EARTH SCIENCE

Lesson 1: Weathering of Rocks

★ Is the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on Earth’s surface.
★ Weathering happens not just on its own. This is possible through the following agents:
1. Water
2. Ice
3. Acids
4. Salts
5. Plants
6. Animals
7. Changes in the temperature
★ “The more exposed the rock is to weathering, the more it becomes very vulnerable to breaking”.
★ For example, rocks buried beneath the surface are less vulnerable than those rocks on the surface
areas because they are very exposed to agents like wind and water.
★ Erosion - a process that transports the tiny pieces of rocks into different areas.

★ The process of weathering and erosion is responsible for the creation of some famous landmarks
around the world.
a. Delicate Arch in Utah
b. Kapurpurawan Rock Formations in Ilocos Norte, Philippines.

★ One of the most natural creation resulted from erosion is

the canyon.
★ Canyon - a deep, narrow channel with steep sides.

Two Types of Weathering

1. Physical Weathering
★ Also known as mechanical weathering
★ takes place when rocks are broken into smaller pieces because of any natural or
anthropogenic forces.
★ only changes the physical appearance of the rock and does not alter any of its composition.
★ The following processes contributes to the physical weathering of rocks:
 1. Frost Wedging - happens when water gets inside the cracks of rocks. The water
inside the rock freezes which cause the crack’s expansion. The cracks get deepen and
more water enters and freezes.

2. Abrasion - takes place when rocks wear away because of constant collison of loose
particles.

3. Biological activity - sometimes considered a different type of weathering, biological

weathering. However, many stills acknowledges it as part of physical weathering as
the process only changes the physical appearance of rocks.

4. Salt crystal growth - another factor of physical disintegration of rocks. The force is
exerted by a salt crystal, formed when water evaporates from the rock’s pores or
cracks, causes the rock to fall apart.

2. Chemical Weathering
★ changes the composition or molecular structure of the rock.
★ For example, when carbon dioxide from the air or soil combines with water, this can
dissolve the rock. The process itself is called carbonation.
★ Carbonation - produces a weak acid, called carbonic acid. Other processes of chemical
weathering includes the following:
1. Hydrolysis - a chemical type of weathering which changes the composition of
minerals from the rocks when they react with acidic water. This results to the
 production of clays and soluble salts.

2. Oxidation - when iron in rocks get to be exposed to oxygen, it creates iron oxide. The
iron oxide produces a rusty-colored weathed surface to the rocks.

3. Dissolution - the process in which rocks weathered because of its reaction to acids.
When acidic water (rainwater with dissolved carbon dioxide) react with rocks, minerals
from the rocks dissolve leaving them with holes or cavities.

4. Microbial activity - microbes break down from rocks by changing its composition
making it more vulnerable to weathering.

Lesson 2: Earth’s Interior and Its Mechanism (Heat in Earth’s Interior)

Convection
★ One of the reasons of the heat in the Earth’s interior.
★ The process tells us that the heat in the Earth’s internal is redistributed. The less dense the material
rises and the more dense material sinks.
★ The convection occurs at the upper mantle where hot rock rises and slightly cooler rocks sinks.

3 Main Sources of Heat During Mantle Convection

1. "Primordial" heat or the left over accretion and differentiation that lead to the Earth’s core formation.
2. Decay of radioactive isotopes, which are mainly potassium, thorium, and uranium.
 3. Tidal friction from the Moon’s pull on the Earth. This process of mantle convection is the main reason
why this heat escapes from the interior of Earth.

Rocks Under Different Type of Stress

★ Rock deformation includes any change in shape, position, and/or volume of a rock in response to
stress. When layers of rocks are tilted, folded, or misplaced, this indicates that deformation has
occurred.
★ Stress is the force per unit area applied on the rock layers.
★ Strain is the change in shape or volume of the rock that undergone stress.
★ Thus, stress causes the strain on rock layers.

1. Elastic deformation - occurs when the strain is reversible. This means that the material that returns
to its original shape once the stress that deforms it is removed.

2. Ductile deformation - occurs when the strain is irreversible. Rocks layers or the materias respond to
stress bybending or deformation without breaking.

3. Fracture deformation - an irreversible strain wherein the materials breaks because these are mostly
brittle.

Folds
★ formed when rock layers or materials are deforming plastically under compressive stress. Most of
these materials do not return to their original shape. If stress is increased, the rocks may undergo
 more folds and even fructure.

3 Types of Folds
1. Monocline - occurs when there is a simple bending of rock layers so that they are no longer
horizontal.

2. Anticline - occurs when a fold bends upward.

3. Syncline - occurs when a fold bend downward.

Faults
★ occurs when too much stress is applied to rock layers.
★ Rocks will undergo fracture or rock materials will break. If there is a sudden motion along faults, it
causes the rocks to break and move suddenly. The energy released during the movement of fault
 called an Earthquake.

Slip
★ distance that rocks move sideways a fault. It can be up or down the fault plane.
★ Slip is relative because there is usually no way to know whether both sides moved or only one.
★ Fault’s dip - That angle that faults lie to the horizontal of the surface of the Earth
2 Types of Dip-Slip Faults
1. Normal faults - described when the hanging wall drops down relative to the footwall.
2. Reverse fault - when the footwall drops down relative to the hanging wall.
2.1. Strike Slip - faults are vertical fractures where the blocks have mostly moved horizontally.
2.2. Oblique - slip fault is a fault which has components of dip slip and strike slip.

Lesson 3: The Structure and Evolution of Ocean Basins

★ Earth, in its dynamic and ever-changing state, experiences constant transformations, driven by both
slow and fast processes shaping its surface and structure. Forces like wind, water, and ice contribute
to landscape evolution, while geological processes such as volcanic activity and earthquakes bring
about dramatic alterations. Over geological time spans, the gradual movement of Earth's plates
reshapes oceans and continents.

Ocean
★ Approximately 70% of Earth’s surface is water, 96.5 percent comprising oceans.

Ocean Basins
★ Dr. Gillaspy notes that active ocean basins constantly undergo change, particularly in areas with
tectonic activities.
★ In contrast, basins with slow surface changes, primarily accumulating sediment, are considered
inactive. An example is the Gulf of Mexico, where the main change is the gradual deposition of sand
and sediment.
★ The surface layer of Earth consists of a number of rigid plates that are in continual motion. These
geologic processes that occur on the surface of the Earth are weathering, erosion, mass wasting,
and sedimentation. In these processes, the role of ocean basins in the formation of sedimentary
rocks are included.
★ The planet’s surface is made up of about 70 % of ocean basins, which are the regions that are
below sea level. These areas hold the majority of the planet’s water. Thus, an ocean basin can be
thought of a large bowl that holds ocean water.
Two Main Characteristics of Ocean Basin Landforms
1. Land that exists under an ocean
 2. Includes all topographical features
These topographical features include the continental shelf, abyssal plain, mid-ocean ridge, and other
formations that may exist on the seafloor.

These features on the ocean basin are obtained by using different technologies such as:
1. Echo Sounder
★ type of sonar commonly used for a variety of tasks, including navigation, measuring bottom
depth, and detecting schools of fish and plankton.
2. Side-scan Sonar
★ a category of active sonar system for detecting and imaging objects on the seafloor.
3. Satellite Altimetry
★ measure the time it takes for a radar pulse to travel form the satellite to the sea surface and
back.

★ Sonar - used to determine accurately the time between the emission of a strong acoustic pulse, and
the detection of its echo. The measurement of ocean depths and the charting of the shape or
topography of the ocean floor can be measured which is called a bathymetry.
★ Bathymetry - the study of underwater depth of the ocean floor.
★ Using the principle of sound reflection, scientists can determine the depth of the ocean.

★ Ocean basins are areas found under the sea. These areas can be relatively inactive areas where
deposits of sediment slowly collect, or active areas where tectonic plates meet. The ocean floors
contain features that you might recognize as being similar to some structures on land.
★ The ocean floor is primarily composed of basalt and gabbro. These are darkcolored igneous rocks
with the same composition, and density (~2.9 g/cm3). However, these rocks are formed in different
environments. When the magma erupts onto the ocean floor, basalt will form. Meanwhile, gabbro
crystallizes from magma that cools within the oceanic crust.
The Structure of Ocean Basins
1. Mid-oceanic Ridges
★ This feature constitutes 23 % of the Earth’ surface. It is normally found rising above the ocean
floor at the center of the ocean basins. Some volcanic islands are part of the mid-ocean ridge
system like Iceland.

2. Ocean Trenches
★ They are long narrow, steep-sided depressions that contain the greatest depths in the ocean.

3. Abyssal Hill and Abyssal Plain

★ Another raised feature found within ocean basins. Remember that an ‘abyss’ is something
that is very deep.
★ Abyssal hill is found on the deep ocean floor.
★ Abyssal plains are so flat because they are covered with sediments that have been washed
off the surface of the continents for thousands of years.
4. Seamounts
 ★ These feature can be very large submerged volcanic mountain reaching heights up to 10,000
feet. However, they remain submerged under the surface of the water.
5. Guyot
★ It is similar to a seamount, but it is submerged volcanic mountain with a flat top. Guyot’s
structure is due to erosive processes caused by waves after years.
6. Continental Shelf
★ A shallow, gently sloping part of the continent crust.
7. Continental Slope
★ This part of the ocean basin extends and slopes after the continental shelf. The boundary
between the continental slope and shelf is called continental shelf break.
8. Continental Rise
★ This feature found gently sloping area before the ocean floor and at the base of the
continental slope and formed by emerging accumulate deposits at the mounts of many
submarine canyons.

The Evolution of Ocean Basins

★ Ocean basins formed due to tectonic forces, with volcanic rock released from fissures at mid-oceanic
ridges.
★ The oldest rocks in ocean basins date back approximately 200 million years. However, oceanic crust
is significantly younger than continental crust, as tectonic processes continuously destroy old
oceanic rocks.
★ Subduction, where oceanic crust is returned to the Earth's mantle, occurs at continental margins,
creating deep ocean trenches. This overall process aligns with plate tectonics, a theory explaining
the Earth's surface dynamics through the interaction of rigid plates with the underlying mantle.

Five Ocean Basins (frm largest to smallest)

1. Pacific
★ The largest and deepest ocean on earth is the Pacific Ocean. It covers 63,800,000 square
miles (165,200,000 square km), a third of the Earth's surface.
2. Atlantic
★ Among the major ocean basins, Atlantic Ocean has the simplest pattern of ocean-floor ages.
3. Indian
4. Southern
5. Arctic

Lesson 4: Stratified Rocks

★ Earth changes through its natural processes either in slow or in rapid way.
★ Erosion and weathering are some of the slow processes on Earth.
★ Landslides, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, and earthquakes are due to rapid processes.
★ The evolution of different structures and features of ocean basins were brought about by slow
processes that have been taking place on the Earth’s surface.
★ Ocean basins are the maximum sites and intrabasinal for deposition of sediments from the
continents. In areas near the active submarine volcanoes, the rate of the deposition of sediments
can be very high.
 ★ There are areas where magmatism is difficult to access due to intense building of volcanic structures
above sea level. But numerous sample of rocks have been recovered and studied through drilling,
dredging, and expeditions of small submarines to the ocean floor.
★ Some drilling expeditions have reached through the sediment cover and into the oceanic crust. The
successive Earth’s geologic events have paved the way to go further expeditions, thus adding to the
Earth’s history.
★ Another slow process that takes place on Earth’s surface is the rock formation.
★ The formation and characteristics of rocks provide us information regarding the past. There are
natural processes that influence rock layering such as weathering, erosion, heat, pressure,
compacting, cementing, cooling, and melting. Cross-sectional examination of large masses of rocks in
a certain place can be the best way to understand the historical events on the surface of the Earth.

Bedding
★ is also called stratification which describes the sedimentary rocks layering, and sometimes, the
layering found in metamorphic rock.
Sedimentary Rocks
★ is a type of a rock formed by the accumulation of sediments with subsequent cementation of mineral,
or organic particles on ocean floor or other bodies of water at the Earth's surface.
Strata
★ Also referring to rock layers
Stratigraphic Law
★ basic principles use and applied by geologists to determine the age and characteristics of a rock
layers
Stratigraphy
★ the study of rock strata or layers
Nicholas Steno
★ A Danish scientist who studied the relative positions of sedimentary rocks.
★ Steno made mention that solid particles settle according to their relative weight and size. First to
settle is the largest and heaviest one while the smallest and lightest are last to deposit. He said that
layering is the most evident feature of sedimentary rocks. Particle size and composition of the
materials contributed much to the layering.
★ The scientific discipline concerned with the description of rock successions and their interpretation in
terms of a general time scale is called stratigraphy. This discipline provides a basis for historical
geology and found application such as petroleum and archaeology. Moreover, through the use of
stratigraphic concept and data, the process of locating reservoir traps has been done significantly.
★ A rock strata is composed of preserved and fossilized species. This understanding helps the
scientists to piece together the evolutionary history of a group of organisms and Earth’s history as a
whole.
★ Grand Canyon in Arizona is the good example of rock stratification.
This place is a natural formation distinguished by layered bands of red rock that reveals millions of
years of geological history in a cross-section.
★ Geologists conduct studies that locate rocks and how rock layers are formed. Moreover, geologists
use the term ‘rock strata’ in a generic sense when referring to many rock layers that appear over large
 areas and found almost everywhere. They are also interested in determining layers in separate strata
that are exactly the same age.
★ Geologists are 'earth detectives' who need clues that can help explain what happened in the past.
Through correlation geological technique, information about the changes that have taken place at
various times in Earth history can be recorded. There are two ways to correlate rock strata such as by
comparing the physical characteristics of strata with each other (physical correlation); and by
comparing the type of fossils found in various strata (fossil correlation).
★ However, during rock formations, unconformities represent erosional surfaces or intervals of missing
strata that can be traced and mapped over great distances. The amount of missing rock section
represented by an unconformity can also vary from place to place.

Fundamental Principles of Stratigraphy

★ In 17th century, Nicolaus Steno, a Danish scientist and theologian, presented the organic origin
known as fossils. This was the time when the guiding principles of paleontology and historical
geology began to worked on by few individuals. Besides, the major objective of this work is to
establish the history of Earth from its origin to the present. In geologic history, the geometric
relationships of rocks with respect to each other, such as layered rocks or strata, the relative ages of
which may be determined by simple principles application.
★ Stratification is the process by which layers of soil and debris are laid down on top of one another
over time can be related to making ‘mango float’. First, you place down the first layer of crust
(biscuits), then sliced ripe mango on top of that, then whipped cream, then another layered of crust,
and so on. There is no way for you to put the bottom layer of crust on before you add the cream on,
and still maintain the same sequence of these different layers.
1. The Principle of Original Horizontality
★ This law states that most sediments when deposited will form a horizontal or nearly
horizontal strata under the action of gravity.
2. The Principle of Lateral Continuity
★ This principle states that layer of sediment initially extend laterally sideways in the same
order. There are similar rocks but separated by a valley or other erosional feature, still, they
can be assumed to be originally continuous. In the same manner scientist can correlate layers
at one location to another.
3. The Principle of Superposition
★ This geochronology law states that in any uninterrupted structure of rocks deposited in layers,
the youngest layer is on top and the oldest on bottom. The rock fragments must be older
than the rock containing fragments.
4. The Principle of Faunal Succession
★ William Smith, an English engineer in the late 1700s, developed this principle. He noticed
that the same vertical changes in fossils are embedded in rocks occurred in different places
through time. With this, we know that the rocks are the same age when we find the same
kinds of fossils in rocks from different places.

★ Geologists can tell the relative ages of the rock layers through geologic events occurring at one
location and of the same age.
 ★ This process or system is called correlation which developed by geologists for correlating rocks by
its similarities in composition, sequences, and location.
★ The geologists used the index fossils which are existed for a very short time and where distributed
over a large geographic area.

Lesson 5: Dating of Rocks and Geologic Time

★ Our country is an archipelago with so many rocks.
★ The provinces of Cebu and Bohol for instance, possessed one of the oldest tocks in the country
according to Philippine Bureau of Mines and Geosciences.
★ A magmaic rock was found in Cebu Island and was dated with radioactive isotopes and same rocks
were also found in Bohol.

Relative Rock Dating

★ This is used to determine the comparative or relative age of the rock to each other. However, this
technique cannot give the exact age of the rock. It is only used to arrange geological events based
on rock strata.
★ Relative rock dating is guided by the three basic laws which is known as Steno’s Laws, authored by
Nicolaus Steno.
Three Basic Laws of Relative Rock Dating (Steno’s Laws)
1. Law of Superposition
★ this states that the older stratum lie below the younger layer.
2. Law of Crosscutting
★ states that any feature such as fault that cuts across a sequence of rocks is younger than
everything it cuts.
3. Law of Inclusion
★ states that any rock, fragment, clast or intrusion that is included inside of another rock is
older than the rock in which it is included.
Absolute Rock Dating
★ Also called "Radiometric Dating."
★ This technique is used to determine the absolute age of the rock.
★ In this technjque, the decay rate of radioactive isotopes which are embedded in the rock are
measured. Isotopes are elements with equal number of protons but different masses.
Three Types Of Absolute Dating
1. Carbon Dating
★ Carbon dating or radiocarbon dating is a good technique in determining the absolute age of
fossils found in rocks.
2. Potassium Dating
★ Absolute rock dating is potassium-40. It has a half-life of 1.25 x10 E9 years when it
undergoes a beta decay.
3. Uranium Dating
★ The radioactive isotope used to determine the absolute age of zircon crystal was uranium
which decayed into lead atoms.

★ Younger rocks can be dated using carbon-14.

 ★ Igneous rocks contain the radioactive isotopes which make them good for radiometric dating. In
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, scientists will look for the presence of igneous rocks imbedded
in them to determine their absolute ages.

Rocks Ages and Geologic Time

Chronostratigraphy - branch of stratigraphy that studies the ages of rock.

★ Scientists use Geologic Time Scale or GTS to explain which event on earth occurred first and which
event occurred last. This GTS is a chart that mark as a guide on the earth’s major events in its
history. The discovery of the fossils and the oldest rocks are the bases of these markings in the GTS.
★ Geologic Time Scale is divided into time span.

Eon: (2 Major Eons In The GTS)

★ Eon - largest time span.
★ There are only two major eons in the GTS and these are Precambrian and Phanerozoic.
1. Precambrian
★ divided by Hadean, Archean and Proterozoic events in the GTS.
★ The Earth’s history before the formation of the first and oldest rock belong in this time.
★ This time span lasted from 4.6 billion to 541 million years ago.
★ The rocks that belong in this time contain half of the earth’s deposits of 11 minerals.
★ The appearance of the multicellular organism also appeared in this eon. In this eon also, the
first soft bodied invertebrates appeared and the first bacteria and blue green algae begin to
free oxygen to the atmosphere.
2. Phanerozoic Era
★ The Phanerozoic eon is subdivided into 3 major eras. These 3 eras are paleozoic era which
means ancient life; mesozoic era which means middle life and cenozoic era which means
present life.
★ An era is subdivided into Periods.
★ The Paleozoic Era has 6 periods: The Permian, Carboniferous, Devonian, Silurian,
Ordovician, and Cambrian periods.
a. Permian period- known as the “age of amphibians”
b. Carboniferous period- is famous for its vast swamp forests
c. Devonian period- It is know as the “Age of Fishes”
d. Silurian period- is where the first insects appeared
e. Ordovician period- It is where corals first appeared
f. Cambrian period- Is the age of trilobites
★ The Mesozoic Era has 3 periods and these are: Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous period.
a. Triassic period- Wherein dinosaurs are dominant in this period
b. Jurassic period- Wherein birds first appeared in this time
c. Cretaceous period- It is the mark of the extinction of dinosaurs
★ In the Cenozoic era of the Phanerozoic eon, the ice age occurred.
★ Period - subdivided into Epochs.
★ Epoch - time scale which is longer than an age but shorter than the period.
★ In the Carboniferous period, there are two epochs, namely: Pennsylvanian and Mississippian.
 ★ Epoch - subdivided into Ages.
★ The Mississippian epoch has 3 ages. These are Tournaisian, Visean, and Serpukhovian.
a. Tournaisian period- It is the lowest stage or oldest age of the Mississippian, the oldest
subsystem of the Carboniferous.
b. Visean period- is a division of geological time within the Carboniferous Period
c. Serpukhovian period- It is the uppermost stage or youngest age of the Mississippian, the
lower subsystem of the Carboniferous.
★ In order to identify the ages of the rocks and fossils found in our planet through exhumation,
scientists use radiometric dating which uses the radioactive isotopes present in the exhumed
artefacts. After determining the age of the artefact, the age is compared to the geologic time scale
above.
★ For example, in the fossil record, the trilobites were dated to some 540 to 488 million years ago and
they belong to the Cambrian period. Trilobites are the relatives of the present day crabs and lobsters.
The absolute age of the young rock in Figure 5 below could be identified by Carbon-14 dating. Once
the absolute age has been computed using the radioactive isotope present in the rock, the scientists
will then compare its age with the Geologic Time Scale to tell which period it belong

Lesson 6: Geologic History of the Earth

Index Fossils
★ The word 'fossil' means anything dug out of the earth.
★ Fossils are actually remnants, impressions or traces of plants and animals preserved in strata of the
earth that give evidences of their presence in the geological past.
★ Only a small percentage of ancient living remnants is preserved as fossils, and usually only those
that have a solid and rigid skeleton were preserved.
★ Fossil provides the record about the age of the rock.
★ Index fossils are the ones that tell us the most about it.
★ Index fossils commonly known as guide fossils are those that are used to define periods of geologic
time. These fossils are commonly found and are widely distributed. Fossils are used for the
determination of the age of organic rocks and other fossil assemblages and also help to establish
relationships between rock units.
★ Index fossils are used by geologists and paleontologists as significant aids to determine the
correlation and age of rock sequences. They are used as indices to define and identify geologic
periods. A good index fossil provides simple ways to calculate the relative age of rock beds as well
as helps in dating other fossils found in the other sedimentary layer.

Since most fossil-bearing rocks are formed within the ocean, the marine organisms are considered then as
the major index fossils.

To be an index fossil:
1. An organism must have lived only during a short part of the Earth's history;
2. Many fossils of the organisms must be found in rock layers;
3. The fossil must be found over a wide area of the Earth;
4. The organism must be unique.
 ★ Any type of organism can be distinctive, but not so many are widespread. A number of important
index fossils are from organisms that start life as floating eggs and infant stages, allowing them to
populate the world using ocean currents. The most successful of these became abundant, yet at the
same time, they became the most vulnerable to environmental change and extinction. Thus, their
time on Earth may have been confined to a short period of time, and this characteristic is what makes
the best index fossils.
★ Let's try to consider trilobites. It is a very good index fossil for Paleozoic rocks that lived in all parts of
the ocean. Trilobites belongs to a class of animal and just like mammals or reptiles, the individual
species within the class had noticeable differences. Trilobites evolved continually throughout their
existence and that evolution lasted 270 million years from Middle Cambrian Period to the end of the
Permian time, or almost the entire length of the Paleozoic. Since trilobites were mobile animals, they
tended to inhabit large, even global areas. They were also hard-shelled invertebrates, so they
fossilized easily. These fossils are large enough to review without a microscope.
★ Other index fossils of this sort include ammonites, crinoids, rugose corals, brachiopods, bryozoans,
and mollusks.

Petrification
★ A process by which organic material becomes fossil and is turned into a stony substance through
the replacement of the original pore spaces with minerals. Some fossils are completely barren of
plant and animal parts but still show evidence of an organism's activities. Such traces of organisms,
which are appropriately known as trace fossils, indude tracks or trails, footprints, feeding traces,
worm burrows, borings, and preserved waste products or coprolites (fossilized feces).
★ All types of fossilized remains are abundant in sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock occurs in the form
of layers or beds. Individual beds differ considerably from each other by their structure, texture, color
etc. Under normal conditions, sedimentary rocks are laid down one over the other in ascending order;
thus superpositions of rocks are maintained. The oldest sedimentary rock lies at the bottom and the
youngest lies at the top. The Law of Superposition states that the oldest rock layer is located at the
bottom.
★ The oldest fossils in the fossil record date from 3.5 billion years ago, however it wasn't until around
600 million years ago that complex, multi-cellular life began was first preserved in the fossil record.
★ Geological Time Scale is a table showing the sequence of geological periods within the history of
earth. Its subdivisions include: Eons, Eras, Periods and Epochs.
★ The largest intervals of geologic time are Eon which covers a period of several hundred million years.
Eons has been divided into 3: Archaean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. The Phanerozoic Eon has
therefore been divided into three eras-the Paleozoic (early life), Mesozoic (middle life) and Cainozoic
(recent life).
★ All the eras named in the table are divided into periods, which are generally named after the places
in Europe where the rocks of that period were first studied. For example, rocks of the Jurassic age
were first studied in the Jura Mountain, in Switzerland and Southern Germany, and the Cambrian is
named after the Cambrian Mountains in Wales. The periods of the Caenozoic era are further
subdivided into epochs.
★ Index fossils are utilized in the formal architecture of geologic time for outlining the ages, epochs,
periods, and eras of the geologic time scale. Some of the boundaries of those subdivisions are
defined by mass extinction events, just like the Permian-Triassic extinction. The evidence for these
events is found within the fossil record wherever there's a disappearance of major groups of species
within a geologically short amount of time.