EEN 11 – INDUSTRIAL

ELECTRONICS
BSEE III GI
BSEE III GJ

ENGR. JOEL ANTHONY L. SEVILLA

OCTOBER 2023
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAYS (LCD)
The background is either light or dark, when a
voltage is applied to a segment, then the
alphanumeric display is visible. The amount of
voltage necessary for display varies depending
on the type of display, from 2 to 20V.
Low power LCDs require less power than LEDs.
But LEDs have faster response times and longer
life.
A liquid crystal is a material (usually
an organic compound) which flows
like a liquid at room temperature
but whose molecular structure has
some properties normally
associated with solids.
A thin layer of liquid crystal is transparent to
incident light. When light falls on an activated
(exposed to electricity) layer of a liquid crystal, it
is either absorbed or
else is scattered by the
disoriented molecules.
LCD Construction
A liquid crystal 'cell' consists of a thin layer
(about 10 um) of a liquid crystal sandwiched
between two glass sheets with transparent
electrodes deposited on their inside faces.

With both glass sheets transparent, the cell is

known as transmitive type cell.
LCD Construction
When one glass is transparent and the other has
a reflective coating, the cell is called a reflective
type.

The LCD does not produce any illumination of its

own. It depends entirely on illumination falling
on it from an external source for its visual effect.
Operating Condition
When field-effect display is energized, the
energized areas of the LCD absorb the incident
light and hence, give a localized black display.

When dynamic scattering display is energized,

molecules of energized area of the display
become turbulent and scatter light in all
directions. The activated areas take on a
Operating Condition
frosted glass appearance resulting in a silver
display. The un-energized areas remain
translucent.
ADVANTAGES
Extremely low power requirement, about 10 - 15
μW per 7-segment display as compared to a few
mW for an LED.

Lifetime of about 50,000 hours (around 5.7 yrs)

watches and portable instruments (field-effect
LCDs).
USES
picture elements (pixels) of the screen in one
type of B&W TV
desktop LCD monitors
notebook computer display
cellular phone display
PHOTODIODE
The photodiode is a semiconductor pn junction
device whose region of operation is limited to
the reverse-bias region.
The dark current refers to the current that flows
when no light is incident.
A photodiode can turn its current ON and OFF in
nanoseconds; it is one of the fastest
photodetectors.
Symbols and commercially available components
APPLICATION
Instrumentation circuits as a sensor
Alarm system sensor
Detection of objects on a conveyor belt

Photodiode used in alarm system and

conveyor
PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELLS
A photoconductive cell varies resistance with the
intensity of light.

Like a common resistor, a photoconductive cell

has no polarity and can be placed into the circuit
in either direction.
PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELLS
Generally made of cadmium compounds such as
cadmium sulphide (CdS) and cadmium
selenide (CdSe).

Spectral response of CdS cell is similar to the

human eye hence it is often used to simulate the
human eye.
Working Principle
Typically, the dark resistance
of the cell is 1 MΩ or
larger under illumination,
the cell resistance drops to
a value between 1 and
100 kΩ depending on
surface illumination.
aka Photo cells,
Photo resistors,
Photo resistive
device, & light
detecting resistor.
Photoconductive materials most frequently
used:
Cadmium Sulfide (CdS) = 5100 Å
Cadmium Selenide (CdSe) = 6150 Å

Response time
CdS = 100 ms
CdSe = 10 ms
APPLICATIONS
inexpensive and simple detector which is widely
used in OFF/ON circuits, light measurement, and
light-detecting circuits.
PHOTOTRANSISTOR
Light-sensitive transistor and is similar to an
ordinary BJT except that it has no connection to
the base terminal.

Its operation is based on the photodiode that

exists at the CB junction.
PHOTOTRANSISTOR
Instead of the base current, the input to the
transistor is provided in the form of light.

Silicon NPNs are mostly used as phototransistors.

Device is usually packed in a TO-type can with

lens on top although it is sometimes
encapsulated in clear plastic.
When there is no incident
light on the CB junction,
there is a small thermally
generated collector-to-emitter
current ICEO which, in this case,
is called dark current and is in
the nA range.
When light is incident on the CB junction, a base
current Iλ is produced which is directly
proportional to the light intensity.
Ic = βIλ
Applications are similar to those of a
photodiode. Main differences are in the current
and response time.

Its advantages are greater sensitivity and current

capacity than photodiodes. However,
photodiodes are faster, switching in less than a
nanosecond.
SOLAR CELLS
Solar cells produce a voltage when subjected to
light energy.

The greater the light intensity, the greater

amount of voltage produced.
Solar cells act like a battery when connected in
series or parallel.
CHARACTERISTICS
Operates with fair efficiency
Has unlimited life
Can be easily mass produced
Has a high power capacity
per weight.
PHOTO DARLINGTON
In the photo darlington transistor
configuration, the first transistor
acts as the photodetector, and its
emitter is coupled into the base
of the second transistor.
It has much greater sensitivity to incident radiant
energy than a phototransistor because of higher
current gain
PHOTO DARLINGTON
The switching time of 50ns
is much longer than
phototransistor or
Photodiode.
APPLICATIONS
Light operated relay Dark operated relay
IR EMITTERS
Diodes that emit infrared radiation.
IR emitter produce infrared radiation when
forward biased. The higher the forward bias
current, the greater the intensity of infrared
radiation.
The radiation pattern can vary from widely
dispersed to a very narrow, focused beam.
Applications
Card readers
Shaft encoders
Intrusion alarms
IR Transmitters
LASER DIODE
Laser diodes have a threshold level of current
above which the laser action occurs but below
which the laser diode behaves like a LED
emitting incoherent light.
It is coherent – there is no path difference
between the waves comprising the beam.
It is monochromatic – it consists of one
wavelength and hence one color only.
LASER DIODE
It is collimated i.e. emitted light waves travel
parallel to each other.
A filter or lens is necessary to view the laser
beam.
APPLICATIONS
used in variety of applications ranging from
medical equipment used in surgery to consumer
products like optical disk equipment, laser
printers, hologram scanners etc.
Laser diodes emitting visible light are used as
pointers.
Those emitting visible and infrared light are used
to measure range (or distance).
APPLICATIONS
The laser diodes are also widely used in parallel
processing of information and in parallel
interconnections between computers.
OPTICAL DISKS
Used for reading or recording information and
can be broadly divided into two groups: reading-
only and recording-and-reading type.
Optical disk equipment of either type make use
of a laser diode, lenses and photodiodes.
During recording, it changes electrical
information into optical information and then
records the information on the optical disk.
OPTICAL DISKS
During reading (or playback), the head optically
reads the recorded information and changes the
optical information into electrical information.
Read only Optical Disk Equipment
reads data from digital audio disks

WORKING PRINCIPLE
1. Audio information (i.e. sound) is digitally
recorded in stereo on the surface of a CD
in the form of microscopic “pits” and “flats”.
Read only Optical Disk Equipment

2. Light emitted from the laser diode passes

through the lens and is focused to a diameter of
about 1 μm on the surface of a disk.

3. As the CD rotates, the lens and beam follow

the track under control of a servomotor.
Read only Optical Disk Equipment

4. The laser light which is altered by the pits and

flats along the recorded track is reflected back
from the track through the lens and optical
system to infrared photodiodes.

5. The signal from the photodiodes is then used

to reproduce the digitally recorded sound.
CD & DVD recording comparison
LASER PRINTERS
There are two types of optical sources usually
used in printers; laser diodes and LED arrays.
The printers using laser diodes are called laser
beam printers (or simply laser printers).
Words and figures can be printed rapidly and
clearly more easily by a laser printer than by
other types of printers.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
1. Laser diode is driven by modulated signals
from the computer.
2. The optical beam after passing through the
lens is reflected by the rotating polygon mirror
and scanned on the photosensitive drum.
3. At the developing unit, an electrically charged
powder, called toner, is electrostatically attached
to the written parts.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
4. At the transcribing unit, the powder is
transferred to the paper. Next, the transferred
pattern is fixed by heating and pressing at the
fixing unit.
5. Data from the computer is thus printed on the
paper.
Laser Printer Operation