Soil Characteristics: EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)
By:
Gahilomo, Jun Marc L.
Professor:
Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D

What is Soil?
A soil is the unconsolidated cover on Earth surface. It’s composed primarily of decomposed rock
materials and varying amount of water, gases and organic materials. It also provides the
structural support to plants used in agriculture and is also their source of water and nutrients.
Characteristics of a Soil
At a soil site, horizons in a soil profile are distinguished from one another by differences in their
structure, color, consistence, texture, and the amount of roots, rocks, and free carbonates they
contain. Laboratory or classroom analyses of bulk density, particle density, particle size
distribution, pH, and soil fertility also reveal the differences among horizons.
Structure
Soil structure is about how clumps of soil particles, called peds, are naturally shaped in the soil.
The way these peds are arranged tells us about the size and shape of the gaps where water, heat,
and air move, and where plant roots grow. There are different types of soil ped structures, like
granular, blocky, prismatic, columnar, or platy. When soil doesn't have any structure, we call it
either single-grained or massive.
Color
Soil color comes from the chemical coatings on soil particles, the amount of organic stuff in the
soil, and how wet it is. For instance, soil looks darker when there's organic matter in it. Minerals,
like iron, can make the soil look red or yellow on the surface. In dry places, soil can appear white
because of a coating of calcium carbonate. Also, the moisture in the soil affects its color. If the
soil has a lot of water, it usually looks darker. It depends on how well the soil drains and if it's
soaked with water for a long time. More moisture makes the soil darker in color.
Consistence
Consistence refers to how firm or solid the individual clumps of soil (peds) are and how easily
they break apart. We use words like loose, friable, firm, and extra-firm to describe soil
consistence. Soil with friable consistence is easier for roots, shovels, or plows to move through
compared to soil with firm consistence.
Texture
Soil texture is about how the soil feels, and it's determined by the mix of sand, silt, and clay
particles in the soil. This texture affects how much water, heat, and nutrients the soil can hold.
Our hands can tell the difference in particle size:
- Sand particles are the largest and feel gritty.
- Silt particles are next in size and feel smooth or like flour.
- Clay particles are the smallest and feel sticky and hard to squeeze.
The exact amounts of these particles in a soil sample are measured in a lab or classroom, and this
mix is called the "particle size distribution."

Roots
An estimate of the roots in each layer of a soil profile shows how deep plants go to get what they
need from the soil, like nutrients and water. If there are a lot of roots in a layer, it means more
water and nutrients are being taken from the soil, and more organic material is going back into it.
This helps scientists figure out things like the soil's richness, how tightly packed it is, how well it
holds water, and how deep it goes. If a layer is very compact, it makes it hard for roots to grow,
but a porous layer is better for root development.
Rocks
An estimate of the number of rocks in each horizon helps to understand the movement of water,
heat, and air through the soil, root growth, and the amount of soil material involved in chemical
and physical reactions. Soil particles greater than 2 mm in size are considered to be rocks.
Carbonates
Carbonates, like calcium carbonate, tend to accumulate in regions with minimal water-based
weathering. Their presence in soil can indicate a dry climate or the presence of parent material
rich in calcium, such as limestone. These carbonates often coat soil particles in soils that are
more alkaline (having a pH greater than 7), and these soils are often found in arid or semi-arid
climates. Carbonates are typically white in color and can be easily scratched with a fingernail.
In very dry climates, carbonates can form a hard, dense layer in the soil, similar to cement,
making it difficult for plant roots to penetrate. To test for the presence of carbonates, an acid, like
vinegar, is applied to the soil. If carbonates are present, a chemical reaction occurs between the
vinegar (an acid) and the carbonates (a base), resulting in the release of carbon dioxide gas. This
release of carbon dioxide causes the vinegar to bubble or effervesce. The more carbonates there
are, the more bubbling or effervescence occurs during the test. This test helps determine the
extent of carbonates in the soil, which can provide insights into the soil's history and
characteristics.
Bulk Density
Soil bulk density measures how tightly packed or dense the soil is and is calculated by the mass
of dry soil in a given volume (usually in g/cm³). This density depends on various factors,
including the soil's composition, the arrangement of soil clumps, the distribution of sand, silt,
and clay particles, the amount of empty spaces, and how closely the particles are packed
together. Soils made of mineral particles have different bulk densities than those made mostly of
organic material. Typically, soil bulk density ranges from 0.5 g/cm³ in porous soils to 2.0 g/cm³
or more in densely compacted mineral layers.
Particle Density
The particle density of a soil sample is the mass of dry soil in a particular volume of the soil
when all of the air spaces have been removed. The type of minerals the soil particles are made of
affects the particle density. Soils consisting of pure quartz particles generally have a particle
density of 2.65 g/cm³. Soils consisting of particles made of minerals other than quartz will have a
different mass for the same volume of particles. By knowing both the particle density and the
bulk density, the porosity (the proportion of the soil volume that is pore space) can be calculated.
Porosity establishes the amount of air or water that can be stored or moved through the soil.
Particle Size Distribution
The proportion of each particle size group (sand, silt, or clay) in the soil is called the soil
particle-size distribution. Sand is the largest soil particle, silt is intermediate in size, and clay is
the smallest. The particle-size distribution of a soil sample determines its exact textural class
(which is "estimated" in the field by doing the Soil Texture Protocol). It also helps determine
how much water, heat, and nutrients the soil will hold, how fast water and heat will move
through the soil, and the structure and consistence of the soil. The amount of sand, silt, and clay
in a soil sample is determined by a settling method using an instrument called a hydrometer. A
dried sample of soil is first dispersed so that none of the particles stick together, and then it is
suspended in water and allowed to settle. The largest particles (sand) settle out in minutes while
the smallest particles (clay) stay suspended for days. A hydrometer is used to measure the
specific gravity of the soil suspension after settling has proceeded for specific amounts of time.
pH
The pH of a soil horizon (how acidic or basic the soil is) is determined by the parent material
from which the soil is formed, the chemical nature of the rain or other water entering the soil,
land management practices, and the activities of organisms (plants, animals, and
microorganisms) living in the soil

Fertility
The fertility of a soil is determined by the amount of nutrients it contains. Nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) are three of the most important nutrients needed by plants for
optimum plant growth. Each horizon in a soil profile can be tested for the presence of these
nutrients. The results of these measurements help to determine the suitability of a soil for
growing plants. Soil fertility can be related to water chemistry measurements carried out in the
Hydrology Investigation.
REFERENCE
https://www.kau.edu.sa/Files/0001553/Subjects/SOIL%20AND%20SOIL%20ENGINEERING
%20%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B6%D8%B1%D9%87%201.doc
WEATHERING
AND
EROSION
EPS 131 (TA) — Chemistry for Engineers

Gallegos, Mary Virlen S.
BSCoE 1
Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela. Ph.D.
Introduction
In the words of the renowned physicist Richard Feynman, “Nature is always doing something
interesting.” Indeed, the way rocks break down and landscapes change over time resembles a
never-ending story written by nature. Weathering and erosion are two interconnected and important
geological processes that shape the Earth's surface over time. To be more specific, weathering
refers to the gradual breakdown of rocks into smaller particles, a process caused by different
factors. Erosion, on the other hand, is the movement of these weathered materials, shaping
landscapes and leaving a mark on the Earth. This report delves into the intricacies of weathering
and erosion, understanding how they mold Earth's surface by breaking down rocks and moving
particles, while also highlighting their relevance to the field of Computer Engineering.
I. Weathering
Weathering is the process which rocks and minerals are broken down into smaller parts through
various natural forces like water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in temperature. The
longer a rock is exposed to those elements, the more vulnerable it becomes to weathering. There
are two main types of weathering: mechanical (physical), and chemical weathering.
1.1. Mechanical (Physical) Weathering
Mechanical weathering is the gradual breakdown of rocks and minerals by physical methods
that is caused by many processes. It’s the gradual breakdown of rocks into small pieces due to
strain and rupture. Mechanical weathering may be caused by pressure, temperature, freezing and
thawing cycle of water, plant or animal activity, and salt evaporation (Chris Johnson, 2017)
1
Mechanical weathering caused by pressure is when rocks undergo stress and break apart due
to the force exerted by surrounding materials. Meanwhile, temperature changes are when rocks
can expand and contract with extreme temperature fluctuations, leading to cracking and eventual
breakdown. The freezing and thawing cycle of water is another contributor to mechanical
weathering. Water entering rock cracks freezes, expands, and exerts pressure on the rocks. When
it thaws, the rocks may further crack and fragment. Furthermore, plant or animal activity is when
plant roots can grow into rock crevices, exerting pressure and causing rocks to break. Burrowing
animals further enhance this process. Lastly is salt evaporation. This is when the deposition of
salt in rock crevices followed by evaporation can exert pressure, contributing to the breakdown
of rocks over time (Nycz, 2010)
1.2. Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering is the process where rocks break down through chemical reactions with
elements like water and acids, gradually transforming their composition. You can see the effects
of chemical weathering in various landscapes, such as the formation of caves, valleys, and
weathered rock surfaces. Additionally, changes in the color and composition of rocks over time
are visible indicators of chemical weathering. To put it simply, it's when things in the environment,
like rainwater or air, team up with the minerals in rocks to create a reaction that breaks down the
rock. It is sort of like how water slowly dissolves sugar. Over time, this chemical reaction weakens
the rock, making it crumble or change its appearance (National Geographic, 2015)
One prominent type of chemical weathering is solution, where acidic rainwater breaks down
rocks; for instance, limestone weathers when exposed to rainwater containing dissolved CO2.
Another type is hydrolysis, where acidic rain breaks down rocks into clay and soluble salts.
Additionally, oxidation is a process where rocks break down due to the combined effects of oxygen
2
and water, resulting in a rusty-colored surface on iron-rich rocks. Lastly, carbonation involves the
reaction of minerals in rocks with carbonic acid, which is formed when carbon dioxide dissolves
in water. (B. A., n.d.)
II. Erosion
Once the rocks are weathered, erosion comes into play. Erosion is the process of
transporting or moving weathered particles from one place to another, often helped by natural
forces like wind, water, or ice. It can be caused by frequent and intense rain, high river levels,
strong storms and fast-moving streams (National Geographic, 2015)
2.1. Agents of Erosion
Water erosion is the most common erosion. This is when the rainfall moves small rocks or
particles off the land and into a stream or other body of water. Water's energy and force will
determine the rock's size or particle that it can move. It is very intriguing to know that streams
can help particles by size. The water, energy, and force are much higher in the mountains.
Therefore, there are larger rocks and particles.
Ice erosions on the other hand, are very powerful. In fact, glaciers can move huge rocks
from one place to another. This is achieved as the movement of glaciers erodes by
abrasion/scouring and plucking, creeping along the rock surface. Through this process, pieces
of bedrock crack off and join the flowing ice.
Another agent of erosion is wind erosion. It is when the rock develops physical wear due
to wind. Wind erosion moves soil particles from one area to another making it more common
in dry areas and environments. (National Geographic, 2023)
3
2.2.Factors Influencing Erosion
Erosion is influenced by several natural factors. These primary factors include
climate, topography, vegetation, and tectonic activity.
The weather, especially rain and wind, has a big say in erosion. How often and how hard it
rains, or if there's a strong wind, affects how rocks and soil get moved around.
Topography, the surface features' shape, also plays a role—areas like earthen
floodplains (area of land adjacent to a river) erode more easily than rocky channels. The
type of rock matters, too, with softer rocks eroding faster than harder ones.
Vegetation acts as a ‘mitigating force’, as plant roots anchor soil and rock particles,
reducing erosion during rainfall or wind events. Deserts, with sparse vegetation, often face
heightened erosion.
Tectonic activity, such as uplift, shapes landscapes, impacting erosion dynamics.
For instance, the Colorado River created the Grand Canyon over a long time because the
land it flows through was pushed up by tectonic activity (Berlin University, 2008)
III. Relationship Between Weathering and Erosion
Weathering and erosion are like partners in crime, working together to shape the Earth's
surface. Weathering breaks down rocks into smaller particles, creating loose debris. Then, erosion
steps in to remove and transport those debris, exposing new rock surfaces.
“Weathering is the mechanical and chemical hammer that breaks down and sculpts the rocks.
Erosion transports the fragments away” (National Geographic, 2023)
4
IV. Weathering and Erosion in the Field of Computer Engineering
The similarities between weathering and erosion take shape in the dynamic processes
which form and modify digital environments.
Just like rocks can wear down over time, in computer engineering, weathering is like the
wear and tear on our devices and software. The constant use, heat, and other factors slowly make
them less efficient and reliable. In computers, erosion is about moving or taking away digital
pieces. This happens when data is transferred, communicated over networks, or moved between
different places in the digital world. It's like how erosion changes the shape of the land, but here
it's about how digital information moves around (Adrien Verhulst, 2023)
Conclusion
To conclude, rocks and landscapes changes over time due to erosion and weathering, While
weathering breaks rocks into smaller parts through natural forces like water, ice, acids, salts, plants,
animals, and temperature changes. erosion comes in to move these parts around, shaping the land
we know today. Weathering has two main types, which is the mechanical and chemical weathering.
Mechanical weathering involves rocks breaking into small pieces due to pressure, temperature
changes, freezing and thawing cycles of water, plant or animal activity, and salt evaporation.
Chemical weathering on the other hand, transforms rocks through reactions with water and acids,
altering their composition. Erosion then transports weathered particles using natural forces like
water, wind, and ice, influenced by climate, topography, vegetation, and tectonic activity.
5
In computer engineering, we can relate weathering to the wear and tear on devices, slowly
reducing efficiency. Meanwhile erosion could be associated to the movement or removal of digital
pieces during data transfer, influencing the flow of digital information.
In essence, just like rocks and landscapes have a story to tell as they change, our own stories
develop as we go through life. "Nature is always doing something interesting." As we are part of
nature, each experience leaves its own mark on our lives, just like the way nature shapes things.
6
References
Adrien Verhulst, J.-M. N. (2023). Deep Weathering Effects. Science Direct, 40-49.
B. A., E. S. (n.d.). Learn How Rock Breaks Down With Chemical Weathering. Retrieved from
ThoughtCo: https://www.thoughtco.com/chemical-weathering-1440852
Berlin University. (2008). Erosion. Retrieved from Berlin University.
Chris Johnson, M. D. (2017). An Introduction to Geology. Retrieved from
https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geology/Book%3A_An_Introduction_to_Geology
_(Johnson_Affolter_Inkenbrandt_and_Mosher)/05%3A_Weathering_Erosion_and_Sedim
entary_Rocks/5.0S%3A_5.S%3A_Weathering_Erosion_and_Sedimentary_Rocks_(Sum
mary)
National Geographic. (2015). National Geographic. Retrieved from
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/weathering-
erosion#:~:text=Weathering%20is%20the%20mechanical%20and,cliffs%20braced%20ag
ainst%20violent%20seas.
National Geographic. (2023). Erosion. Retrieved from National Geographic Society:
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/weathering-erosion
Nycz. (2010). Processes of Change. Retrieved from University of Saskatchewan:
https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/
7
The Carbon Cycle
By:
Jeff Roel A. Garsula
Professor:

What is Carbon and its importance?
Carbon is essential to life. This is because it is able to form a huge variety of chains
of different lengths. It was once thought that the carbon-based molecules of life could only
be obtained from living things. They were thought to contain a ‘spark of life’. However, in
1828, urea was synthesized from inorganic reagents and the branches of organic and
inorganic chemistry were united.
Living things get almost all their carbon from carbon dioxide, either from the
atmosphere or dissolved in water. Photosynthesis by green plants and photosynthetic
plankton uses energy from the sun to split water into oxygen and hydrogen. The oxygen is
released to the atmosphere, fresh water and seas, and the hydrogen joins with carbon
dioxide to produce carbohydrates.
Some of the carbohydrates are used, along with nitrogen, phosphorus and other
elements, to form the other monomer molecules of life. These include bases and sugars for
RNA and DNA, and amino acids for proteins.
Living things that do not photosynthesize have to rely on consuming other living
things for their source of carbon molecules. Their digestive systems break carbohydrates
into monomers that they can use to build their own cellular structures. Respiration provides
the energy needed for these reactions. In respiration oxygen rejoins carbohydrates, to form
carbon dioxide and water again. The energy released in this reaction is made available for
the cells.
Fun Fact: The amount of carbon that the earth had at the start is still the same amount today.
What is The Carbon Cycle?
The Carbon Cycle is the process of Recycling and Reusing carbon atoms by
absorbing and releasing them. The carbon atoms in the atmosphere are absorbed by the
organisms on earth and then it is released back to the atmosphere over and over again.
Carbon is always on the move. Put simply, the carbon cycle is the transfer of carbon
atoms between different zones in, on, and around the planet. In other words, carbon atoms
take a cyclical pathway through Earth’s systems, into the atmosphere, and back—over and
over again.
The environment is one large, closed system. All its parts must work together and
regulate as a whole to continue to support life. A healthy balance of carbon is crucial for
both the atmosphere surrounding the planet and the life forms that call this planet home.
To maintain this balance—and a healthy distribution of carbon—nature recycles all
existing carbon atoms through each step of the carbon cycle.
Carbon is an essential building block of life on Earth. It’s released through human
activity and natural processes alike. As carbon atoms are released, they make their way
through the planet’s many environments, including the:
● Biosphere, or all Earth’s ecosystems
● Pedosphere, or the planet’s soil mantle
● Geosphere, or Earth’s rocks and minerals
● Hydrosphere, or the planet’s water bodies

● Atmosphere, or the gasses enveloping the globe
How does The Carbon Cycle happen?
The Carbon Cycle has 5 steps:
1. Carbon enters the atmosphere via carbon dioxide.
2. Carbon dioxide is absorbed and used as energy.
3. Carbon compounds enter the food chain.
4. Carbon reenters the atmosphere via respiration and decomposition.
5. The carbon cycle repeats.
What Two Processes Fuel the Carbon Cycle?
Ultimately, the carbon cycle relies heavily on two natural mechanisms:
photosynthesis and cellular respiration (also referred to as metabolism).
1. Photosynthesis
With photosynthesis, plants intake carbon dioxide to produce energy and maintain
growth, emitting oxygen in the process.
2. Cellular Respiration
During cellular respiration, organisms use oxygen to convert food and water into
energy, producing carbon dioxide as a result.

These two processes work in tandem to keep the natural carbon cycle going—and
global reservoirs in balance.
Why Is the Carbon Cycle Important?
Without a healthy balance of carbon, there would be no viable life on the planet.
Any imbalance in carbon levels would potentially render the earth inhospitable, and life as
we know it would cease to exist.
Carbon is constantly in circulation and is neither created nor destroyed throughout
the cycle. Too much carbon in any one area, however, puts the planet and its inhabitants at
risk. Carbon dioxide levels must remain stable through each phase of the cycle to maintain
an ideal global temperature—and plants and producer organisms can only absorb so much.
This imbalance has hazardous consequences. Too much carbon in the atmosphere
can cause an increase in surface temperature, making it more difficult for the planet’s
ecosystems to cool down.
Much like the inside of a greenhouse, high carbon dioxide levels function like
gaseous insulation to trap heat that naturally radiates from the earth’s surface. Because that
radiation has nowhere else to go, the planet heats up.
What Impact Do Humans Have on the Carbon Cycle?
Human intervention plays a crucial role in either supporting or disrupting the steps
of the carbon cycle. Elevated levels in the atmosphere (or trapped in the planet’s other
reservoirs) upset the planet’s equal balance of carbon. Unfortunately, because of human
activity, carbon emissions are at an all-time high.
This increase in emissions is largely due to our use of fossil fuels for energy—and
the removal of large forests that remove carbon from the atmosphere.
Carbon neutrality is a common goal among environmentalists. Achieving a carbon-
neutral world would mean restoring a healthy balance between carbon stores and carbon
emissions. Scientists are working hard to remove carbon from the atmosphere, and to
protect the carbon cycle by fighting to preserve ecosystems that naturally manage excess
carbon dioxide in the air.
To support healthy carbon levels, there are several things you can do to minimize
your impact on the carbon cycle. Businesses and consumers can rethink their routines and
make eco-friendly choices to:
● Walk, bike, or carpool
● Switch to solar-powered energy
● Use public transportation when possible
● Minimize air travel
● Cut down on household energy consumption
● Support movement toward low-carbon fuel sources

References:
⮚ Carbon - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table. (n.d.).
https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/6/carbon
⮚ What is the carbon cycle? (n.d.). https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/carbon-
cycle.html#transcript
⮚ Nikki. (2023, February 15). The five steps of the Carbon Cycle | Kiwi Energy. Kiwi
Energy. https://kiwienergy.us/the-five-steps-of-the-carbon-cycle-and-why-theyre-
important/
⮚ Hannah. (2022, October 4). What is the Carbon Cycle & Why is it So Important? Crown
Oil. https://www.crownoil.co.uk/news/what-is-the-carbon-cycle-why-is-it-so-
important/#:~:text=The%20carbon%20cycle%20refers%20to,the%20Earth%20would%2
0be%20frozen.
NITROGEN
CYCLE
REA JEAN M. GORNEZ- BSCoE
SUBMITTED BY
ENGR. MARINELA C. BANSUELA, Ph. D.
PROFESSOR
We all know that the earth is finite, matter has to be reused and recycled over and over
again. So, the atoms that are in you, were once in the air, in soil, in water, and in rocks. These
atoms have also been used by countless other living things, from dinosaurs to plants, to human
beings. And do you know that, after they leave you, they will become part of other living things
or the environment. This recycling of matter is known as a nutrient cycle and there are several
different nutrient cycles for different elements, these elements are the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle,
phosphorus cycle, and others. However, we will focus on the nitrogen cycle, the process by which
the element nitrogen moves around in ecosystems.
What is the nitrogen cycle?
The nitrogen cycle is a biogeochemical process through which nitrogen is converted into
many forms, consecutively passing from the atmosphere to the soil to organisms and back into the
atmosphere.
Our atmosphere is made up of 78% nitrogen. The nitrogen cycle is crucial for all life on
earth because nitrogen is needed to make some of the most important molecules for life, including
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), Ribonucleic acid (RNA), and proteins that are needed by all living
things. Without nitrogen, there would be, literally, no life. All plants will die and human beings
will dehydrate very quickly. However, we can’t breathe in nitrogen like oxygen, but we can absorb
nitrogen through food intake.
We all know nitrogen gas exists in both organic and inorganic forms. Organic nitrogen
exists in living organisms, and it gets passed through the food chain by the consumption of other
living organisms. However, inorganic forms of nitrogen are found in abundance in the atmosphere.
This nitrogen is made available to plants by symbiotic bacteria which can convert the inert nitrogen
into a usable form – such as nitrites and nitrates.
Nitrogen follows a cycle where it travels from the atmosphere to the soil to animals and
back. It involves several processes such as Nitrogen fixation, Nitrification, Assimilation,
Ammonification, and Denitrification.
1. Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen follows a cycle where it travels from the atmosphere to the soil and in a cycle,
nitrogen in the atmosphere falls to the earth by precipitation such as rain or snow. So, once the
nitrogen gas is in the soil it finds its way to bacteria on the roots, which are known as Diazotrophs.
Azotobacter and Rhizobium also have a major role in this process. These bacteria consist
of a nitrogenase enzyme, which can combine gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to form ammonia
(NH3), or ammonium (NH4+). Ammonia is a nitrogen compound that can dissolve in water and
is easier for other organisms’ enzymes to interact with.
Three types of Nitrogen Fixation:
a. Atmospheric fixation. It is a natural phenomenon where the energy of lightning breaks
the nitrogen into nitrogen oxides, which are then used by plants.
b. Industrial nitrogen fixation, is a man-made alternative that aids in nitrogen fixation
by the use of ammonia. Ammonia is produced by the direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen.
Later, it is converted into various fertilizers such as urea.
c. Biological nitrogen fixation. We already know that nitrogen is not used directly in
the air by plants and animals, thus, bacteria like Rhizobium and blue-green algae transform the
unusable form of nitrogen into other compounds that are more readily usable. These nitrogen
compounds get fixed in the soil by these microbes.
Ammonia can be taken up by plants and used to make important biological molecules like
DNA and proteins. However, not all of the ammonia produced by nitrogen fixation gets assimilated
into plants. Too much ammonia can be toxic, and sometimes plants prefer to assimilate other
nitrogen compounds called nitrates. So, the next step is the conversion of ammonia into nitrates, a
process called nitrification.
2. Nitrification
In this process, the ammonia is converted into nitrate by the presence of bacteria in the soil.
Thus, it is done by nitrifying bacteria. These bacteria oxidize or add oxygen to ammonia in
chemical reactions that first convert the ammonia to nitrite (NO2-) and then to nitrate (NO3-).
Because oxygen is needed for these reactions, nitrification happens best in well-aerated soils.
Nitrites are formed by the oxidation of ammonia with the help of Nitrosomonas bacteria
species. Later, the produced nitrites are converted into nitrates by Nitrobacter. Like ammonia,
nitrate is a plant fertilizer because it can be assimilated and used to make key biomolecules (DNA,
RNA, Proteins, etc.).
The reaction involved in the process of Nitrification is as follows:
2NH3 + 3O2 → (2NO2^– )+( 2H^+) + 2H2O
2NO2– + O2 → 2NO3–
The equation can be read as follows: “Two molecules of ammonia (NH3) react with three
molecules of oxygen (O2) to produce two nitrite ions (NO2–), two hydrogen ions (H+), and two
water molecules (H2O).” In the first step, ammonia is oxidized to nitrite in the presence of
ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. The second step is the oxidation of nitrite to nitrate and oxygen in a
neutral environment.
3. Assimilation
Assimilation is the primary producer – plants take in the nitrogen compounds from the soil
with the help of their roots, which are available in the form of ammonia, nitrite ions, nitrate ions,
or ammonium ions and are used in the formation of the plant and animal proteins. Once nitrogen
is inside the plants and used to build our sweet biomolecules, it can pass to other living things
through food webs. When an animal eats the plant, the nitrogen-containing compounds in the plant
move to the animal. And if that animal gets eaten, nitrogen moves to its predator, and so on.
4. Ammonification
When plants or animals die, the nitrogen present in the organic matter is released back into
the soil. The decomposers, namely bacteria or fungi present in the soil, convert the organic matter
back into ammonium. This process of decomposition produces ammonia, which is further used for
other biological processes.
But we are still missing one key part of our cycle. In order to have a complete cycle,
nitrogen gas needs to get back into the air. This is done by denitrifying bacteria and is called
denitrification.
5. Denitrification
The process in which nitrogen compounds make their way back into the atmosphere by
converting nitrate (NO3-) into gaseous nitrogen (N). This process of the nitrogen cycle is the final
stage and occurs in the absence of oxygen. Denitrification is carried out by the denitrifying
bacterial species- Clostridium and Pseudomonas, which will process nitrate to gain oxygen and
give out free nitrogen gas as a byproduct. It usually happens best in low-oxygen environments,
like waterlogged soils, and it reduces the fertility of the soil.
Also, marine ecosystems, have a process in the same manner as terrestrial ecosystems. The
only difference is that marine bacteria perform it. To conclude, let me share with you the
importance of the Nitrogen Cycle, these are they help plants to synthesize chlorophyll from the
nitrogen compounds. Also, its unique chemical bonding properties allow it to create structures
such as DNA and RNA nucleotides, and the amino acids from which proteins are built. Without
nitrogen, these molecules would not be able to exist. However, we should be mindful that with too
much use of nitrogen, plants can suffer harmful effects, and nitrates can also be directly toxic to
humans, they can increase cancer risks and interfere with blood chemistry, leaving blood unable
to properly carry oxygen.

References
BYJU'S (2023), Nitrogen Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle Explained - Definition, Stages and Importance
(byjus.com)
Gabe Buckley (2021), Nitrogen Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle - Definition, Steps and Importance |
Biology Dictionary
BioMAn Biology (2023), The Nitrogen Cycle, (116) The Nitrogen Cycle! - YouTube
PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE
By:
Hamoy, Marion Rafael C.
Professor:
Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D.

Phosphorous Cycle
What is Phosphorous Cycle?
The phosphorus cycle involves the movement of phosphorus through the Earth's systems,
crucial for life's essential functions. Unlike some other cycles, it doesn't involve the atmosphere
much because phosphorus is usually in solid form. Over time, phosphorus becomes less available
to plants in ecosystems due to various factors. Human activities, like mining and fertilizer use,
have disrupted this cycle, and transporting food from farms to cities also leads to phosphorus loss.
The Phosphorous Cycle
The phosphorous cycle comprises several crucial stages
 Weathering: Weathering processes release phosphorus from rocks and minerals, allowing
phosphate ions to enter soil and water systems.
 Plant Uptake: Plants absorb phosphate ions from the soil, incorporating them into their
biological structures for growth.
 Trophic Transfer: Phosphorus is transferred through trophic levels as organisms consume
one another, ensuring the distribution of this essential nutrient.
 Decomposition: When organisms die, decomposition processes release phosphorus back
into the soil, continuing the cycle.
 Sedimentation and Geological Uplift: Phosphorus becomes part of sedimentary rock
layers through geological processes, which may resurface through tectonic activities.
 Erosion and Runoff: Weathered phosphorus-rich materials are transported through
erosion, ultimately reaching bodies of water via runoff.
The phosphorus cycle primarily operates within terrestrial and aquatic systems, with the
atmosphere playing a minimal role.
Ecological Importance of Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus plays a critical role in various ecosystems:
 Primary Production: Phosphorus is an essential component for photosynthesis and
primary production, influencing the abundance and diversity of life.
 Limiting Nutrient: In many ecosystems, phosphorus can be a limiting nutrient, regulating
the growth of organisms and overall productivity.
 Aquatic Ecosystems: Phosphorus availability significantly impacts water quality, leading
to concerns such as eutrophication.
Understanding the ecological importance of the phosphorus cycle is crucial for ecosystem
management and preservation.

Human Impact on Phosphorus Cycle
Human activities have disrupted the natural phosphorus cycle through:
 Agriculture: Excessive use of phosphorus-based fertilizers and runoff from agricultural
practices contribute to phosphorus pollution.
 Mining: Phosphorus mining for fertilizer production can lead to environmental issues.
 Wastewater Discharge: Human sewage and wastewater release phosphorus into aquatic
systems.
These activities have significant consequences for the environment, altering phosphorus
distribution and ecosystem health.
Environmental Consequences
The alteration of the phosphorus cycle results in several environmental consequences:
 Nutrient Pollution: Excess phosphorus in water bodies leads to nutrient pollution, causing
issues such as algal blooms and oxygen depletion.
 Algal Blooms: Algal blooms disrupt aquatic ecosystems and can produce harmful toxins.
 Dead Zones: Oxygen-depleted dead zones in water bodies harm aquatic life.
These consequences underscore the importance of responsible phosphorus management.

Mitigation and Sustainable Practices
Efforts to mitigate the environmental impact of human activities on the phosphorus cycle include:
 Reducing Fertilizer Use: Implementing strategies to minimize fertilizer application, such
as precision farming and the 4R nutrient stewardship approach.
 Sustainable Agriculture: Promoting sustainable agricultural practices to minimize nutrient
runoff and pollution.
 Regulation and Policy: Developing and enforcing regulations to manage phosphorus
discharge and protect water quality.
These practices are essential for maintaining the health of ecosystems while sustaining agricultural
production.
Significance of Phosphorous Cycle in Chemistry for Engineers
The phosphorus cycle is significant in chemistry for engineers because it plays a crucial role in
nutrient cycling, water treatment, environmental impact assessment, chemical reactions, material
science, and energy storage. Engineers need to understand the phosphorus cycle to address various
challenges related to agriculture, water quality, environmental sustainability, and engineering
applications involving phosphorus compounds.

Significance of Phosphorous Cycle in Computer Engineering
The phosphorus cycle doesn't really have any direct relevance to computer engineering. Computer
engineering is all about designing and creating computer systems, hardware, and software. The
phosphorus cycle, on the other hand, is more about how phosphorus moves through the
environment, mostly in the context of biology and ecology. In computer engineering, we don't
typically deal with these environmental cycles. However, there can be instances where computer
engineering and technology are used to monitor and manage environmental data, including things
like biogeochemical cycles, but that's not the main focus of the field.
Significance of Phosphorous Cycle in the field of Engineering
In the context of engineering, which includes fields like civil, electrical, and mechanical
engineering, the phosphorus cycle isn't directly involved. Engineers are primarily concerned with
designing, constructing, and maintaining various systems and infrastructure but aren't directly
dealing with ecological or environmental cycles like the phosphorus cycle. However, knowledge
of ecological cycles and environmental factors can be useful in certain engineering projects related
to sustainability, water management, or agriculture, where a basic understanding of
biogeochemical processes might come in handy. In such cases, collaboration between engineers
and environmental scientists may be necessary to address specific challenges.

The difference between Phosphorous and Phosphorus
Phosphorous and phosphorus are closely related terms, but they refer to slightly different things:
 Phosphorous: Phosphorous is an adjective that describes something that contains or is
related to phosphorus. For example, you might say "phosphorous compounds" to refer to
chemical compounds that contain phosphorus atoms.
 Phosphorus: Phosphorus is a chemical element with the symbol "P" on the periodic table.
It is a non-metal element that is essential for life and is commonly found in nature.
Phosphorus is an important component of DNA, RNA, ATP (adenosine triphosphate, a
molecule that stores and transfers energy within cells), and various other biological
molecules. It is also used in fertilizers and a wide range of industrial applications.
Conclusion
The phosphorus cycle is essential for life's functions, mainly operating within terrestrial and
aquatic systems. Human activities like agriculture and mining disrupt this cycle, leading to
environmental problems. Efforts to mitigate these impacts include reducing fertilizer use,
promoting sustainable agriculture, and enforcing regulations. Engineers need to understand the
phosphorus cycle as it has implications in various fields. Overall, recognizing its significance and
implementing sustainable practices is crucial for ecosystem health and engineering applications.
Reference
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus_cycle
https://swroc.cfans.umn.edu/research/soil-water/phosphorus-
cycle#:~:text=The%20Phosphorus%20Cycle%20is%20the,living%20and%20dead%20organic%
20material.
https://www.britannica.com/science/phosphorus-cycle
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/961-the-phosphorus-
cycle#:~:text=Phosphorus%20moves%20in%20a%20cycle,soil%20and%20sediments%20and%
20organisms.&text=Over%20time%2C%20rain%20and%20weathering,inorganic%20phosphate
%20from%20the%20soil.
https://sapling.ai/mixup/phosphorous_phosphorus#:~:text=phosphorous%3A%20(adjective)%20
containing%20or,occurs%20in%20several%20allotropic%20forms.
https://byjus.com/biology/phosphorus-cycle/
https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.geeksforgeeks.org/phosphorus-cycle/amp/
ROCK FORMATION
By:
Loyloy, Carl Jake B.
Professor:

WHAT IS ROCK?
Rock, in geology, naturally occurring and coherent aggregate of one or more minerals. Such
aggregates constitute the basic unit of which the solid Earth is composed and typically form
recognizable and mappable volumes.
WHAT IS A ROCK FORMATION?
A rock formation is an isolated, scenic, or spectacular surface rock outcrop. Rock formations are
usually the result of weathering and erosion sculpting the existing rock. Rock formation can also
refer to specific sedimentary strata or other rock units in stratigraphic and petrologic studies. Rocks
are commonly divided into three major classes according to the processes that resulted in their
formation. These classes are (1) igneous rocks, which have solidified from molten material called
magma; (2) sedimentary rocks, those consisting of fragments derived from pre-existing rocks or
of materials precipitated from solutions; and (3) metamorphic rocks, which have been derived from
either igneous or sedimentary rocks under conditions that caused changes in mineralogical
composition, texture, and internal structure. These three classes, in turn, are subdivided into
numerous groups and types on the basis of various factors, the most important of which are
chemical, mineralogical, and textural attributes.
ROCK CYCLE
The rock cycle is a process that explains the basic relationships among igneous, metamorphic, and
sedimentary rocks. The process depends on temperature, pressure, time, and changes in environmental
conditions in the Earth’s crust and at its surface.

WHY IS THE ROCK CYCLE IMPORTANT?
The rock cycle is predictable and provides insight into the probable locations of energy sources. For
example, fossil fuels are found in sedimentary.
At first glance, weathering and erosion break lower the igneous rock into pebbles, sand, and dirt, creating
sediment, which builds up in basins around the Earth’s surface. As successive layers of sediment settle on
top of each other, the sediment close to the bottom is compressed, hardens, and forms sedimentary rock.
The rock cycle also gives scientists and engineers an idea of where energy sources (mainly fossil fuels,
which are found only in sedimentary rock) and building materials such as marble or granite may be located.
We will see throughout the course how this cycle plays into just about every aspect of geology. Through
the continuous process, older rocks are transformed into new rocks by means of erosion, depositions,
pressure, melting, and cooling. It is an endless process by which rocks are formed, destroyed, and formed
again. That is why the rock cycle is considered a cyclic process. Rocks have a broad range of uses that make
them significantly important to human life. For instance, rocks are used in construction, for manufacturing
substances making medicine, and for the production of gas. Rocks are also extremely vital to scientists as
they provide clues about the Earth’s history. The cycle has no beginning and no end. Rocks deep within the
Earth are right now becoming other types of rocks.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF ROCKS
Igneous rocks form when magma (molten rock) cools and crystallizes, either at volcanoes on the
surface of the Earth or while the melted rock is still inside the crust. All magma develops
underground, in the lower crust or upper mantle, because of the intense heat there. Igneous rocks
can have many different compositions, depending on the magma they cool from. They can also
look different based on their cooling conditions. For example, two rocks from identical magma
can become either rhyolite or granite, depending on whether they cool quickly or slowly. The two
main categories of igneous rocks are extrusive and intrusive. Extrusive rocks are formed on the
surface of the Earth from lava, which is magma that has emerged from underground. Intrusive
rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the crust of the planet
Sedimentary rocks are formed on or near the Earth’s surface, in contrast to metamorphic and
igneous rocks, which are formed deep within the Earth. The most important geological processes
that lead to the creation of sedimentary rocks are erosion, weathering, dissolution, precipitation,
and lithification. Erosion and weathering include the effects of wind and rain, which slowly break
down large rocks into smaller ones. Erosion and weathering transform boulders and even
mountains into sediments, such as sand or mud. Dissolution is a form of weathering—chemical
weathering. With this process, water that is slightly acidic slowly wears away stone. These three
processes create the raw materials for new, sedimentary rocks. Precipitation and lithification are
processes that build new rocks or minerals. Precipitation is the formation of rocks and minerals
from chemicals that precipitate from water. For example, as a lake dries up over many thousands
of years, it leaves behind mineral deposits; this is what happened in California’s Death Valley.
Finally, lithification is the process by which clay, sand, and other sediments on the bottom of the
ocean or other bodies of water are slowly compacted into rocks from the weight of overlying
sediments.
Metamorphic rocks the term “metamorphosis” is most often used in reference to the process of a
caterpillar changing into a butterfly. However, the word “metamorphosis” is a broad term that
indicates a change from one thing to another. Even rocks, a seemingly constant substance, can
change into a new type of rock. Rocks that undergo a change to form a new rock are referred to as
metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks are very specific. The existing rock must be exposed to
high heat, high pressure, or to a hot, mineral-rich fluid. Usually, all three of these circumstances
are met. These conditions are most often found either deep in Earth’s crust or at plate boundaries
where tectonic plates collide. In order to create metamorphic rock, it is vital that the existing rock
remains solid and does not melt. If there is too much heat or pressure, the rock will melt and
become magma. This will result in the formation of an igneous rock, not a metamorphic rock.
Although metamorphic rocks typically form deep in the planet’s crust, they are often exposed on
the surface of the Earth. This happens due to geologic uplift and the erosion of the rock and soil
above them. At the surface, metamorphic rocks will be exposed to weathering processes and may
break down into sediment. These sediments could then be compressed to form sedimentary rocks,
which would start the entire cycle anew.
INTEREST AND UTILITY OF ROCK FORMATIONS IN MANY FIELDS
OF WORK?
Physical properties of rocks are of interest and utility in many fields of work, including geology,
petrophysics, geophysics, materials science, geochemistry, and geotechnical engineering. The
scale of investigation ranges from the molecular and crystalline up to terrestrial studies of the Earth
and other planetary bodies. Geologists are interested in the radioactive age dating of rocks to
reconstruct the origin of mineral deposits; seismologists formulate prospective earthquake
predictions using premonitory physical or chemical changes; crystallographers study the synthesis
of minerals with special optical or physical properties; exploration geophysicists investigate the
variation of physical properties of subsurface rocks to make possible detection of natural resources
such as oil and gas, geothermal energy, and ores of metals; geotechnical engineers examine the
nature and behavior of the materials on, in, or of which such structures as buildings, dams, tunnels,
bridges, and underground storage vaults are to be constructed; solid-state physicists study the
magnetic, electrical, and mechanical properties of materials for electronic devices, computer
components, or high-performance ceramics; and petroleum reservoir engineers analyze the
response measured on well logs or in the processes of deep drilling at elevated temperature and
pressure.
REFERENCES:
● Klein, C., & Carmichael, R. S. (1998, October 27). Rock | Definition, Characteristics,
Formation, cycle, Classification, Types, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britanica.
https://www.britannica.com/science/rock-geology
● Van Den Burg, E. (2021, September 27). Exactly why is the rock cycle important?
Curious Science! https://sciencebriefss.com/geology/exactly-why-is-the-rock-cycle-
important/#:~:text=The%20rock%20cycle%20also%20gives%20scientists%20and%20en
gineers,such%20as%20marble%20or%20granite%20may%20be%20located.
● Igneous Rocks. (n.d.). https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/igneous-rocks/
● Sedimentary rocks. (n.d.). https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/sedimentary-
rock/
● Metamorphic Rocks. (n.d.). https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/metamorphic-
rocks/
THE BIOSPHERE
By:
MALIBIRAN, HARRY J.
Professor:
Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela

What is The Biosphere?
The Biosphere
The biosphere includes all life on our planet. It is not only all the things that are living, but
also the remains of organisms that have died and not yet decomposed. It also includes the regions
of the other parts of the Earth system (atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere) occupied by living
organisms. For hundreds of years, people have recognized connections between living things and
the climate (for example, cutting down the trees of a forest can change the temperature of the
immediate area). Still, although the term “biosphere” was first coined in the 1920s by Russian
scientist Vladimir I. Vernadsky, focused studies of the biosphere’s interactions with the rest of the
planet were not underway until the 1960s and later decades.
How the Biosphere Influences the Earth System
In the 1960s, scientists began actively exploring how biological processes, both natural and those
due to humans, affect Earth’s atmosphere. For instance, in just a short amount of time, the length
of a season, plants change the world. When it is spring and summer in the Northern Hemisphere,
more plants are around to photosynthesize and extract carbon from the atmosphere, decreasing the
amount of carbon dioxide by about 3% by the time fall arrives. When many of the Northern
Hemisphere plants drop leaves and become dormant in the autumn and winter, there is less
photosynthesis occurring, leading to more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in late winter and
early spring.
The biosphere Is made up of the parts of Earth where life exists. The biosphere extends from the
deepest root systems of trees, to the dark environment of ocean trenches, to lush rainforests and
high mountaintops.
Scientists describe Earth in terms of spheres. The solid surface layer of Earth is the lithosphere.
The atmosphere is the layer of air that stretches above the lithosphere. The Earth’s water—on the
surface, in the ground, and in the air—makes up the hydrosphere.
Since life exists on the ground, in the air, and in the water, the biosphere overlaps all these spheres.
Although the biosphere measures about 20 kilometers (12 miles) from top to bottom, almost all
life exists between about 500 meters (1,640 feet) below the ocean’s surface to about six kilometers
(3.75 miles) above sea level.
Origin of the Biosphere
The biosphere has existed for about 3.5 billion years. The biosphere’s earliest life-forms, called
prokaryotes, survived without oxygen. Ancient prokaryotes included single-celled organisms such
as bacteria and archaea.
Some prokaryotes developed a unique chemical process. They were able to use sunlight to make
simple sugars and oxygen out of water and carbon dioxide, a process called photosynthesis. These
photosynthetic organisms were so plentiful that they changed the biosphere. Over a long period of
time, the atmosphere developed a mix of oxygen and other gases that could sustain new forms of
life.
The addition of oxygen to the biosphere allowed more complex life-forms to evolve. Millions of
different plants and other photosynthetic species developed. Animals, which consume plants (and
other animals) evolved. Bacteria and other organisms evolved to decompose, or break down, dead
animals and plants.
The biosphere benefits from this food web. The remains of dead plants and animals release
nutrients into the soil and ocean. These nutrients are reabsorbed by growing plants. This exchange
of food and energy makes the biosphere a self-supporting and self-regulating system.
The biosphere is sometimes thought of as one large ecosystem—a complex community of living
and nonliving things functioning as a single unit. More often, however, the biosphere is described
as having many ecosystems.
As part of the biosphere, humans account for just 0.01% of Earth’s biomass. Even at that small
scale, our impacts on the overall Earth system can be quite large, whether or not we expect them
to be. For example, since 1750, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased
from a relatively stable 280 parts per million to over 420 parts per million in 2022. That’s an
increase of nearly 50%, which seems dramatic. But it didn’t happen all at once. As humans began
extracting and using more and more fossil fuels, carbon dioxide amounts in the atmosphere began
to slowly increase, causing the uphill appearance of the Keeling Curve. Each year, the extra carbon
dioxide added into the atmosphere accumulates, so that for every year and every decade, the total
amount continues to rise.
The biosphere is divided into several interconnected parts or components, including:

1.Atmosphere: This is the layer of gases surrounding Earth. It includes the air we breathe and plays
a crucial role in supporting life, providing oxygen and regulating temperature.
2.Hydrosphere: This encompasses all of Earth’s water, including oceans, rivers, lakes,
groundwater, and even water vapor in the atmosphere. It’s essential for life as we know it.
3.Lithosphere: The solid, rocky part of Earth’s surface, including the continents and ocean floors.
It provides a substrate for terrestrial ecosystems.
4.Biosphere: This is the layer of life on Earth, where living organisms, including plants, animals,
and microorganisms, exist. It’s the sum of all ecosystems and their interactions.
These components interact and influence each other, creating a dynamic and interconnected system
that supports life on our planet.
Importance of The Biosphere
The biosphere, often described as the “thin layer of life,” is a realm teeming with incredible
diversity, complexity, and interdependence. It encompasses all living organisms on our planet,
from the tiniest microorganisms to the grandest trees, and from the depths of the oceans to the
peaks of mountains. In this essay, we will explore the profound importance of the biosphere and
its far-reaching implications for life on Earth.
One of the most fundamental aspects of the biosphere is its role in sustaining life itself. It is the
cradle of existence, providing the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat. The
biosphere offers the very foundation of life, creating an environment where living organisms can
thrive and evolve. Without the biosphere, life on Earth, as we know it, would cease to exist.
In addition to sustaining life, the biosphere plays a critical role in maintaining ecological balance.
It is a complex web of interactions between different species and ecosystems. These interactions
regulate populations, nutrient cycles, and energy flow, ensuring that no single species overruns or
disrupts the delicate balance of the ecosystem. When this balance is disturbed, it can have far-
reaching consequences, leading to issues like overpopulation of certain species or the depletion of
essential resources.
Furthermore, the biosphere provides an array of invaluable ecosystem services. It purifies water,
regulates climate, and supports agriculture through processes like pollination and soil fertility.
These services are essential for human well-being and the sustainability of agriculture, which is
the foundation of our food supply.

Scientifically, the biosphere offers endless opportunities for study and understanding. Exploring
the biosphere helps us unravel the processes of life, ecology, and evolution. This knowledge
informs scientific research, conservation efforts, and technological innovations, allowing us to
develop a deeper understanding of our planet and its complexities.
In conclusion, the biosphere is not merely a physical entity but a living, breathing entity that
sustains life, maintains ecological balance, and offers countless benefits to humanity. Its
importance cannot be overstated, as it serves as the foundation upon which our existence is built.
Recognizing the significance of the biosphere is the first step toward ensuring its conservation and
the well-being of both current and future generations. It is our collective duty to protect and
preserve this invaluable resource, for the biosphere’s health is intimately linked with our own.
REFERENCES
https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0,5&q=thebiosphere&btnG=#d=gs_qabs&t=1
698801518091&u=#p=vuciaAIVVPMJ
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/biosphere/
https://www.britannica.com/science/biosphere
https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/how-climate-works/biosphere
Food Chain and Food Web
By:
Jonfred M. Maxino
Professor:

What is a Food Chain?
A food chain refers to the order of events in an ecosystem, where one living organism eats
another organism, and later that organism is consumed by another larger organism. The flow of
nutrients and energy from one organism to another at different trophic levels forms a food chain.
The food chain also explains the feeding pattern or relationship between living organisms.
A trophic level refers to the sequential stages in a food chain, starting with producers at the bottom,
followed by primary, secondary and tertiary consumers. Every level in a food chain is known as a
trophic level.
Here's an example of a very simple food chain:
Sun----->Grass----->Zebra---->Lion
Food chains show how all living things get their energy from food, and how nutrients are
passed from species to species down the chain.
Here is a more complex food chain:
Sun----->Grass----->Grasshopper----->Mouse----->Snake----->Hawk
Trophic Levels of a Food Chain
All living creatures within a food chain are broken down into different groups, or trophic
levels, those help ecologists understand their specific role in the ecosystem. Here's a closer look at
each of the trophic levels within a food chain.
Producers: Producers make up the first trophic level of an ecosystem. They earn their name via
their ability to produce their own food. They do not depend upon any other creature for their
energy. Most producers utilize the Sun's energy in a process called photosynthesis to create their
own energy and nutrients. Plants are producers. So are algae, phytoplankton, and some types of
bacteria.
Consumers: The next trophic level focuses on the species that eat the producers. There are three
types of consumers.
Herbivores: Herbivores are primary consumers that eat only plants. They may eat any or all parts
of the plant such as leaves, branches, fruit, berries, nuts, grass, flowers, roots, or pollen. Deer,
rabbits, horses, cows, sheep, and insects are a few examples of herbivores.
Carnivores: Carnivores eat only animals. Cats, hawks, sharks, frogs, owls, and spiders are just a
few of the world's carnivores.

Omnivores: Omnivores eat both plants and animals. Bears, humans, raccoons, most primates, and
many birds are omnivores.
There are various levels of consumers that work their way on up the food chain. For
example, primary consumers are the herbivores that eat only plants, while secondary consumers
are the creatures that eat secondary consumers. In the example above, the mouse would be a
secondary consumer. Tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers - on our example that was the
snake.
Finally, the food chain ends at the apex predator - the animal who resides at the top of the
food chain. In the example above, that was the hawk. Lions, bobcats, mountain lions, and great
white sharks are more examples of apex predators within their ecosystems.
Decomposers: The last level of the food chain is made up by the decomposers. These are the
bacteria and fungi that eat decaying matter - dead plants and animals and turn them into nutrient-
rich soil. These are the nutrients that plants then use to produce their own food - thus, starting a
new food chain.

What is a Food Web?
Simply put, a food web describes all of the food chains in a given ecosystem. Rather than
forming a straight line that goes from the sun to the plants to the animals that eat them, food webs
show the interconnectedness of all of the living creatures in an ecosystem. A food web is made up
of many interconnected and overlapping food chains. They are created to describe species
interactions and relationships within an ecosystem.
Complexity of Food Webs
The diversity of organisms in an ecosystem determines the complexity of food webs. Two
important factors determine the complexity of food webs.
Length of the Food Chain: The diversity of organisms and their food habits in an ecosystem
determine the length of the food chain. More diverse organisms and their food habits make the
food chain to be longer.
Alternatives at different trophic levels: The number of alternatives at different trophic levels of
a food chain increases the complexity of food webs. An increase in the number of alternatives also
increases the interlocking pattern of the food web. For example, the presence of a wide variety of
organisms in the deep sea and oceans makes these aquatic food webs more complex.
Types of Food Web:
The food web shows the relationship between species in an ecosystem. These
interrelationships vary based on energy flow and dynamics of species populations. Food webs are
classified into different types namely,
Connectedness Food Webs:
These food webs are also known as topological food webs. They indicate a feeding
relationship. These food webs indicate only the presence or absence of a trophic interaction. They
do not show the strength of the interaction or changes taking place in the trophic relationships.
Hence, these food webs are also known as static food webs.
Energy Flow Food Webs:
These food webs indicate information about the strength of feeding interactions. They
indicate the quantity of energy flow from one species to another. The strength of relationship
between species is indicated by the thickness of arrow.
Functional or Interaction Food Webs:
These food webs show the influence of one group of species over the other. They represent
the significance of each species in maintaining communal integrity.

Difference of Food Chain and Food Web
Food Chains and Food Webs both show the direction of the flow of energy and nutrients in
the ecosystem. The food chain is a linear representation of organisms along the trophic level, while
the food web is multiple interconnected food chains. It makes us understand the interaction among
the species and the way they are interdependent. Overall, it gives an impression of the workings
of the ecosystem and the balance it maintains within.
Importance of food chains and food webs:
 The food chain and food web help to understand the feeding relationship between
organisms in an ecosystem.
 Food chains and food webs provide a clear understanding of the nutrient cycling and energy
flow in an ecosystem.
 Food chains help to check the population size of different organisms in an ecosystem.
 Example: In a grassland ecosystem, if there is an increase in the deer population, food
availability will be higher for the carnivores which feed on them. Similarly, if there is a
reduction in the deer population, some carnivores would starve and die. As a consequence,
the deer population would increase.
 Food webs help to understand the natural stability of an ecosystem. If one species gets
affected, it provides an impact on the subsequent trophic levels.
 Food chains and food webs help to understand the natural balance of the population of each
species in an ecosystem.
References:
 https://byjus.com/biology/overview-of-food-chain/
 https://www.treehugger.com/difference-between-food-chains-and-webs-4011388
 https://www.turito.com/learn/biology/food-chain-and-food-web-grade-9
 https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/food-chains-and-food-webs/
Negros Oriental State University
College of Engineering and Architecture
Main Campus 2, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City
Flow of Energy and Energy Pyramid
Submitted by:
Khiana Khate S. Medina
EPS 131- Chemistry for Engineers
BS Computer Engineering- 1st Year
Submitted to:
Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela

Introduction:
Energy flow in ecosystems refers to the movement and transformation of energy within a
biological community. It involves the transfer of energy from one organism to another through
feeding relationships. This process is crucial for the survival and functioning of all living
organisms within an ecosystem.
Importance in the Context of Chemistry:
Understanding energy transfer in ecosystems is vital in the field of chemistry for several reasons:
1. Thermodynamics: This helps chemists study how energy is converted and utilized in
biological systems.
2. Biochemical Reactions: Knowledge of energy flow is fundamental in studying the metabolic
processes that sustain life.
3. Nutrient Cycles: Energy flow is intimately linked with nutrient cycles, which involve the
movement of elements like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus through the environment.
4. Sustainable Practices: Understanding energy flow helps in optimizing processes.
5. Environmental Impact: It enables scientists to understand how chemical substances can
disrupt or influence natural energy transfer processes.
In summary, comprehending the flow of energy in ecosystems is essential in connecting
biological processes with chemical principles.

Definition of Energy:
Energy is the capacity to do work or produce an effect. In the context of physics and chemistry, it
is a fundamental concept that underlies all physical processes. Energy comes in various forms,
each with distinct characteristics:
1. Kinetic Energy: This is the energy associated with motion.
2. Potential Energy: This is stored energy that is associated with an object's position or state.
3. Chemical Energy: This form of energy is stored within the bonds of chemical compounds.
4. Thermal (Heat) Energy: It is the energy associated with the random motion of particles
within a substance.
5. Electromagnetic Energy: This encompasses a wide range of energies associated with
electromagnetic waves, including visible light, radio waves, microwaves, and more.
6. Nuclear Energy: It is released during nuclear reactions.
Laws of Thermodynamics and Their Relevance:
The laws of thermodynamics are fundamental principles governing the behavior of energy in
physical systems. They are crucial in understanding energy flow:
1. First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation of Energy): This law states that energy
cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another. In
the context of ecosystems, it means that the total energy within a closed system remains constant.
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Entropy):This implies that energy
transformations are not perfectly efficient, and some energy is lost as waste heat.
3. Third Law of Thermodynamics: It has implications for understanding energy behavior at
extremely low temperatures.
These laws are pertinent to the study of energy flow in ecosystems because they provide a
framework for understanding the efficiency and limitations of energy transfer processes within
biological systems.
Concept of Trophic Levels:
Trophic levels represent different positions in a food chain or food web within an ecosystem.
They categorize organisms based on their feeding relationships and energy source. There are
typically four main trophic levels:
1. Producers (Autotroph): These are organisms that can produce their own food
2. Primary Consumers (Herbivores): These are organisms that consume producers directly for
energy.
3. Secondary Consumers (Carnivores): These organisms feed on primary consumers.
4. Tertiary Consumers (Top Predators): These are organisms that feed on secondary
consumers and they are at the highest trophic level in a typical food chain.
Energy Transfer between Trophic Levels:
Energy moves through trophic levels via feeding, but not all acquired energy is passed on. Much
is lost due to metabolism and heat production, a concept known as ecological efficiency. For
instance, a primary consumer only retains a fraction of the energy from consuming a producer
for its growth, reproduction, and maintenance. This results in an energy pyramid, with each level
holding less available energy than the one below, due to losses in heat and metabolic processes,
making higher levels less energetically efficient.
Energy Pyramid Definition and Purpose:
An energy pyramid is a graphical representation that shows the flow of energy through different
trophic levels in an ecosystem. It illustrates the distribution of energy, biomass, or the number of
organisms at each trophic level. The pyramid shape arises from the fact that energy is lost as it
moves up the food chain, resulting in a decrease in available energy at higher trophic levels.
Notice that the width of each level
decreases as you move up. This
reflects the decreasing energy
availability. It's important to note that
only about 10% of the energy from
one trophic level is transferred to the
next, with the rest being lost as heat
and used in metabolic processes.

Concept of Ecological Efficiency and its Importance:
Ecological efficiency refers to the proportion of energy that is transferred from one trophic level
to the next. It quantifies how effectively energy is passed along the food chain. Understanding
ecological efficiency is crucial for several reasons:
1. Ecosystem Stability: It helps assess the stability and resilience of ecosystems. Higher
ecological efficiency indicates a more stable and sustainable ecosystem.
2. Resource Management: Knowledge of ecological efficiency is important in managing natural
resources and ecosystems for sustainable use, such as in fisheries or agriculture.
3. Conservation Efforts: It guides conservation efforts by identifying key species and trophic
interactions that are vital for maintaining ecosystem health and function.
4. Predicting Impacts of Environmental Changes: Knowing how energy flows through trophic
levels helps predict the effects of environmental changes, such as habitat loss or climate change,
on ecosystems.
References:
Admin. (2022a, July 8). Trophic level Diagram - Ecological Pyramids. BYJUS.
https://byjus.com/biology/trophic-level-diagram/
Admin. (2022b, September 1). Energy flow in Ecosystem- Food Chain,Food Web and Energy
Pyramids. BYJUS. https://byjus.com/biology/energy-flow-in-ecosystem/
Bio, S. (2023, June 11). Ecological Efficiency - Definition, factors, calculation, applications.
Microbiology Note – Online Biology Notes.
https://microbiologynote.com/ecological-efficiency-definition-factors-calculation-applica
tions/
Blog archives. (n.d.). Science News.
https://taylorsciencegeeks.weebly.com/blog/archives/05-2018/19
Energy flow in an ecosystem. (n.d.).
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/energy-flow-ecosystm/
energy pyramid. (n.d.). Britannica Kids.
https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/energy-pyramid/611153#:~:text=An%20energ
y%20pyramid%20is%20a,units%20of%20kilocalories%20(kcal).
Libretexts. (2022, January 9). 15.5: Energy flow through ecosystems. Biology LibreTexts.
https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_Pittsburgh/Environmental_Science_(Whi
ttinghill)/15%3A_Community_and_Ecosystem_Ecology/15.05%3A_Energy_Flow_Thro
ugh_Ecosystems
Libretexts. (2023, October 31). 46.2D: Ecological Pyramids. Biology LibreTexts.
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_Ge
neral_Biology_(Boundless)/46%3A_Ecosystems/46.02%3A_Energy_Flow_through_Eco
systems/46.2D%3A_Ecological_Pyramids
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2023, September 27). Trophic level | Definition,
Examples, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/science/trophic-level
Types of energy - Knowledge Bank - solar schools. (n.d.).
https://www.solarschools.net/knowledge-bank/energy/types
Wikipedia contributors. (2023a, April 20). Ecological efficiency. Wikipedia.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_efficiency#:~:text=Ecological%20efficiency
%20describes%20the%20efficiency,and%20assimilation%20in%20an%20ecosystem.
Wikipedia contributors. (2023b, October 26). Trophic level. Wikipedia.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_level
Toxic Chemicals
In the
Environment
Subject: Chemistry
Course: BS CoE
Section: TA
Instructor
Name: Marinela C. Bansuela
Submitted by:
Zyren C. Mendoza
Submitted to:
Marinela C. Bansuela Ph,D.
Toxic chemicals in the environment
Pose a significant threat to both ecosystems and human health.
Sources of toxic chemicals

Industrial Discharges: Factories and manufacturing plants release pollutants into water
bodies and air.
Agricultural Runoff: Pesticides and fertilizers used in agricultures can contaminate soil
and water.
Household Products: Cleaning agents, paints and personal care products often contain
harmful chemicals.
Improper Waste Disposal: Hazardous waste, if not managed properly, can seep into
the ground and pollute water sources.
Impact in Ecosystems
Water Pollution: Chemicals like mercury, lead and pesticides contaminate water,
harming aquatic life and disrupting ecosystems.
Air Pollution: Airborne toxins contribute to air pollution, affecting both flora and
fauna.
Soil Contamination: Chemicals degrade soil quality, impacting plant growth and food
crops.
Biodiversity Loss: Pollution disrupts natural habitats, leading to a decline in
biodiversity.
Impact on human health

Respiratory Issues: Airborne pollutants can cause respiratory diseases such as asthma
and bronchitis.
Waterborne Diseases: Contaminated water sources can lead to diseases like cholera
and dysentery.
Cancer Risk: Long term exposure to certain chemicals increases the risk of cancer.
Neurological Disorders: Some toxins can affect the nervous system, leading to
developmental issues in children.
Mitigation and Solutions
Regulations and Policies: Government should enforce strict regulations on
industries and promote eco- friendly practices.
Research and Innovation: Invest in research for alternative, non toxic chemicals and
promote eco- friendly lifestyles.
Waste management: Proper disposal and recycling of hazardous waste
Green Technologies: Encourage the adoption of renewable energy sources and eco-
friendly technologies to reduce overall pollution.
Conclusions: Toxic chemicals in the environment demand urgent attention and collective efforts.
By implementing stringent regulations, fostering innovation, and raising public awareness, we
can mitigate the adverse effects to these chemicals, ensuring a healthier environment for current
and future generations.

References
Han, X. Armstrong, D. W., Accounts of Chemical Research, 2007, 40, 1079-1086.
Kamrin MA. Pesticide Profiles – Toxicity, Environmental Impact and Fate. Boca Raton, FL:
Lewis Publishers; 1997.
https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climatechange/services/management-toxic-
substances.html
Air Pollution
EPS 131-Chemistry for Engineering (TA)
By:
Millarez, Samuel, Jr. G.
Professor:

Air Pollution
What is air pollution?
Air pollution can be defined as an alteration of air quality that can be characterized by
measurements of chemical, biological or physical pollutants in the air. It refers to the introduction
of substances into the atmosphere that have harmful effects on humans, other living organisms,
and the environment. These substances can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or
gases. Therefore, air pollution means the undesirable presence of impurities or the abnormal rise
in the proportion of some constituents of the atmosphere. Air pollution refers to the presence of
harmful substances in the air we breathe. When their concentration reaches a critical level, they
pose risks to human health, animals, plants, and the environment.
Local
This concerns the quality of ambient air within a radius of a few kilometres.
Regional
Pollution like acid rain, photochemical reactions and degradation of water quality at distances of
a few kilometers to a thousand kilometres.
Global
Depletion of the ozone layer and global warming caused by the emission of greenhouse gases,
mainly carbon dioxide (CO2).

Sources of Air Pollution
• Natural Processes: Dust storms, forest fires, and volcanic eruptions release particles and gases
into the air.
• Human Activities: These activities include driving cars, trucks and buses; burning coal, oil,
and wood; and manufacturing chemicals.
• Biomass Burning: Emissions from burning wood, crop residues, and other organic materials.
• Vehicular Emissions: Cars, trucks, and other vehicles release pollutants like carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
• Industrial Processes: Factories, power plants, and construction sites emit various pollutants.
• Mining and Agriculture: Dust and chemicals from mining and agricultural activities contribute
to air pollution.
• Stationary Sources: These have fixed locations, such as power plant smokestacks, construction
sites, and farmlands.
• Mobile Sources: Vehicles, aircraft, ships, and trains emit pollutants while moving.
Types of pollutants can be classified in 2 sections: Natural Pollutants and Anthropogenic
Pollutants.
o Natural Pollutants
These are pollutants that occur naturally without any direct human influence. Natural pollutants
arise from Earth's own processes and cycles.
 Volcanic Eruptions: When volcanoes erupt, they release gases and particles into the
atmosphere, affecting air quality.

 Forest Fires: Smoke and particulate matter from wildfires can impact air quality.
 Dust Storms: Natural dust storms can carry particles and pollutants over long distances.
 Biological Processes: Natural decay of organic matter (like leaves or dead animals) can
release gases like methane.
o Anthropogenic Pollutants
These pollutants result from *human activities* and have a significant impact on the environment.
 Primary Pollutants- Released directly from sources in harmful forms. Common primary
pollutants include:
Carbon Monoxide (CO): A colorless, odorless gas produced by incomplete combustion.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Emitted from industrial processes and vehicle
exhaust.
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Formed during combustion and contribute to smog and acid rain.
Sulfur Dioxides (SO₂): Released from burning fossil fuels containing sulfur.
Particulate Material: Tiny solid particles suspended in the air.
 Secondary Pollutants- Formed through reactions between primary pollutants and
atmospheric compounds. For example, ground-level ozone forms when oxides of nitrogen
react with VOCs in sunlight.
Causes of Air Pollution
Air pollution is caused by the presence in the atmosphere of toxic substances, mainly produced by
human activities, even though sometimes it can result from natural phenomena such as volcanic
eruptions, dust storms and wildfires, also depleting the air quality.
Anthropogenic air pollution sources are:
1. Combustion of fossil fuels, like coal and oil for electricity and road transport, producing air
pollutants like nitrogen and sulfur dioxide
2. Emissions from industries and factories, releasing large amount of carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbon, chemicals and organic compounds into the air
3. Agricultural activities, due to the use of pesticides, insecticides, and fertilizers that emit harmful
chemicals
4. Waste production, mostly because of methane generation in landfills
Effects of Air Pollution
It is impossible to describe the whole extent of potential and actual damage caused by all forms
of air pollution. But here are the main consequences:
o Health Impact
Pollutants can cause respiratory diseases, cardiovascular problems, and even cancer. Our
continual exposure to air pollutants is responsible for the deterioration of human health. Air
pollution is indeed a significant risk factor for human health conditions, causing allergies,
respiratory and cardiovascular diseases as well as lung damage.
o Environmental Consequences
Damage to ecosystems, soil, water bodies, and vegetation. Air pollution has a major impact on
the process of plant evolution by preventing photosynthesis in many cases, with serious
consequences for the purification of the air we breathe. It also contributes to the formation of
acid rain, atmospheric precipitations in the form of rain, frost, snow or fog, which are released
during the combustion of fossil fuels and transformed by contact with water steam in the
atmosphere.
o Global Warming
On top of that, air pollution is a major contributor to global warming and climate change. In fact,
the abundance of carbon dioxide in the air is one of the causes of the greenhouse effect.
Normally, the presence of greenhouse gases should be beneficial for the planet because they
absorb the infra-red radiation produced by the surface of the earth. But the excessive
concentration of these gases in the atmosphere is the cause of the recent climate change.
While improved technology and policies have reduced outdoor air pollution in some industrialized
countries, it remains a significant concern in rapidly industrializing nations. Understanding air
pollution's chemistry is crucial for mitigating its effects on our health and environment.
Prevention to Air Pollution
There are ways to prevent, control and eventually reduce air pollution:
1. Renewable fuel and clean energy production
The most basic solution for air pollution is to move away from fossil fuels, replacing them with
alternative energies like solar, wind and geothermal.
2. Energy conservation and efficiency
Producing clean energy is crucial. But equally important is to reduce our consumption of energy
by adopting responsible habits and using more efficient devices.

3. Eco-friendly transportation
Shifting to electric vehicles and hydrogen vehicles, and promoting shared mobility (i.e carpooling,
and public transports) could reduce air pollution.
4. Green building
From planning to demolition, green building aims to create environmentally responsible and
resource-efficient structures to reduce their carbon footprint.

References
Pollution - World Health Organization (WHO) https://www.who.int/health-topics/air-
pollution.
Air quality in Europe 2022 — European Environment Agency.
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/air-quality-in-europe-2022.
Our Nation's Air 2021 - US EPA. https://gispub.epa.gov/air/trendsreport/2021/.
Air Pollution in the UK report - Defra, UK. https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/library/annualreport/.
Air Pollution Facts, Causes and the Effects of Pollutants in the Air - NRDC.
https://www.nrdc.org/stories/air-pollution-everything-you-need-know.
https://cdn.who.int/media/images/default-source/air-pollution/air-pollution-mix-of-outdoor-and-
indoor-air-pollution.tmb-1024v.jpeg?sfvrsn=b5fbc279_18%201024w
Air Pollution - National Geographic Society.
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/air-pollution/.
Prevention of Air Pollution - How Can Air Pollution be Prevented? (With ....
https://byjus.com/chemistry/prevention-of-air-pollution/.
Atmospheric Chemistry and Air Pollution - University of Birmingham.
https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/research/activity/environmental-
health/areas/atmospheric/index.aspx.
Air Pollution - Causes, Sources, Types, Consequences ... - Vedantu.
https://www.vedantu.com/chemistry/air-pollution.
EPS 131 - Chemistry of Engineers (TA)
WATER POLLUTION:
SOURCES
Prepared By: Professor:

Moso, Lloyd Alexandra T. Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D
One of the causes of climate change is pollution, and under the category of pollution
there are three major types of it, which are air pollution, water pollution and land pollution. The
focus of this report is water pollution, with its meaning, its causes, where water pollution comes
from and a few of its examples that came from different sources and websites.
According to the website of National Geographic, “from big pieces of garbage to
invisible chemicals, a wide range of pollutants end up in our planet's lakes, rivers, streams,
groundwater, and eventually the oceans. Water pollution—along with drought, inefficiency, and
an exploding population—has contributed to a freshwater crisis, threatening the sources we rely
on for drinking water and other critical needs.
Safeguarding water supplies is important because even though nearly 70 percent of the
world is covered by water, only 2.5 percent of it is fresh. And just one percent of freshwater is
easily accessible, with much of it trapped in remote glaciers and snowfields.”
As we all know, water is our universal solvent, which is said to be easy to contaminate
since water can dissolve anything. Water pollution degenerates the quality of water, and
sometimes can be harmful to human health and in the environment. Not only in those two but
also to animals, especially to marine life.
There are four major sources of water pollution, and these are Agriculture, Sewage and
Wastewater, Oil pollution, and Radioactive substances.

In the past, there was an issue about how crops don’t grow fully. In some website I
forgot to mention that in the early 1800s, scientists discovered which elements were most
essential to plant growth: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Now, in agriculture, many
farmers use chemical fertilizers with nitrates and phosphates because they greatly increase crop
yields.
Without pesticides, some crops could not be grown on a large scale, so our diets would
not be as diverse. According to Dr. Durham, without pesticides, fruits and vegetables would be
stunted, riddled with injuries and contaminated with microbes, contributing to food waste
(BestFoodFacts, 2020).
But with this large dependency of pesticides and fertilizers, this has become a problem.
Chemicals have disturbed the environment, often infecting the surroundings and water, while
being harmful to animals and other species that farmers do not intend to target. Chemical use
may also pose a health hazard to people, especially through contaminated water supplies.
According to NRDC, in the United States, agricultural pollution is the top source of
contamination in rivers and streams. Every time it rains, fertilizers, pesticides, and animal waste
from farms and livestock operations wash nutrients and pathogens—such as bacterias and
viruses—into our waterways. Nutrient pollution, caused by excess nitrogen and phosphorus in
water or air, is the number-one threat to water quality worldwide and can cause algal blooms, a
toxic soup of blue-green algae that can be harmful to people and wildlife.
Houses, on the other hand, releases wastewater that eventually makes its way to the
ocean, mixing with the seawater and affecting the quality of liquid and marine life. Along with
this wastewater, comes harmful bacteria and chemicals.
Used water is wastewater. It comes from our sinks, showers, and toilets and from
commercial, industrial, and agricultural activities (think metals, solvents, and toxic sludge). The
term also includes stormwater runoff, which occurs when rainfall carries road salts, oil, grease,
chemicals, and debris from impermeable surfaces into our waterways (NRDC, 2023).
Reef Resilience cited that pathogens from human waste spread diseases to people through
contaminated drinking water, food grown in contaminated soils, seafood harvested from
contaminated waters, and bathing and recreating in polluted waters. Exposure to pathogens can
also lead to infections in the ears, eyes, or chest and topical ailments, such as rashes and skin
infections.
In Oil Pollution, according to Robinson, nearly half of the estimated 1 million tons of oil
that makes its way into marine environments each year comes not from tanker spills but from
land-based sources such as factories, farms, and cities. Oil makes drinking water unsafe and a
substantial amount of oil released into oceans or river water pollution, will destroy marine life
and the ecosystems that support them. Oil reduces the oxygen supply within the water
environment. Oil is also naturally released from under the ocean floor through fractures known
as seeps.
However, the largest and most damaging pollution events usually involve spills of
petroleum or heavy bunker fuel from disabled tankers or drill platforms at sea, from barges or
ships on major inland waterways, or from blowouts of wells or broken pipelines on land
(Freedman, 1995).
An example of oil pollution is the CNN news where according to them, the MT Princess
Empress sank off Oriental Mindoro southwest of the capital Manila on February 28, discharging
its cargo of industrial fuel oil into the waters around the province, where authorities have
declared a state of calamity for nine towns and banned swimming and fishing as they battle one
of the region’s worst ever disasters.
Jennifer Cruz, mayor of the coastal town of Pola, which has been heavily affected by the
spill, told CNN affiliate CNN Philippines on Thursday that more than 50 residents had fallen ill,
reporting symptoms of cough, dizziness, eye irritation and fever.
“In the span of nine days, it’s getting worse. The stench from the oil is getting stronger as
the weather is also getting hotter,” Cruz told CNN Philippines. “More people are also getting
sick. I also was not able to visit one of the affected areas because I started feeling unwell due to
the smell.”
In Radioactive Substances, it is a radioactive waste pollution that emits radiation beyond
what is naturally released by the environment. It’s generated by uranium mining, nuclear power
plants, and the production and testing of military weapons, as well as by universities and
hospitals that use radioactive materials for research and medicine. Accidentally released or
improperly disposed of contaminants threaten groundwater, surface water, and marine resources
(NRDC, 2023).
According to Deena Robinson, in April 2021, Japan discharged contaminated water
containing radioactive materials from the damaged Fukushima nuclear plant into the sea. Though
the Japanese government claims potential health risks and damage to marine life to be minimal
as the wastewater has been treated, close monitoring is required to ensure there are no
environmental effects from the water pollution.
Now that we are done addressing the sources of this kind of pollution and, to help prevent
and can find a solution to this problem, we need to address where this pollution is coming from.
So, where is the water pollution really coming from?
First, we have this kind of pollution which we call point source pollution. Which means
the pollutant comes from a single source and that directly contaminates the water. It is stated that
in this kind of pollution, we can directly know or pinpoint the pollution’s origin. For example,
large farms that raise livestock, such as cows, pigs and chickens, are sources of point source
pollution.
In the report of National Ocean Service, another way that some factories and sewage
treatment plants handle waste material is by mixing it with urban runoff in a combined sewer
system. Runoff refers to storm water that flows over surfaces like driveways and lawns. As the
water crosses these surfaces, it picks up chemicals and pollutants. This untreated, polluted water
then runs directly into a sewer system.
When it rains excessively, a combined sewer system may not be able handle the volume
of water, and some of the combined runoff and raw sewage will overflow from the system,
discharging directly into the nearest water body without being treated. This combined sewer
overflow (CSO) is considered point source pollution, and can cause severe damage to human
health and the environment.
While point source pollution originates from a specific place, it can affect miles of
waterways and ocean.
Nonpoint source pollution is the leading cause of water pollution in U.S. waters, but it’s
difficult to regulate, since there’s no single, identifiable culprit (NRDC, 2023).
The United States Environmental Protection Agency claimed that nonpoint source
pollution generally results from land runoff, precipitation, atmospheric deposition, drainage,
seepage or hydrologic modification. Nonpoint source pollution, unlike pollution from industrial
and sewage treatment plants, comes from many diffuse sources. Nonpoint source pollution is
caused by rainfall or snow melt moving over and through the ground. As the runoff moves, it
picks up and carries away natural and human-made pollutants, finally depositing them into lakes,
rivers, wetlands, coastal waters and ground waters.

Transboundary, on the other hand, is a pollution that is defined legally as a pollution that
originates in one country but can cause damage in another country’s environment, by crossing
borders through pathways like water or air. The problems of transboundary pollution include
issues like the acidification of soils and lakes through acid rain, transboundary air pollution
(known variably as smog, haze, or smoke), and downstream river or ocean pollution due to
upstream activities. Contamination can result from a disaster—like an oil spill—or the slow,
downriver creep of industrial, agricultural, or municipal discharge (Varkkey, 2019).
Before this report has come to an end, there are an additional two sources of water
pollution which are, Industrial waste and Marine Dumping and Plastic Pollution in the sea.
From the word Industrial, its waste comes from Industrial sites, like coal ash from
thermal power plants and blast furnaces and steel melting slag from iron and steel mills. It is said
that industrial waste is one of the biggest sources of water contamination. Many industrial sites
produce waste in the form of toxic chemicals and pollutants, and some don’t have proper waste
management systems in place. Sometimes, industrial waste is dumped into nearby freshwater
systems.
This statement comes from Robinson as well, where she stated that the toxic chemicals
leached from this waste can make the water unsafe for human consumption, and they can also
cause the temperature in freshwater systems to change, making them dangerous for marine life.
Finally, industrial waste can cause “dead zones,” which are areas of water that contain so little
oxygen that marine life cannot survive in them.

Marine Dumping has been defined as the deliberate disposal at sea of wastes or other
matter from vessels, aircraft, platforms or other man-made structures, as well as the deliberate
disposal of these vessels or platforms themselves. Marine dumping can destroy or degrade
important habitats for aquatic species and cause coastal erosion and salutation, which affect the
health and productivity of the marine environment (Safe Drinking Water Foundation, 2002).
An example of how and why Marine Dumping is very dangerous to marine life, is stated
by the website called Safe Drinking Water Foundation, where they said that plastic bags are
mistakenly ingested by sea turtles as jellyfish, a common food item. For example, the world’s
largest living turtle, the leatherback, is found off our Atlantic and Pacific coasts. You wouldn’t
think much could get in this giant’s way. However, common plastic debris is causing
leatherbacks terrible trouble. They mistake plastic bags, balloons or containers for jellyfish —
their favorite food. Once swallowed, the plastic clogs the turtles’ intestines, causing them to die.
Trying to connect this topic to the E-waste problem, where it can also damage the
environment as various components of a machine contain chemicals. If we dispose of a
component or even the machine itself, if it rains, those chemicals in it will flow together with the
rainwater. Which is also very dangerous if it will contaminate freshwater.

REFERENCES:
Water Pollution: Everything You Need to Know:

https://www.nrdc.org/stories/water-pollution-everything-you-need-know#whatis
Causes of Water Pollution And How We Can Reduce It:

https://earth.org/what-are-the-causes-of-water-pollution/#:~:text=Sewage%20and%20Wastewater&text=
Households%20release%20sewage%20and%20wastewater,issues%20in%20humans%20and%20animals.
Oil Pollution:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/oil-pollution
Transboundary Pollution:
https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199756223/obo-9780199756223-0290
.xml#:~:text=Transboundary%20pollution%20is%20defined%20legally,pathways%20like%20water%20o
r%20air.
INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE:

https://www.pureingenium.com/blog/what-is-industrial-waste/#:~:text=It%20can%20include%20organic
%20matter,from%20iron%20and%20steel%20mills
Marine Dumping:
https://www.safewater.org/fact-sheets-1/2017/1/23/marine-dumping
Residents hit by dizziness and fever as oil spill blankets coast of Philippine island:
https://edition.cnn.com/2023/03/09/asia/philippines-oil-spill-residents-tourism-impact-intl-hnk/index.html
Water pollution is a rising global crisis:

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/freshwater-pollution
Basic Information about Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution:

https://www.epa.gov/nps/basic-information-about-nonpoint-source-nps-pollution#:~:text=Nonpoint%20so
urce%20pollution%20can%20include,forest%20lands%2C%20and%20eroding%20streambanks
Point Source:
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_pollution/03pointsource.html#:~:text=The%20U.S.%20E
nvironmental%20Protection%20Agency%20(EPA)%20defines%20point%20source%20pollution,commo
n%20types%20of%20point%20sources.
“Water Pollutants: Types of Water Pollutants and their Effects on Water Quality, People,
and the Environment ”
________________________________________________
A Chemistry Report presented to
Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D.
Chemistry for Engineers Instructor
________________________________________
In partial fulfillment for the subject
“EPS 131 Chemistry For Engineers”
Presented by:
Namol, Alfred James C.
_________________________
2023
Class Report: Water Pollutants
Introduction
Water is one of the most vital resources for all life on Earth, and it is essential for sustaining
ecosystems, human health, and economic development. However, the quality of our water
resources is under constant threat due to various pollutants. In this report, we will discuss the
different types of water pollutants, including pathogens, organic materials, inorganic compounds,
and macroscopic pollutants, and their impact on the environment.
Water pollutants are substances or contaminants that, when introduced into natural water bodies
such as rivers, lakes, oceans, or groundwater, can degrade water quality and harm the
environment or human health.
It's important to note that the definition of uncontaminated water may vary depending on its
intended use. For drinking water, the standards are typically more stringent than those for
recreational water or industrial processes. Local environmental agencies and health authorities
often set specific guidelines for determining the safety and quality of water in a given area.
Types of Water Pollutants
Pathogens
Pathogens are microorganisms that can cause diseases in humans and animals. They are a
significant concern in water pollution because contaminated water can transmit diseases to
individuals who consume or come into contact with it. Let's dive deeper into this with a real-life
example:
Imagine a scenario in a rural area where a community relies on a nearby river as their primary
source of drinking water. Unbeknownst to them, this river is contaminated with pathogens.
Among the pathogens present in the water are bacteria like coliform and E. coli, which often
originate from sewage and fecal matter.
As the community continues to use this water source for drinking, cooking, and bathing, the
concentration of these waterborne pathogens begins to increase due to a lack of proper sewage
treatment and sanitation practices. The combination of warm weather and the slow flow of the
river further promotes the growth of these bacteria.
Over time, several community members start experiencing gastrointestinal illnesses, diarrhea,
and other waterborne diseases. Some individuals, especially those with weaker immune systems,
may face severe health complications. As the local healthcare facility starts to see a surge in
cases, health authorities investigate the issue and find that the contaminated water is the source
of the outbreak.
In this real-life example, the increased population of waterborne pathogens, particularly coliform
and E. coli, has led to a serious health crisis within the community. This scenario underscores the
critical importance of ensuring clean and safe water sources, adequate sanitation infrastructure,
and proper waste management to prevent the proliferation of pathogens and protect public health.
Organic Materials
Organic materials in water are substances composed of carbon-containing molecules. They can
pose significant environmental and health risks when present in water sources. Let's delve deeper
into this topic with a real-life example:
In the late 20th century, methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) gained popularity as an additive to
gasoline to enhance combustion efficiency and reduce air pollution. However, this compound's
solubility in water made it a potential environmental hazard. Leakage from underground gasoline
storage tanks, accidents, or improper disposal led to the contamination of groundwater with
MTBE.
Consider a case in a suburban area where a gas station's underground fuel tank developed a small
leak, allowing MTBE to seep into the surrounding soil and eventually infiltrate the groundwater.
Over time, this contaminated groundwater began to spread, affecting private wells used by
nearby residents for drinking water.
As residents continued to consume water from their contaminated wells, they unknowingly
ingested MTBE and other organic materials. MTBE exposure has been associated with various
health issues, including an increased risk of tumors, leukemia, and thyroid problems. It was also
known for its unpleasant taste and odor, making the water unpalatable.
Local authorities initiated water quality testing and investigations after residents reported a rise
in health problems and unpleasant-tasting water. They discovered the presence of MTBE and
other organic contaminants in the well water, prompting immediate action to address the issue.
This involved providing alternative sources of clean water to affected households and
implementing remediation measures to treat the contaminated groundwater.
In this real-life example, the presence of organic materials, specifically MTBE, in the water
supply resulted in significant health concerns and necessitated costly and time-consuming efforts
to mitigate the contamination and provide safe drinking water to affected residents. It
underscores the importance of strict regulations, monitoring, and prevention measures to
safeguard water sources from organic pollutants and protect public health.
Inorganic Compounds
Inorganic compounds in water, such as heavy metals like copper, arsenic, barium, mercury, and
zinc, pose a serious threat to the environment and human health. Let's elaborate on this and
provide a real-life example.
1. Copper is often used in plumbing and industrial processes. When copper-containing
wastewater from factories or corroded copper pipes enters water bodies, it can exceed
safe levels. In real life, a copper mining operation might release excessive amounts of
copper into a nearby river, leading to contamination that harms aquatic life.
2. Arsenic is a naturally occurring element, but it can be found in higher concentrations in
groundwater due to geological factors. In regions like Bangladesh and parts of India,
people have suffered from arsenic poisoning by consuming water from contaminated
wells, leading to severe health problems.
3. Barium compounds are used in drilling fluids for oil and gas extraction. When these
fluids are not properly managed, barium can find its way into nearby water sources. For
instance, if an oil well has a blowout, barium-containing drilling fluids can contaminate
nearby rivers, affecting aquatic ecosystems.

4. Mercury is released into water bodies primarily from industrial processes, such as
coal-fired power plants. Once in the water, it can be converted into methylmercury, which
bioaccumulates in fish. In real life, the consumption of mercury-contaminated fish has led
to serious health issues, particularly in indigenous communities that rely on fish as a
staple food source.
5. Zinc is commonly used in galvanized steel and as a component in various industrial
processes. Runoff from construction sites, industrial facilities, or urban areas can carry
zinc into rivers and streams. In the Chesapeake Bay, for example, high zinc
concentrations have been linked to urban and industrial runoff, affecting aquatic
ecosystems.
These real-life examples highlight the widespread issue of heavy metal contamination in water,
demonstrating the critical need for strict environmental regulations and responsible waste
disposal practices to mitigate the health and environmental risks associated with inorganic
compounds in water.
Macroscopic Pollutants
Macroscopic pollutants are large, visible objects that can be easily spotted in water, and one of
the most prominent examples of such pollutants is plastic waste. Let's elaborate on this concept
and provide a real-life example:

1. Plastic Waste: Plastic is a non-biodegradable material that poses a significant
environmental threat. One of the most famous instances of plastic pollution is the "Great
Pacific Garbage Patch." This enormous collection of floating plastic debris, which is
comparable in size to France, is located in the North Pacific Ocean. It is a result of years
of illegal dumping, ocean currents, and the accumulation of plastic waste. This pollution
not only harms marine life but also poses a challenge for cleanup efforts.
2. Pieces of Metal: Abandoned or lost metal objects, such as car parts or industrial
equipment, can end up in water bodies. For example, a sunken ship with metal
components can release pieces of metal into the ocean, posing navigational hazards and
potential environmental damage.
3. Wood: Logs or wood debris from deforestation, construction, or natural disasters can be
carried by rivers and end up in oceans. These large pieces of wood can disrupt shipping
lanes and potentially damage coral reefs and coastal ecosystems.
4. Shipping Containers and Shipwrecks: Accidental cargo spills and shipwrecks can result
in shipping containers or parts of ships sinking to the ocean floor. These macroscopic
pollutants not only pose a danger to maritime traffic but can also affect marine life and
underwater habitats.
These real-life examples illustrate the visible and tangible nature of macroscopic pollutants in
water. Plastic waste, in particular, has gained global attention due to its widespread presence and
harmful impacts on marine ecosystems. Efforts to reduce the generation of plastic waste and
clean up existing pollution are critical in mitigating the environmental consequences of
macroscopic pollutants in water bodies.
Environmental Impact
The presence of these water pollutants has severe environmental consequences. Contaminated
water can harm aquatic ecosystems and the organisms within them. Pathogens can lead to the
spread of diseases, causing harm to both aquatic life and humans. Organic and inorganic
pollutants can result in long-term health issues and even mortality for species relying on polluted
water sources. Macroscopic pollutants can disrupt ecosystems, harm marine life, and contribute
to the growing global plastic waste crisis.
Solutions and Conclusion
It is crucial to address water pollution and take action to protect our water resources. Efforts to
reduce and prevent water pollution include:
1. Improved waste management:Proper disposal and recycling of waste materials to reduce
the introduction of macroscopic pollutants into water bodies.

2. Wastewater treatment: Enhanced treatment processes to remove pathogens, organic
materials, and inorganic compounds from wastewater.
3. Regulations and policies: Implementing and enforcing strict regulations to control the
release of pollutants into water bodies.
4. Public awareness: Educating the public about the importance of water conservation and
pollution prevention.
In conclusion, water pollution poses a significant threat to our environment, human health, and
aquatic ecosystems. To ensure a sustainable future, it is essential for individuals, communities,
and governments to work together to address and mitigate water pollution. Only through
collective efforts can we safeguard our precious water resources and protect the health and
well-being of all living organisms on our planet.

References:
Water pollutants - Lists, effects, examples, solved questions. (2019, December 2).
Toppr-guides.
https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/environmental-chemistry/water-pollutants/
Iowa PBS. (2015, April 28). Types of Pollutants that affect Water Quality [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yEci6iDkXYw
R. A. 9299 Republic of the Philippines June 25, 2004
NEGROS ORIENTAL STATE UNIVERSITY

NOHS (1907) NOTS (1927) EVSAT (1956) CVPC (1983)
Kagawasan Ave., Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental, Philippines 6200
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Main Campus II, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City 6200
Title
EUTROPHICATION
By:
OCTIZA, MARK ANGELO B.
Professor:
Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph. D.

What is Eutrophication?
Eutrophication is an enrichment of water by nutrient salts that causes structural changes to
the ecosystem such as increased production of algae and aquatic plants, depletion of fish
species, general degradation of water quality and other effects that reduce and preclude use”.
Lake eutrophication has become a worldwide problem of pollution. Chlorophyll-a, total
nitrogen, total phosphorus, biological or chemical oxygen demand and Secchi depth are the
most indicators to gauge lake eutrophication level.
Mechanism of Eutrophication
Eutrophication most ordinarily arises from the oversupply of nutrients, most ordinarily as
nitrogen or phosphorus, which results in overgrowth of plants and algae in aquatic ecosystems.
After such organisms die, bacterial degradation of their biomass leads to oxygen consumption,
thereby creating the state of hypoxia.
The primary limiting factor for eutrophication is phosphate. The presence of phosphorus
normally helps in excessive plant growth and decay. It also favors simple algae and plankton
and causes a severe reduction in water quality. Phosphorus may be a necessary nutrient for
plants to measure and is that the limiting factor for plant growth in many freshwater ecosystems.
 Cultural Eutrophication: It is the process that increases the rate of natural eutrophication.
Because of clearing of land and building of towns and cities, land runoff is accelerated and
more nutrients like phosphates and nitrate are supplied to lakes and rivers, then to coastal
estuaries and bays.

 Natural Eutrophication: Eutrophy occurs in many lakes in temperate grasslands.
Paleolimnologists now signifies that global climate change, or change in geology, and other
external factors are critical in regulating the natural productivity of lakes. The natural action
is extremely slow, occurring on geologic time scales.
 Lakes and rivers: When algae die, it generally decomposes. Therefore the nutrients in it are
converted into inorganic form by microorganisms. This decomposition process takes in a lot
of oxygen, which reduces the concentration of dissolved oxygen. The depleted oxygen levels
successively may cause fish kills and a variety of other effects reducing biodiversity.
 Coastal waters: Eutrophication may be a common phenomenon in coastal waters. In contrast
to freshwater systems where phosphorus is usually the limiting nutrient, nitrogen is more
commonly the key limiting nutrient of marine waters.
Terrestrial Ecosystems
Eutrophication has an adverse effect on the terrestrial ecosystem. Increased nitrates in soil are
frequently undesirable for plants. Many terrestrial plant species are endangered as a result of
soil eutrophication. Meadows, forests, and bogs have usually low nutrient content and slowly
growing species adapt to those levels.
Chemical sorts of nitrogen is a matter of concern with due to eutrophication. Terrestrial
ecosystems believe the microbial organic process to convert N2 into other forms like nitrates.
However, there’s a limit to what proportion nitrogen are often utilized. Ecosystems that receives
more amount of nitrogen than the plants’ needs are nitrogen-saturated. Hence, saturated
terrestrial ecosystems are able to contribute to both inorganic and organic nitrogen to coastal,
freshwater, and marine eutrophication, where nitrogen is additionally typically a limiting
nutrient.
Ecological Effects
Eutrophication became a pollution problem since the mid-20th century in both European and
North American lakes and reservoirs. In general, there are particularly three ecological impacts
which are troublesome: decreased biodiversity, changes in species composition and dominance,
and toxicity effects.
 Decreased Biodiversity: In aquatic ecosystems, species like algae experience a population
increase (called an algal bloom) due to rise in nutrients. Algal blooms stop the daylight from
reaching to the bottom-dwelling organisms and cause wide swings within the amount of
dissolved oxygen within the water. If we study eutrophic conditions, we will see that
dissolved oxygen rises a lot during the day, and also reduced after dark by the respiring algae
and by microorganisms that prey on the increasing mass of dead algae. As soon as dissolved
oxygen levels reduce to hypoxic levels, fish and other marine animals suffocate. As a result,
creatures like fish, shrimp, and particularly immobile bottom dwellers die out.
 Toxicity: Some algal blooms are also known as “harmful algal blooms”, are toxic to plants
and animals. It results from eutrophication. Toxic compounds can make their high organic
phenomenon, leading to animal mortality. Dead algae release neuro- and hepatotoxins which
may kill animals and hence pose a threat to humans.

 New species invasion: Increased nitrogen content might allow new, competitive species to
invade and out-compete original inhabitant species. This process causes shifts within the
species composition of ecosystems.
Prevention and Reversal
Eutrophication poses a drag not only to ecosystems but to humans also. Reducing
eutrophication should be a key concern when considering a future policy. A sustainable
solution for everybody, including farmers and ranchers, seems feasible.
Shellfish in estuaries: One proposed solution to prevent and reverse eutrophication in estuaries
is to revive shellfish populations, like oysters and mussels. Oyster reefs helps in removing
nitrogen from the water column and filter suspended solids. Thus, subsequently reducing the
extent of harmful algal blooms or anoxic conditions.
Seaweed farming: It helps to adapt to global climate change. Seaweed, like kelp, also absorbs
phosphorus and nitrogen. It is thus useful to get rid of excessive nutrients from polluted parts
of the ocean. Some cultivated seaweeds have really high productivity and will absorb large
quantities of N, P, CO2, producing a great deal of O2 have a superb effect on decreasing
eutrophication.
Minimizing nonpoint pollution: Nonpoint pollution is that the most difficult source of
nutrients to manage. The subsequent steps are recommended to attenuate the quantity of
pollution which will enter aquatic ecosystems from ambiguous sources.
 Riparian buffer zones: Studies show that intercepting non-point pollution between the
source and therefore the water may be a successful means of prevention. Riparian buffer
zones are interfaces between a flowing body of water and land and are created near waterways
in an effort to filter pollutants.
 Prevention policy: New policies and laws to regulate the discharge and treatment of sewage
have led to potential nutrient reductions to surrounding ecosystems. But it’s generally agreed
that a policy, regulating the agricultural use of fertilizer along with animal waste must be
imposed.
 Organic farming: According to a study it is found that organic farming “significantly reduce
harmful nitrate leaching” compared to conventionally fertilized fields.
Geo-engineering in lakes: Geoengineering is the manipulation of biogeochemical processes.
Usually, it is the phosphorus cycle, to realize a desired ecological response within the
ecosystem. Phosphate is one of the major cause of algal growth, mainly cyanobacteria, so once
phosphate is reduced the algal isn’t ready to overgrow.
Eutrophication occurs in 4 simple steps:
 EXCESS NUTRIENTS: First, farmers apply fertilizer to the soil. Then, excess nutrients
runoff from the field into the water.
 ALGAE BLOOM: Next, the fertilizer rich in nitrate and phosphate sparks the
overgrowth of algae in water bodies.
 OXYGEN DEPLETION: When algae form, it blocks sunlight from entering water and
uses up oxygen. Eventually, water becomes oxygen-depleted.
 DEAD ZONES: Finally, water that is completely depleted of oxygen becomes a dead
zone and can no longer support life.

REFERENCES
https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/environmental-chemistry/eutrophication/
https://earthhow.com/eutrophication-causes-process-examples/
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
By:
Charlotte Jave Y. Omandam
Professor:

What is Solid Waste Management?
The term solid waste management mainly refers to the complete process of collecting,
treating and disposing of solid wastes. Solid waste can be domestic, agricultural or even industrial
wastes. ‘Waste’ is generally identified as goods or material that are perceived to be mostly
valueless. However, objects that are perceived to be waste based on consumers’ object valuation
can be redefined to create value. This requires a multitude of efforts using different strategies in
waste prevention and management. In the waste management process, the wastes are collected
from different sources and are disposed of. This process includes collection, transportation,
treatment, analysis and disposal of waste. It needs to be monitored so that strict regulations and
guidelines are followed.
Solid waste management is considered a pressing global issue calling for an immediate
response from the government and its people. The Philippines has a continuously rising amount of
waste and is expected to further increase in the succeeding years. As reviewed, associated problems
with solid waste management in the country include an increasing amount of solid waste, weak
law implementation, scarcity of sanitary landfills, and improper disposal. The ultimate solution
existing in the country is the RA 9003 or the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000
which highlights the practices of segregation, proper disposal, and waste diversion.
Types of Solid Waste
 Municipal Solid Waste. (MSW)
- ore commonly known as trash or garbage—consists of everyday items we use and
then throw away, such as product packaging, grass clippings, furniture, clothing,
bottles, food scraps, newspapers, appliances, paint, and batteries. This comes from
our homes, schools, hospitals, and businesses.
- Municipal solid waste can further be divided into biodegradable, recyclable and
hazardous domestic wastes. The biodegradable waste includes rotten food,
vegetable peel and mostly wet kitchen waste. Recyclable waste includes plastic and
hazardous wastes include, bulb, batteries, etc.
 Hazardous Solid Waste.
- Hazardous wastes are wastes or products that have the potential to harm humans or
the environment, either now or in the future.
- Common methods for disposing of hazardous wastes are land disposal and
incineration Industries need to be encouraged to generate less hazardous waste in
the manufacturing process. Although toxic wastes cannot be entirely eliminated,
technologies are available for minimizing recycling and treating the wastes.
 Industrial/Commercial Waste.
- Industrial waste means solid waste generated by manufacturing or industrial
processes. Commercial waste means solid waste generated by stores, offices,
restaurants, warehouses and nonmanufacturing activities at industrial facilities.
The 3 R’s of Solid Waste Management
Waste production can be minimized by adopting the 3 R’s principle:
 Reduce
 Reuse
 Recycle
Reduce (Waste Prevention):
Waste prevention, or “source reduction,” means consuming and discarding less, is a
successful method of reducing waste generation. Backyard composting, double sided copying of
papers, purchasing durable, long- lasting environmentally friendly goods; products and packaging
that are free of toxics, redesigning products to use less raw material production and transport
packaging reduction by industries are the normal practices used and have yielded substantial
environmental benefits.
Source reduction prevents emissions of many greenhouse gases, reduces pollutants the
need saves energy, conserves resources, and reduces wastes for new landfills and combustors. It
reduces the generation of waste and is generally preferred method of waste management that goes
a long way toward saving the environment.
Reuse:
Reuse is the process, which involves reusing items by repairing them, donating them to
charity and community groups, or selling them. Reusing products is an alternative to recycling
because the item does not need to be reprocessed for its use again. Using durable glassware, steel
using cloth napkins or towels, reusing bottles, reusing boxes, purchasing refillable pens and pencils
are suggested.
Recycling:
Recycling involves some form of reprocessing of waste materials to produce another
product. For example, recycling plastic bottles to make buckets. This helps to reduce the need for
landfill and more costly forms of disposal. Recycling also reduces the need for extracting (mining,
quarrying and logging), refining and processing raw materials all of which create substantial air
and water pollution.
Methods of Solid Waste Management:
Landfills are engineered areas where waste is placed into the land. Landfills usually have
liner systems and other safeguards to prevent polluting the groundwater.
Energy Recovery from Waste is the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials into
useable heat, electricity, or fuel.
Transfer Stations are facilities where municipal solid waste is unloaded from collection
vehicles and briefly held while it is reloaded onto larger, long-distance transport vehicles for
shipment to landfills or other treatment or disposal facilities
Source reduction, or waste prevention, is designing products to reduce the amount of
waste that will later need to be thrown away and also to make the resulting waste less toxic.
Recycling is the recovery of useful materials, such as paper, glass, plastic, and metals, from
the trash to use to make new products, reducing the amount of virgin raw materials needed.
Composting involves collecting organic waste, such as food scraps and yard trimmings,
and storing it under conditions designed to help it break down naturally. This resulting compost
can then be used as a natural fertilizer.
Effects of Poor Solid Waste Management
Due to improper disposal of solid waste particularly by waste management organizations,
the collected wastes gets heap up and become a problem for both the environment and also for the
public.
By dumping of huge garbage, drives biodegradable materials to decay and decompose
under abnormal, uncontrolled and unhygienic conditions. After a few days of decomposition, it
becomes a breeding ground for different types of disease-causing insects as well as infectious
organisms. A foul smell is produced and it also spoils the aesthetic value of the area.
The solid wastes collected from different industries include toxic metals, chemicals, and
other hazardous wastes. When these wastes are released into the environment, they can produce
biological and physicochemical problems to the environment, the chemicals may drain into the
soil and pollute the groundwater and also alter the productivity of the soils in that particular area.
In rare cases, the hazardous wastes may get mixed up with the ordinary garbage and other
combustible wastes causing the disposal process even harder and risky.
By burning the paper and other scraps along with the hazardous wastes, dioxins and
poisonous gasses are produced and released into the air which results in causing various diseases
including chronic disease, skin infections, cancer, etc.
Solid waste management is important because it safeguards public health, preserves the
environment, and conserves resources. It prevents the spread of diseases, reduces pollution, and
minimizes greenhouse gas emissions. By recycling and reusing materials, it reduces the demand
for raw resources and creates economic opportunities. Overall, effective waste management
ensures a cleaner, safer, and more sustainable future for communities worldwide.
References
https://www.routledge.com/Solid-Waste-Management-Chemical-Approaches-Volume-1/Chauhan-
Sevda/p/book/9781032039008#
https://www.learnz.org.nz/redvale181/bg-standard-f/the-5-r%27s-of-waste-
management#:~:text=As%20citizens%20of%20a%20society,recycle%2C%20recover%20and%20residual%
20management.
https://byjus.com/biology/solid-waste-management/
https://www.vedantu.com/biology/solid-waste-management
https://www.neliti.com/publications/411212/a-long-standing-problem-a-review-on-the-solid-waste-
management-in-the-
philippine#:~:text=The%20Philippines%20has%20a%20continuously,sanitary%20landfills%2C%20and%2
0improper%20disposal.
https://archive.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/web/html/
https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/hazardous-waste
REDUCE / REUSE / RECYCLE
By:
Orcia, Ruscelle Von S.
Professor:

Introduction to The 3r’s Waste Management
Reduce, reuse and recycle is a motto used by environmentalists and is often called the "3Rs". It
was agreed upon at the G8 Sea Island Summit in June 2004 as a new G8 initiative which means
to reduce waste, minimise consumption and ensure the best overall approach is adopted for the
environment and human health. Such programmes when managed at national and/or
local levels can save money, energy and natural resources.
Reduce, reuse and recycle are part of the ‘waste hierarchy’ guidance tool which ranks waste
management options according to what is best for the environment and also
considers resource and energy consumption. It aims to extract from products the maximum
practical benefits and generate minimal waste. The priorities in the hierarchy are based
on sustainability.
Waste Management Hierarchy
Indicates an order of preference for action to reduce and manage waste, and is usually presented
diagrammatically in the form of a pyramid. The hierarchy captures the progression of a material
or product through successive stages of waste management, and represents the latter part of
the life-cycle for each product.
The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to
generate the minimum amount of waste. The proper application of the waste hierarchy can have
several benefits. It can help prevent emissions of greenhouse gases. Reduce pollutants, save
energy, conserve resources, create jobs and stimulate the development of green technologies.
REDUCE
Is to reduce or to lessen the waste you created in or outside your household. The most important
way to reduce waste is to reduce spending. The secret is only to buy the things we need in the
proper quantity. We wouldn't need to extract raw materials, create items from scratch, develop
packaging, use more resources for shipping, and then figure out how to get rid of them if we
never produced them in the first place.
● HOW TO BUY AND HOW TO USE IT
⮚ SHOPPING - waste start at the supermarket. By making a slight alteration to your
shopping list you can significantly reduce waste created in and around the room.
- Buy only what you need
- Buy products that can be reused
- Bring your own bag or buy products with less packaging
- Sell or give unwanted items
● THINK BEFORE YOU THROW
⮚ THROWING - some items that you would normally consider as garbage might be
of use to other purposes. So instead of throwing items away, reduce waste by
using them for other purposes.
- Use cardboard, newspaper, and plastic bags as packaging materials.

- Used small containers to store odds and ends.
- Use plastic bottles as watering for plants
- Paper bags can be used as shopping bags
REUSE
Is to utilize an object or thing for another purpose. The idea behind recycling is that the used
materials in our lives can be repurposed as resources rather than waste. If we take a close look at
the things we discard, we can learn to recognise them as resources that can be used to meet daily
needs and solve issues. You can start brainstorming and coming up with ideas once you've
decided to use waste for good. Reusing reduces costs, saves resources, and satisfies the creative
drive in people, but don’t confuse reuse from reduce, while reduce use to reuse materials it is
mainly on to cut back the amount of waste you generate contrary to reuse it is to find new ways
to use things that otherwise would have been thrown out.
● LEARN HOW TO REUSE
⮚ Find new use for old items. When it’s time to throw something out, think about
other possible ways to use it. Glass jars, for example, can become storage for your
crafting area or shop. Old bath towels can be cut up and used as wash rags. Plastic
pop bottles take on a new life as bird feeders. Make a woven basket or tray out of
old magazines. And the toothbrush you’re replacing is the perfect scrub brush for
hard-to-reach areas.
Example:
- You can use old towels and sheets torn into little pieces as dust rags.
- Old tires can be used in the play area and garden.
- Update computer instead of buying new pc.
- Reuse cardboard box as containers.
- Purchase drinks in reusable containers.
RECYCLE
Recycling is gathering and processing materials (such as bottles and cans) that would otherwise
be thrown away to transform them into something fresh and beneficial. Recycling is the last —
and most commonly used — of the 3 Rs. Recycling is changing discarded materials into new
products in order to avoid using more virgin resources. Recycling is essential for maintaining a
clean environment and local communities. We lessen our influence on nature by employing
recycled materials to create new products.
● HOW AND WHAT TO RECYCLE?
⮚ The third 'R' is about making sure you separate items that can be recycled,
meaning they can be used for a new purpose.
Materials that can be recycled include:
Glass & plastic paper & cardboard metal & aluminium batteries & components
⮚ Glass | Glass is broken down into fragments called "Cullet" not wider than 5 cm.
Glass fragments are separated by colour. Silica, which is melted down and shaped
into new goods, is used to make glass.

⮚ Plastics | Polyethylene terephthalate, high-density polyethene, polyvinyl chloride,
low-density polyethene, polypropylene, and polystyrene are the six chemicals that
makeup plastic. The physical characteristics of each plastic are determined by its
molecular structure, which makes some plastics easier to recycle than others.
Large carbon chains make up plastic; therefore, some types can be melted down
and reformed, others can be combined with new plastic, and yet others can only
be molded into different shapes for various applications.
⮚ Newspaper & Cardboards | is one of the easiest-to-recycle and most-recycled
materials. By shredding the papers and cardboards into pieces, water and
chemicals is then added then heated turning it into fibres. Some gets turned into
egg cartons, building insulation, paper plates, kitty litter, construction paper,
phone books, sheetrock and new newspaper.
● BENEFITS OF RECYCLING
▪ Reduces the need for land filling and incineration
▪ Lessens pollution
▪ Saves energy
▪ Decrease emission of greenhouse gasses that contribute to global
climate
▪ Conserve natural resources
▪ Sustain the environment for future generation
ARE THERE ANYMORE ‘R’s?

● Rethink can be added to the start of the list. It means we should think about the way
our actions impact the environment.
● Recover is sometimes added to the end of the list. It refers to the act of putting waste
products to use. For example, decomposing garbage produces methane gas, which can
be recovered and burnt to produce energy
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?
The 3Rs is a sustainable and environmentally conscious method of transforming waste into
valuable products, preventing the unnecessary destruction of potentially valuable items. By
reprocessing materials like plastic, paper, glass, metal, tires, electronics, and textiles, we reduce
the demand for fresh raw materials, energy, and natural resources. Composting and reusing
biodegradable waste such as food scraps, kitchen refuse, and garden waste are integral parts of
recycling.
This approach significantly decreases the volume of waste generated, preserves vital
environmental resources, mitigates environmental pollution, and curtails greenhouse gas
emissions. Consequently, our ecosystem thrives despite increasing demands, ensuring its
preservation for future generations.
In addition to recycling, another eco-friendly practice is reuse, wherein products are creatively
repurposed, conserving resources and energy. This method alleviates the strain on industrial
production, leading to reduced industrial pollution. Simultaneously, both costs and requirements
for waste disposal decrease.
Apart from its environmental benefits, recycling proves to be a financially sound strategy for
businesses and consumers alike. It is more economical than constantly purchasing new items.
Reusing, in particular, stands out as an effective approach to conserve energy and reduce the
overall expenditure associated with the production of goods and materials. In summary, learning
about the 3Rs in waste management is crucial for environmental conservation, resource
preservation, energy conservation, economic benefits, and overall sustainability. It empowers
individuals, communities, and businesses to make informed choices that contribute to a healthier
planet for current and future generations.

REFERENCES
https://www.slideshare.net/rebina/reduce-reuse-and-recycle-3r
https://www.naturalhomebrands.com/blogs/news/the-importance-of-the-three-r-s
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_hierarchy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_management
https://www.env.go.jp/recycle/3r/en/outline.html#:~:text=The%203R%20Initiative%20aim
s%20to,as%20a%20new%20G8%20initiative.
https://www.solarschools.net/knowledge-bank/sustainability/reduce-reuse-
recycle#:~:text=The%203%20'R's%20%E2%80%93%20Reduce%2C,used%20for%20a
%20new%20purpose.
https://school.careers360.com/reduce-reuse-recycle-essay-essy
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Reduce,_reuse,_recycle
https://roguedisposal.com/resources/education/recycling/exploring-the-three-rs-of-waste-
management-reduce-reuse-
recycle#:~:text=Reduce%20means%20to%20cut%20back,playground%20equipment%20
and%20recycling%20bins).
https://www.recyclenow.com/how-to-recycle/paper-recycling
Chemical Safety: Introduction
By:
Regencia, Darwin D.
Professor:

Chemical Safety: Introduction
Chemical Safety is achieved by undertaking all activities involving chemicals in such a
way as to ensure the safety of human health and the environment. It covers all chemicals, natural
and manufactured, and the full range of exposure situations from the natural presence of chemicals
in the environment to their extraction or synthesis, industrial production, transport use and
disposal.
Chemical safety has many scientific and technical components. Among these are
toxicology, ecotoxicology and the process of chemical risk assessment which requires a detailed
knowledge of exposure and of biological effects.
Through the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), WHO works to
establish the scientific basis for the sound management of chemicals, and to strengthen national
capabilities and capacities for chemical safety.
Chemicals are part of our daily life. All living and inanimate matter is made up of chemicals
and virtually every manufactured product involves the use of chemicals. Many chemicals can,
when properly used, significantly contribute to the improvement of our quality of life, health and
well-being. But other chemicals are highly hazardous and can negatively affect our health and
environment when improperly managed.
The production and use of chemicals continues to grow worldwide, particularly in
developing countries. This is likely to result in greater negative effect on health if sound chemicals
management is not ensured. Multisectoral action is urgently needed to protect human health from
the harmful effects of improperly managed chemicals.

Sustaining many of our activities, preventing and controlling diseases, and increasing
agricultural productivity. However, one can not ignore that these chemicals may, especially if not
properly used, endanger our health and poison our environment.
An estimation of one thousand new chemicals enter the market every year, and about
100000 chemical substances are used on a global scale. These chemicals are mostly found as
mixtures in commercial products. One to two million such products or trade names are available.
More substances and rising production mean more storage, transport, handling, use and
disposal of chemicals. The whole lifecycle of a chemical should be considered when assessing its
dangers and benefits.
Most chemical accidents have a limited effect. Occasionally there is a disaster like the
one in Bhopal, India, in 1984, with thousands of deaths and many people permanently disabled.
Not only the worker handling chemicals is at risk. We may be exposed to chemical risks
in our homes through misuse or by accidents. The environment may be affected, chemicals may
pollute the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat. They may have entered into
forests and lakes, destroying wildlife and changing the ecosystems.
Chemicals are not all of equal concern. The assessment of health risks of chemical
substances is a continuous process where information of the chemical hazards and exposure
patterns are made available through a variety of sources.

No chemical substance can cause adverse effects without first entering the body
or coming to contact with it.There are four main ways, that is routes of exposure, for chemical
substances to enter the human body:
 Inhalation (breathing in)
 Absorption (through the skin or eyes)
 Ingestion (eating, swallowing)
 Transfer across the placenta of a pregnant woman to the unborn baby
Innovations in chemistry have helped improve our quality of life for centuries in a variety
of ways. Products of chemistry support agriculture by helping people to produce and raise healthy
crops and livestock. Through chemistry, food can be preserved and packaged safely and
efficiently. Chemistry has also given us products that can help prevent or control the spread of
diseases, clean our homes effectively and sanitize medical equipment.
Thanks to innovations in chemistry, automobiles can be manufactured to be light weight
and more fuel efficient; building materials can be made to be more durable and resilient; and
electronics like cell phones, computers and televisions have enhanced functionality to meet the
technology needs of today’s consumers.
While chemistry can provide numerous benefits
to society, we must still safely and
responsibly manage how chemicals are used.
And to do that, we need to consider the scientific
information available.
To determine a chemical substance’s safety, researchers and experts primarily rely on two key
categories of information:
 The potency, or hazardous nature of the chemical; and
 The degree of our exposure to the chemical.
The mere presence of a chemical ingredient in a product does not automatically mean it will
cause harm. Any substance—even water—can be toxic if too much is ingested or absorbed into
the body. The extent to which a specific substance may have harmful effects depends on a variety
of factors, including how much of the substance a person is exposed to, the route of exposure, and
the length of time they are exposed.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES
Substitution
 Replace the hazardous chemical with another less dangerous one
Engineering control
 Enclosed process
 Ventilation
Reducing exposure
 The number of exposed workers
 Reducing the length of time and/or frequency of exposure

Monitoring
 Working environment
 Medical monitoring of workers
Hazard communication
 Labelling of chemicals
 Chemical Safety Data Sheets
Training
 Use of chemicals
 Emergency situation
 First aid training
 Provisions and legislation in concern
Disposal of Chemicals: Carefully, follow instructions on disposal of waste chemicals. You will
be instructed to dispose of chemicals into designated waste containers. Check labels of all waste
containers. If no specific instructions given, you will do the following: a. You will dispose of
liquids and solutions by pouring them down the sink one at a time accompanied by running water.
Never mix chemicals in the sink; avoid unexpected reactions. b. Solid chemicals, insoluble
material, and filter paper are to be disposed of into the trash bin (not in the sink).
REFERENCES
https://www.who.int/health-topics/chemical-safety#tab=tab_1
https://www.who.int/health-topics/chemical-safety#tab=tab_2
https://www.chemicalsafetyfacts.org/health-and-safety/understanding-chemical-safety/
https://training.itcilo.org/actrav_cdrom2/en/osh/kemi/ctm1.htm
Z
PESTICIDES
By:
Sabolleros, Miguel J.
Professor:

PESTICIDES
Pesticides are chemical or biological substances designed to control, repel, destroy, or
mitigate pests such as insects, fungi, weeds, and rodents that can threaten crops, public health, or
ecosystems.
Pesticides have been used for crop protection for centuries, but their modern development
accelerated with the introduction of synthetic chemicals in the mid-twentieth century. They play a
crucial role in agriculture by safeguarding plants from various threats and improving crop yields.
While they have considerably increased agricultural production and disease vector control, there
are worries about their impact on the environment, non-target species, and human health. Among
the primary issues linked with pesticide use are the possibility of pesticide residues in food,
environmental contamination, and the development of pesticide-resistant pests.
Types of Pesticides
These substances come in various forms, including herbicides, insecticides, fungicides,
rodenticides, bactericides and larvicides.
● Herbicides is primarily used in agriculture & known as weedkiller and are
chemicals used to manipulate or control undesirable vegetation.
● Insecticides are chemicals used to control insects by killing them or preventing
them from engaging in undesirable or destructive behaviors.
● Fungicides are chemicals that kill or prevent the growth of fungi and their spores.
● Rodenticides are chemicals that kill rodents, including mice and rats.
● Bactericides are chemical (such as bleach) or physical (such as heat) substances
that kill bacteria, whether pathogenic or not.
● Larvicides are chemicals applied to breeding habitats to kill mosquito larvae.
Usage of Pesticides
Agricultural Applications
Pesticides are indispensable in agricultural production. Agricultural applications
of pesticides involve the use of chemical or biological agents to manage and mitigate pest-
related issues in farming. This includes the protection of crops from insects, diseases, and
weeds, ultimately enhancing agricultural productivity and crop yields. They have been used
by farmers to control weeds and insects, and their remarkable increases in agricultural
products. Therefore, pesticides play a critical role in reducing diseases and increasing crop
yields worldwide.
Non-agricultural Applications
Non-agricultural applications of pesticides refer to the utilization of pesticides in
contexts other than agriculture. Pesticides are also commonly applied in non-agricultural
settings to maintain residential and commercial landscaping/turf, prevent structural damage
to buildings, eradicate disease vectors, and maintaining open spaces in utility and road
right-of-ways. This can encompass pest control in residential settings, industrial facilities,
public health efforts (e.g., controlling disease-carrying insects), and maintaining
landscapes and green spaces.

Importance in Pest Control
Pesticides play a vital role in pest control by suppressing or eradicating harmful
organisms that can negatively impact human activities, ecosystems, and health. They help
in safeguarding crops, preventing disease transmission, preserving structures, and
maintaining overall quality of life by managing pest populations effectively.
Environmental Impact
Pesticides are harmful substances that are deliberately released into the environment.
Although each pesticide is designed to kill a specific bug, a considerable percentage of pesticides
end up somewhere other than their intended target. Pesticides quickly contaminate the air, ground,
and water when they flow off from fields, escape storage tanks, are not properly discarded, and
are sprayed aerially.
● Effects on Non-Target Species
Effects on non-target species pertain to the unintended harm or disruption
caused by pesticides to organisms or wildlife that were not the intended target of
the pesticide application. This may include harm to beneficial insects, birds, or
other non-pest species. Animals may be poisoned by pesticide residues that remain
on food after spraying. An application of pesticides in an area can eliminate food
sources that certain types of animals need, causing the animals to relocate, change
their diet, or starve. Poisoning from pesticides can even make its way up the food
chain; for example, birds can be harmed when they eat insects and worms that have
consumed pesticides.
● Water Pollution
Water pollution resulting from pesticide use refers to the contamination
of aquatic ecosystems, such as rivers, lakes, and groundwater, due to the runoff of
pesticides from fields or other application sites. This can harm aquatic life and
affect water quality. Fish and other aquatic biota may be harmed by pesticide-
contaminated water. Application of herbicides to bodies of water can cause plants
to die, diminishing the water’s oxygen and suffocating the fish. Repeated exposure
of some pesticides can cause physiological and behavioral changes in fish that
reduce populations, such as abandonment of nests, decreased immunity to disease,
and increased failure to avoid predators.
● Soil Contamination
Soil contamination occurs when pesticides used in agriculture or other
applications leach into the soil, potentially leading to long-term harm to soil quality,
beneficial microorganisms, and the overall health of the land. Soil quality is higher
without chemicals and this allows for higher water retention, necessary for plants
to grow.
● Impact on Biodiversity
The impact on biodiversity resulting from pesticide use refers to the
potential harm or disruption to the variety of plant and animal species within a given
ecosystem due to pesticide applications. Excessive use and misuse of pesticides
result in contamination of surrounding soil and water sources, causing loss of

biodiversity, destroying beneficial insect populations that act as natural enemies of
pests and reducing the nutritional value of food. This can affect the balance of
species and ecosystems.
Human Health Concerns
Pesticides are potentially hazardous to other creatures, including humans, and must be
handled and disposed of responsibly. They are among the top causes of self-poisoning death, with
the burden falling disproportionately on low- and middle-income countries.
● Pesticide Residues in Food - Pesticide residues in food refer to the small amounts
of pesticides that may remain on or in food products after they have been treated
with pesticides during the production process. The presence of such residues can
raise concerns about food safety and potential health risks for consumers.
● Occupational Exposure - Occupational exposure to pesticides occurs when
individuals who work in agriculture, pest control, or related industries come into
direct contact with pesticides during their job tasks. This can include exposure
through handling, application, or maintenance of pesticide-treated areas.

● Acute and Chronic Health Effects - Acute health effects are immediate and
short-term health problems that can result from exposure to pesticides, such as
poisoning or allergic reactions. Chronic health effects, on the other hand, are long-
term health issues that may develop over time due to repeated or prolonged
exposure to pesticides, including conditions like cancer, neurological disorders,
or reproductive problems.
Regulation and Safety Measures
Regulation and safety measures in using pesticides are crucial to protect human health
and the environment. Governments typically have strict regulations in place to ensure that
pesticides are used safely and effectively. These regulations often require pesticide applicators to
be trained and certified, prescribe specific application methods, and establish allowable pesticide
residue levels in food. Safety measures include the use of protective clothing, respiratory gear, and
the implementation of buffer zones to minimize pesticide drift. Here are some tips for safer pest
control:
● The most effective way to reduce risks posed by pesticides is to use non-chemical
control methods to reduce or eliminate pest problems. Around the home, such measures
include:
o removing sources of food and water (such as leaky pipes); and
o destroying pest shelters and breeding sites (such as litter and plant debris).
● If you decide you must use pesticides, always read the label first and follow the
directions to the letter, including all precautions and restrictions.
● Don't use products for pests that are not indicated on the label and don't use more
pesticide than directed by the label. Don't think that twice the amount will do twice the
job.
● Use protective measures when handling pesticides as directed by the label, such as
wearing impermeable gloves, long pants, and long-sleeve shirts. Change clothes and
wash your hands immediately after applying pesticides.
Alternatives to Pesticides
The importance of seeking alternatives to traditional pesticides lies in reducing health
and environmental risks. These alternatives promote sustainable agriculture, protect biodiversity,
and prevent pesticide resistance, ensuring a safer and more balanced approach to pest control.
● Biological Control – Biological Control is the use of living organisms to suppress pest
populations, making them less damaging than they would otherwise be. Organic farming
is an agricultural practice that emphasizes the use of natural and sustainable methods to
grow crops and raise livestock. It avoids the use of synthetic chemical pesticides and
fertilizers, focusing on organic and environmentally friendly techniques to promote soil
health and biodiversity.
● Organic Farming - Organic farming is an agricultural practice that emphasizes the use
of natural and sustainable methods to grow crops and raise livestock. It avoids the use
of synthetic chemical pesticides and fertilizers, focusing on organic and environmentally
friendly techniques to promote soil health and biodiversity.
● Genetic Engineering - Genetic engineering, also known as genetic modification, is a
biotechnological method that involves altering the genetic makeup of organisms,
including crops. In agriculture, it is used to create genetically modified organisms
(GMOs) with specific traits, such as resistance to pests or tolerance to certain
environmental conditions.
● Sustainable Agriculture - Sustainable agriculture is an approach to farming that seeks
to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs. It involves practices that are environmentally responsible,
economically viable, and socially equitable, aiming to promote long-term ecological and
agricultural sustainability.
Significance of Pesticides
Chemistry for Engineers
Pesticides hold great significance in the realm of chemistry for engineers.
Engineers are instrumental in developing the chemical formulations of pesticides, ensuring
their effectiveness and safety. They play a pivotal role in designing analytical techniques
and instruments for detecting pesticide residues, contributing to the precision and reliability
of environmental and food safety assessments. Moreover, engineers are at the forefront of
mitigating the environmental impact of pesticides, devising innovative solutions to reduce
contamination, improve application precision, and develop eco-friendly alternatives. They
also design safety equipment and practices to safeguard workers who handle pesticides,
and engineer compliance systems to meet regulatory standards, making pesticides a key
intersection between chemistry and engineering disciplines, addressing both efficacy and
environmental responsibility.
The interdisciplinary nature of pesticides bridges the gap between chemical
knowledge and engineering expertise, allowing for the development of safer and more
effective pest management solutions.
Computer Engineers
Pesticides may not have direct significance to computer engineers, as their field
typically focuses on computer hardware, software, and systems. However, indirectly,
computer engineers might contribute to the development of technology and data analysis
tools used in agriculture and pest management. These technologies can help optimize
pesticide use, monitor crop health, and analyze data related to pest control, which can
benefit the agricultural sector and those involved in pesticide application and regulation.
Conclusion
Pesticides have played a vital role in agriculture and pest control for centuries,
significantly improving crop yields and public health. However, their modern development has
raised concerns about their environmental impact and human health risks. Various types of
pesticides are used in agricultural and non-agricultural applications, with potential consequences
for non-target species, water and soil quality, and biodiversity.
These chemicals can also pose risks to human health through pesticide residues in food
and occupational exposure, resulting in acute and chronic health effects. To mitigate these risks,
pesticide regulation and safety precautions strategies have been implemented.
Alternatives to pesticides, such as biological control, organic farming, genetic
engineering, and sustainable agriculture, offer more environmentally friendly approaches to pest
management. Pesticides are of significant importance to chemistry for engineers, who are crucial
in their formulation, safety, and environmental impact reduction. The interdisciplinary nature of
pesticides highlights the role of engineers in ensuring safer and more effective pest control
solutions while advancing the field of chemistry for practical and sustainable applications.
Additionally, although computer engineers typically focus on computer technology, they can
indirectly contribute to agriculture by developing tools for optimized pesticide use and data
analysis, benefiting the agricultural sector.
References:
Admin. (2023, May 25). Pesticides - definition, types, uses, and harmful
effects. BYJUS. https://byjus.com/chemistry/pesticides/

Approaches to the biological control of insect pests. (n.d.). CT.gov -
Connecticut’s Official State Website.
https://portal.ct.gov/CAES/Fact-Sheets/Entomology/Approaches-
to-the-Biological-Control-of-Insect-
Pests#:~:text=Summary-,Biological%20control%20is%20the%20u
se%20of%20living%20organisms%20to%20suppress,predators%2
C%20parasitoids%2C%20and%20pathogens.
Claydon, S. (2022, May 27). Pesticides in our Environment - Pesticide Action
Network UK. Pesticide Action Network UK. https://www.pan-uk.org/our-
environment/
Genetic engineering. (n.d.). Beyond Pesticides.
https://www.beyondpesticides.org/resources/genetic-engineering/overview
Mahmood, I., Imadi, S. R., Shazadi, K., Gul, A., & Hakeem, K. R. (2016). Effects of
pesticides on environment. In Springer eBooks (pp. 253–269).
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-27455-3_13
Pesticides & human health. (n.d.). Californians for Pesticide
Reform. https://www.pesticidereform.org/pesticides-
human-health/
Stehle, S., Bline, A., Bub, S., Petschick, L. L., Wolfram, J., & Schulz, R.
(2019). Aquatic pesticide exposure in the U.S. as a result of non-
agricultural uses. Environment International, 133, 105234.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105234
Tudi, M., Ruan, H. D., Wang, L., Lyu, J., Sadler, R., Connell, D., Chu, C.,
& Phung, D. (2021). Agriculture development, pesticide application
and its impact on the environment. International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(3), 1112.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031112
CARCINOGENS
By:
Sapuan, Cyril Josh P.
Professor:

What is a carcinogen?
Carcinogens are agents in the environment capable of contributing to cancer growth.
Carcinogens can be categorized into two different types: activation-dependent and activation-
independent, and each nature impacts their level and type of influence when it comes to
promoting cancer growth. Activation-dependent carcinogens require metabolic activation or
modification to induce cancer, while activation-independents ones do not.
A carcinogen is anything that causes cancer. Carcinogens may be environmental elements such
as chemicals, metals or gases, or substances that encounter the body through eating, drinking, or
smoking. Some infections as well as certain medical procedures and treatments are also
considered carcinogenic.
Some well-known carcinogens include:
• Tabacco smoke
• Radiation
• Sunlight
• Alcohol
National, international, and federal organizations and research groups help to label chemicals and
substances as carcinogens. Among others, these include the International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC) and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ National Toxicology
Program (NTP).
How do carcinogens cause cancer?
Cancer is caused by mutations (changes) in the DNA of cells. Carcinogens may lead to these
changes in different ways:
• Some carcinogens cause the mutations directly.
• Other carcinogens cause cells to change in some way, such as dividing faster than they
normally would, which over time increases the chances of a mutation happening.
The likelihood that exposure to a carcinogen leads to cancer is affected by several factors, such
as:
• How much exposure the person has had and for how long.
• How the exposure happened (for example, through the skin vs. inhalation)
• Age and genetic predisposition to certain cancers
Who decides if something is a carcinogen?
In the United States, the National Toxicology Program (NTP) evaluates research and publishes
lists of known and possible carcinogens. The International Agency for Research on Cancer
(IARC) also evaluates research and publishes its findings.
In general, both agencies rely on laboratory tests and epidemiology research (studies in people)
to determine if a substance is a carcinogen.
The most recent NTP report lists 63 carcinogenic substances. The report also lists 193 substances
that may cause cancer. The most recent IARC research lists 122 substances known to cause
cancer, 93 substances that probably cause cancer and 319 substances that may cause cancer.
What are types of carcinogens?
The IARC has three categories of carcinogens:
Physical carcinogens, like ultraviolet rays from the sun and ionizing radiation from sources like
radon in homes or X-rays and other medical imaging tests.
Chemical carcinogens, like asbestos, tobacco smoke, beverages containing alcohol, aflatoxin (a
fungus that contaminates food) and arsenic that appears naturally in the air, water, and soil.
Biological carcinogens, such as infections from certain viruses, bacteria or parasites.
Examples of carcinogens.
Tobacco: The leading cause of cancer and death from cancer is tobacco. Smoking tobacco
(cigarettes, cigars, and pipes) may cause lung, larynx, mouth, esophagus, throat, bladder, kidney,
liver, stomach, pancreas, colorectal and cervical cancers, as well as acute leukemia. Any amount
of tobacco use is considered risky but quitting—even among people who have been diagnosed
with cancer—may reduce the risk of death.
Alcohol: The more alcohol someone drinks, the higher the risk of certain cancers, such as head
and neck cancer, esophageal cancer, liver cancer, breast cancer and colorectal cancer. The U.S.
government’s “2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans” publication recommends up to one
drink per day for women and up to two drinks per day for men to keep the cancer risk from
rising.
Sunlight: UV radiation from sunlight, as well as from tanning beds, damages skin and may lead
to skin cancer. Wearing a wide-brim hat, covering up with clothing, applying sunscreen, and
limiting time spent in the sun may reduce the risk.
Radon: This is a colorless, odorless gas. You may be exposed to radon when you’re inside
buildings like businesses, schools or even your own home. Radon is the second leading cause
of lung cancer.
Formaldehyde: Studies suggest people exposed to high levels of formaldehyde in the workplace
have an increased risk of acute myeloid leukemia and rare cancers in their nasal cavities and
sinuses.
Asbestos: Asbestos once was a common form of insulation. You may be exposed to asbestos if
you spend time in buildings constructed before 1989, when the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) banned all new uses of asbestos. Asbestos is linked to malignant
(cancerous) mesothelioma, lung cancer, laryngeal cancer and ovarian cancer.
Processed meat: Meat that’s been transformed by salting, curing or smoking is linked
to colorectal cancer. There’s been speculation that certain foods or minerals are implicated in
cancer risk, such as the black char on grilled meat, acrylamide in French fries and other foods,
fluoride, and artificial sweeteners.
Medical procedures and treatments
Certain medical procedures and treatments are known carcinogens.
For example, X-rays, positron emission tomography (PET) scans, computed tomography (CT)
scans and radiation therapy all carry some cancer risk due to the radiation that has the potential
to damage cells. Typically, the levels are low enough to not present a significant risk.
Hormone therapy to treat menopause may also increase the risk of certain cancers, such as breast
and endometrial cancer. The hormone estrogen, contained in these therapies, is a known
carcinogen. In the case of both tests and treatments, oftentimes the benefits may outweigh the
cancer risks.
Environmental and occupational carcinogens
Carcinogens may be present in the environment where people live or work. While environmental
and occupational safety regulations exist to keep people safe from these carcinogens, those who
work or live near certain industries may still face increased risks of cancer.
How to avoid exposure to carcinogens
Unfortunately, you can’t avoid all carcinogens. But you can avoid some known carcinogens by:
• Not using tobacco.
• Avoiding beverages containing alcohol.
• Getting vaccinated against viruses that are considered carcinogens.
• Protecting your skin from the sun and other sources of ultraviolet radiation.
Limiting exposure to carcinogens when possible is important for lowering the risk of cancer—
quitting tobacco use or limiting alcohol consumption are some examples. Vaccines and
treatments may reduce the risk of cancer from infectious carcinogens, such as human
papillomavirus (HPV). Environmental and occupational safety regulations also help workers and
communities avoid dangerous exposure to carcinogens.

However, some carcinogens may be unavoidable. Ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun are
carcinogenic, but it’s not possible or even healthy to always avoid the sun. Because it may take
many years to study the effects of a given substance on the body, other carcinogens may not yet
be known. Experts are always studying possible carcinogens in the lab and population studies.
REFERENCES
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogen
https://www.cancercenter.com/risk-factors/carcinogens
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/25081-carcinogens
FOOD ADDITIVES
By:
Sarias, Mike Ivan Angelo P.
Professor:

What is Food Additive?
Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance
taste, appearance, or other sensory qualities. Some additives have been used for
centuries as part of an effort to preserve food, for example vinegar (pickling), salt
(salting), smoke (smoking), sugar (crystallization), etc. This allows for longer-lasting
foods such as bacon, sweets or wines. With the advent of ultra-processed foods in the
second half of the twentieth century, many additives have been introduced, of both
natural and artificial origin. Food additives also include substances that may be
introduced to food indirectly (called "indirect additives") in the manufacturing process,
through packaging, or during storage or transport.
What is the purpose of using FOOD ADDITIVES?
Food additives are substances intentionally added to food products during
manufacturing to enhance their flavor, appearance, texture, shelf life, nutritional
content, and safety. They can be natural or synthetic and serve various roles in
processed foods. They are essential in the food industry for preservation, flavor
enhancement, color enhancement, texture improvement, nutrient fortification,
antioxidant protection, sweetness, pH adjustment, anti-caking agents, thickening
agents, emulsification, anti-foaming agents, and anti-microbial agents.
The 4 General Categories of Food Additives
 Nutritional additives
 Processing agents
 Preservatives
 Sensory agents
Nutritional Additives
Nutritional additives are used to restore nutrients lost during production,
fortify or enrich foods to correct dietary deficiencies, or add nutrients to food
substitutes. Fortification began in 1924 with iodine added to table salt for goitre
prevention. Vitamins are commonly added to foods to enrich their nutritional value,
such as vitamins A and D in dairy and cereal products, B vitamins in flour, cereals,
baked goods, and pasta, and vitamin C in fruit beverages, cereals, dairy products, and
confectioneries. Other additives include essential fatty acids, minerals, and dietary
fiber.
Processing Agents
Processing agents, also known as food processing aids, are substances or
materials added to foods to aid in processing or maintain desired product consistency.
They serve specific roles during manufacturing or processing, such as anticaking,
bleaching, cooling, clarifying, conditioning, emulsifying, leaving, moisture control,
pH control, and stabilizing and thickening. Emulsifiers maintain a uniform
dispersion of liquids by forming and stabilizing oil-in-water emulsions, while
stabilizers and thickeners increase the viscosity of the final product. They prevent the
coalescence of oil droplets, promote the separation of oil and aqueous phases, inhibit
ice or sugar crystal formation, and can encapsulate flavor compounds. Cooling agents
protect food products from enzymatic reactions that promote deterioration during
processing and storage by binding to minerals like calcium and magnesium.

Preservatives
Preservatives are substances added to various products to prevent spoilage,
deterioration, and microorganism growth. In food, they extend shelf life by inhibiting
microbial activity, reducing spoilage risk, and maintaining product safety.
Preservatives also act as antioxidants, protecting fats and oils from oxidation,
preventing rancidity, and extending shelf life. They play crucial functions in food
products, ensuring they maintain their intended characteristics and prevent potential
health risks.
Food preservatives are classified into two main groups: antioxidants and
antimicrobials. Antioxidants and antimicrobials are distinct substances with distinct
roles and functions. Antioxidants are compounds that delay or prevent the
deterioration of foods by oxidative mechanisms. Antimicrobial agents inhibit the
growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms in food. Antioxidants are crucial
for human health by reducing oxidative stress, while antimicrobials are used in
various industries to maintain product quality and safety.
Common preservatives used in food products include:
1. Organic acids like acetic, citric, sorbic, and benzoic acid, which inhibit
microbial growth.
2. Sodium nitrite is used in processed meats to prevent Clostridium botulinum
bacteria growth.
3. Sulfur dioxide is used in dried fruits and wine to prevent discoloration.
4. Sodium benzoate is effective against yeasts, molds, and certain bacteria.
5. Potassium sorbate is used in fruit juices and jams.
6. Calcium propionate is used in bread and bakery products to prevent mold
growth and extend shelf life.

7. Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) prevents oxidation of fruits and vegetables.
8. Tocopherols (Vitamine E) protect the freshness of oils and fats in food
products.
Sensory Agents
Sensory agents improve the sensory properties of food products like food
colour, flavour sweetener etc.
There are 3 categories under the sensory agents:
 Colorants (Natural and Synthetic colorants)
 Flavourings
 Sweeteners
Colorants
Colour is a crucial sensory characteristic in food, influencing the perception
of taste and quality. Food processing can cause degradation of natural pigments in raw
materials. Some formulated products require colouring agents, which are natural or
synthetic. Natural colorants come from plant, animal, and mineral sources, while
synthetic colorants are primarily petroleum-based chemical compounds.
 Natural colorants
Natural colorants, derived from plant tissues, pose challenges in the
food industry like inconsistent color intensities, instability, supply variability,
reactivity, and secondary flavors. They are insoluble in water and require an
emulsifier for even distribution, making them essential for food product
quality.
 Synthetic colorants
Synthetic colorants are water-soluble powders, pastes, granules, or
solutions, available in various forms. Lakes, formulated with aluminum
hydroxide, contain 10-40% of the dye and are insoluble in water and organic
solvents. Their stability is influenced by light, heat, pH, and reducing agents.
Different countries have chemically synthesized and approved colorants,
designated by specific numbering systems.
Flavourings
Food flavor is a result of the chemical senses of taste and smell stimulated by
specific food molecules. Taste reception occurs in taste buds and olfactory cells in the
nasal cavity. Flavor additives, including natural and synthetic compounds, provide the
flavor impact of a food. Natural flavourings come from plants, spices, herbs, animals,
or microbial fermentations, while artificial flavourings are mixtures of synthetic
compounds. Flavor enhancers, originating in Asia, supplement or enhance natural
flavors.
Sweeteners
Sucrose is the standard sweetener, providing energy in the form of
carbohydrates. Other nutritive sweeteners include glucose, fructose, corn syrup, high-
fructose corn syrup, and sugar alcohols. Chemically synthesizing sweeteners began in
the late 1800s with saccharin's discovery. Nonnutritive sweeteners, with greater
sweetening power than sucrose, are used in low-calorie products like baked goods,
confectioneries, dairy products, desserts, preserves, soft drinks, and tabletop

sweeteners. They are also used as a carbohydrate replacement for diabetes mellitus
and in chewing gum and candies to minimize tooth decay risk.
The Pros and Cons of Using Food Additives
Pros
The advantages of using food additives include: Increase product shelf life,
increase nutritional value, flavor addition, texture preservation, large quantity
production, prevent food poisoning, may aid in, weight loss, help companies stay
afloat, and marketing strategy.
Cons
The disanvantages of using food additives include: Pose health hazards, distort
food components, cause food poisoning, cause price increases, may cause allergic
complications, may cause digestive problems, and may promote obesity and diabetes.
References
World Health Organization. (2018). Food additives.
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/food-additives
WIKIPEDIA. (2023). Food additives
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_additive#cite_note-FDAoverview-1
Food and Drug Administration. (2018). Food Ingredient & Packaging Terms.
https://www.fda.gov/food/food-ingredients-packaging/food-ingredient-
packaging-terms
Adhikari S. (2021). Additives and Preservatives Used in Food Processing and
Preservation,and Their Health Implication
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119792130.ch2
Davidson M. & Singh P. (2023). Food additive
https://www.britannica.com/topic/food-additive/Sweeteners
Food n Health. (2022). 16 Pros And Cons Of Food Additives
https://foodnhealth.org/16-pros-and-cons-of-food-additives/
HEAVY METALS
By:
Taroy, Charlize T.
Professor:

Heavy Metal
The term “heavy metal” refers to a metallic chemical element with a high density that is
toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. Their high density gives them useful properties in
construction and manufacturing, but has been associated with toxicity.
Characteristics of Heavy Metals
Lustre: the surface of heavy metals have a gentle sheen or shiny usually with reflected light.
Ductility: heavy metals can undergo changes in their physical form without breaking.
Malleability: the shape of heavy metals can be easily distorted under compression.
Conductivity: heavy metals can effectively conduct heat and electricity.
Properties of Heavy metals
• have high densities
• toxic in nature and
• nondegradable
• they occur near the bottom of the periodic table
Sources of heavy metals
Through natural phenomena or anthropogenic origin, we can obtained these heavy metals.
These sources can be natural phenomena such as weathering and volcanic eruptions, that can
contribute to the formation of heavy metal pollution or it can be through anthropogenic origin or
change of nature caused by people such as Industrial Waste, Mining and Smelting processes,
Agricultural use of metals like machines, then those processing plants like nuclear power plant,
and Burning of fossil fuel.
COMMON HEAVY METALS
There are 9 common heavy metals:
1.Mercury
SOURCES:
•Burning fossil fuel
• Medical and municipal waste
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
Symptoms of mercury poisoning are primarily neurological, often impacting development.
Complications include brain damage, kidney damage, and circulatory failure.
2. Cadmium
SOURCES:
• Mining and smelting
• Phosphate fertilizers
• Smoking
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
Complications include coughing, anemia, irreversible kidney damage, and an increased risk of
cancer.
3. Arsenic
SOURCES:
• Smelting
• Burning coal
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
Complications include pigmentation, skin lesions, and an increased risk of cancer.
4. Chromium
SOURCES:
• Combustion
• Metal processing
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
Complications lead to fatal problems in a variety of different organ systems.
5. Thallium
SOURCES:
• Mining
• Metal processing
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
Complications have been associated with psychotic behaviour, and issues with skin, bones, and
organs.
6. Lead
SOURCES:
• Products containing lead such as paints, dishware, ceramic items, jewelry and etc.
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
Exposure to lead causes symptoms such as pain, anaemia, and organ damage.
7. Copper
SOURCES:
• Mining
• Fungicides and pesticides
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
Complications can lead to organ failure, brain damage, and death.
8. Nickel
SOURCES:
• Domestic wastewater, these are wastewater from home such as toilets, bathrooms and
kitchens.
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
Complications include death and an increased risk of cancer.,
9. Zinc
SOURCES:

• Steel production
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
Zinc toxicity include nausea, vomiting, and fatigue. Complications include dyspnoea (laboured
breathing) and gastrointestinal problems.
IMPORTANCE OF HEAVY METALS
Moving forward, heavy metals have important biochemical and physiological functions in living
organisms. Especially, Copper and zinc in particular are very useful in the body. Copper and Zinc
are essential to maintain the metabolism of the human body, copper alongside with iron to form
red blood cells which help to maintain healthy bones and nerve and zinc aids the immune system.
However, if overconsumed it can lead to poisoning.
Copper is used alongside iron to form red blood cells. It helps to maintain healthy bones, nerves,
and immune function.
Zinc aids the immune system, metabolism function, wound healing, and DNA synthesis
Heavy metals are dangerous because they tend to bioaccumulate. It is when an organism absorbs
a substance faster than it can be lost or eliminated by catabolism and excretion.
Bioaccumulation means an increase in the concentration of a chemical in a biological organism
over time, compared to the chemical’s concentration in the environment.

And also, Heavy metals is important in Computer engineering as students needs to know about
heavy metals because some of these metals are used in the manufacturing and assembly of
electronics components, such as capacitors and semiconductors.
Furthermore, understanding the properties and potential hazards associated with heavy metals can
help computer engineers develop safer and more sustainable electronics products. It can also
enable them to make informed decisions about reducing exposure to these metals during
manufacturing, recycling, and waste disposal processes.
REFERENCES:
https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/environmental-science/pollution/heavy-metals/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1573428505800201
https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/environmental-science/pollution/heavy-metals/
Radioactive Wastes
EPS 131(TA) Chemistry for Engineers
By:
Matt Angelo C. Taruc
BS in Computer Engineering
Professor:
Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela Ph.D

WHAT IS RADIOACTIVE WASTE?
Radioactive waste is a byproduct from nuclear reactors, fuel processing plants, hospitals
and research facilities. It is also generated while decommissioning and dismantling nuclear
reactors and other nuclear facilities. Radioactive waste includes elements and compounds that
produce or absorb ionizing radiation and any material that interacts with such elements and
compounds. There are two broad classifications of radioactive waste: high-level or low-level
waste. Radioactive waste is filled with persistent unstable elements or radionuclides, which emit
ionizing radiation as they decay.
Most radioactive waste comes from nuclear electricity production and military activities. However,
it is also generated in hospitals from the use of radioactive material to diagnose and treat the sick
and sterilize medical products, in universities in conducting vital research in biology, chemistry
and engineering, and in agriculture, where nuclear applications have helped produce crops that are
more drought and disease resistant, as well as crops with shorter growing periods or increased
yield – a practice that has been especially beneficial for some developing countries. As with all
radioactive sources, radioactive waste is potentially hazardous to health. Therefore, it must be
managed in a safe way to protect people and the environment. Good waste management begins
before the waste is generated: the starting point for all activities that produce radioactive waste is
to avoid or reduce waste generation at its source. Minimizing primary waste generation also
minimizes the quantity of waste requiring disposal. Various types of radioactive waste exist and
proper disposal will depend on the properties of the waste.

WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES?
Radioactive wastes are created wherever radioactive materials are used. By far the greatest
source of radioactive wastes is the nuclear fuel cycle. The mining, milling and the preparation of
fuels for reactors and weapons produce wastes containing natural radioisotopes; and fuel
irradiation and subsequent processing produce waste rich in fission products. Additional wastes
are produced by irradiation of nonfuel materials in and around reactors.
NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY
This refers to the radioactivity of materials found in nature. These materials are present in
uranium and thorium ores, nature’s nuclear fuels. Wastes from mining or milling and fuel
fabrication therefore contain this natural radioactivity, which consists primarily of the natural
radioscopes of uranium, thorium, radon (a gas) and radium.
FISSION PRODUCTS
Are produced during the irradiation of nuclear fuels in reactors are by far the largest source
of radioactive wastes in terms of contained radioactivity. When each uranium atom fissions, it
breaks into two major fragments appropriately called fission products. Fission products are
radioactive; they undergo one or more steps of radioactive decay before reaching a stable, harmless
condition. Valuable fuel material remains in the irradiated nuclear fuel is, therefore, and
inescapable part of the nuclear industry. The processing creates highly radioactive wastes
consisting not only of fission products but also some activated reactor materials, chemicals, and
corrosion products.
ACTIVATION PRODUCTS
Are produced during the irradiation of nonfuel materials located near the fuel in nuclear
reactors. Structural materials are activated (made radioactive) by the absorption of neutrons, as are
impurities in the coolant and often the coolant itself. Traces of iron, nickel, and other corrosions
products, for example, are carried along with the coolant in some types of reactors and irradiated
as they pass through the reactor.
MISCELLANEOUS SOURCE OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES
Are the more than establishments making or using nuclear products in the United States.
The radioactivity of this great variety of wastes originates in one of the ways we have just discussed
– from naturally occurring radioisotopes, fission products. These may be in many forms, including,
chemicals, solids collected in evaporators, resins, and contaminated equipment and materials.
Laboratories in hospitals, universities, and private industry procedure waste solutions
contaminated gloves and clothing, and broken glassware. Even when sealed radioisotopes devise
are used, there eventually is need for disposal when the radioactivity has decayed below useful
levels.
TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES
The main consideration for defining and categorizing waste is long term safety of disposal.
Waste is classified according to its potential hazard, and this determines the containment and
isolation required. Within the nuclear energy sector, a rough categorization divides nuclear waste
into low level, intermediate level and high-level wastes. This categorization varies slightly from
country to country, but in principle the main criteria for determining the type of waste are derived
from radioactive content and half-life, i.e., the time taken for the waste to lose half of its
radioactivity. Low and intermediate level wastes arise mainly from routine facility maintenance
and operations. Low level waste can be contaminated clothing such as protective shoe covers, floor
sweepings, paper and plastic. Intermediate level waste can be, for example, reactor water treatment
residues and filters used for purifying a reactor’s cooling water. The radioactivity ranges from just
above nature’s background level to more elevated radioactivity in certain cases, such as parts from
inside the reactor vessel in a nuclear power plant. Low and intermediate level wastes comprise
97% of the volume but only 8% of the radioactivity of all radioactive waste. High level waste
consists mostly of spent fuel from reactors. Some countries also reprocess spent fuel, which gives
rise to additional types of high-level waste. All of this high-level waste and spent fuel, when
declared as waste, poses a sufficiently high enough radiological risk that a high degree of isolation
from the biosphere is required for a long period of time. Because of the radioactivity and heat
generated, this waste has to be shielded and cooled. Whatever the type of the radioactive waste,
all of it has to be disposed of in a safe manner.
Radiation is a fact of life. Light and heat radiations are produced by the sun. Earth itself is
radioactive. Even our bodies contain radioactive material.
THINGS TO KNOW ABOUT RADIOACTIVE WASTES GENERATION
•All electricity generation forms produce waste. The most important waste from a nuclear power
plant is radioactive nuclear waste.
• Radioactive waste is also produced by military activities and beneficial practices in medicine,
research and industry.
• The world has over half a century’s experience in managing radioactive waste – the
characteristics of the waste are well known and therefore it can be safely managed.
• The main objective of waste management is to protect people and the environment, now and in
the future.
• As a term, nuclear waste management refers to practices and techniques used for all activities
(administrative and operational) involving the handling, pretreatment, treatment, conditioning,
transport, storage and disposal of radioactive waste.
• Only trained personnel are allowed to manage radioactive waste.
• There are over 440 nuclear power plant units in the world today producing three types of waste
that are roughly categorized as low, intermediate and high level wastes.
• The criteria defining these three main types of waste are derived from the waste’s radioactive
content and half-life, i.e. the time taken to lose half of the radioactivity.
• The disposal of low and intermediate level wastes is well established in several countries. Long
term safety determines the measures needed to protect people and environment.
• A number of countries have made good progress towards implementing geological disposal of
spent fuel, in particular Finland, France and Sweden.
• The mechanisms for collecting money in advance to cover waste management costs exist and
have been successfully implemented.
REFERENCE:
Fox, C. H. (1965). Radioactive wastes. Google Books.

https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=xtds5xGVi_0C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_
ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
ENVIRONMENTAL
HAZARDS
Tolentin, Cherhe Ann C.
BSCOE 1
EPS 131 TA: CHEMISTRY
ENGR. Marinela C. Bansuela Ph. D.

In today's environment of rapid evolution, environmental hazards have become a pressing
concern that affects every living being on our planet. These risks, ranging from pollution brought
on by humanity to natural disasters, gravely threaten our ecosystems, biodiversity, and general
well-being. As the global population and economy continue to expand, the impacts of these
hazards become more pronounced and in need of urgent action. This report digs down into the
various environmental hazards our society faces, analyzing causes and consequences and potential
solutions.
Now what are environmental hazards? Environmental hazards refers to the condition that may
cause harm or danger to human health or the environment itself. These hazards can be natural or
human-made that often result in negative consequences for the society, ecosystem and
individuals. Environmental hazards have the potential to cause harm to the environment, disrupt
ecological balance, and impact human communities by causing health problems, property
damage, or economic losses. Managing and mitigating these hazards are essential to ensuring
environmental sustainability and human well-being. These are threats to people and also a result
of the interaction between natural systems, technological systems and human systems.
These hazards can be classified into several categories based on their impact and origin.
a. Natural Hazards
Geological Hazards: earthquakes, landslides, and tsunamis.
Meteorological Hazards: hurricanes, tornadoes, heat waves and cold waves
Hydrological Hazards: floods, droughts, mudslides, and tsunamis
Biological Hazards: pandemics, epidemics, and diseases.
Chemical Hazards: volcanic eruptions, wildfires, and air pollution.

TYPES OF NATURAL HAZARDS
a. geological hazards
- are disasters originating from solid earth. these refer to earthquakes, landslides,
and tsunamis.
- earthquakes are movements of tectonic plates that slide past each others fault
zones a pressure is build up over a long period of time because of the friction that
slows them down and when the time comes, a force of movement finally
overcomes the friction resulting a sudden break of the crust in the form of
seismic waves.
- tsunamis are results of an earthquake that happened below or near the ocean floor.
b. meteorological hazards
- occur as a result of processes in the atmosphere.
- this includes extreme temperature, hurricanes, tornadoes, heat waves and cold
waves
- Hurricanes form over warm ocean waters when moist air rises from the surface,
creating a low-pressure system. As the air continues to rise and cool, water vapor
condenses to form clouds and releases latent heat, fueling the storm's growth. If
the conditions are favorable, with warm sea surface temperatures and low wind
shear, the storm can intensify and develop into a hurricane.
c. hydrological hazards
- extreme events associated with water
- floods, droughts
- floods are the result of excessive rainfall overwhelming the capacity of rivers,
lakes, or drainage systems to handle the increased water flow.
d. biological hazards
- are organic substances that present a threat to the health of people and other living
organisms.
- these are viruses, fungi and diseases that lead to epidemics and pandemics.
- examples of biological hazards are pathogenic microorganisms and allergens
- Pathogenic Microorganisms: Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites that can
cause diseases in humans. Examples include Salmonella bacteria, Influenza virus,
and Malaria parasites.
- Allergens: Substances that can induce allergic reactions in some individuals.
Common biological allergens include pollen, mold spores, and animal
dander(shedded tiny flakes from skin)
e. chemical hazards
- hazardous chemical that can be a solid, liquid or gas. It can be a pure substance,
consisting of one ingredient, or a mixture of substances.
- Toxic Substances: Chemicals that can cause harm or illness when ingested,
inhaled, or come into contact with the skin. Examples include lead, and certain
pesticides.
(physicochemical)
- it's examples are corrosion, the effects of wildfires and air pollution into a
human’s health
b. Human-Induced Hazards
Pollution: air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, and noise pollution.
Waste: hazardous waste, electronic waste, and plastic pollution.
Climate Change: global warming, sea level rise, and extreme weather events caused by
human activities like burning fossil fuels.
Deforestation: destruction of forests leading to loss of biodiversity and disruption of
ecosystems.
Nuclear Accidents: accidents at nuclear power plants leading to radioactive
contamination.
- nuclear accidents
air and water pollution
- one common air pollutant is NITROGEN OXIDE.group of pollutants produced
as a result of road traffic and other fossil fuel combustion processes.
- studies indicate that long-term exposure to NO2 may decrease lung function and
increase the risk of respiratory symptoms such as acute bronchitis and cough and
phlegm.
- water pollutants are caused by Radioactive waste released from facilities that
create nuclear energy can be extremely harmful to the environment and must be
disposed of properly.
- uranium, the element used in the creation of nuclear energy, is a highly toxic
chemical and when inhaled can cause lung cancer.

- waste
- hazardous waste and electronic waste.
- plastics are example of hazardous waste it take hundreds of years for plastic to
break down, leading to persistent contamination in oceans, soil, and ecosystems
when it is not disposed properly.
- climate change
- global warming which is caused by different human activities such as
deforestation and burning of fossil fuels
- Greenhouse gases trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, creating the natural
greenhouse effect that keeps our planet warm enough to support life. However,
human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels, have significantly
increased the concentration of these gasses resulting into more heat being trapped,
contributing to a rise in global temperatures
c. Technological Hazards
Industrial Accidents: chemical spills, explosions, and leaks in factories or industrial
facilities.
Hazardous Materials: improper storage, transportation, or disposal of hazardous
substances.
Infrastructure Failures: dam failures, levee breaches, and power outages.
- industrial accidents
- chemical spills, explosions, and leaks in factories or industrial facilities.
- improper storage or disposal of hazardous material.
- Infrastructure Failures
- dam failures, levee breaches, and power outages.
- Levees are typically constructed along rivers, lakes, or coastlines to confine water
within specified areas. When water levels rise above the height of the levee, it can
lead to over-topping. The pressure from the excess water can weaken the
structure, potentially causing a breach.
d. Social Hazards
Poverty: lack of access to basic resources, leading to environmental degradation and
health issues.
Overpopulation: strain on natural resources and ecosystems due to a growing population.
Conflict: wars and social unrest leading to environmental damage and displacement of
communities.
Natural hazards turn into a natural disaster when a catastrophic event causes a great deal of
damage and surpasses people's capacity for recovery and response. These hazards are often
unpredictable and can occur due to geological, meteorological, hydrological, or other natural
processes. Because hazards are threats of harm mainly to human systems, human activities play a
large role in how severe a hazard is. New Orleans and Honolulu, Hawaii built their cities in coastal
areas. These cities face the threat of rising sea levels. Natural hazards include earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, wildfires, tsunamis, storms and typhoons. The Philippines is an example of a vulnerable
country which experienced numerous natural disasters ranging from earthquakes, tropical
typhoons and flooding. Every year, the Philippines is visited by an average of 20 typhoons taking
a toll on not only infrastructures but also human life. The government, in collaboration with various
organizations, implements DRRM to ensure the safety and resilience of the communities in the
face of disasters. DRRM stands for Disaster Risk Reduction and Management, a program
implemented in the country to address its vulnerability to natural disasters. DRRM initiatives are
essential to minimize the impact of these disasters, enhance preparedness, and protect the lives and
properties of the people.
In contrast to natural disasters brought on by natural risks, man-made disasters involve human
intent, recklessness, or incompetence. Human-induced hazards are hazards that result from human
activities. These hazards are caused by various actions and decisions made by individuals,
communities, or organizations. Natural disasters have the potential to increase the consequences
of first human-caused disasters by resulting in secondary ones. Transportation systems, water and
other technological infrastructure, industrial facilities, and electricity are all susceptible to natural
disasters, and their construction may not always be strong enough to withstand the effects of the
present or future. Climate change is one of the hazards we humans have created. It is a serious
topic that has been talked about for decades. According to Rebecca Lindsey and Luann Dahlman
(2023), the earth’s temperature has risen by an average of 0.14° fahrenheit (0.08° celsius) per
decade since 1880, or about 2° F in total. The rate of warming since 1981 is more than twice as
fast: 0.32° F (0.18° C) per decade. This occurrence is made by us-humans, hence we should be the
one to solve it. Man-made hazards pose a significant threat to our environment, society, and well-
being. As we reflect on the devastating consequences of our actions, it becomes imperative to take
responsibility and work collectively to mitigate these hazards.
Our world is quickly evolving, technology has become an integral part of our daily lives,
revolutionizing the way we communicate, work, and live. However, this cannot be done without
its drawbacks. The rise of technology has also ushered in a new era of hazards, collectively known
as technological hazards, which encompass a wide range of risks arising from the use,
development, or malfunction of various technological devices and systems. These hazards include
nuclear accidents, improper storage and power outages. A well known example of a nuclear
accident occurred in Fukushima in 2011. More than 2 300 death has been recorded after that tragic
incident. The mentioned catastrophe generated a massive tsunami, with waves reaching heights of
up to 15 meters (49 feet). The tsunami waves inundated the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power
plant complex, knocking out the power supply and disabling the cooling systems of three reactors.
As the fuel rods overheated, they produced hydrogen gas. In the absence of proper venting, the
hydrogen gas built up inside the reactor buildings. In a desperate attempt to release the pressure
and prevent further damage, explosions caused by the ignition of hydrogen gas occurred in the
buildings housing reactors 1, 2, and 3. These explosions further damaged the reactor structures and
released radioactive materials into the environment. The Fukushima disaster is considered the most
severe nuclear disaster since the Chernobyl disaster in 1986. It raised concerns about nuclear safety
worldwide, leading many countries to review their nuclear energy policies and improve safety
standards.
A social hazard refers to any situation, condition, or factor within society that poses a threat to
the well-being, safety, or stability of individuals or communities. Unlike natural or technological
hazards, social hazards are rooted in human behavior, social structures, and cultural norms. These
hazards can have diverse origins and may lead to various social, economic, or political aspects.
Poverty, overpopulation and conflict or war are great factors of social hazards Poverty is a
significant social hazard that affects millions of people worldwide. It can lead to lack of access to
basic necessities such as food, clean water, education, and healthcare, resulting in poor living
conditions, malnutrition, and limited opportunities for social mobility. 50% of Filipino families,
or around 13.2 million homes, self-reported as poor, according to a poll conducted from July 22 to
July 26. The number was higher than the expected 11.3 million families (43%), which was noted
in March. The government had established a program called 4 PS. The program aims to break the
cycle of poverty by keeping children aged 0-18 healthy and in school, so they can have a better
future. In relation to that, overpopulation also plays a big role in a country's state of economy.The
Philippines 2023 population is estimated at 117,337,368 people at mid-year. Its population is
equivalent to 1.46% of the total world population. the Philippines ranks number 13 in the list of
countries (and dependencies) by population. Conflict and wars have been integral parts of human
history, shaping societies and nations in profound ways. Conflicts arise from a variety of sources,
including political, economic, social, and cultural factors. Political disagreements, resource
scarcity, religious differences, and power struggles often fuel conflicts between individuals,
communities, or nations. Additionally, historical grievances and territorial disputes contribute to
the complexity of conflicts. Countries such as Afghanistan, Central African Republic, Ethiopia,
Libya, Mali, Somalia, South Sudan, and Syria are all currently experiencing civil wars, resulting
in significant casualties and displacement. Drug wars are another form of conflict that can result
in significant violence and unrest.
In conclusion, environmental hazards pose a significant threat to our planet's delicate balance,
impacting not only the natural world but also the lives and well-being of millions of people. As
we face the challenges of climate change, pollution, deforestation, and loss of biodiversity, it is
crucial that we recognize our collective responsibility to safeguard the environment. Social hazards
not only divide communities but also stifle progress and hinder the potential of individuals. To
confront these challenges, we must collectively dismantle the barriers that perpetuate social
hazards. By fostering inclusivity, promoting education, and advocating for social reforms, we can
pave the way for a more equitable and compassionate society. Let us stand united against social
hazards, working hand in hand to create a world where every person is valued, respected, and given
the opportunity to thrive. Through raising awareness, implementing sustainable practices, and
advocating for policies that prioritize environmental protection, we can mitigate the hazards we
face. Let us stand together in the pursuit of a greener, cleaner future, ensuring that the beauty of
our planet is preserved for generations to come.
References
International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (D. Liverman, 2001)
Encyclopedia of Social Measurement (Cutter, 2005)
Environment and Society in a Changing World (Petra T.,Zimerer, Brian King , et. al.)
Climate Change: Global Temperature (Lindsey, and Dahlman 2023)
Philstar (2023)
World Nuclear Association (2016)

CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
By:
Torres, Theodore P.
Professor:

What is Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)?
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a strategy undertaken by companies to not just grow
profits, but also to take an active and positive social role in the world around them. The term is
also associated with the related term corporate citizenship. CSR is an approach that espouses the
notion that a company can do good in the world and make a difference to improve social order.
It’s a topic that can engage the board of directors in an organization, as CSR reflects company
culture and business practices. Social responsibility is a broad topic; it includes human aspects,
such as having ethical labor practices both internally and as part of a larger supply chain.
Categories of Corporate Social Responsibility

CSR is generally categorized in four ways: environmental responsibility, ethical/human rights
responsibility, philanthropic responsibility and economic responsibility.
• Environmental Responsibility
Environmental responsibility refers to the organization’s commitment to sustainability and
environmentally friendly operations. Every year, more companies are prioritizing sustainable
practices, pledging to consider their environmental impact at every stage of business. This can
mean reducing the company’s carbon footprint or greenhouse gas emissions, opting for sustainable
resources by avoiding single-use plastics and keeping environmental aspects at the heart of all
operations. However, this environmental responsibility can extend past the company’s promise to
sustainable development. If protecting the environment is a part of your corporate mission, you
can honor that by encouraging employees to take action.

EXAMPLE:
Sustainable Manufacturing Practices: Implementing eco-friendly manufacturing processes and
technologies to reduce the environmental impact of chemical production. This can include using
renewable energy sources, minimizing waste generation, and reducing emissions.
• Nestlé Cleanup
To uphold their company value of protecting the planet with environmentally friendly practices,
Nestlé Switzerland organized a volunteer week event centered around corporate environmental
responsibility. Their cleanup week coincided with World Cleanup Day, and it gave their employees
hands-on experience in helping to protect their local environment and support communities. More
than 100 employees participated across Switzerland over four days, with six Nestlé sites involved.
Thanks to this effort, Nestlé collected 110+ kilograms of trash and contributed to other
environmental benefits.
• Ethical/Human Rights Social Responsibility

Ethical responsibility refers to a company’s commitment to operate their business in an ethical
manner that upholds human rights principles, such as fair treatment of all stakeholders, fair trade
practices and equal pay. To champion ethical responsibility, many businesses will speak up in the
name of human rights injustices such as child labor, racial or gender discrimination and the fight
for a higher minimum wage. Much like with responsibility to the environment, there are ways to
endorse ethics at your company by involving employees in the process.
EXAMPLE:
Glovo Volunteer Week
Equal access to essential goods for everyone is one of the main pillars of Glovo’s commitment to
serve the community. They set out to build a volunteer program that would engage employees in
providing resources to those in need within the communities where they are located. By organizing
a global volunteer week initiative at local food banks, they supported an ethical cause that aligns
with their core business in seven countries and nine cities.
• Philanthropic Corporate Responsibility

Philanthropic responsibility refers to a corporation’s aims, goals and objectives for actively
bettering society as a whole. One huge aspect of corporate philanthropy is donating money from
company earnings to worthy causes within the local community — often in the form of a trust or
foundation. These kinds of philanthropic efforts speak volumes to your public image as a business
leader, which is crucial in today’s world. There are several ways in which businesses can
incorporate CSR in the form of philanthropy while engaging employees, including giving schemes
with the potential for donation matching.
EXAMPLE:
NatWest Giving Tuesday campaign
For Giving Tuesday, NatWest Group employees were invited to give their voice, time and money
to good causes. Alongside volunteer initiatives, they were invited to donate money to one of 11
partner nonprofits.
Through this initiative, the bank raised 425,000 pounds in donations during Giving Tuesday, with
an added 150,000 pounds in donation matching.
• Economic Corporate Responsibility

Economic responsibility refers to the practice of making financial decisions based on a
commitment to doing good. Some common examples of economic responsibility include investing
in alternative energy sources, putting more money into education programs and funding local
charities as a way of bolstering their mission. To uphold economic responsibility, business leaders
are challenged to think past operational cost savings and instead put their obligation to corporate
citizenship at the heart of all financial decisions.
Regardless of the type of CSR, consider how you’ll measure your program’s performance and
impact.
EXAMPLE:
In the chemical industry, economic corporate responsibility takes various forms, all aimed at
contributing to economic growth and stability. One fundamental aspect is job creation, as chemical
companies invest in facilities and operations that generate employment opportunities, thereby
bolstering local economies. These companies also allocate significant resources to research and
innovation, resulting in the development of cutting-edge products and technologies that have wide-
reaching economic implications across various industries.
Companies also engage in community investment, offering financial support, grants, and
partnerships with non-profits to address economic challenges, such as funding education and
workforce development programs. Moreover, chemical companies actively participate in
international trade, exporting their products to global markets, which stimulates economic growth
and contributes to the country’s export earnings.
Benefits of Corporate Social Responsibility

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is no longer a nice-to-have; it’s a need-to-have. Businesses,
small or large, are expected to lead the way in creating a progressive CSR program that gives back
to people and the planet.
Benefits:
1. CRS initiatives strive to have a positive impact on the world through
2. Direct benefits to society, nature and the community in which a business operations.
3. Internal benefits through the initiatives.
4. Members of society may be more likely to choose to transact with companies that are
attempting to make a more conscious positive impact beyond the scope of its business.
Some additional reasons businesses pursue corporate social responsibility:
Brand Recognition
Companies looking to get an edge and outperform the market, enacting CSR strategies tends to
positively impact how investors feel about an organization and how they view the worth of the
company.
Investor Relations
A company engages more in CSR, they are more likely to receive favorable brand recognition.
Employment Engagement
This type of activity is more likely to lead to lawsuits, litigation, or legal proceeds where the
company may be negatively impacted financially and be captured in headline news.
Risk Mitigation
Works are more likely to stick around a company that they believe in. This in turn reduces
employee turnover, disgruntled workers, and the total cost of a new employee.
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in the context of Computer Engineering involves
incorporating ethical and socially responsible practices into the design, development, and
deployment of technology. Benefits include enhancing a company’s reputation, attracting socially

conscious customers, and contributing to positive social and environmental impacts through
technology solutions. Examples include sustainable design practices, ethical use of data, and
promoting digital inclusivity.
CSR in Computer Engineering

Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA)
By:
Villamora, Kristine Kay S.
Professor:

Executive Summary
Occupational Safety and Health is an integral part of a workplace. In this accord, the
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act) of 1970 was established by US Congress and
signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 29, 1970. One of the agencies that OSH
act of 1970 created is the Occupational Safety and Health Administration whose primary mission
is to ensure the welfare of both working men and women. They inspect, outreach, educate, and
assist both labor and the management for bilateral benefits. The policies that were introduced by
OSH act of 1970 was later then established as well in the other states including the Philippines
which has Occupational Safety and Health Center. In computer engineering, OSHA’s standards
are more on electrical safety and machine guarding. Above all the agency’s efforts in assuring that
so far as possible, every working man and woman in the nation have safe and healthful working
conditions and to preserve human resources, it still has its greatest weakness, the absence of private
right of action or PRA which enables people to sue under the aforesaid law.
Objectives:
After going through this lesson, fellow learners are expected to:
● understand the importance of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration in
general;
● find out the role of Occupational Safety and Health Administration in Computer
Engineering; and
● recognize the limitations of Occupational Safety and Health Act and the administration
itself.
Introduction
Workers are important persons of a state. They carry a pivotal role as they contribute to the growth
of the economy. Subsequently, it is crucial to maintain the employment rate of a state as it is
generally considered to positively affect a country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the higher it
gets the healthier is the labor market of the country. In this accord, it is essential to consider the
safety and health of the employees in their workplace. In this report, we will revolve around this
topic.
Main Body of the Report
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Safety is one of the most considered aspects in a work environment. There are various
organizations and agencies established for the workers’ welfare and rights and one of them is the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration or OSHA. According to the U.S. Department of
Labor, OSHA is an agency of the United States Department of Labor, created under the
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act) of 1970 by Congress and signed into law by
President Richard Nixon on December 29, 1970.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) ensures the safe and healthful
working conditions for working men and women by setting and enforcing standards and by
providing training, outreach, education, and assistance. It is the policy of the agency to provide a
safe and healthful work environment for all permanent, temporary, and contract employees. OSHA
is not only committed to ensuring a safe and healthful work environment for others, but is equally
committed to the safety and health of its employees. The development, implementation, and
evaluation of this Safety and Health Management System (SHMS) shall be a cooperative effort
between labor and management in order to prevent injuries, illnesses, and death from work-related
causes and minimize losses of material resources (U.S. Department of Labor, 2020).
OSHA in Computer Engineering
OSHA sets the safety standards in computer engineering. The aforementioned agency
addresses issues such as electrical safety, ergonomics, hazardous materials, and machine guarding
(U.S. Department of Labor, 2020). They also conduct inspections of computer engineering
workplaces to identify any potential hazards or violations of safety standards. Inspections can be
conducted randomly or in response to complaints or reported incidents. OSHA conducts
enforcement of standards. If OSHA finds violations of safety standards, they may issue citations
and penalties to ensure compliance. They can also require employers to correct safety hazards and
provide training to employees.
Furthermore, OSHA provides resources, guidelines, and training programs to educate
employers and employees on safe work practices in computer engineering. This helps raise
awareness about potential hazards and promotes a culture of safety in the industry. The agency
collaborates with employers, industry professionals, and trade associations to develop best
practices and guidelines for safe work environments in computer engineering. They also offer
consultation services to assist employers in identifying and addressing potential hazards
proactively.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration Standards in Computer Engineering

There are several standards and regulations according to the given manual of the U.S.
Department of Labor regarding Occupational Safety and Health that apply to computer
engineering and related industries. Some of the key standards include:
1. Electrical Safety (29 CFR 1910 Subpart S): This standard addresses the safe use of
electricity in the workplace, including requirements for electrical equipment, wiring, and
protection against electrical hazards.
2. Machine Guarding (29 CFR 1910 Subpart O): This standard outlines requirements for
guarding machines and equipment to prevent amputations, injuries, and other accidents. It
includes specifications for designing and installing machine guards.
3. Hazard Communication (29 CFR 1910.1200): Also known as the "HazCom" standard, this
regulation ensures employees are informed about and trained on the hazards of chemicals
used in the workplace. It requires chemical manufacturers and importers to provide safety
data sheets (SDS) and labels with hazard information.
4. Ergonomics (29 CFR 1910 Subpart Ergonomics): Although there is no specific standard
for ergonomics in computer engineering, OSHA has guidelines addressing ergonomic
hazards in various industries. These guidelines provide recommendations for preventing
musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) related to computer workstation design, including
proper seating, keyboard and mouse placement, and display positioning.
5. Respiratory Protection (29 CFR 1910.134): If computer engineering work involves
exposure to airborne contaminants, OSHA's respiratory protection standard applies. It
requires the use of respiratory protective equipment, training on proper usage, and
evaluation of respiratory hazards in the workplace.

6. Personal Protective Equipment (29 CFR 1910 Subpart I): OSHA's general requirements
for personal protective equipment (PPE) apply to computer engineering work whenever
hazards cannot be adequately controlled by other means. This includes the use of eye
protection, hearing protection, gloves, and other protective gear as necessary.
Limitations of OSHA
The first and most fundamental weakness in the OSH Act’s enforcement regime is that it
does not provide a private right of action (PRA), the ability for a private individual to sue under
the law. OSHA itself is the only entity or party empowered to investigate or enforce potential
violations of the OSH Act or OSHA’s standards.
Other weaknesses of OSHA include:
● reliance on modest fines; and
● limited protection for whistleblowers.
OSHA in Philippines
Occupational Safety and Health Center
The OSHA version of the Philippines is the Occupational Safety and Health Center
(OSHC) which was established through Executive Order No. 307, signed by the late President
Corazon C. Aquino on November 4, 1987. The aforementioned is under the Department of Labor
and Employment or DOLE of the Republic of the Philippines.

The management is headed by the Executive Director who oversees the planning,
implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of OSHC’s operations. As of 2023, the head of OSHC
is OIC-Executive Director Jose Maria S. Batino.
The services of the OSHC cover the preventive aspects of occupational safety and health
in both public and private workplaces. As the authority on OSH, the OSHC fulfills its mission
through research, training, information dissemination, and technical services. The OSHC has a
staff of specialists in various fields of OSH and draws on national and foreign expertise when
needed.
References
BOOK (PUBLISHED)
Glickman, H. (1990). Occupational Safety and Health. In The World Book Encycopledia (1990th
ed., Vol. 14, pp. 653–654). essay, World Book, Inc.
ARTICLES
About OSHA: Occupational Safety and Health Administration. About OSHA | Occupational
Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.). https://www.osha.gov/aboutosha
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017, April 21). National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health Fact Sheet (2003-116). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2003-
116/default.html#:~:text=NIOSH%20is%20part%20of%20the,and%20Health%20Admin
istration%20(OSHA).
The Job Safety Law of 1970: Its passage was perilous. DOL. (n.d.).
https://www.dol.gov/general/aboutdol/history/osha
The OSHC story. Occupational Safety and Health Center. (n.d.). https://oshc.dole.gov.ph/about-
us/
Weaknesses in Osh Act enforcement mechanisms limit prevention of Bossware’s harms. Center
for Democracy and Technology. (2021, August 30). https://cdt.org/insights/weaknesses-
in-osh-act-enforcement-mechanisms-limit-prevention-of-bosswares-harms/
BOOKS (ONLINE)
Department of Labor. (2020). OSHA Field Safety and Health Manual.

Soil Characteristics: EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

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Soil Characteristics: EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

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SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

Gahilomo, Jun Marc L.

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D

either single-grained or massive.

compared to soil with firm consistence.

Our hands can tell the difference in particle size:

- Sand particles are the largest and feel gritty.

mix is called the "particle size distribution."

but a porous layer is better for root development.

or more in densely compacted mineral layers.

Particle Size Distribution

in a soil sample is determined by a settling method using an instrument called a hydrometer. A

microorganisms) living in the soil

EPS 131 (TA) — Chemistry for Engineers

1.1. Mechanical (Physical) Weathering

of rocks over time (Nycz, 2010)

1.2. Chemical Weathering

in water. (B. A., n.d.)

strong storms and fast-moving streams (National Geographic, 2015)

2.1. Agents of Erosion

Therefore, there are larger rocks and particles.

of bedrock crack off and join the flowing ice.

in dry areas and environments. (National Geographic, 2023)

Erosion is influenced by several natural factors. These primary factors include

climate, topography, vegetation, and tectonic activity.

Tectonic activity, such as uplift, shapes landscapes, impacting erosion dynamics.

III. Relationship Between Weathering and Erosion

Erosion transports the fragments away” (National Geographic, 2023)

which form and modify digital environments.

pieces during data transfer, influencing the flow of digital information.

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

Jeff Roel A. Garsula

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D

inorganic chemistry were united.

atmosphere or dissolved in water. Photosynthesis by green plants and photosynthetic

dioxide to produce carbohydrates.

RNA and DNA, and amino acids for proteins.

To maintain this balance—and a healthy distribution of carbon—nature recycles all

existing carbon atoms through each step of the carbon cycle.

through the planet’s many environments, including the:

● Biosphere, or all Earth’s ecosystems

● Pedosphere, or the planet’s soil mantle

● Geosphere, or Earth’s rocks and minerals

● Hydrosphere, or the planet’s water bodies

How does The Carbon Cycle happen?

The Carbon Cycle has 5 steps:

1. Carbon enters the atmosphere via carbon dioxide.

2. Carbon dioxide is absorbed and used as energy.

3. Carbon compounds enter the food chain.

4. Carbon reenters the atmosphere via respiration and decomposition.

5. The carbon cycle repeats.

What Two Processes Fuel the Carbon Cycle?

Ultimately, the carbon cycle relies heavily on two natural mechanisms:

photosynthesis and cellular respiration (also referred to as metabolism).

growth, emitting oxygen in the process.

energy, producing carbon dioxide as a result.

global reservoirs in balance.

Why Is the Carbon Cycle Important?

we know it would cease to exist.

Carbon is constantly in circulation and is neither created nor destroyed throughout

ecosystems to cool down.

radiation has nowhere else to go, the planet heats up.