j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 1 4 8 3 e1 4 9 8

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt

Original Article

Assessing the compressive strength of

self-compacting concrete with recycled aggregates
from mix ratio using machine learning approach

P. Jagadesh a, Jesús de Prado-Gil b, Neemias Silva-Monteiro c,

Rebeca Martı́nez-Garcı́a d,*
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Coimbatore Institute of Technology, Tamil Nadu, 638 056, India
b
Department of Applied Physics, Campus de Vegazana S/n, University of Le
on, 24071 Le
on, Spain
c
Graduate Program in Electrical Engineering, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Ant^onio Carlos 6627,
31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
d
Department of Mining Technology, Topography, And Structures, University of Le
on, Campus of Vegazana S/n,
24071 Le

on, Spain

article info abstract

Article history: The requirement of the construction sector pushes researchers and academicians to
Received 5 January 2023 determine the 28-day concrete compressive strength due to less consumption of natural
Accepted 6 March 2023 products and reduced cost. One recommended method to reduce the cost and simulta-
Available online 11 March 2023 neously adopt sustainability is introducing recycled aggregates in concrete. Most typical
structures require concrete, which is self-flowable and compactable; specific structures
Keywords: require concrete, which is self-flowable and compactable; one such concrete is self-
Compressive strength compacting concrete (SCC). 515 mix design samples for SCC with recycled aggregates are
Recycled aggregate collected from the literature and used for training, validation, and testing to create the
Self-compacting concrete model using machine learning techniques (Extra Gradient (XG) Boosting, Ada Boosting,
Machine learning Gradient Boosting, Light Gradient Boosting, Category Boosting, K Nearest Neighbors, Extra
Correlation Trees, Decision Trees, Random Forest, and Support Vector Machine). The correlation be-
ANOVA tween input and output variables is analyzed using ANOVA and is indicated that data can
be used to develop machine learning models successfully. Sensitive analysis and error
assessment are performed to choose the best machine learning methods, and it found that
CB, KNN, and ERT have the highest R2 value and lowest MSE.
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

of sustainable development as per Agenda 2030 [1]. Industry

1. Introduction associated with construction is the main reason for the envi-
ronmental effect, mining of raw materials, the outflow of
The development of sustainability goals addresses the signifi- greenhouse gases, and energy and water consumption [1].
cance of the building and construction sectors in the direction Different types of materials are produced at the end-of-life

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rmartg@unileon.es (R. Martı́nez-Garcı́a).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.03.037
2238-7854/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1484 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 1 4 8 3 e1 4 9 8
stage of structures, plus materials that can be repurposed and
utilized. Construction and Demolition Waste (C&DW) are the
heftiest and high sources of waste worldwide. There is
considerable potential for reutilizing and repurposing C&DW,
as most of its elements have a vast source value [2]. One of the
significant outputs of C&DW is Recycled Aggregates (RA), and
utilization of it, can offer a healthier environmental condition
[3].
There have been continuous struggles to develop a
harmonious environment, categorized by the circular econ-
omy, environmental efficacies, energy and materials [4] so that
the economy can uphold balance with the environment. As
eco-efficient and sustainable constructions are required for
such an environment, different governments have considered
the disproportionate misuse of the rock mines because mining
could lead to severe air pollution. When to the government
suggested relevant guidelines, several construction companies
can't have the funds to pay for natural crushed stone aggregate
for their work due to the high rates of Natural Aggregates (NA).
On the contrary, because of rapid development in most of the
world's urban infrastructure, the amount of C&DW from con-
crete buildings is also increasing. In European Union (EU), the
amount of C&DW is now reached 8.50
1011 kg [5].
A substantial portion of this C&DW is dumped in landfills,
which further causes land pollution and deteriorates the
surroundings. Hence, utilizing the RA from the waste concrete
in making concrete as a substitute for NA's is a viable option,
which will solve the prompt request for those construction
businesses; this will also reduce the pollution from C&DW to
the environment. Recycling circumstances must be evaluated
concerning their complete resource and climate footprints to
evade issue shifting and trade-offs. The volume of C&DW was
about two times higher than the solid waste produced from
municipal activities. It is also stated that the demolition ac-
tivity made waste related to more than 90% of the total C&DW
generation. In comparison, the construction activity gener-
ated waste about less than 10% of the total C&DW generation
[6]. For a sustainable environment, the construction sector
must be eco-efficient through the maximum reduction of
pollution, which could be attained by efficiently reutilizing
discarded concrete as construction materials [4]. Hence,
expanding the utilization of RA in real-life construction ac-
tivities in a sustainable way has converted into a novel
research topic in the last few years [7][8]. Different actual
methods have been projected, and they could be categorized
into three classifications [9]: Enhancing the mixing method to
improve the characteristics of RA [10], Inclusion of many ad-
ditives like water-reducing admixtures and pozzolanic mate-
rials [11,12] and reinforcing the RA by eliminating the old
attached mortar [13], or enhancing RA quality [14].
Using natural crushed stone aggregate in concrete is life-
threatening for economic, environmental, and social mat-
ters [15]. For this motive, most investigators have examined
RA utilization in SCC. The utilization of Recycled Fine Ag-
gregates (RFA) and Recycled Coarse Aggregates (RCA) in per-
centages from 0 to 100% were evaluated. The material
efficacy of concrete making can be raised by 25% though only
30% of RA is utilized as concrete components [1]. Recycled
Aggregate Concrete (RAC) properties are influenced by the
replacement rate of RA and its quality and composition [16].
The kind of original aggregate, quality of attached, and pro-
portion of attached mortar influence the characteristics of RA
utilized in concrete [17]. The influence of RA on the
compression strength of the concrete mixes was reported by
Etxeberria et al., 2007 [16].
Industries in the construction sector are generally highly
competitive; they have inadequate budgets for concrete mix
design, time limits, and resource utilization. And on the other
side, the source for using RA's in SCC is limited, and few liter-
atures have been available for the past two decades. SCC is
highly recommendable for structural and flexural members,
where most reinforcement is provided in the tension area.
While using SCC, the compressive strength prediction from
mixed ingredients is difficult as it satisfies both workability and
strength properties [18]. Mix designs are defined as the pro-
portion of ingredients measured in weights (kg/m3) used to
make concrete. Mixed designs are available at construction
sites as mix ratios up to several concrete strengths. Typical
structures in construction require high strength for their
serviceability and durability purposes. In such cases (high-
strength concrete), specifically in the case of SCC, there is no
definite relationship between the mix ratio and strength
properties. This initiated the researchers to evaluate the rela-
tionship between the mix ratio and strength properties using
Machine Learning (ML) methods. One of the significant ad-
vantages of using ML techniques is that they can seize the
underlying mechanisms despite the deficiency of information
regarding specific parameters [19]. In literature, ML techniques
are adopted to determine concrete's mechanical properties
[20,21].
Recent literature [22] shows that a forecast of compression
strength of SCC with RAs from mixed components is initiated.
As per the authors' best knowledge, the compressive strength
prediction from the ratios derived from the weight of mixed
ingredients is limited. The mechanical characteristics of
concrete are closely related to these ratios. It includes Total
Aggregate to Cement ratio (TA/C), Coarse Aggregate to Fine
Aggregate ratio (CA/FA), Water to Binder ratio (W/B), Fine
Aggregate to Cement ratio (FA/C), Water to Cement ratio (W/C)
and Solid to Liquid ratio (S/L). Nevertheless, the relationship
between these ratios and compressive strength shows a
multifaceted non-linear relationship, and no certain theoret-
ical formula can exactly imitate their relationships. In prac-
tice, time, resources and costs are involved in the experiment
to predict the compressive strength of SCC with RA to meet
the structural requirements. Hence, this study attempts to
develop a model to predict the compressive strength of SCC
with RA from ratios from ingredient mixes. In literature, for
developing a model to predict the strength parameter, one or
two input variables are used as the ratio is noted. Wang et al.,
2021[23], used two input variables as ratios (from mixed in-
gredients) to predict the compressive strength of concrete
using ANN, SVM, XG boosting, and linear regression methods.
While using the mix ratios, the sensitive assessment value
shows better performance. Kaloop & Kim., 2020 [24] used the
ingredients to the cement content as a ratio and noted that the
influence of these ratios on the output variables is
complicated.
Usually, compression strength values are attained over
lab tests [2]. Getting the required compressive strength
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 1 4 8 3 e1 4 9 8
Fig. 1 e Compressive Strength (MPa) Vs. W/C ratio, W/B ratio, and TA/C ratio.
depends on age. More specimens are needed to get sufficient
acceptable strength and natural resource consumption. This
will lead to consuming time, more money, and increased
physical working efficiency [25]. As a result, the research or
industry community modifies the abovementioned con-
straints of laboratory testing through empirical regression
models. It is clear from the explanation above that creating a
model for predicting compressive strength using SCC with
RA is necessary for the current scenario. Therefore, this
study seeks to create a model utilizing several machine
learning algorithms to predict SCC's 28th day's compressive
strength with RA.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Data collection
In the current research, 515 data sets were composed of
hardened SCC with RA, which will be used for model devel-
opment. Data sets consist of different parameters like the
weight of cement (kg/m3), the weight of admixtures (kg/m3),
the weight of water (kg/m3), the weight of coarse aggregate
(kg/m3), the weight of fine aggregate (kg/m3), the weight of
Superplasticizer (SP) (kg/m3) and the replacement percentage
of RA (%) as input variables and output variable as 28th days
compressive strength. These parameters and their associated
data are divided into three elements [26], which will be
addressed in the following sections.
1485
2.1.1. Mandatory elements
In this study, mandatory elements include input and output
variables. The output variable include the 28th-day compres-
sive strength (MPa) of the control mix, whereas the input var-
iables are various replacement percentages of NA by the RA
(%), the weight of cement (kg/m3), admixture weight (kg/m3),
natural fine aggregate weight (kg/m3), natural coarse aggregate
weight (kg/m3), the weight of RFA (kg/m3) and RCA (kg/m3).
From the input variables, the non-dimensional elements are
arrived. For various replacement levels of NA's by RA in the
mixes. The fine or coarse aggregate is the sum of NA's and their
corresponding RA. In some literature, the percentage of RA is
calculated from the replacement weight of NA's directly.
Hence, the weight per cubic meter from mixed design followed
worldwide is considered a mandatory element [20], which is
not considered for the model.
2.1.2. Non-dimensional elements
The characteristics of ingredients collected from literature,
like physical, chemical, and micro characteristics of cement,
admixtures, and aggregates, are not included in the data set.
Since it is SCC of different grades, the requirement of chemical
admixtures (superplasticizer, viscosity modifying agent, etc.)
is essential for fresh and hardened properties. Although the
weight of the chemical admixture used in the mix is very low,
it is also considered for formulating the dataset. Any ratio
derived from the mandatory elements (sometimes called non-
dimensional elements) is only considered for model
formulation [20]. In this study, the non-dimensional elements
1486 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 1 4 8 3 e1 4 9 8

Fig. 2 e Compressive strength (MPa) Vs CA/FA, FA/C & S/L

are used for the modelling in order to evaluate the importance X

Xi ¼ (1)
of ratios from mix ingredients of SCCRCA. For data visuali- Xmax
zation of the non-dimensionless elements like W/C, W/B, TA/
where Xi denotes the standardized data, Xmax denotes the
C, CA/FA, FA/C, and S/L ratio are represented in scatter plot in
maximum value of X, and X indicates the experimental data.
Figs. 1 and 2. Maximum, minimum, and mean values for these
By using the Microsoft Excel program, data normalization was
non-dimensional elements for the given data set are tabulated
performed.
in Table 1.

2.3. Sensitive assessment

2.1.3. Output elements
Output element considered in this study is the strength
Parameters determined from models are very sensitive; a
development of SCC mix with RA. Whereas, the strength
slight change in their value may result in huge differences
development considered is the 28th day compressive strength
between the observed and predicted values. Hence, the esti-
of control or reference mix of SCC with RA. The mandatory
mated parameters should be precisely done to predict simu-
factors substantially influence the compression strength
lated values accurately. Thus, for any statistical study,
development of SCC with RA. It is confirmed from the literature
discovering sensitive parameters is one of the most significant
that a strong relationship exists between the required ele-
tasks. Sensitive assessment the models arrived at using
ments and the compressive strength of conventional concrete.

2.2. Data normalization

Table 1 e Maximum, minimum and mean values for the
Data standardisation is required to map the source data into parameters of 515 data sets used for ML methods.
a target structural representation. It deals with the trans- Parameters Maximum Minimum Mean
formation of datasets after the data is collected from various
W/B 1.64 0.30 0.49
sources and before analysis. The input and output variables W/C 0.58 0.09 0.34
have been scaled between 0 and 1 using Eq [1]. To achieve TA/C 24.17 3.11 5.06
the parameters' dimensional consistency and eliminate the CA/FA 1.86 0.29 0.98
over-fitting of the trained network. Data normalization used FA/C 9.87 1.23 2.56
in this study is a maximum absolute scaler, and used it S/L 40.49 8.55 13.02
Compressive strength (MPa) 87 13.3 45.87
previously [27,28].
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 1 4 8 3 e1 4 9 8 1487

Table 2 e Performance rating and ranking for sensitive parameters.

Performance rating Performance ranking R R2 RMSE MAE
Excellent 5 >0.90 >0.90 <10 <10%
Very Good 4 0.80 to 0.90 0.80 to 0.90 10 to 20 10%e20%
Good 3 0.70 to 0.80 0.70 to 0.80 20 to 30 20%e30%
Satisfactory 2 0.60 to 0.70 0.60 to 0.70 40 to 50 30%e40%
Unsatisfactory 1 <0.60 <0.60 >0.60 >40%

various tools were assessed using statistical indicators like the the experimental value. Hence, the model predicted it is very
coefficient of determination (R2), R, Root Mean Square Error efficient, confirmed by Marani & Nehdi., 2020 [34]. Whereas
(RMSE) and Mean Absolute Error (MAE). Although there are Chen et al., 2022 [35], noted that the values for sensitive pa-
slight differences between the validation and testing of rameters RMSE and MAE nearer to zero means a good model
models, it is necessary to estimate those for new machine- with low error.
learning techniques to understand them completely. For this
purpose, four essential sensitive parameters were chosen to 2.4. Methods
examine the designed model's performance and reliability
[29]. 2.4.1. Data
2 3 To attain estimates of the simplification error for the predic-
PN
2 tive models established in this research, each data set was
6 fOi  Pi g 7
6 7 divided into training and test sets. Collected data was divided;
R2 ¼ 1  6i¼1 7 (2)
4PN
25
fOi  Pi g around 70% of all data points were used for training data, 15%
i¼1 of the data were used for validation, and the remaining 15%
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi was used for testing randomly. The training data set was used
u 2 3
u PN in each case to develop and make the strength prediction
u 6 fO  P g
2
7
u 6i¼1
i i
7 models more appropriate. In contrast, the testing data was
R¼u
u1  6 7 (3)
t 4P N
25 used only for final assessments of model performance.
fOi  Pi g
i¼1
2.4.2. Methodology
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
#ffi
u N " Machine Learning (ML) refers to the capacity of computers to
uX ðOi  Pi Þ2
RMSE ¼ t (4) analyze data and erudition of multifaceted designs within the
N
i¼1 data without being rigorously programmed [19]. Depending on
the data nature, ML algorithms are classified into reinforced
N n o1=2
1 X learning, unsupervised learning and supervised learning [36].
MAE ¼ ðOi  Pi Þ2 (5) Reinforcement learning bridges the gaps between supervised
N i¼1
and unsupervised learning [37]. Unsupervised learning is
where Oi is the observed value, Pi is predicated value, N is the associated with unknown data outputs and thus clusters the
total number of observed samples, Pi is the average of the data by finding relationships within the observa-
predicted value. tionsdsupervised learning intentions at apprehending un-
Regression coefficients were calculated with a 95% assur- derlying designs in the data with known outputs. Depending
ance level. Therefore, the difference in tolerance level is on the output type, it can be further classified as discrete out-
restricted to 5%. The coefficient of determination estimates puts and regression for continuous outputs [38]. Three
the performance of statistical modelling, which can be powerful ML methods were adopted in this study to estimate
calculated using (Eq-2). R2 coefficient equal to 1 indicates the the split tensile strength of SCC with RA. The boosting method,
best fit. The prediction accuracy of the statistical model can be Bagging, and Support Vector Machine (SVM) are those
quantified by using equation [12] for R. For an optimum fit; the methods.
RMSE value must be nearer to zero and estimated from
equation [22]. Another statistical model used to optimize the 2.4.2.1. Boosting methods
predicted value can be determined using MAE and calculated 2.4.2.1.1. XG boosting. It is a tree-based ensemble learning
using equation [30]. Moriasi et al., 2007 [31] suggested that procedure that follows the code of boosting [39]. The basic idea
there should be a performance evaluation of sensitivity of this method is to produce new learners that are consecu-
analysis to evaluate the sensitivity assessment in a model tively fitted to the residuals from the previous learners, which
predicted using any statistical method. Hence, sensitivity are then added to the model to update the residuals. Extreme
analysis for numerous sensitive parameters is vital in all fields Gradient (XG) boosting is based on a decision tree with
to decide which way is good. As a result, multiple performance gradient boosting [40]. Single decision trees are highly inter-
ratings are presented in Table 2 along with their ranks, and pretable; XG boost enables users to learn the relative impor-
primarily, they both are utilized for evaluation [32,33]. tance or contribution of input variables in predicting the
Jesu de-Prado-Gil et al., 2022 (a) [27] reports that the value of response [23]. XG boost improves the computing and memory
R or R2 nearer to 1 indicates that the predicted value is nearer to capability to rapidly boost the learning process to the
1488 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 1 4 8 3 e1 4 9 8
maximum [34]. Though XG boost includes adaptions to lower
overfitting and other extended issues, its key feature against
overfitting is a regularized model formulation XGB [41]. Cui
et al., 2021 [40], noted that the XGB method possesses superior
compressive strength prediction for conventional concrete.
The difference amid gradient boosting and extreme gradient
boosting is that XG boosting uses the Taylor expansion to
improve the loss function, whereas gradient boosting only
considers the 1st derivative.
2.4.2.1.2. Ada Boosting. The typical Ada Boosting (AB) is to
utilize the preliminary training data to create weak learners,
then regulate the training data distribution as per the predicted
performance for the following Note that the training speci-
mens with low predicting exactness in the prior step will get
more consideration in the next step. Weak learners are inte-
grated with diverse weights into strong learners [42]. Firstly,
the weak classifier is attained by learning the training speci-
mens, and incorrect models are united with the non-trained
samples to make a new training specimen. Additionally, the
2nd weak classifier is achieved by learning this specimen. The
wrong specimen is joined with non-trained models to make
another new training specimen, which could be trained to
acquire the 3rd weak classifier. After reiterating this method
many times, we could lastly gain the enhanced robust classifier
[23]. ADA boost provides different weights to the specimens to
raise the number of correct classifications. Properly classified
samples are offered relatively low importance, and the incor-
rect ones should be raised, which forces the model to pay
further consideration to the misclassified specimens [23].
2.4.2.1.3. Gradient boosting. Gradient Boosting (GB) tree is
the model which forms in a phase and apprises by minimal-
izing the predictive value of any loss function. An optimized
model could be attained by totalling several trees to the
model; nevertheless, simplification capability could be when
the model's fitting gets closer to training data. The significant
advantage of GB is that it stops overfitting and utilizes smaller
computational sources over objective functions. Boosting is a
tree-based learning technique for improving output perfor-
mance; moreover, GB could form variable significance. GB
improves the basis function in a grasping fashion such that
every supplementary basis function further decreases the
selected error function [24]. Qi et al., 2018 [43], summarized the
GB process's subsequent stages: Firstly, a choice of a loss
function is desirable; this function should be distinguishable;
hence, the entire process could be positioned on the detrac-
tion of this loss function [44].
2.4.2.1.4. Light gradient boosting. LGB modelling is a vari-
ation of gradient boosting which utilizes trees based on
learning algorithms. Resulting, the light gradient boosting
modelling has a speed value in the training stage, guaran-
teeing greater effectiveness [45]. Using histogram-based pro-
cedures is a unique aspect of light gradient boosting modelling
concerning XG boost. Hence, it could quicken training orders
while dropping memory utilization. Since light gradient
boosting is based on a DT, dissection exactness is not a sig-
nificant feature. A coarse regularization method is present to
evade accidental over-fitting. Light gradient-based modelling
comprises some enhanced attributes compared to the tradi-
tional DT format. For example, an inefficient approach to
level-wise growth is generally accepted in DT, leading to extra
memory consumption. Nevertheless, leaf-wise growth LGB is
a protuberant approach to decreasing error using a similar
section period [46].
2.4.2.1.5. Category Boosting. CB is an unbiased gradient-
boosting algorithm with definite properties. Its significant
properties are actual aspects and a novel order-boosting
scheme without predicting shift. A category feature is a
feature having a discrete set of values that are not necessarily
comparable with each other. It offers different categorical
aspects with different solutions. Its procedure is optimized
and applied in tree splitting rather than processing in the
preprocessing stage, which helps to reduce overfitting [47]. CB
is a disparity of gradient boosting, which utilizes symmetric
trees to offer quick performance, permits parallel processing,
and utilizes ordered boosting to circumvent overfitting [48].
2.4.2.2. Bagging methods
2.4.2.2.1. K nearest neighbors. K Nearest Neighbors (KNN)
is a non-parametric classification process, which is modest
but real in different cases. For a data record t to be classified,
its KNN is regained, making a neighbourhood of t. The ma-
jority voting between the data in the neighbourhood is
generally utilized to choose the classification for t with or
without consideration of distance-based weighting. For KNN
to be less reliant on the choice of K, it is proposed to look at
multiple sets of nearest neighbors rather than just one set of k
nearest neighbors. The proposed idea is based on contextual
probability. It aggregates the support of numerous sets of
nearest neighbors for various classes to give a more reliable
support value, which better reveals the true class of t [49]. KNN
[12] search to determine a set of training samples near a new
query point and forecast its value.
2.4.2.2.2. Extremely Randomized Trees. Extremely Ran-
domized Trees (ET) is a meta-estimator that could make
several muddled decision trees on a sub-sample. It is an
extended form of RF. The ET is less expected to be over-fitted
to a specimen. Alike to RF, its employments random sub-
specimens of aspects to the training method of the base
estimator. The complete data set is concurrently used for the
training method of an ET [46]. Regardless of the tree size,
Geurts et al., 2005 revealed that the ET is less complex than
an RF. Random cut points utilized in ET reduce the variance
compared to the weak randomization sequence of other
methods [46]. The ET is like the random forest, contradictory
only in the random divisions in which the trees are made
[50].
2.4.2.2.3. Decision tree. A Decision Tree (DT) is a separate
learning method that is often utilized to categorize problems
related to regression but is often used to organise problems.
Inside the tree, there are categories. Though, if there is no
class, the regression method could be utilized to project re-
sults utilizing self-regulating variables. A DT is a ranked
classifier in which the internal nodes signify database char-
acteristics. The branch represents the conclusion rules, and
every leaf node characterizes the results. The DT comprises
two nodes: the leaf node and the decision node. Decision
nodes have numerous categories and can form any choice,
while leaf nodes have a deficiency of branches and evaluate
the output of the decision. It is mentioned as a DT because it
looks like a tree in that it begins with the root node and grows
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 1 4 8 3 e1 4 9 8
as per the number of branches, hence signifying a tree-like
structure. The DT splits the specimens of data into
numerous sections. The performed algorithm regulates the
difference between a goal and forecasted values at every
section point [22].
2.4.2.2.4. Random forest. RF is usually developed from the
classifier and regression tree technique to offer improved
presentation in forecasting the output. Decisively, it makes
many decision trees to forecast the output. The growth of
every tree in a random forest model is attained over a random
set of predictors and hence mentioned as a random forest.
Incorporation of all shaped decision trees is performed uti-
lizing bagging. Bagging techniques implement the DT algo-
rithm to select bootstrap samples to develop the predictions
[34]. Comprehensive data about RF could be obtained from
Bremiman, 2017 [51]. The RF is an estimator that considers
numerous random DTs and adjusts them based on multiple
sub-samples of the training data [52]. RF utilizes the average
decision trees to forecast better and regulate overfitting.
2.4.2.3. Support Vector Machine. Support Vector Machine
(SVM) is a powerful and versatile method to deal with linear/
non-linear classification, regression, and even outlier detec-
tion [23]. SVM is used to make a boundary among groups of
data. SVM is based on the concept of decision planes that
define decision boundaries. A decision plane separates a set of
objects having diverse class memberships. Support vector
machine is mostly a technique that does arrangement tasks
by making hyperplanes in a multi-dimensional space that
splits cases of several labels [9].
Fig. 3 e Heatmap representing the linear one-to-one correlation between variables in terms of ingredients ratio of self-
compacting concrete with RA.
1489
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Co-relation between input and output parameters
A correlation amid 2 variables is a digit amid 1, and þ1
shows the linearity of the association amid variables [53].
Greater linearity is observed when the value is nearer to þ1
[53]. A correlation matrix is just a mathematical illustration of
components outcomes on each other. Fig. 3 shows that
compressive strength has a higher influence on FA/C and a
lower influence on W/C. Statistical correlations between the
input variables (in terms of ratio) and output variables are
already reported by Chakraborty and Gutierrez., 2021 [54].
Among input variables, the ratios show they note the stron-
gest relationship. Though statistical co-relations are advan-
tageous for initial data analysis, they do not seize the
combinatorial non-linear dependences amid the input and
output variables, which are very significant in ML methods
[54]. This information is necessary to strategically develop
new SCC with RA based on numerous constraints, including
compressive strength requirement for building projects and
the availability of materials, cost, and time. Between input
and output variables, a positive sign denotes a direct rela-
tionship, whereas a negative sign denotes an inverse rela-
tionship. Values close to or equal to þ1 or - 1 suggest a strong
relationship, whereas values close to or equal to 0 imply no
relationship at all.
Fig. 4 represents the relationship of input parameters
(mixed design parameters) and compressive strength of SCC
1490 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 1 4 8 3 e1 4 9 8

with RA's in the form of 3D contour maps, which shows that
all the input parameters follow the global trend. For example,
all the ratios show an inverse relationship, as noted in Fig. 4.
A similar relationship between input-output variables using
a contour map is discussed by Ullah et al., 2022[55]. The
correlation of input and output variables indicates that the
collected data can be used to develop machine learning
models [55], and the ANOVA analysis confirms it.
3.2. ANOVA analysis of input parameters
ANOVA analysis is done for all families to understand the
input's influence on output parameters. The p-value calcu-
lates the suitability of declining the null hypothesis as a hy-
pothesis test and its scopes from 0 to 1dthe little the p-value,
the smaller the probability that lowering the null hypothesis
is an error. The t-value signifies the implication of the

Fig. 4 e Contour Maps of input variables (a) W/C, (b) W/B, (c) TA/C, (d) CA/FA, (e) FA/C and (f) S/L ratio against compressive
strength of SCC with RA's.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 1 4 8 3 e1 4 9 8 1491

Table 3 e Influence of input parameters on compressive strength using ANOVA analysis and contribution percentage.
t Stat P-value F value Variance SSQ Percentage of contribution
Ratios
W/C 1.358604 0.175091 4644.9 0.041237 108.802 0.127
W/B 4.87815 1.59E-06 33689.9 0.005685 45.736 0.053
TA/C 2.815622 0.005126 26.817 7.142376 12484.06 14.599
CA/FA 1.66642 0.096468 2156.599 0.088816 401.114 0.469
FA/C 3.15411 0.00174 136.237 1.405935 3033.379 3.547
S/L 0.178642 0.858315 15.030 12.74352 69438.92 81.203
Error 0.002

SSQ e Sum of Squares.

regression coefficient. The higher the value of t and the
smaller the value of p, the more critical the corresponding
coefficient term is. This research's alpha (a) level was definite
as 0.05. Thus, items in the analysis of variance with a p-value
less than 0.05 are considered substantial [56]. The non-
significant input variables are W/C, CA/FA, and S/L ratio, as
noted in Table 3. The most contributing factor is indicated for
S/L and TA/C ratio compared to all others. Table 3 shows that
the error contribution percentage is 0.002%, which suggests
that all the factors significantly affect the compressive
strength of SCC with RA [57,58]. Kelestemur et al., 2014 [59]
observed various factors' contributions to compressive
strength using ANOVA analysis. A significant F value showed
that the process parameter variation significantly changed
the performance characteristics of concrete [57] . Regarding
the F value, all input factors can be classified as substantially
affecting compressive strength if the F value is more
significant than F critical value. In all cases, the F value is
found to be greater than the F critical value, which indicates
all input parameter ratios affect the compressive strength of
SCC [58] .
3.3. Sensitive assessment
The sensitivity assessment for various models is assessed
using R2, R, RMSE and MAE for training, validation and testing
datasets in Fig. 5. From Fig. 5(a), the highest R2 value for
training, validation, and testing is noted for machine learning
methods CB, KNN, and ERT. The lowest R2 value for training,
validation, and testing is noted for machine learning methods
AB, SVM, and SVM.
Fig. 5(b) shows the highest R2, R-value for training, vali-
dation, and testing for machine learning methods: GB, KNN,
and ET. The lowest R-value for training, validation, and

Fig. 5 e Sensitive assessment for predicted compression strength of SCC with RA's.
1492 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 1 4 8 3 e1 4 9 8

Table 4 e Sensitive assessment value for predicted compressive strength.

Methods R2 R RMSE MAE
Tr Va Te Tr Va Te Tr Va Te Tr Va Te
XGB 0.922 0.706 0.782 0.96 0.840 0.884 0.045 0.081 0.074 0.004 0.001 0.01
AB 0.620 0.522 0.612 0.788 0.723 0.782 0.099 0.104 0.099 0.002 0.001 0.015
GB 0.937 0.652 0.730 0.968 0.807 0.854 0.04 0.089 0.083 0 0.008 0.018
LGB 0.931 0.608 0.817 0.965 0.800 0.904 0.042 0.094 0.068 0 0.006 0.008
CB 0.956 0.706 0.805 0.978 0.840 0.897 0.001 0.081 0.07 0 0.002 0.009
KNN 0.951 0.716 0.814 0.975 0.846 0.884 0.035 0.08 0.069 0.002 0.003 0.007
ERT 0.934 0.700 0.820 0.966 0.836 0.906 0.041 0.082 0.068 0 0.006 0.006
DT 0.835 0.662 0.789 0.914 0.814 0.888 0.065 0.087 0.073 0.006 0.006 0.005
RF 0.923 0.684 0.778 0.961 0.828 0.881 0.044 0.084 0.075 0.001 0.003 0.013
SVM 0.653 0.453 0.519 0.808 0.673 0.800 0.095 0.111 0.111 0.003 0.002 0.006

Tr e Training, Va- Validation, Te - Testing.

noted for machine learning methods DT, GB, and GB. At the
Table 5 e Performance rating of machine learning same time, the lowest MAE value for training, validation,
methods. and testing is indicated for machine learning methods RF,
Performance Training Validation Testing AB, and SVM. Sensitive assessment for predicted compres-
rating sive strength and its performance ratings are tabulated in
XGB Excellent Good Good Tables 4 and 5.
AB Satisfactory Unsatisfactory Satisfactory
GB Excellent Satisfactory Satisfactory 3.4. Error assessment
LGB Excellent Satisfactory Very good
CB Excellent Good Very good
To better compare the model performances, the calculated
KNN Excellent Good Very good
prediction errors of all boosting and bagging models are
ERT Excellent Good Very good
DT Very good Satisfactory Good visualized in Figs. 6 and 7. Xu et al., 2021 simplified the model
RF Excellent Satisfactory Good performance by representing the error value in box plots. A
SVM Unsatisfactory Unsatisfactory Unsatisfactory minimum number of error values is noted for the KNN and CB
in bagging and boosting methods. In contrast, the maximum
error value for boosting and bagging methods is noted for AB
testing is noted for machine learning methods AB, SVM, and and SVM. Error value regarding the number of samples for
LGB. From Fig. 5(c), the highest RMSE value for training, training, validation and testing with machine learning
validation, and testing is indicated for machine learning methods is shown in Fig. 8.
methods SVM, SVM, and SVM. In contrast, the lowest RMSE Average percentage relative error is a type of indication
value for training, validation, and testing is noted for ma- between the experimental value and predicted value from
chine learning methods CB, KNN, and ET. From Fig. 5(d), the various models, which is obtained by altering the equation
highest MAE value for training, validation, and testing is proposed by Feng et al., 2019 [25] as shown in equation [6].

Fig. 6 e Box plot of error value (MPa) on boosting methods for predicted compressive strength.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 1 4 8 3 e1 4 9 8 1493

Fig. 7 e Box plot of error value (MPa) on bagging methods for predicted compressive strength.

3.5. Performance comparison

 
1 jPi  Oi j
Average Relative Error ð%Þ ¼ x100 (6)
N Oi Predicted compressive strength values obtained from different
methods are compared to the experimental values reported in
A higher correlation between the predicted compressive
this section. A graphical comparison of various machine
strength from various models and experimental results is
learning methods is shown in Fig. 10. The correlation figure in-
observed only when the average relative error value is less
dicates that the expert AB and SVM methods and all other
than 10% [25]. The highest average relative error is noted for
methods reveal an acceptable ability to predict SCC's compres-
SVM and AB, whereas the lowest average relative error is for
sive strength with RA accurately. The model proposed based on
machine learning methods KNN and CB (see Fig. 9).
the KNN method shows more accurate predicted values.

Fig. 8 e Error Value (MPa) for predicted compression strength of SCC with RAs.
1494 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 1 4 8 3 e1 4 9 8
Fig. 9 e Average relative error for machine learning methods.
From Fig. 10(a), (b), 10(c), 10(d) and 10(e), it is noted that the
experimental and predicted compressive strength by boosting
methods in the order of XGB, AB, GB, LGB and CB reveals linear
relationship having R2 value as 0.8779, 0.6017, 0.8731, 0.8714
and 0.901, whereas polynomial relationship having R2 value as
0.881, 0.6257, 0.8753, 0.8778 and 0.9042. The polynomial rela-
tionship shows a higher R2 value when compared to a linear
relationship is noted. A linear relationship between experi-
mental and predicted value by the ANN method is indicated by
Zhu et al., 2022 [18]. Based on the R2 value, predicted
compressive strength by boosting techniques is in the order of
CB, XGB, GB, LGB, and AB.
From Fig. 10(f), (g), 10(h), 10(i), and 10(j), it is noted that the
experimental and predicted compressive strength by boost-
ing methods in the order of KNN, ET, DT, RF, and SVM reveals
linear relationship having R2 value as 0.9014, 0.886, 0.808,
0.8698 and 0.6068, whereas polynomial relationship having R2
value as 0.905, 0.8907, 0.812, 0.8759 and 0.6085. The poly-
nomial relationship shows a higher R2 value when compared
to a linear relationship. Based on the R2 value, predicted
compressive strength by bagging methods are in the order of
KNN, RF, ET, DT, and SVM. Based on descending order of the
R2 value, the machine learning methods can be listed as
KNN > CB > XGB > GB > LGB > RF > ET > DT > SVM > AB.
When compared to bagging methods, boosting methods
show better-predicted results. An increase in polynomial
degree for the relationship between experimental and pre-
dicted values by machine learning methods are noted by in-
crease in the R2 value. Lyndoh et al., 2022 [60] reported a
similar observation in which an increase in polynomial de-
gree, increases the R2 value for predicted parameters, using
various machine learning methods.
3.6. Sensitivity analysis
Sensitivity Analysis (SA) was executed to assess the input
variables' impact on the dataset's output variables. SA has a
list of methods to quantify how the doubt in the output of a
model is related to doubt in its inputs. In general, the SA
assesses how sensitive the model is to uncertainties in the
parameters and data on which it is created. Higher SA value,
the influence of input variables on the output variables is
more significant [28]. SA established results associated with
the number of input variables and the dataset employed to
form ML models [61,62]. The effect of input variables on the
technique outcomes was obtained utilizing the following
relationship.
Ni ¼ fmax ðXi Þ  fmin ðXi Þ
Ni
Si ¼
P
n
Nj
ji
where fmax (Xi) e highest estimated value on the ith result, fmin
(Xi) e lowest estimated value on the ith results, Si ¼ obtained
impact percentage for a particular variable.
Fig. 11 represents the effect of the input parameters
utilized in the present study on the estimation of compression
strength of SCC with RA. SA showed that the S/L ratio was
the crucial element, accounting for 49% of the overall impact,
followed by the TA/C ratio at 32% and the FA/C ratio at 13%.
The involvement of other input parameters in the compres-
sive strength determination of SCC with RA was observed to
be lower. Yuan et al., 2022 found the influence of input pa-
rameters on the determination of RA concrete's compressive
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 1 4 8 3 e1 4 9 8 1495

Fig. 10 e Co-relation between predicted compression strength (MPa) and experimental compression strength (MPa) by
Boosting and bagging methods for SCC with RA.
1496 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 1 4 8 3 e1 4 9 8
Fig. 11 e Input variables contribution to estimating the outcome of models.
strength. The influence of input variables on the prediction of
split tensile strength is reported in the literature by
Shang et al., 2022 [62] and Jesus de-Prado-Gil., 2022 (b) [28].
4. Conclusions
To obtain the required compressive strength at 28 days,
conventionally, it will take -eight days to use the trial-and-
error method, which is inefficient and increases the con-
sumption of natural materials. Machine learning methods are
successfully employed without investing money and polluting
the environment. Though, further study is needed for the
assessment of the optimal performance of machine learning
methods. This research has inspected the use of machine
learning tools to predict the compressive strength of SCC with
recycled aggregate as a function of its mixture proportions to
subsequently improve the practice of concrete mixture
design, quality control, and quality assurance. Based on the
results of this paper, the following main conclusions can be
summarized.
 The highest correlation is noted between the input
parameter FA/C and the output parameter compressive
strength
 Most of the relationship between non-dimensional ele-
ments and output elements is noted as an inverse
relationship
 Sensitive assessment of machine learning models in-
dicates that each assessment method shows slightly
different machine learning methods for training, valida-
tion, and testing methods.
 Error assessment shows the best models are KNN and CB
for bagging and boosting methods
 K nearest neighbor (KNN) is found to be the best prediction
machine learning model of compressive strength of SCC.
Apart from that, the performance of various machine
learning models employed in this study can be listed in the
order of KNN > CB > XGB > GB > LGB > RF > ET > DT >
SVM > AB.
 The S/L ratio is the most contributing input parameter
noted from sensitivity analysis of input variables
The outcomes of this study could assist in making a
consistent machine learning method to forecast accurately
and rapidly the compression strength of SCC with RA. One
such way is carefully built with the help of sensitivity and error
assessment; the prediction method can decrease laboratory
work's time consumption and price. The deficiency of the
current study could be the scope of output and input of the
database. Hence, these ranges would limit the model's appli-
cability to predict the compressive strength with the help of the
SCC ingredients.
Data availability
Data is available with authors.
Funding resources
Not applicable.
Author contributions
Conceptualization: P.J, J.d-P-G, N$S-M; Investigation: P.J, J.d-P-G,
R.M-G; WritingdOriginal Draft Preparation: P.J, J.d-P-G, N$S-M;
WritingdReview & Editing: P.J, J.d-P-G, R.M-G; Supervision:
R.M-G, N$S-M; Project Administration: P.J, J.d-P-G, R.M-G.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 1 4 8 3 e1 4 9 8
Acknowledgement
Not applicable.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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