Control Valves 189

Actuator
CHAPTER spring
iaphra

Valve position
indicator

Control Valves Valve

stem
Valve bo
Actuating
signal
Flow Valve plug Valve seat
direction

Fig. 8.1 Line diagram of an air-to-close control valve representation

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Process plants consist of hundreds, even thousands of control loops all
net-
worked together to manufacture a product. Each of these control loops is de-
signed to keep some important process variable such as pressure, flow, level,
temperature, or concentration within a required operating range to ensure the
quality of the product.
To reduce the effect of load disturbances, sensors and transmitters collect
information about the process variable and its relationship to some desired set
point. A controller then processes this information and decides what must be
done to get the process variable back to where it should be after a load distur-
bance occurs. When all the measurements, comparisons, and calculations are
done, there must be an element in the control loop to execute the commands
issued by the controller. This element is called final control element (FCE), which
is powered by the actuator. The most common final control element in process
control industries is the control valve.
4 trim parts; an actuator to provide the motive power to dperate the valve; and a
It is impossible to design a practical control system without some means of
controlling the volume and pressure of the matter and directing the flow of ma-
terial to the operating units. The control valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such
as gas, steam, water, or chemicals to compensate for the load disturbance and
'lit..
keep the regulated process variable as close as possible to the desired set point. A
control valve regulates the supply of material or energy to a process by adjusting
an opening through which the material flows. It is an engineered resistance in the
control loop, the only variable resistance in the loop, which is within our control.
Valves make up 20—30%of the piping cost for a plant. Valves must be accurate in
the control of fluid flow, pressure and the sequence of operation. A valve is
defined as any device by which the flow offluid may be startecl, stopped, or
regulated by a movable part that opens or obsttucts passage.
Four main functions of control valves are:
• Start and stop flow
e Regulation of flow
• Backflowprevention
Release pressure
SAMA (Scientific Apparatus Makers Association) defines the control valve as
"valve with pneumatic, hydraulic, electric or other externally powered actuator
that automatically,fully or partially opens or closes the valve to a position dic-
tated by signals transmitted from controlling instruments".
The actuator provides the power that is used to move the valve stem and
plug. Valves may be controlled manually,electrically,pneumatically,mechani-
cally, hydraulically,or by combinations of two or more of these methods. The
power source used in the process industries for the vast majority of the actuators
is air because it is safe and reliable. Hydraulic actuators provide very high power
while electric actuators like motors are compact.
The control valve assembly typically consists of the valve body; the internal
variety of additional valve accessories; which can include positioners, transduc-
ers, supply pressure regulators, manual operators, limit switches, etc. A simpli-
fied line sketch of a control valve is shown in Fig. 8.1.
ABBREVIATIONS IN VALVE INDUSTRY
8.2 COMMON
Control valves being an important component of automation process, many soci-
eties/organizations are involved in framing standards for their materials, installa-
tion, safety aspects, etc. In this section, some of the established organization/
bodies involved in the control valve industry are listed.
Organizations/Societies
ANSI —American National API —American Petroleum
Standards Institute Institute
ASME—American Society of ASTM —American Society for Testing
Mechanical Engineers and Materials
 Control Valves 191
190 Process Control: Principles and Applications
are:
BS —British Standards BVQI —Bureau Veritas Quality International Some important terms and phenomena associated with control valves,
described by the nominal size
CSA —Canadian Standards DIN —Deutsche Industries Valvesizing and valve capacity Valve size often is
measure is the flow that the valve
Association of the end connections, but a more important
—International Electrotechnical determining the correct valve to install
FCI —Fluid Controls Institute IEC can provide. Control valve sizing involves
The procedure is based on infor-
Commission from the many valves commercially available.
ISA —Instrument Society specify the capacity of their valves
ISO —International Standards mation provided by valve manufacturers, who
flowing rate of a control valve
of America Organization using the valve coefficient, Cv. The capachtyor
called upon to regulate. A common
MSS —Manufacturers NACE —National Association of must match with the process conditions it is
specifyingthe cv value. cv
StandardizationSociety Corrosion Engineers basis for rating capacitiesof control valves is by
capacity of a valve. It is
numbers are valve coefficients that define maximum
8.2.1 Control Valve Materials of water at 600F which will pass
defined as the number of GPM (x 3.785 lit/min)
a pressure drop of I psi. A valve with a
Control valves are composed of a variety of materials; the selection of the precise through a wide open control valve with are
1 psi pressure drop. There
composition depends on type of the medium and control system requirements. cv of 1 has a capacity of I GPM of water with of the valve.
correct size
Metal choices for valve body include brass, bronze, copper, cast iron, ductile standard tables and figures to help in arriving at the
iron, Monel, and stainless steel. Plastic material choices include PVC and CPVC.
Some of the most commonly used valve materials and their abbreviations are cv=Q
given below.
Aluminum R.I. All Iron where AP = pressure drop (psi) across the valve
Bronze C.I. Cast Iron, G = liquid's specific gravity (1 for water)
c.s. Cast Iron / Carbon Steel Cr Chromium Q = Flow rate in GPM
D.l. Ductile Iron F.S. Forged Steel This value of is in US GPM.
M Monel Metal Molybdenum
M.I. Malleable Iron N.J. Nickel Iron In Slunit 11.7Q
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride N Nickel 3
CPVC Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride S.S. Stainless Steel where Q = water flow (m /hr)
Tef Teflon AP = pressure drop (kPa)
be-
For gases, mixed phase flows the equation is a little more complicated
8.3 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH CONTROL cause gases are compressible and affected by temperatuce variations.
VALVES Rangeability It is the ratio of maximum controllable flow to minimum control-
Control valve is a complex mechanical assembly with actuators powered electri- Q max (Cv)max
lable flow, i.e.,
cally, pneumatically or hydraulically. There are standard terms, phenomena asso- (Cv)nun
ciated with control valves which will be discussed in this section. Refer Fig. 8.1 Vena contracta The lowest pressure point where the fluid velocity is at its maxi-
for understanding the parts of control valves. mum and fluid static pressure and cross-sectional area are minimum. It normally
Plug Plug is a movable part in control valve which provides variable restriction occurs just at the downstream of constriction.
in a port. Cavitation If the pressure drop across the orifice is such that the fluid pressure
Seat Seat is a portion of valve body which a valve plug connects for closure. first goes below the vapor pressure of liquid, then recovers back to a higher
pressure above the vapor pressure, then this pressure recovery gives rise to a
Stem Stem is a rod extending through bonnet assembly to permit positioning of the
valve plug. phenomenon known as cavitation, which causes an implosion, or collapse of
vapor bubbles formed at the vena contracta. Violent collapses of gas pockets
Piston A movable pressure-responsive element that transmits force to the piston result in shock waves generating impact pressures over 200,000 psig causing
actuator stem. surface fractures, noise, and vibration problems.
Stem Connector The device that connects the actuator stem to the valve stem. Cavitation produces a rough surface texture even if the fluid used in the pro-
differentiate
cess is clean and clear. If the fluid is abrasive, it may be difficult to
192 Process Control: Pnnctples and Applications Control Valves 193

low Intensity and low frequency. Cavitation may wear out the trim and body
parts in short time. One method employed to eliminate cavitation is to
split the total prssure across the valve into smaller portions using multiple-
stage Each of these small drops keeps its vena contracta pressure above
åe vapor pressur- so no bubbles are formed. Another method does not
t. to eliminate the cavitation, but rather minimizes or isolates the damage by
hardening the surface.
F'.askiæ:gFlashing occurs v,hen both the static pressure at the vena contracta
and the outlet pressure drop below the fluid vapor pressure. (i.e., fluid
eaters as liquid and exits as 'sapor). Flashing can produce serious erosion damage
to the trim parts. Flashing damage is characterized by a smooth and polished
appearance, '*hile cavitation damage is characterized by a rough and cinder—like
appearance of the eroded portion. It is distinctly different from the smooth,
polished appearance caused by the erosion of flashing.
Figure 8.2 pictorially represents the phenomena of cavitation and flashing.
Application ratio A common v.zy to characterize potential cavitation conditions
is to use the application ratio, defined as:
Application ratio = A-PO ; where
A-Pv
Pi = inlet pressure, absolute
p, = outlet pressure, absolute
vapor pressure of the fluid, absolute
The fluid flashes if the application ratio is more than 1. On the other hand, the
closer is the ratio to l, the higher is the potential for cavitation. With an increasing
fluid temperature, the danger for cavitation increases.
Corrosion Corrosion is the chemical reaction between the material ofthe valve
and the fluids handled. It causes valve deterioration.
Erosion Erosion is the wear and tear of the valve trim and body, resulting from
high-velocity fluids containing solids.
Valve inlet pressure
Air-to-open/fail-close Air-to-close/fail-open Air-to-open/fail-close
Vent Load Load
Load Vent Vent
ATO-FC ATO-FO ATO-FC
Fig. 8.3 Illustrationsof ATC/ATO valves
Galling A high-friction condition between the valve stem and the stem guides,
resulting from a lack of lubricity between the moving parts.
Air-to-open/Air-to-close Air-to-open valve means the valve will open on increase
in air supply,while air-to-close valve means the valve will move towards closed
position upon increase in air supply.
Fail-safe/Fail-open/Fail-close Fail-safe is the characteristic of a valve and its
actuator,whereby the loss of actuating energy supply will force a valve closure
member to become fully open, fully closed, or retain its position, whichever
action is necessary to protect the process. In case of fail-close, the valve closure
member moves to a closed position when the actuating energy source fails. And,
in case of fail-open, the valve closure member moves to an open position when
the actuating energy source fails.
Fig 8.3 depicts these types and combinations.In Fig. 8.3 (a) stem retracts
when air is supplied through load opening, thereby opening the valve, while stem
extends on loss of air pressure and closes the valve. It can be used on steam lines
where in case of failure valve on steam line will get closed, stopping further
supply of steam. In Fig. 8.3 (b) stem retracts on loss of air pressure and hence
open the valve. In Fig. 8.3 (e), plug design is sueh that stem retracts on failure of
supply and closes the valve.
Example8.1 A control valve regulates the liquid flow of a tank. The water level
is controlled in the tank at a level of 25 feet by regulating the outflow. The mea,
sured inflow varies from 0 to 120 oallons per minute. Calculate cv for the valve.
Inflow
air

Cavitation
Outlet pressure
Vapor pressure
Outlet pressure 25 ft
Flashing
Lowest pressure
("vana contracta")

Distance along flowstream

Outflow
194 Process Control: Principles and Applications ControlValves 195

Solution 16 psia
The maximum outflow must be equal to the maximum inflow, i.e., 120gpm. 40 —20
Application ratio = - 0.834
Since I foot of water develops a pressure of 0.433 psi; with the water level at — 40—16
25 feet; the pressure across the valve is: Since application ratio < 1, cavitation will occur, but no flashing.
P = 25 x 0.433 = 10.8psi.

Cv=Q 8.4 CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISTICS

where Q = flow rate, gallons per minute All control valves have an inherent flow characteristic that defines the relation-
ship between valve opening and flow rate under constant pressure conditions.
AP = differential pressure across valve in psi.
The term 'valve lift' is used to describe the valve opening, i.e., whether the
G = specific gravity (water = 1.0) valve is a globe valve (up and down movement of the plug relative to the seat) or
a rotary valve (lateral movement of the plug relative to the seat).
PO — = 36.5
1
Hence,C Figure 8,4 shows the three commonly used inherent valve characteristics
IOS
Quick opening —In this type, the relationship between flow and valve open-
Example8.2 Calculate cv of the valve for the system shown in Fig. E8.2. ing is approximately linear up to 60—70%of the valve opening. After this
Inflow limit, the flow doesn't change rapidly with the change in the valve opening.
Linear —The flow is directly proportional to the valve opening for a con-
stant pressure drop. The relationship, thus, can be expressed as a straight
line. It is given as:
s
Qmax s
25 ft where S Stem position (m.)
15 ft
Smax= maximum stem position (m.)
Q = Flow rate (m3/sec)
Outflow Q maximum Flow rate (m3/sec)
Fig. E8.2 Equal percentage —Equal increments of valve movement produce an equal
percentage changes in inflow. The gain of equal percentage valve is directly
Solution
100%
Maximum outflow —Maximum inflow = 120 gpm
Quick opening
AP = (25 feet - 15 feet) (0.433) = 4.33 psi.

Q (G/AP) = 120 (1/4.33) = 57.7

From standard tables, the smallest valve that can satisfy the required cv is 2.5
inch. The capacityof a valve depends on both the size and the pressure drop Linear
applied by the system. Flow
rate
Example8.3 Inlet pressure of a particular fluid handled is 40 psia, outlet pressure Equal percentage
iS 20 psia, and vapor pressure is 16 psia. Calculate the application ratio and
predict the chances of cavitation and flashing.
Solution
50%
Given, Pi = 40 psia 100%
0% Valve opening
PO= 20 psia
Fig . 8.4 Valve characteristics
 Ccrtrd Vaives 197
196 Process Control: Principles and Applications

Some valves though have multiple functuns tha more

proportional to flow through the valve. Gain is low when valve is nearly
closed and gain is high when valve is nearly open. classification.
In short, in quick opening, most of the valve capacity is reached early in its
8.5.' Flow Control Valves
travel; valve capacity is equal to travel in linear valve, while most of the capacity the flow z
is made available towards the end of valve travel in equal percentage valve.
Flow control valves are used to
Control of flow in systems
The selection of valve characteristics very much depend on the differential
pressure drop expected across the control valve. Figure 8.5 illustrates the effect ment of fluid-powwed
of now rate on the differential pressure across the control valve. At low flow, the fluid. Some of the d.fferezt types of flow
head loss through the pipes is less (10 psig), leaving a larger differential pressure
across the valve; while at high flow, the head loss through the pipe IS more Ball Valve
name implies, are stop th.•: a
(40 psig), leaving a smaller differential pressure across the valve. Ball valves, as i
flow of fluid. As the valve handie is tut%d
the
Rules of thumb for selecting valve characteristics point a par, or the throuzh the m

inlet and the f'.uid to th:ough the

I. Equal Pementage (most commonly used valve control) of the
rotatedsuch to
a. Used in processes where large changes in pressure drop are expected Fugue 8.6 sho•as the oi%e
valves tight shut-of
b. Used in processes where a small percentage of the total pressure drop of rotaton.
the ball vai'.e
is permitted by the valve They require on}y a 900 turn
N!ost ball are of quick-acting
c. Used in temperature and pressure control loops either corr.pletz:y Cf.-a er close the '..iatve. Best suited
2. Linear revommem}ed
ball vai'.es are qua•k and linear. They
a. Used in liquid level or flow loops closed operations threctling I: provi&s tight sealing
b. Used in systems where the pressure drop across the valve is expected Ith low torque.
to remain fairly constant (i.e., steady state systems)
Lily open haif•0Ftt tally cksed
3. Quick Opening
a. Used for frequenton-off service
b. Used for processes where "instantly" large flow ISneeded (i.e., safcty
systems or cooling water systems)

8.5 VALVE CLASSIFICATIONS AND TYPES Fluid IS Fluid totally

Fluid passes
A widely accepted way of classifying control valves is according to their use of freely partially blocked
one of the following: blocked
Flow control Fig. 8.6 End vtewot ball within vaev•e
e Pressure control
e Directional control Gate Valve
valve that opens by
A gate valve, or slujce valve, as It is sometimes known, is a
fluid. Gate val%.es
lifting a round or rectangular gatcjwedge out of the path ot•the
are
are when a straight-laneflow of fluid and muumumflow restncnoa
either stops or allows the
needed. Gate valves are so named because the part that
gate usually wedge
flow through the valve acts somewhat like a gate. The
0 pstg shaped. When the IS Wideopen, the gate fully drawn up tnto
Low flow 100 psig 90 psig 10 psig the valve, the same
bonnet. This leaves an opening tor flow through
High flow IOOpsig 60 psys' 40 psig
ptpe tn which the valve Installed.
 Process Control: Principles and Applications Control Valves 199

globe valve gets its name from the globular shape of the valve body. Other types
of valves may also have globular-shaped bodies; however, it is the internal struc-
ture of the valve that identifies the type of valve. The inlet and outlet openings for
ais, globe valves are arranged in a way to satisfy the flow requirements. Globe valves
are typically two-port valves, although three port valves are also produced. Ports
are openings in the body to let the fluid flow in or out. The two ports may be
oriented straight across from each other on the body, or oriented at an.angle.
Globe valves with ports at an angle are called angle globe valves. Figure 8.8
shows an angle globe valve.
Globe valves are classified as single-port and double-port. Single-port valve,
Open Closed
as shown in Fig. 8.9, is the most common valve body style and is simple in
Fig. 8.7 Gate valve construction. Generally, single-port valves are used for applications with strin-
Therefore, there is a little pressure drop or flow restriction through the valve. gent shut-offrequirements. Because of high-pressure fluid loading the entire area
Gate valves are not suitable for throttling purposes. The control of flow is difficult of the port, force required for closure is more.
because of the valve's design, and the flow of fluid slapping against a partially The double-port valve, as shown in Fig. 8.10, has two valve plugs on a com-
open gate can cause extensive damage to the valve. mon spindle, with two valve seats. Not only can the valve seats be kept smaller
Gate valves are characterized as either (since there are two of them), but also the forces are partially balanced.This
• Rising-stem gate valves, or means that although the differential pressure is trying to keep the top valve plug
• Nonrising-stem gate valves off its seat (as with a single seat valve), it is also trying to push the lower valve
plug down. The fluid flows equally on all sides of the center of support when the
Rising stems provide a visual indication of valve position. Nonrising stems are
valve is open, so there is no unbalanced pressure on the disk to cause uneven
used where vertical space is limited or underground. The nonrising-stem valve is
wear. The rate at which fluid flows through the valve is regulated by the position
shown in Fig. 8.7. The stem is threaded into the gate. As the hand wheel on the
of the disk in relation to the seat. The valve is commonly used as a fully open or
stem is rotated, the gate travels up or down the stem on the threads, while the
fully closed valve, but it may also be used as a throttle valve. However, since the
stem remains vertically stationary. This type of valve will almost always have a
seating surface is a relatively large area, it is not suitable as a throttle valve, where
pointer indicator threaded onto the upper end of the stem to indicate the position
of the gate.
Actuatorforce
Valves with rising stems are used when it is important to know by immediate
_%k'f.i
inspection whether the valve is open or closed and whether the threads (stem and
gate) exposed to the fluid have become
damagedby fluid contaminants.In such
valves, the stem rises out of the valve when Seats
the valve is opened.
Best suited valve characteristicfor gate Bonnet
valves is quick opening, and it is recom-
Body
mended for fully open/closed, non-throttling
operations.
Valveplug
Globe Valve Fluid flow- Pressure PICO co Pressure P:
Globe valves are linear motion valves with
round bodies. They are widely used in indus- Valve seat
try to regulate fluid flow in both on/off and
throttling service. Globe valves are probably
the most common valves in existence. The Differential pressure (AP)
Fig. 8.8 Angle globe valve
 Process •Control:Principles and Applications
Control Valves 201

Actuator foru•

Port A Source

Upper valve plug

Upper seat

Fluid flow
Port B
Lower valve plug
Fig. 8.12 Three-way diverting globe valve
Lower seat
Needle Valve
•eedle control valves have a slender, tapered point at the end of the valve stem
Fig. 8.10 Globe valve (Double-port) that is lowered through the seat to restrict or block the flow. Needle valves are
similar in design and operation to the globe valve. The long tapered end of the
fine adjustments are required in controlling the rate of
flow. Double-port valves valve permits a much smaller seating surface area than that of the globe valve.
have higher capacity than single port valves and are
recommended for larger pipe Therefore, the needle valve is more suitable as a throttle valve.
sizes.
Needle valves are also used to control the end of a work cycle, where it is
The globe valve should never be jammed in the open desirable to bring motion slowly to a halt; and at other points where precise
position. After the valve
is fully opened, the hand wheel should be turned toward adjustmentsof flow are necessary and where a small rate of flow is desired.
the closed position,
approximately one-half turn. Unless this is done, the valve Although many of the needle valves used in fluid power systems are the manually
is likely to seize in the
open position, making it difficult, if not impossible, to close operatedtype, modificationsof this type of valves are often used as variable
the valve. Another
reason for not leaving globe valves in the fully open restrictors. This valve is constructed without a handwheel and is adjusted to
position is that it is some-
times difficult to determine if the valve is open or closed. provide a specific rate of flow. This rate of flow will provide a desired time of
If the valve is jammed
in the open position, the stem may get damaged operation for a particular subsystem. Since this type of valve can be adjusted to
or broken by someone who
thinks the valve is closed, and attempts to open it. conform to the requirements of a particular system, it can be used in a variety of
Three-way valves are used for mixing or diverting the systems. Figure. 8.13 illustrates a needle valve that is modified as a variable
fluid streams. The line
diagram of three-way valve is shown in Fig. 8.11. restrictor.
Figure 8.12 shows a three-way diverting valve. Fluid flowing through the valve turns 900 and passes through an orifice that is
Best suited valve characteristics for globe valves are the seat for a rod with a cone-shaped tip. These small valves are widely used to
linear and equal percent- accurately regulate the flow of liquids and gases
age. They are recommended for throttling service
and flow regulation. Pressure at low flow rates. The fine threading of the stem
drop is high, flow control is accurate, and they
are available in multiple ports. allow for precise resistance to flow.

c Pinch/Diaphragm Valve
Pinch valves include any valve with a flexible
elastomer body that can be pinched closed to
restrict or cut-off the fluid flow, using a mecha-
Mixing Diverting nism or fluid pressure. Pinch valves are full bore,
(A+B+C) (A—B+C) linear action valves, so they can be used in on-
Fig. 8.11 Mixing and
diverting valve
off manner as well as in a variable position or
(Three-way valve)
for throttlingservice. Diaphragmvalves ate
 Control. Principles and A.OOlioationg
Diaphragm
(a)
(b)
F.. 8.14 O•aphragm vatve (b) Pinch valve
related to rtnch the only
diaphragm angead of an ciastotocnc exception that they use an elastomeric
linct In the valve body, to separate
stream from åe closure element the
Instead of pinching the liner closed, flow
phrag;tl IS mto contact the dia-
the bottom of the valve body to
off Fag S.14 and (b) show provide shut-
diaphragm and pinch valve respectively.
Butterfly Valve
Butterfly valves are guck openmg
valves that consist of a metal circular
vane with its prvot axes right angles disk or
to the direction of flow in the pipe,
rotated oa a shaft, seals against seats
m the valve body Tiey are mxmally
used as
throtzi:ag valves to control flow. In the
open
position. disk asparallel to the pipe wall,
allow:ag full Cow
the valve. In the
closed position, is posiucned perpendicular
to the pipe wall,
the flow, Figure
8.1S depicts construcuon and working of
butterfly valve.
Fig. 8.15 Butterflyvalve
8.52 Pressure Control Valve
The safe and efficient operation of fluid
power systems and related equipment
demands some measure LOcontrol the
pressure. There are many types of auto-
mazic pressure control valves. Some of them
merely provide an escape route for
the excess pressure (pressure cooker), some reduce the pressure
pressure and some keep the pressure in a to a lower
system within a required range.
Relief Valve
Pressure relief valves are self-actuated,
safety valves designed
to relieve excess
upstreampressure from the line. Some
fluid power systems, even when operating
normally, may temporarily develop
excessive pressure. Relief valves are used
to
control this excess pressure.
Relief valves are automatic valves used
on system
Contra Valves 203
' Ignesand equiprnent to prevent over pressurization. Most relief valves simply lift
(open) at a pre«et pressure and reset (shut) when the pressure drops slightly
below the lifting pressure. They do not maintain flow or pressure at a given
amount, but prevent pressure from rising above a specific level when the system
is temporarily overloaded. In a pneumatic system, the relief valve controls ex-
ccss pressure by discharging the excess gas to the atmosphetee
Smallcr relief valves, qrmlar design and operation to the main systemrelief
valve, are often used at isolated parts of the system where pressuresmust be
relieved at a set point lower than that provided by the main system relief. These
small relief valves are also used to relieve pressures caused by thermalexpansion
of the fluids.
All relief valves have an adjustment for increasing or decreasing the set relief
pressure. Common applications of these valves are for the automatic release of
gas from a boiler, pressure vessel, or other system when the pressure or tem-
peratureexceeds preset limits. They are often called by mere specificnames
such as pressure relief valves.
Safety Valve
They are used to release excess pressure in gases or compressible fluids.
Both relief and safety valves prevent equipment damage by relieving acciden-
tal over-pressurization of fluid systems. The main difference between a relief
which valve and a safety valve is the extent of opening at the set point pressure.
A relief valve is set to a predeterminedpressurewith a spring force which
counteracts the force created by fluid system. When force created by the system
exceeds spring force, the valve will start to open and continue to open gradually
till the pressure drops to the point where it will close again.
Safety valve (otherwise called as "pop-oft" valve) also has spring force coun-
teracting the pressure created by the fluid system. Ivi,hen force created by spring
force exceeds the spring force, the valve "pops" fully open and vents air to
atmosphere. Safety valves are sized in such manner that they have greater flow
capacity than the source which created excessive pressure situation.
A relief valve opens only as necessary to relieve the over-pressurecondition,
while a safety valve rapidly pops fully open as soon as the pressuresettingis
reached. A safety valve will stay fully open until the pressure drops below a reset
pressure which is pressure drops below a reset pressure which is lower than the
actuating set point pressure.
8.5.3 Directional Control Valves
Directional control valves are designed to direct the flow of fluid in a fluid power
system, at the desired time, to the point where it is required. Various other terms
are used to identity directional valves, such as selector valve, transfer valve, etc.
Directional control valves for hydraulic and pneumatic systems are similar in
design and operation. However, there is a major difference. The return port of a
hydraulic valve is ported through a return line to the reservoir; while the similar
 Control Valves 205
204 Process Control: Principles and Applications
VALVES
vented to the atmosphere. Directional control valves may be operated by differ- 8.6 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR CONTROL
searching for power-operated control
ences in pressure acting on opposite sides of the valving element, or they may be Important specifications to consider when
and operating temperature. Media types
positioned manually, mechanically, or electrically. valves include diameter, working pressure,
suspended solids. The media temperature
include gases, liquids, and liquids with
Check Valve for valve body include brass, bronze,
is also important to consider. Metal choices
stainless steel. Plastic material choices
Check valves are used in fluid systems to permit flow in one direction and to copper, cast iron, ductile iron, Monel, and
required to handle all kinds of fluids
prevent flow in the other direction. They are as one-way directional include PVC and CPVC. Control valves are
well over thousandsof degrees. Selec-
control valves. The check valve may be installed independently in a line to allow at temperaturesfrom cryogenic range to
particular consideration to provide
flow in one direction only, or it may be used as an integral part of globe, se- tion of control valve body assembly requires
quence, counterbalance, and pressure-reducingvalves. Check valves are avail- body style and material for intended ser-
the best suitable combination of valve
able in various designs. They are opened by the force of fluid in motion flowing operating pressure ranges must also be
vice. Capacity requirements and system
in one direction, and are closed by fluid attempting to flow in the opposite direc- ensure satisfactory operation with-
considered while selecting a control valve to
tion. The force of gravity or the action of a spring aids in closing the valve. such as type of fluid, its specific grav-
out too much initial expense. Parameters aspects
Figure. S.16 shows a swing check valve in which the movable part to block the in selection of valves. The following
flow, swings on a hinge either onto the seat to block reverse flow or off the seat ity, and viscosity also play vital role
control valve. They are:
to allow forward flow. Although swing check valves can come in various sizes, must be considered before selecting a
large check valves are often swing check valves. • Type of fluid to be controlled
In the open position, the flow of fluid forces the hinged disk up and allows • Temperatureof fluid
free flow through the valve. Flow in the opposite direction with the aid of gravity, • Viscosity of fluid
forces the hinged disk to close the passage and blocks the flow. This type of • Specific gravity of fluid
valve is sometimes designed with a spring to assist in closing the valve. minimum)
Check valves work automatically; they are not controlled by any external • Flow capacity required (maximum and
minimum)
control; most do not have a valve handle or stem. An important concept in check • Inlet pressure at valve (maximum and
valves is cracking pressure which is the minimum upstreampressure at which • Outlet pressure (maximum and minimum)
the valve will operate. Typically, the check valve is designed for and can there- • Pressure drop during normal flowing conditions
fore be specified for a specific cracking pressure. Check valves are also used • Pressure drop at shut off
when multiple gases are mixed into one gas stream. A check valve is installed on
• Maximum permissible noise level
each of the individual gas streams to prevent mixing of the gases in the original known
source. For example, if a fuel and an oxidizer are to be mixed, then check valves • Degrees of superheator existence of flashing, if
will normally be used on both the fuel and oxidizer sources to ensure that the • Inlet and outlet pipeline size
original gas cylinders remain pure and therefore nonflammable.Some types of • Special tagging information required
irrigation sprinklers and drip irrigation emitters have small check valves to keep grade WC9, ASTM
Body material (ASTM A216 grade WCC, ASTM A217
the lines from draining when the system is shut off. A351 CFSM, etc.)
flanged, Class
End connections and valve rating (screwed, Class 600 RF
1500 RTJ flanges, etc.)
last controlled
Action desired on air failure: valve to open, close, or retain
position)
Instrument air supply availability
Instrument signal (3—15psig, 4—20mA, HART, etc.)
Valve size
Valve body construction (angle, double-port, butterfly, etc.)
Open
Valve plug guiding (cage-style, port-guided, etc.)
Closed to open)
Valve plug action (push down to close or push down
Fig 8.16 Checkvalve
 Control Valves 207
206 Process Control: Principles and Applications
RECAPITULATION
Port size (full or restricted)
used final control element and is the only
Valve trim materials required Control valve is the most commonly
• Flow action (flow tends to open valve or flow tends to close valve) engineered resistance.
valves are: start and stop the flow; regulation of
Actuator size required Four main functions Of control
release of excess pressure.
flow; backflow prevention, and
Bonnet style (plain, extension, etc.) valve are: plug, seat, stem, piston, stem con-
The main components of control
Environmental factors, such as corrosion, abrasion, temperature, and pressure nector, and yoke. the cv
Percentage travel versus flow characteristics plus loop-and-process capacitiesof control valves is by specifying
A common basis for rating 3.785 IWmin) of water at 600F
number of GPM (x
characteristics value which is defined as the valve with a pressure drop of I psi.
open control
Rangeability Both maximum and minimum cv of valves are calculated. If which will pass through a wide
by the fluid while undergoing pressure
the ratio ofmaximum cv to minimum cv falls within the range ability for the The lowest pressure point experienced
called the vena contracta.
valve selected, the valve should function properly. If not, valve sequencing drop across the valve orifice is is called
flow to minimum controllable flow
may be necessary. The ratio of maximum controllable
rangeability.
Valve's ability to cope high pressure. pressure at the vena contracta and the
Flashing occurs when both the static fluid enters as
Sizing Valve sizing is very important because an undersized valve will not the fluid vapor pressure (i.e.,
valve outlet pressure drop below
deliver full flow, and the oversized valve throttling will be near the closed liquid and exits as vapor). while
is transfonned into vapor phase
position and full control range ofthe control valve will not be utilized. Also, Cavitation occurs when a portion of liquid these vapor bubbles
on downstream
sohen oversized valve for throttling operates very close to seat, high fluid passing through valve orifice and then
velocity will cause erosive damage, so better avoid using the lower 10% localized pressures which cause rapid wear of valve trim.
collapse creating high will
air supply, while air-to-close valve
and upper 20% of the valve stroke. The valve is much easier to control in Air-to-open valve will open on increase in supply.
stroke range. Normally, the valve will function between 40—70% increase in air
the I move towards closed position upon
of the full operating range; so that for maximum flow, it is not fully open; to a closed position when the actuating energy source
• Fail-close valve moves energy
position when the actuating
and for minimum flow, it is not closing down too near to its seated position. fails, while fail-open moves to an open
In general, the smallest valve that will pass the necessary maximum flow source fails. percentage.
opening, linear, and equal
provides optimum control and turns out to be economical. The three valve characteristics are: quick
valves, pressure control valves, and direc-
One of the way to select the size of control valve is to use the valve sizing • Valves are classified as flow control
valve, gate valve, globe valve, needle
curves shown in Fig. 8.17. The intersectionof cv and maximumstroke tional control valves. Examples are ball
relief valve, check valve.
provides the size of the valve. valve, pincWdiaphragmvalve, butterfly valve,
requires knowledge of type of fluid handled,
• Judicious selection of control valve capacities available,
sizes, valve
100 its properties, operating conditions, pipeline
etc.
10"

EXE R C I SES
so
Review Questions
all types of control valves
1. What are the three major headings under which
25
come?
control valves.
2. Write an expression for Cv. List four functions of
with the help of a diagram.
3. Explain the cavitation and flashing phenomena
pressuredrop across the valve?
0.1 1 10 100 1000 104
4. How does flow rate affect the differential
CÅlog scale) and corrosion phenomenain
5. What is the difference between erosion
Fig. 8.17 valves?