See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at:

http://www.researchgate.net/publication/26863066

Cassia occidentalis L.: A review on its

ethnobotany, phytochemical and
pharmacological profile

ARTICLE in FITOTERAPIA · SEPTEMBER 2009

Impact Factor: 2.22 · DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2009.09.008 · Source: PubMed

CITATIONS DOWNLOADS VIEWS

33 241 663

6 AUTHORS, INCLUDING:

J.P. Yadav Vedpriya Arya

Maharshi Dayanand University GNG College, Ludhiana
59 PUBLICATIONS 215 CITATIONS 4 PUBLICATIONS 61 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Sanjay Yadav Manju Panghal

BBSIPAS, Greater noida Maharshi Dayanand University
1,035 PUBLICATIONS 10,240 CITATIONS 13 PUBLICATIONS 91 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Available from: J.P. Yadav

Retrieved on: 15 July 2015
 Fitoterapia 81 (2010) 223–230

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Fitoterapia
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / f i t o t e

Review

Cassia occidentalis L.: A review on its ethnobotany, phytochemical and

pharmacological profile
J.P. Yadav ⁎, Vedpriya Arya, Sanjay Yadav, Manju Panghal, Sandeep Kumar, Seema Dhankhar
Department of Genetics, M. D. University, Rohtak – 124001, Haryana, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Cassia occidentalis L. is an annual or perennial Ayurvedic plant which is used in several
Received 27 June 2009 traditional medicines to cure various diseases. This weed has been known to possess
Accepted in revised form 5 September 2009 antibacterial, antifungal, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, anticancerous, antimutagenic and
Available online 29 September 2009
hepatoprotective activity. A wide range of chemical compounds including achrosin, aloe-
emodin, emodin, anthraquinones, anthrones, apigenin, aurantiobtusin, campesterol, cassiollin,
Keywords: chryso-obtusin, chrysophanic acid, chrysarobin, chrysophanol, chrysoeriol etc. have been
Cassia occidentalis
isolated from this plant. The presented review summarizes the information concerning the
Anthraquinones
botany, ethnopharmacologyquery, phytochemistry, biological activity and toxicity of the C.
Antimicrobial activity
Antioxidant activity occidentalis plant.
Toxicity © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Occurrence, botanical description and ethnopharmacology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

2. Phytochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
2.1. Whole plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
2.2. Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
2.3. Seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
2.4. Leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
2.5. Flowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
2.6. Fruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
3. Bioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
3.1. Antimicrobial activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
3.2. Antioxidant activity/hepatoprotective activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
3.3. Antimalarial activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
3.4. Anti-inflammatory activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
3.5. Antimutagenic/anticarcinogenic activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
3.6. Other activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
4. Toxicological studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

1. Occurrence, botanical description and ethnopharmacology

⁎ Corresponding author. H. No.-339, Sector-14, HUDA, Rohtak – 124001,
Haryana, India. Tel.: +91 1262 272563, +919416474640. Cassia occidentalis L. (Caesalpiniaceae) is an Ayurvedic
E-mail address: yadav1964@rediffmail.com (J.P. Yadav). plant with important medicinal values. It is known by various

0367-326X/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2009.09.008
224 J.P. Yadav et al. / Fitoterapia 81 (2010) 223–230

names, e.g. Coffee senna, fetid cassia, and Negro Coffee
(English). In India it is known by its various vernacular
names, the most commonly used ones are Kasamarda,
Kaasaari (Ayurveda), Kasaundi, Bari Kasaundi (Hindi),
Kasondi (Unani), Doddaagace (Kanad), Ponnaviram, Ponnar-
viriam (Malyalam), Kasinda (Telgu), Paeyaavarai and Tha-
garai (Siddha/Tamil) [1]. Coffee senna grows throughout the
tropics and subtropics including United States from Texas to
Iowa eastward, Africa, Asia and Australia [2,3]. In India, C.
occidentalis is a common weed found throughout India (up to
an altitude of 1500 m) [1] from Jammu and Kashmir to
Kanyakumari and used for a variety of purposes in indigenous
and folk medicines [4–6]. In Haryana, it grows widely im-
mediately after the rain and started disappearing in the
beginning of cold weather.
C. occidentalis is an erect, somewhat branched, smooth,
semi-woody, fetid herb or shrub, 0.8–1.5 m tall, taproot, hard,
stout, with a few lateral roots on mid section. This plant
species varies from a semi-woody annual herb in warm
temperate areas to a woody annual shrub or sometimes a
short-lived perennial shrub in frost free areas [7–9]. The stem
of the plant is reddish purple. The young ones are 4-sided,
becoming rounded with age. Leaves are alternate, even
pinnately compound, each one with 4–6 pairs of nearly
sessile, opposite leaflets, with a fetid smell when crushed,
each leaflet 4–6 cm long, 1.5–2.5 cm wide, ovate or oblong,
lanceolate with a pointed tip and fine white hairs on the
margin. The rachis has a large, ovoid, shining, dark purple
gland at the base. Stipules are 5–10 mm long, often leaving an
oblique scar. Inflorescence is a compound of axillary and
terminal racemes. The flower is perfect, 2 cm long with 5
yellowish green sepals with distinct red veins and 5 yellow
petals. The fruit is a dry, dehiscent, transversely partitioned,
faintly recurved, laterally compressed, sickle shaped legume
(pod), 7–12 cm long, 8–10 mm wide, with rounded tip and
containing 25–50 seeds. Seeds are oval shaped, 3.5–4.5 mm
wide, flattened; pale to dark brown, slightly shiny, smooth
and with a round pointed tip [10,11]. This plant is widely
consumed by animals and humans. However, some toxico-
logical effects of seeds and leaves of this plant have been
observed [12–20]. But still this plant is widely consumed by
the local people as a coffee substitute. It is a main ingredient
of Liv. 52 — a hepatoprotective polyherbal formulation [21].
C. occidentalis is regarded as ‘Edible weeds of Agriculture’
or ‘Famine food’ in a study by Humphry et al. in 1993 on two
Hausa villages [22]. She reported that nearly all villagers
(93%) protect these plants and did not remove them by
hoeing [23]. In Nasik district of Maharastra, C. occidentalis is
known as ‘Ran-tarota’. The roots of this plant species along
with roots of Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb. and Azadirachta indica
A. Juss. are kept in water. This infusion is given against the
white discharge in ladies. In Mali, an African country, C.
occidentalis is used in a malarial formulation based on a
traditional recipe comprising of three antimalarial herbs,
leaves of C. occidentalis, leaves of Lippia chevalieri and flower
heads of Spilanthes oleraces [24]. Decoction of C. occidentalis
roots with black pepper is quite useful for filarial disease [25].
In the Malyagiri hills, a decoction made from 15 leaves each of
C. occidentalis, Glycosmis pentaphylla and Vitex negundo is
used for bathing the new born baby at the end of 7th, 12th
and 21st days, to make the baby almost immune to skin
diseases by the Tanla people in Dhenkanal district of
Orissa [26]. According to ‘Bhavaprakasam’, Kasamarda (C.
occidentalis) is for constipation while in ‘Wealth of India’ it is
stated that leaves, roots and seeds are purgative [27]. A
detailed view of the ethnomedicinal uses of different parts of
this plant is given in Table 1.
2. Phytochemistry
The main plant chemicals in C. occidentalis include: achrosin,
aloe-emodin, emodin [33], anthraquinones (Fig. 1), anthrones,
apigenin, aurantiobtusin, campesterol, cassiollin, chryso-obtu-
sin, chrysophanic acid, chrysarobin, chrysophanol [34], chry-
soeriol, emodin, essential oils, funiculosin, galactopyranosyl,
helminthosporine [35], islandicine, kaempferol, lignoceric acid,
linoleic acid, linolenic acid, mannitol, mannopyranosyl, mat-
teucinol, obtusifolin, obtusin, oleic acid, physcion [34], querce-
tin, rhamnosides, rhein, rubrofusarin, sitosterols, tannins,
and xanthorine [34–36]. The study of phytochemicals of C.
occidentalis reveals that the nature and amount of phytochem-
icals vary according to climate. For example stems, leaves and
the root bark of the plant from Ivory Coast, Africa contain small
amount of saponins, no alkaloids, sterols, triterpenes, quinines,
tannins and flavonoids. However, a large amount of alkaloids
were found in the stem, leaves and fruits from Ethiopia [37].

Table 1
Ethnomedicinal importance of C. occidentalis.

Sr. No. Plant part used Ethnomedicinal use

1. Whole plant C. occidentalis plant extract (4–5 drops) is used in curing eye inflammations in Ayurveda. It is also used in Jamaican folk
medicines for curing diarrhoea, dysentery, constipation, fever, cancer, eczema and venereal diseases [28].
2. Root Infusion of roots (10–20 g) is considered beneficial in obstruction of stomach and incipient dropsy. Roots are also used as
veterinary medicines for animal diseases, and as antidote in case of poison [29]. Roots of C. occidentalis were also used
against gastric complaints, to increase lactation, in whooping cough etc. [30]. In Nigeria, the roots of this plant were boiled with
water and taken as tea for constipation and against white discharge in ladies [30].
3. Leaves Leaf paste is externally applied on healing wounds, sores, itch and cutaneous diseases. Leaves are also used on bone fracture,
fever, ringworm, skin diseases, throat infection and wounds. Twigs are used as tooth brushes. Leaves are burnt and the soot
obtained is mixed with coconut oil and applied on eye-lids for cooling sleep [31].
4. Seeds Seeds are roasted brown, pulverized, using a small amount (3 g = 1/10th of an ounce), to make tea with brown sugar, used in
Fujian as a tea substitute for the people with high blood pressure. Mature seeds are used on ring worms and as febrifuge [32].
5. Pods The 8–10 roasted pods of this plant are eaten for cough problems in India. Decoction of fruits and flowers (10 g) are used in
the treatment of mental disorders [32].
 J.P. Yadav et al. / Fitoterapia 81 (2010) 223–230
Fig. 1. Anthraquinones glycones from C. occidentalis plant.
Researchers found that seeds and roots are rich in free and
bounded anthraquinones, but the quantities differ markedly,
in general, the anthraquinone content is more in seeds and
less in leaves. Phytochemistry of different parts of the plant is
described below.
2.1. Whole plant
From the ethanolic extract of the whole plant of C.
occidentalis, 3,2′-dihydroxy-7,8,4′-trimethoxyflavvon-5 O-{-
β-D-allopyranoside-2 (Fig. 3) have been isolated [38]. The
structures have been established on the basis of chemical
evidence and spectroscopic methods. Three new C-glycosidic
flavonoids, cassiaoccidentalins A, B and C, were isolated
from the aerial parts of C. occidentalis, and their structures
with a 3-keto sugar were established on the basis of spec-
troscopic and chemical evidence [39].
2.2. Roots
C. occidentalis root samples have been reported to possess
1.9% free and 4.5% total anthaquinones. Emodin, 1,8-dihy-
droxyanthraquinone and the flavonoid quercetin were also
identified [33]. Young roots samples have been found to
possess chrysophanol and emodin. Physcion (free, bonded,
reduced and oxidized) together with chrysophanol have also
been reported [33]. Along with these known anthraquinones,
two xanthone derivatives pinselin and pigment E have also
been observed [40]. Later on new cassiollin was shown to be
pinselin [35]. Rhein investigation yielded 1,7-dihydroxy-3-
methyl xanthone in addition to pinselin [41]. Several 1,4,5-
trihydroxyanthraquinones from the root samples like Islan-
dicine, helminthosporine and xanthorine have been isolated
[34]. Rai and Shok in 1983 [42] shown that the roots contain
rhein and aloe-emodin, both free and glycosidic. Two new
bis (tetrahydro) anthracene derivatives, occidentalol-I (IV,
R1 = Me and R2 = H) and occidentalol-II (III, R1 = R2 = H)
were isolated (Fig. 2) from the roots of C. occidentalis along
with chrysophanol, emodin, pinselin, questin, germichrysone,
methylgermitorosone and singueanol-I (I, R1 = R2 = Me).
The structures were established on the basis of spectral
evidence [43]. Two sterols named β-sitosterol and campes-
terol (which usually occur together in a plant) were also
found in this plant [44]. From the callus of C. occidentalis
six anthraquinones — islandicine, chrysophanol, physcion,
emodin, questin and 7-methyl-physcion, the bianthraqui-
nones — chrysophanol 10,10-bianthrone, three tetrahydroan-
thracenes — germichrysone, methylgermitorosone and 7-
methyltorosachrysone plus the xanthone pinselin were
225
Fig. 2. Structures of Occidentol-I, II and Vitexin isolated from C. occidentalis
plant.
isolated [45]. Rai and Shok [46] found chrysophanol, rhein,
emodin and aloe-emodin in material from Nigeria.
2.3. Seeds
A toxic albumin besides chrysophanol has been detected
in the seeds of C. occidentalis [47]. From the seeds, toxins are
extracted by a solution of 25 mM NaHCo3 and 250 mM Na
Citrate [48]. After centrifuging the above solution with seeds,
a pellet comes that is actually the concentrated toxin. Its
identity is still unknown. Later on, 1,4-oxazine derivative n-
methyl morpholine has been isolated from the seed samples
[49]. Seeds also contain physcion, physciondianthron hetero-
sides and physcion condensed as homodianthrone as well
as a mixture of anthraquinones [50]. 1-glucoside of physcion
(0.018%) along with physcion (0.0068%) and two new an-
thraquinones like 1,8-dihydroxy-2-methyl anthraquinone
(0.0014%) and 1,4,5-trihydroxy-3-methyl-7-methoxy an-
thraquinone (0.0016%), chrysophanol free [51,52] and as a
glycoside were also found in seed samples [42,53]. Valeri and
Gimeno [54] recorded resin, tannins, carbohydrates and fatty
acids from the seeds. A new polysaccharide galactomannan
consisting of D-galactose and D-mannose in the proportion of
1:3.1, as well as trace amount of D-xylose was also found in
the C. occidentalis seeds [55,56]. From the seeds carbohydrates:
maltose, lactose, sucrose and raffinose are also detected [57].
There is also a report from Sudan, which indicates cardenolides
in the seeds [58]. Some other compounds which were identified
from the seeds of C. occidentalis are — 1,8-dihydroxy-2-methyl
anthraquinone, physcion, rhein, aloe-emodin, chrysophanol
and steroidal glucosides [59]. In an another study, C. occidentalis
seeds were found to possess 3.2% oil content, 45% fatty acids
with a 2:20 ratio of unsaturated/saturated, 32.7 mg/100 g total
tocopherol content [60].
2.4. Leaves
A mixture of C-flavonoids of apigenin (Fig. 3) , among them
probably vitexin and a 7-heteroside of vitexin, chrysophanol
and emodin as well as their glycosides and free physcion have
226 J.P. Yadav et al. / Fitoterapia 81 (2010) 223–230
Fig. 3. Phytochemicals isolated from C. occidentalis plant.
been reported from the leaves of C. occidentalis [42]. Bianthra-
quinone 1,1-bi-4,4′,5,5′-tetrahydroxy-2,2′-dimethyl anthra-
quinone as well as the flavone metterucinol-7-O-α-L-
rhamnoside was also isolated from leaf samples [61,62]. Other
compounds which were observed from the leaves of C.
occidentalis plant are alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, phlobatan-
nins, chrysophanol, emodin, physcion, tetrahydroanthracene
derivatives, germichrysone and occidentalins A and B. It is also
noted that germichrysone and occidentalins A and B are
anticancerous in nature (59). The water–ethanolic leaf extract
of Nigerian plants of this species showed the presence of
alkaloids, tannins, saponins and phlobatannins while flavo-
noids were absent [63].
2.5. Flowers
An analysis of flowers indicated the presence of anthra-
quinones, emodin, physcion and physcion-1-O-β-D-glucoside
as well as the ubiquitous sterol β-sitosterol [64].
2.6. Fruits
At present, only the two flavonoid glycosides 3,5,3′,4′-
tetrahydroxy-7-methoxy flavone-3-O-(2′-rhamnosyl gluco-
side) (rhamnetin-neohesperidoside) (I) and 5,7,4′-trihy-
droxy-3,6,3′-trimethoxy flavone 7-O-(2-rhamnosylglucoside)
(II) have been isolated. The bioside is present in the form of
neohesperidoside [65]. Both glycosides were found for the first
time as natural products [66]. 1,8-dihydroxy-2-methyl anthra-
quinone; 1,4,5-trihydroxy-7-methoxy-3-methyl anthraqui-
none, physcion, rhein, aloe-emodin, chrysophanol and
steroidal glycosides were also reported from pods of C.
occidentalis plant (59). A review of literature in China [60]
revealed that several glycosides have been isolated from this
herb. These are anthraquinone derivatives and include — N-
methylmorpholine, galactomannan, Cassiollin, Xanthorin, Hel-
minthosporin, Apigenin, Dianthrone heteroside, etc.
3. Bioactivity
C. occidentalis has been found to possess significant anti-
bacterial, antifungal, laxative, analgesic, chloretic and diuretic
properties [67].
3.1. Antimicrobial activity
C. occidentalis leaf extracts were found to be active against
different microbes (Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Mucor sp.
Neisseria sp. Salmonella sp., Aspergillus niger) [68]. The leaf
extract of this plant when tested against different pathogenic
bacteria was found to be active against Salmonella enteritidis
and Staphylococcus aureus while a negative effect was ob-
served against E. coli and Shigella dysenteriae [69]. In another
study on C. occidentalis leaf extracts obtained in different
solvents showed high antimicrobial activity on E. coli at
concentration between 900–1000 mg. However, E. coli was
found to be most susceptible to a hexane extract at con-
centration ranges between 500–1000 mg but there was no
antimicrobial activity exhibited against other tested micro-
organisms (Pseudomonas multocida, Salmonella typhi, S.
typhimurium, S. pyogenes, S. pneumoniae) [77]. Extracts from
the leaves, flowers, pods and bark of C. occidentalis were
tested against different bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
B. cerus, S. aureus, Proteus mirabilis and E. coli) and fungi
 J.P. Yadav et al. / Fitoterapia 81 (2010) 223–230
(Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger, A. flavus and Fusarium
oxysporum). It was found that the plant extract showed
significant antimicrobial activities against all microorganisms
and inhibition zones were comparable to that of ampicilin
and gentamycin [70–72]. When the ethanolic extract and
metabolite rich fractions of different parts of calli of C.
occidentalis were examined, it was observed that anthraqui-
nones were more effective against E. coli and S. aureus
(22 mm) while sennosides were more effective against A.
flavus (28 mm). However, when antiviral and antitumor
activity was tested, no activity of the extract was detected
[73]. The seeds of C. occidentalis possess a strong antibacterial
activity against S. aureus, B. subtilis, B. proteus and Vibrio
cholerae and against fungi A. flavus, A. niger and Trichophyton
mentagrophytes [74–76]. It was reported that an antibacterial
study of C. occidentalis on tested microorganisms like S.
aureus, S. typhi showed that these bacteria are sensitive to the
extract across all concentrations but S. typhi responded
maximally with a 16 mm zone of inhibition [78–80]. When
antibacterial activity of plants used in the traditional
medicines of Ghana with particular reference to MRSA
(methicillin-resistant S. aureus) was studied, it was found
that C. occidentalis possesses significant antibacterial activity
[35].
At the same time, mechanistic aspects of the antimicrobial
nature of C. occidentalis was also observed [80]. Ethanolic and
hot water extract of C. occidentalis was investigated for their
capacity to release sodium and potassium ions for some
selected pathogenic bacteria in the genera Bacillus subtilis,
Staphylococcus, Escherichia, Streptococcus, Klebsiella, Pseudo-
monas and Salmonella using flame photometer. It was found
that the aqueous extract was most effective in the leakage of
Na and K ions than the ethanolic extract of all organisms
except Salmonella. The aqueous extract released 2.66 ppm Na
ions on Pseudomonas aeruginosa, whereas ethanolic extract
released 13.3 ppm while the K ions released are 9.282 and
49.980 ppm for ethanolic and aqueous extracts respectively
[81]. In a further study the same group of researchers studied
the amount of protein, sodium and potassium ions released
by some pathogenic bacteria in broth cultures containing
methanolic extract from leaves of six Cassia species that
were investigated using absorption spectrophotometer. It
was observed that the amount of proteins released by C.
occidentalis greatly varies between B. subtilis (56 mg/ml) to S.
faecalis (0.6 mg/ml). Similarly, the amount of potassium ions
varies from Clostridium diphtheriae (11.50 ppm) to S. dysen-
teriae (1 ppm). Likewise the amount of sodium ions varies
from Bacillus subtilis (42 ppm) to S. marcense (3 ppm) [82].
The mechanism of action of the antimicrobial activity of the
family Caesalpiniaceae to which Cassia belongs may be
explained in terms of their ability to induce leakage of these
ions [83]. The antimicrobial [84] efficacy of the C. occidentalis
may result from damages and inactivation of enzymes
due to their ability to induce leakage of these ions [85].
Sodium ions and potassium ions have been known to affect
osmotic balances in the cell and their leakage might cause cell
lyses and eventual death. These ions are also known to
activate enzymes which are organic catalysts that mediate
biochemical reactions [82]. Most cell activity including
respiratory and biosynthetic functions are under the control
of enzymes.
227
3.2. Antioxidant activity/hepatoprotective activity
The hepatoprotective activity of aqueous–ethanolic (50%
v/v) extract of leaves of C. occidentalis was studied on rat liver
damage induced by paracetamol and ethyl alcohol by
monitoring serum transaminase, alkaline phosphatase,
serum cholesterol, serum total lipids and histopathological
alterations. The extract of leaves of the plant produced
significant hepatoprotection [86]. Few observations have
demonstrated that C. occidentalis seed extracts reduced the
DNA degradation caused by iron (II)-driven Fenton reaction.
They also noted that inhibition of DNA damage may be due
to their strong ferrous ion chelation capability. In addition,
they also proposed that it may be due to their very good
scavenging activity towards free radicals. Himoliv is a
polyherbal ayurvedic formulation in which C. occidentalis is
an ingredient (20 mg/5 ml). Investigations have suggested
that this preparation prevents the carbon tetra chloride
induced hepatotoxicity in rats [87]. They suggested that this
formulation decreases the end products of lipid peroxidation
or MDA in liver of rats which are elevated by CCl4. They also
observed that Himoliv also enhanced the protective enzymes
superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase in liver homoge-
nate of rats [87].
C. occidentalis is also used in another polyherbal formu-
lation Liv.52 tablet and syrup used extensively in the
management of Hepatitis A (HA). In this syrup, several plants
along with C. occidentalis are used like Capparis spinosa, Ci-
chorium intybus, Solanum nigrum, Terminalia arjuna, Achillea
millefolium and Tamarix gallica etc. A meta analysis of 50
clinical studies over 30 years in 4490 patients was performed
to evaluate the efficacy and short and long term safety of
Liv.52 in Hepatitis A [21]. This study concluded that Liv.52
tablets and syrups are effective and quite safe in the
management of hepatitis A. The cumulative data analysis
revealed clinical and biochemical improvements with signif-
icant symptomatic control. In addition, there was a highly
significant reduction in the mean recovery period. There were
no reported or observed significant adverse events in all trials
and the overall drug compliance was excellent [21].
3.3. Antimalarial activity
The C. occidentalis plant extract has a significant antima-
larial activity [88–90]. The ethanolic, dichloromethane and
lyophilized aqueous extracts of C. occidentalis root bark was
evaluated for their antimalarial activity in vivo, in 4-day,
suppressive assays against Plasmodium berghei ANKA in mice
[88]. No toxic effect or mortality was observed in mice
treated, orally, with any of the extracts as a single dose, of
500 mg/kg body weight, or as the same dose given twice
weekly for 4 weeks (to give a total dose of 4 g/kg). At doses of
200 mg/kg, all the ethanolic and dichloromethane extracts
produced significant chemosuppressions of parasitemia of
>60% for C. occidentalis root bark when administered orally.
The C. occidentalis was active and cause 60% chemosuppres-
sion. It is also observed that the lyophilized aqueous extract
was less active than the corresponding ethanolic extract [88].
Ethanol and chloroform extract of the C. occidentalis leaves
have been found to have good antimalarial activity. These
228 J.P. Yadav et al. / Fitoterapia 81 (2010) 223–230
extracts produce more than 60% inhibition of the parasite
growth in vitro at a concentration of 6 µg/ml [89,90].
3.4. Anti-inflammatory activity
The C. occidentalis leaves have good anti-inflammatory
activity as assayed by Sadique et al. in 1987 [91]. They have
used Carrageenan induced paw edema and cotton pellet
granuloma assay and found that C. occidentalis was maximally
active at a dose of 2000 mg/kg. They have also noted the
ability of these extracts to lower the lipid peroxide content,
gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase and phospholipase A2 ac-
tivity in the exudates of cotton pellet granuloma, resulting in
the reduced availability of arachidonic acid, a precursor of
prostaglandin biosynthesis, and/or by stabilization of the
lysosomal membrane system [91].
3.5. Antimutagenic/anticarcinogenic activity
A research effort on the search for the inhibitors of Src-
family kinases because of their involvement in many src-
oncogene modulated signal transduction pathways have
shown that C. occidentalis (a Chinese antitumor medicinal
plant) is quite active in this bioassay. They have selected Lck
(p56lck) protein tyrosine kinase as their initial target for
identification of Src-family kinase inhibitors [92]. Ethanolic
extract of Senkot tablets (Cassia senna concentrate used as
vegetable laxative), was found to be non-mutagenic while it
inhibited the mutagenicity of benzopyrene, aflatoxin B1 and
methyl methanesulfonate in the Ames histidine reversion
assay using Salmonella typhimurium tester strain TA98 and
TA100 [93]. They have also found Senkot extract completely
inhibited the mutagenicity of promutagens. Antimutagenic
effects of Senkot extract could be largely due to an interaction
with the metabolic process involved in the activation of
procarcinogens. The C. occidentalis extract is found to be
effective against the chromosomal aberrations produced by
benzopyrene and cyclophosphamide in mice [94].
3.6. Other activities
Herbolax is a polyherbal formulation that is commonly
used in treating constipation. C. occidentalis is one of the
ingredients of this preparation. A study of 30 subjects showed
the anticonstipation effect of Herbolax. It was noted that
all the patients reported smooth evacuation without any
strain and none of the patient reported purging, griping or
abdominal pain in addition, no subject complained of watery
stools, weakness, lethargy or cramps and no reoccurrence of
constipation at the end of 2 weeks [95]. C. occidentalis has an
immunostimulant activity. A new indigenous metabolic
corrective for newborns and infants called ‘Bonnisan’ is also
made up of C. occidentalis (0.5 mg/5 ml). In this formulation
C. occidentalis, Piper longum, Elettaria cardamomum and Dill
oil help to bring immediate relief from discomfort caused by
gastric wind [96]. The effect of Bonnisan on new born children
indicate that babies on Bonnisan take their feeds vigorously,
digest and assimilate them and grow and become healthier
than other babies.
4. Toxicological studies
The toxic effects of C. occidentalis in the case of animals
were found mainly on skeletal muscles, liver, kidney and
heart. In animals the toxicity dose of beans varies from as
small as 0.05% to 0.5% of body weight. The acute liver and
muscle degeneration was chiefly observed in animals [12,13].
Signs of intoxication in the chicken were weight loss,
weakness, diarrhea, hypothermia, occasionally ataxia, recum-
bency, and death. Gross lesions included paleness of skeletal
and cardiac muscles and congestion of the liver [48]. In
another study, signs of toxification were found in chickens as
focal swelling, fragmentation, and necrosis of myofibers of
the semitendinosus muscle in histological sections [14].
Toxicological studies on liver mitochondria demonstrated
lower phosphorylation ratios, respiratory control ratios, and
rates of oxygen use in treated 3- to 4-week-old chicks [15].
Seeds of C. occidentalis were found to be toxic in pigs as they
developed ataxia and other signs of neuromuscular dysfunc-
tion within 6 or 8 weeks. Toxicological studies showed
lethargy, weakness, recumbency, depression, and emaciation
in rats when fed with 1%, 2%, and 4% of seeds [16,17].
Experiments showed the toxic effects of C. occidentalis on
rabbits. The histopathological examination of rabbits revealed
that the heart and liver were the most affected organs with
myocardial necrosis and centrolobular degeneration. They
also found a reduction in cytochrome oxidase activity in the
glycogenolytic fibers, together with muscle atrophy, con-
firmed by the morphometric studies [18]. Many outbreaks of
acute childhood illnesses with severe brain dysfunction
(other than Japanese encephalitis (JE) due to consumption
of seeds of C. occidentalis occur in different parts of India. They
may be at different times and at different places [19,20,97,98].
The C. occidentalis poisoning in children seems to affect
mainly three systems—hepatic, skeletal muscles and brain
[20]. C. occidentalis pods causes poisoning and results in fatal
coma in the children of Western Uttar Pradesh. Toxicity of the
Cassia beans is dose dependent. The consumption of 1–2 pods
by a young child may not have any deleterious impact; a large
‘binge’ can lead to serious disease and death [99]. Leaves of
the C. occidentalis plant have also been found to contain
toxic phytochemicals that may be toxic to humans. A detailed
study on brine shrimps for the investigation of toxicity of
Methanolic-chloroform extract of leaves of C. occidentalis
revealed that this plant extract possesses a LC50 value at
99.5 µg/ml [100]. In another study, leaf extracts of the C.
occidentalis plant have exhibited lethality on brine shrimps at
a LC50 value of more than 1000 µg/ml [101]. In further
investigations, the aqueous leaf extract of this plant has been
found to possess hypoproteinaemic effects and the levels of
the enzymes alanine amino transferase, aspartate amino
transferase and alkaline phosphatase are significantly elevat-
ed which show C. occidentalis leaves may be slightly toxic as a
concoction for liver ailments [102]. However, in contrast, the
root, leaves and stems were found to be toxic for cattle only
when large amounts are consumed but in rats toxicity of the
leaves were observed at the dose of 12.5 g/kg body weight in
rats [103]. Arago et al., [104] studied the reproductive toxicity
of the C. occidentalis plant extract on pregnant female rats. In
this study, three groups of pregnant rats were treated orally
from the 1st to the 6th day (pre-implantation period) and
 J.P. Yadav et al. / Fitoterapia 81 (2010) 223–230
from the 7th to the 14th day (organogenic period) of
pregnancy, with doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg. They reported
that there was no significant difference between the control
and treated groups in terms of offspring/dam relationship,
placenta and ovary weights etc. However, they observed the
presence of dead fetuses in both doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg
of C. occidentalis. Badami et al., [105] studied the reproductive
toxicity of an ethanolic extract of this plant along with Derris
brevipes and Justicia simplex in rats and it was observed that
the ethanolic extract possesses a more abortifacient type
effect than the anti-implantation activity. The ethanolic
extract also exhibited weak estrogenic activity when given
alone and tested in immature ovariectomized female albino
rats.
5. Conclusion
The scientific research on C. occidentalis suggests a huge
biological potential of this plant. It is strongly believed that
detailed information as presented in this review on the
phytochemical and various biological properties of the
extracts might provide detailed evidence for the use of this
plant in different medicines. The phytochemical variations
and efficacy of the medicinal values of C. occidentalis is
dependent on geographical locations and seasons. Roasted
seeds of this plant are very commonly used by local people of
Haryana as a coffee substitute and in curing several diseases.
However, raw seeds might have some toxicological side
effects. Further work, however, still needs to be carried out on
the toxicity of the raw seeds. There is a demand to
standardize the toxic properties of C. occidentalis and their
detailed clinical trials. After proper processing, identification
and removal of the harmful properties of seeds, they may be
utilized to prepare a good, nourishing and Ayurvedic coffee.
At the same time, the organic and aqueous extract of C.
occidentalis could be further exploited in the future as a
source of useful phytochemical compounds for the pharma-
ceutical industry.
References
[1] Khare CP. Indian Medicinal Plants — Ayurveda an Illustrated
Dictionary. US: Springer; 2007. pp. 129–130.
[2] Liogier HA. Descriptive Flora of Puerto Rico and Adjacent Islands,
Spermatophyla, Second Volume. Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto
Rico, Rio Piedras, PR; 1988. p. 481.
[3] Stevens WD, Ulloa-U C, Pool A, Monitel OH. Flora de Nicaragua.
Monographs of Systematic Botany, Volume 85. St. Louis, MO: Missouri
Botanical Garden Press; 2001. p. 1–943.
[4] Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. Indian medicinal plant, Lalit Mohan Basu,
Allahabad; 1933. p. 860–2.
[5] Nadkarni AK. Indian Materia Medica. Bombay: Popular publication;
1976. 289 pp.
[6] Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC. Glossary of Medicinal plants. New
Delhi: CSIR; 1980. 55 pp.
[7] Haselwood EL, Motter GG. Handbook of Hawaiian Weeds, Experiment
Sattion. Honolulu, HI: Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association; 1966. 479 pp.
[8] Henty EE, Pritchard GH. Weeds of New Guinea and Their Control,
Botany Bulletin 7, Division of Botany. Lae, Papua New Guinea:
Department of forests; 1975. 189 pp.
[9] Holm L, Doll J, Holm E, Pancho J, Herberger J. World Weeds. New York:
John Wiley and Sons; 1997. 129 pp.
[10] Roy L, Holm G, Doll J, Holm E, Pancho J, Herberger J. World Weeds:
Natural Histories and Distribution Cassia occidentalis L. and Cassia tora
L. (Syn. C. obustifolia L.). New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1997. 1129 pp.
[11] Long RW, Lakela O. A Flora of Tropical Florida. Miami, FL: Banyon
Books; 1976. 962 pp.
229
[12] O'Hara PJ, Pierce KR, Reid WK. Degenerative myopathy associated
with ingestion of Cassia occidentalis: clinical and pathologic fea-
tures of the experimentally induced disease. Am J Vet Res 1969;30:
2173–80.
[13] Martin BW, Terry MK, Bridges CH, Bailey CM. Toxicity of Cassia
occidentalis in the horse. Vet Hum Toxicol 1981;23:416–7.
[14] Simpson CF, Damrona BL, Hahrms RH. Toxic myopath of chicks fed
Cassia occidentalis seeds. Avian Dis 1971;15:284–90.
[15] Graziano MT, Flory W, Seger CL, Hebcrt CD. Effects of cassia occldentalis
extract in the domestic chicken. Am J Vet Res 1983;44:1238–44.
[16] Colvin BM, Harrison LR, Sangaster LT, Gosser HS. Cassia occidentalis
toxicosis in growing pigs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1986;189:423–6.
[17] Barbosa-Ferreira M, Dagli ML, Maiorka PC, Gorniak SL. Sub-acute
intoxification by Senna occidentalis seeds in rats. Food Chem Toxicol
2005;43:497–503.
[18] Tasaka AC, Weg R, Calore EE, Sinhorini IL, Dagli MLZ, Haraguchi M, et al.
Toxicity testing of Senna occidentalis seed in rabbits. Vet Res Commun
2000;24:573–82.
[19] Rao PN, Kumar PA, Rao TA, Prasad YA, Rao CJ, Rajyam PL. Role of
Chandipura virus in an “epidemic brain attack” in Andhra Pradesh,
India. J Pediatr Neurol 2004;2:131–43.
[20] Vashishtha VM, Nayak NC, John TJ, Kumar A. Recurrent annual
outbreaks of a hepatomyo-encephalopathy syndrome in children in
Western Uttar Pradesh India. Indian J Med Res 2007;125:523–33.
[21] Kolhapure SA, Mitra WS. Meta-analysis of 50 phase III clinical trials in
evaluation of efficacy and safety of Liv. 52 in infective hepatitis. Med
Update 2004;12:51–61.
[22] Humphry C, Clegg MS, Keen C, Grivetti LE. Food diversity & drought
survival — the Hausa example. Int J Food Sci Nutr 1993;44:1–16.
[23] Pieroni A, Price L. Eating and Healing: Traditional Food as Medicine.
Binghamton, NewYork: Haworth Press; 2006. 24 pp.
[24] Bodeker G, Burford G. Traditional, Complementary and Alternative
Medicine: Policy & Public Health Perspectives. Imperial College Press;
2007. p. 1–247.
[25] Kumar A, Nehar S. Environmental Protection. New Delhi: Daya books;
2007. 157 pp.
[26] Dhiman AK, Dhiman AK. Ayurvedic Drug Plants. New Delhi: Daya
books; 2006. 277 pp.
[27] Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK. Indian Medicinal Plants: A Compendium of
500 Species, Orient Blackswan, Volume 2; 1994. 21 pp.
[28] Payne-Jackson A, Alleyne MC. Jamaican Folk Medicines: A Source of
Healing. University of West Indies Press; 2004. p. 1–228.
[29] Watt G. A dictionary of economic products of India. Periodic expert,
Shahadara, New Delhi, India, Vol. 1–6; 1889. p. 75–89.
[30] Jain SKD. Dictionary of Indian Folk Medicine and Ethnobotany, Deep
Publication, New Delhi, India; 1991. pp. 25–78.
[31] Patil MV, Patil DA. Ethnobotany of Nasik District of Maharastra. New
Delhi: Daya books; 2006. p. 1–419.
[32] Hu S. Food Plants of China. Chinese University Press; 2005. p. 1–844.
[33] Alves AC. Pharmacological study of the root of Cassia occidentalis.
Anals Fac Farm Porto 1965;24:65–119.
[34] Anton R, Duqenois P. L'emplois des Cassia dans les pays tropicaux et
subtropicaux examine d'apres quelquesunsdes constutiants chimiques
de ces plantes medicinales. Plantes Med Phytother 1968;2:255–68.
[35] Kudav NA, Kulkarni AB. Chemical investigation on Cassia occidentalis II.
Isolation of islandicin, helminthosporin, xanthorin and NMR spectral
studies of cassiollin and its derivatives. Ind J Chem 1974;12:1042–4.
[36] Chukwujekwu JC, Coombes PH, Mulholland DA, Staden J. Emodin, an
antibacterial anthraquinone from the roots of Cassia occidentalis. S Afr J
Bot 2006;72:295–7.
[37] Smolenski IJ, Silinis H, Farnsworth NR. Alkaloid screening. VI. Lloydia
1975;38:225–56.
[38] Purwar C, Rai R, Srivastava N, Singh J. New flavonoid glycosides from
Cassia occidentalis. Ind J Chem 2003;43B:44.
[39] Hatano TS, Mizuta S, Ito H, Yoshida T. C-glycosidic flavonoids from
Cassia occidentalis. Phytochemistry 1999;52:1379–83.
[40] Ginde BS, Hosangadi BD, Kudav NA, Nyak KV, Kulkarni AB. Chemical
investigation Cassia occidentalis I. Isolation and structure of cassiolin, a
new xanthone, I. Chem Soc 1970:1285–9.
[41] Wader GR, Kudav NA. Chemical investigation of Cassia occidentalis
with special reference to isolation of xanthones from Cassia species.
Ind J Chem 1987;26B:703.
[42] Rai PM, Shok M. Anthraquinone glycosides from plant parts of Cassia
occidentalis. Ind J Pharm Sci 1983;45:87–8.
[43] Kitanaka S, Takido M. Two new bitetrahydroanthracenes from roots of
Cassia occidentalis L. Chem Pharm Bull 1989;37:511–2.
[44] Lal J, Gupta PC. Physcion and phytosterol from the roots of Cassia
occidentalis. Phytochemistry 1973;12:1186.
[45] Kitanaka S, Igarashi H, Takido M. Formation of pigments by the tissue
culture of Cassia occidentalis. Chem Pharm Bull 1985;33:971–4.
230 J.P. Yadav et al. / Fitoterapia 81 (2010) 223–230
[46] Rai PM, Shok M. Anthracene derivatives in tissue cultures of Cassia
species indigenous to Nigeria, plant tissue cult. Proc. Int. Cong. Plant
tissue Cell Cult. 5th; 1982. p. 227–78.
[47] Ryan KJ, Ray CG, Kefha BJ. Sherrie's Medical Microbiology4th Edn.
2004; 2004. p. 119–25.
[48] Bruere P. Bemerkungen uber ein in ungebranntem Zustand giftiges
kaffessurrogat Cassia occidentalis, Chem. Zentralblatt. I. 1728; 1943.
[49] Herbert CD, Flory W, Segar C, Blanchard RE. Preliminary isolation of a
myodegenerative toxic principle from Cassia occidentalis. Am J Vet Res
1983;44:1370–4.
[50] Kim HL, Camp BJ, Grigsby RD. Isolation of N-methyl-morpholine from
the seeds of Cassia occidentalis. J Agric Food Chem 1971;19:198-189.
[51] Anton R, Duqenois P. L'emplois des Cassia dans les pays tropicaux et
subtropicaux examine d'apres quelquesunsdes constutiants chimiques
de ces plantes medicinales. Plantes Med Phytother 1968;2:255–68.
[52] Lal J, Gupta PC. Anthraquinone glycoside from the seeds of Cassia
occidentalis. Experentia 1973;29:141–2.
[53] Lal J, Gupta PC. Two new anthraquinones from the seeds of Cassia
occidentalis. Experentia 1974;30:850–1.
[54] Valeri H, Gimeno NF. Preliminary phytochemical and toxicological
investigations of the seeds of Cassia occidentalis. Rev Med Vet Parasitol
1952;11:121–55.
[55] Gupta DS, Mukherjee S. Structure of a galactomannan from Cassia
occidentalis. Ind J chem 1973;11:1134–7.
[56] Gupta DS, Mukherjee S. Structure of galactomannan from Cassia
occidentalis seeds. Isolation and structure elucidation of oligosacchar-
ides. Ind J Chem 1975;13:1152–4.
[57] El-Kheir YM, Salih MH. Investigation of certain plants used in Sudanese
folk medicine. Fitoterapia 1980:143–7.
[58] Pant R, Kapur AS. The soluble carbohydrates of some Indian legumes.
Naturwissenschaften 1963;50:95.
[59] Daniel M. Medicinal Plants: Chemistry and Properties. Scientific
publishers; 2005. 175 pp.
[60] Huang KC, Williams WH. The Pharmacology of Chinese Herbs. CRS
Press; 1999. 84 pp.
[61] Tiwar RD, Singh J. Anthraquinone pigments from Cassia occidentalis.
Planta Med 1977;32:375–7.
[62] Tiwar RD, Singh J. Flavonoids from the leaves of Cassia occidentalis.
Phytochemistry 1977;16:1107–8.
[63] Ogunkunle ATJ, Ladejobi TA. Ethnobotanical and phytochemical
studies on some species of Senna in Nigeria. Afr J Biotechnol 2006;5:
2020–3.
[64] Niranjan GS, Gupta DS. Chemical constituents of the flowers of Cassia
occidentalis. Planta Med 1973;23:298-289.
[65] Singh M, Singh J. Two flavonoids glycosides from Cassia occidentalis
pods. Planta Med 1985:525–6.
[66] Neuwinger HH. African Ethnobotany: Poisons and Drugs: Chemistry,
Pharmacology, Toxicology. CRS press; 1996. p. 1–941.
[67] Cowans MM. Plant materials as antimicrobial agents. Chem Med Rev
1999;12:564–82.
[68] Hussain HSN, Deeni YY. Plants in Kano ethnomedicine: screening for
antimicrobial activity and alkaloids. Ind J Pharmacognosy 1991;29:
51–6.
[69] Muanza DN, Dangala NL, Mpay O. Zairean medicinal plants as diarrhea
remedies and their antibacterial activities. Afr Study Monogr 1993;14:
53–63.
[70] Ali MS, Azhar I, Amtul Z, Ahmad VU, Usmanghani K. Antimicrobial
screening of some Caesalpiniaceae. Fitoterapia 1999;70:299–304.
[71] Abo KA, Adeyemi AA, Jegede IA. Spectrophotometric estimation of
anthraquinone content and antimicrobial potential of extracts of some
Cassia species used in herbal medicine. Ibadan Sci Forum 2000;3:
57–63.
[72] Abo KA, Adeyemi AA, Jegede IA. Standardization and utilization of
herbal medicines: challenges of the 21st century. Proceedings of 1st
International Workshop on Herbal Medicinal Products, Ibadan, Nigeria;
1998. p. 22–4.
[73] Jain SC, Sharma RA, Jain R, Mittal C. Antimicrobial screening of C. occidentalis
invivo and invitro. Phytotherapy research 1998;12(3):200–204.
[74] Gaind KN, Budhiraja RD, Kaul RN. Antibiotic activity of C. occidentalis L.
Ind J Pharmacol 1966;28:248–50.
[75] Shah CS, Quadry SMJS, Tripathi MP. Indian Cassia species II. Phar-
macognostical and phytochemical studies on the leaves of C. tora and
C. occidentalis L. Ind J Pharmacy 1968;30:282–6.
[76] Quadry SMJS, Zafar R. Tissue culture of Cassia species. Planta Medica
1978;33:299.
[77] Saganuwan AS, Gulumbe ML. Evaluation of in vitro antimicrobial
activities and phytochemical constituents of C. occidentalis. Anim Res
Int 2006;3:566–9.
[78] Dabai YU, Muhammad S. Antibacterial activity of some Nigerian
medicinal plants. Sci World J 2008;3:43–4.
[79] Perez C, Anesini C. Invitro antibacterial activity of Argentine folk
medicinal plants against S. typhi. J Ethnopharmacol 1994;44:41–6.
[80] Mailard JY. Bacterial target site for biocide action. J Appl Microbiol
2002;92:16–27.
[81] Oladunmoyem MK, Akinyosoye FA, Adetuyi FC. Release of sodium and
potassium ions by aqueous and ethanolic extract of Cassia occidentalis
on some selected bacteria. Trends Appl Sci Res 2006;2:33–5.
[82] Oladunmoyem MK, Akinyosoye FA, Adetuyi FC. Comparative studies
on the amount of protein, sodium and potassium ions released by
methanolic extracts from six Cassia species. Asian J Cell Biol 2007;2:
29–33.
[83] Jawetz E, Melnick J, Adelberg EA. Medical Microbiology23rd Edition. .
McGraw-Hill Company; 2004. 764 pp.
[84] Samy RP, Ignacimuthu S. Antibacterial activity of some folklore medi-
cinal plants used by tribals in Western Ghats of India. J Ethnopharmacol
2000;69:63–71.
[85] Conway P. Tree Medicine, A Comprehensive Guide to Healing Power of
Over 170 trees. London: Judy Piatkus Publishers Ltd; 2002.
[86] Jafri MA, Subhani MJ, Javed K, Singh S. Hepatoprotective activity of
leaves of Cassia occidentalis against paracetamol and ethyl alcohol
intoxification in rats. J Ethnopharmacol 1999;66:355–61.
[87] Bhattacharyya D, Mukherjee R, Pandit S, Das N, Sur TK. Prevention of
carbon tetrachloride induced hepatotoxicity in rats by Himoliv. A
polyherbal formulation. Indian J Pharmacol 2003;35:183–5.
[88] Tona L, Mesia K, Ngimbi NP, Chrimwami B, Ahoka O, Cimanga K, et al.
Ann Trop Med Parasitol 2001;95:47–57.
[89] Tona L, Ngimbi NP, Tsakala M, Mesia K, Cimanga K, Apers S, et al.
Antimalarial activity of 20 crude extracts from nine African medicinal
plants used in Kinshasa Congo. J Ethnopharmacol 1999;68:193–203.
[90] Tona L, Cimanga RK, Mesia K, Musuamba CT, De Bruyne T, Apers S, et al. In
vitro antiplasmodial activity of extracts and fractions from seven medici-
nal plants used in the Democratic Republic of Congo. J Ethnopharmacol
2004;93:27–32.
[91] Sadique J, Chandra T, Thenmozhi V, Elango V. Biochemical modes of
action of Cassia occidentalis and Cardiospermum halicacabum in
inflammation. J Ethnopharmacol 1987;19:201–12.
[92] Chang C, Ashendel CL, Chan TCK, Geahlen RL, Laughlin M, Waters DJ.
Oncogene signal transduction inhibitors from Chinese medicinal
plants. Pure Appl Chem 1999;71:1101–4.
[93] Sharma N, Trikha P, Athar M, Raisuddin S. In vitro inhibition of
carcinogen-induced mutagenicity by Cassia occidentalis and Emblica
officinalis. Drug Chem Toxicol 2000;23:477–84.
[94] Sharma N, Trikha P, Athar M, Raisuddin S. Protective effect of Cassia
occidentalis extract on chemical-induced chromosomal aberrations in
mice. Drug Chem Toxicol 1999;22:643–53.
[95] Reddy K, Kulkarni KL. A clinical trial of Herbolax in constipation during
post-operative period. Antiseptic 2001;7:252–3.
[96] Dhurandhar J. Bonnisan — a metabolic corrective in gastrointestinal
disorders of newborn. Probe 1973;2:73–8.
[97] John TJ. Outbreaks of killer brain disease in children: mystery or
missed diagnosis? Indian Pediatr 2003;40:863–9.
[98] Balraj V. Investigation of outbreaks in India. How good are we at it.
Indian Pediatr 2003;40:933–8.
[99] Vashistha VM, Kumar A, John TJ, Nayak NC. Cassia occidentalis poisoning
causes fatal coma in children in Western Uttar Pradesh. Indian Pediatr
2007;44:522–4.
[100] Orech FO, Akenga T, Ochora J, Friis H, Aagaard-Hansen J. Potential
toxicity of some traditional leafy vegetables consumed in Nyang'oma
division, Western Kenya. Afr J Food Nutr Sci 2005;5:1–13.
[101] Adoum OA. Determination of toxicity effects of some savannah plants
using brine shrimp test (BST). Int J Pure Appl Sci 2008;2:1–5.
[102] Nuhu AA, Aliyu R. Effects of Cassia occidentalis aqueous leaf extract
on biochemical markers of tissue damage in rats. Trop J Pharm Res
2008;7:1137–42.
[103] Nwude N, Ibrahim MA. Plants used in traditional veterinary medical
practice in Nigeria. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 1980;3:261–73.
[104] Aragao TP, Lyra MMA, Silva MGB, Andrade BA, Ferreira PA, Ortega LF,
et al. Toxicological reproductive study of Cassia occidentalis L. in
female Wistar rats. J Ethnopharmacol 2009;123:163–6.
[105] Badami S, Aneesh R, Sankar S, Satishkumar MN, Suresh B, Rajan S.
Antifertility activity of Derris brevipes variety coriacea. J Ethnophar-
macol 2003;84:99–104.