (2003) Primary learners of the future: laying the foundations for lifelong learning
in the primary school, Education 3–13, 31(1), 58–65.
Moore, A., Edwards, G., Halpin, D. & George, R. (2002) Compliance, resistance and pragmatism:
the (re)construction of schoolteacher identities in a period of intensive educational reform,
British Educational Research Journal, 28(4), 551–565.
Omrod, J. (1995) Educational psychology: principles and applications (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice
Hall).
Pollard, A. & Triggs, P. with Broadfoot, P., McNess, E. & Osborn, M. (2000) What pupils say:
changing policy and practice in primary education (London, Continuum).
Porter, L. (2000) Behaviour in schools: theory and practice for teachers (Buckingham, Open University
Press).
Reeves, T. (1992) Effective dimensions of interactive learning systems, keynote address to the
Information Technology for Training and Education Conference, University of Queensland,
Brisbane, 5–9 September.
Rice, M. L. & Wilson, E. K. (1999) How technology aids constructivism in the social studies classroom.
Available online at: http://www.global.umi.com/pqdweb (accessed 2 February 2003).
Saunders, W. (1992) The constructivist perspective: implications and teaching strategies for
science, School Science and Mathematics, 92(3), 136–141.
Shepard, L. A. (2000) The role of assessment in a learning culture, Educational Researcher, 29(7),
4–14.
Silcock, P. (2003) Accelerated learning: a revolution in teaching method?, Education 3–13, 31(1),
48–52.
Sutherland, R., Armstrong, V., Barnes, S., Brawn, R., Breeze, N., Gall, M., Matthewman, S.,
Olivero, F., Taylor, A., Triggs, P., Wishart, J. & John, P. (2004) Transforming teaching and
learning: embedding ICT into everyday classroom practices, Journal of Computer Assisted
Learning, 20, 413–425.
Tam, M. (2000) Constructivism, instructional design, and technology: implications for transform-
ing distance learning, Educational Technology and Society, 3(2), 50–60.
Tharp, R. G. & Gallimore, R. (1988) Rousing minds to life: teaching, learning and schooling in social
context (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).
Tomlinson, S. (2001) Education in a post-welfare society (Buckingham, Open University Press).
Torrance, H. & Pryor, J. (1998) Investigating formative assessment: teaching, learning and assessment in
the classroom (Buckingham: Open University Press).
Exploring social constructivism 257