Shahabuddin Ahmed

June 19, 2023

Geog 300 LEC
Annotated Notes Climate

 Chapter One “Portrait of the Atmosphere”

 The atmosphere is made up of gases that surround earth. There are 2 groups permanent
and variable. These gases enter through a source and exit through a sink. Gravity makes
the molecules in the ocean and atmosphere tied to Earth which gives it weight.
 “Air pressure is the force exerted by molecules of air against a surface.” (Gervais) Air
pressure is greater at sea level vs at a high mountain. This is because at sea-level the
molecules are more densely packed whereas on the mountain they are less so.
 The atmosphere is made up of the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, and
thermosphere. The troposphere goes from the surface of the Earth to the stratosphere and
is where the weather happens. “The troposphere is warmed from the bottom up by
Earth’s surface, which is warmed by sunlight.” (Gervais) So the higher up you go in the
troposphere the cooler the temperature becomes. Clouds, precipitation and storms are in
the troposphere which contains 80% of the mass of the atmosphere.
 “The stratosphere contains a permanent temperature inversion because it is heated as it
absorbs radiation from the Sun.” (Gervais) This is because of the temperature inversion
which basically means the airs temperature is increased because of the height. The
stratosphere contains the ozonosphere which is critical to block UV radiation.
 Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere which 30 to 50 miles above the Earth’s surface.
“Meteors (sometimes called shooting stars) heat up and vaporize as they encounter
friction with the air molecules in the mesosphere.” (Gervais).
 Above it is the thermosphere which is 50 to 370 miles above the Earth’s surface. “There
is a permanent temperature inversion in the thermosphere, caused by absorption of the
Sun’s radiation by gas molecules.” (Gervais)
 The ionosphere is at 50 to 373 miles in altitude and is where oxygen and nitrogen become
ionized by solar energy. “The ionosphere also allows radio waves transmitted from
Earth’s surface to travel long distances through the atmosphere and is therefore important
to radio communications.” (Gervais)
 Air pollution is when harmful concentration of gases such as co2 are released into the
atmosphere. Fossil fuels which can be in the form of coal, natural gas and oil release a
toxic compound into the atmosphere when they are burned. There are two categories of
pollutants primary and secondary. Primary enters from its source while secondary forms
in air or water. Some primary pollutants are Carbon Monoxide, Sulfur Dioxide and
Nitrogen Dioxide. Primary Pollutants also consist of hydrocarbons like methane, butane,
propane and octane. An example of a secondary pollutant is photochemical smog which
“is air pollution formed by the action of sunlight on tailpipe emissions.” (Gervais)
 Another pollutant is ozone which is dangerous to humans. It can also be harmful towards
plants and interferes with the natural process.
 Particulate matter is “liquid and solid particles (aerosols) suspended in the atmosphere.
Particulate matter can be either a primary pollutant or a secondary pollutant, depending
on whether it was directly emitted from a source or whether it resulted from a chemical
reaction.” They can be harmful when inhaled and may worsen any existing conditions.
They can enter via dust storms and are removed if rain or snow carries them.
 Pollutants can be carried or concentrated due to three factors which are topography,
temperature inversions and wind. For example, wind can cause pollutants to be dispersed
or scattered to different regions or remove them from a certain region and place them in a
different one.
 The clean air act was passed to help fight air pollution in the United States and played a
key role in decreasing five major air pollutants. CFCs which were used in refrigerators
were found to destroy ozone in the ozonosphere. The thinning of the ozonosphere could
have caused devastating effects to life on the planet. “Without the protective layer of
ozone, life on land would be burned by ultra- violet rays from the Sun.” (Gervais) This
caused it to become banned and the Montreal Protocol was passed.

 Chapter Two “Seasons and Solar Energy”

 The seasons that bring about different weather we experience are caused by the tilt of the
Earth’s axis. This axis is tilted at 23.5 degrees. “Because Earth’s surface is curved, the
Sun’s rays are exactly perpendicular (directly overhead) to Earth’s horizontal surface at
only one point at or near noon. This point is called the subsolar point.” (Gervais)
 The subsolar point determines the solar altitude. This determines how hot the sun feels at
noon. “The subsolar point moves from the Tropic of Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn,
then back again, over a 12-month period.” (Gervais) If earth’s axis didn’t have a tilt, we
wouldn’t experience the four seasons the way we do.
 “Temperature is defined as the average speed of molecular movement (or level of
excitation) within a substance or object, and it is measured with a thermometer.”
(Gervais) This means we feel hot when there are a lot of molecules in the air moving
around us and cold when there are less molecules around us.
 “Heat is the internal energy transferred between materials or systems due to their
temperature differences.” (Gervais)
 Heat is transferred via radiation, convection or conduction. Conduction is when heat
goes to lower temperature objects from the higher temperature ones, convection is when
heat is transferred through a fluid and radiation is when energy travels through air or
water which acts as a medium for it.
 “The average annual temperature is lower at higher elevations and higher latitudes.”
(Gervais) So the temperature in the Himalayas would be extremely cold while the
temperature in the Sahara Desert would be extremely hot.
 “As a general rule, high latitudes have a greater annual temperature range than low
latitudes. In addition, continental (inland) locations have a greater annual temperature
range than maritime (ocean-influenced) locations.” (Gervais) The increase is referred to
 as the continental effect. The four factors that are responsible for this continental effect
are specific heat of water, evaporation of water, mixing of water, and transparency of
water.
 Because the specific heat of water is higher than that of land, land heats up much more
quickly than water, which contributes to the continental effect.
 “Warm ocean currents raise the average annual temperature and reduce the annual
temperature range.” (Gervais)
 Sunlight is beamed in the form of electromagnetic energy which includes the visible light
we see and the heat we feel.
 Solar radiation is in the form of shortwave radiation whereas terrestrial radiation is
longwave radiation. The Suns energy is transmitted via ultraviolet, visible and infrared
wavelengths.
 “Most objects convert absorbed solar energy to longwave radiation (heat), which raises
the temperature of the object that absorbed it.” (Gervais) This is why rocks or sands in
hot or arid climate absorb heat and become hot.
 The greenhouse effect is when the atmosphere is warmed by gases which include
methane co2, and water vapor.
 Global heat engine is the movement of heat from higher altitudes to lower ones and vice
versa.
 Renewable energy is energy that can be replenished and obtained freely. This includes
solar energy, wind energy, and energy from turbines. Alternatively, these energies are
called carbon free or clean energy.
 The two methods of harnessing solar energy are decentralized and centralized.
Centralized favors a large-scale facility approach while decentralized favors a more
divided approach which involves installing solar panels on individuals' homes.
Sources Cited

Living Physical Geography BRUCE GERVAIS