M A NUA L OF PRA C T I C A L I N S TRU C T I O N IN H AN D FO RG I N G OF

W RO U G H T I RO N ,
M A C H I N E S TE E L , AN D TOO L STEEL ;
O
DR P FORG I N G ; AN D H EAT TREAT M E N T OF

S TEEL , I N C LU D I N G A NN E AL I N G H ARD ,

E N I N C , AN D TEM P ER I N G

OH N J ERN BERG
J
I NS TR T R
UC O IN FO R E R T E
G P E T TRE T
A C IC AN D H A A ME N T '
Ol S T EEL
WO R E ER
C ST PO L "T E CH N I C I N S T I T U T E
I EH B E R , WE S DIS H E N G I N EER I N G S OCI ET "

I LL US TRA TE D

AM ERI CA N TE CH N I CA L SOCIET"
CH I C G A O
1 91 9
 009 1 1 33 111: 191 1 . 1919

3 1

AME RI CA N TE CHN I CA L S OCIET"

Copyr ig ht e d i n Gr e e t B r i t e m

A ll Rig ht s Re s e r v e d
J UN 1 7 l9l9
M I
INT RODU CT IO N
Al, “
6
HE ar t of blacks m i t hin g is an an ci e n t on e an d for ce n t ur i es ,

probably , was t he on l y m e t al-wor ki n g profess ion . W it h

t he d e v e lopm en t of t he m et hod of cas t in g ir on , t he c hea pn ess
of t his use ful process brought about a wi de r ado pt io n of cas t

ir on for m s t han was j us t ifie d by t he fr ag ile n at ur e of t he cast in g s

use d . I n lat e r years t he fie lds of use fuln ess of t he t wo t ype s

of m e t al wor k hav e be e n v er y d e fin it e ly fixe d by t he r e q uir e

m en ts of con s t r u ct ion , t he e le m e n t of t e n s ile st re n gt h , an d t he

ex pan s ion of t he m et hod s of product ion m an ufact ur in g . The

de v e lopm e n t of dr op for gi n g had al
so a m ar ke d e ff e ct p
u on

t he re t ur n t o for gi n g m et hods , part icu lar ly in t he s m all t ool

fie ld , t he s ki l l in t he use of powe r h amm e rs an d t he us e of gan g

dies h av in g m ade for g i n g t he v er y c he ape s t poss ible m et hod
of m an uf ac t ur e

1] I n t he last fe w years t he ado pt ion of so m an y n ew t ypes

of st e e l —
par t icular ly of t he i
h gh s
- pee d an d se l
f - har de n in g v ar i e t y
has m ade e xt e n s iv e t he m ac hi n ist s kn owle dge
’
—
d em an ds on

of heat t r e at m en t of t he se m e t al
s . I n fact , t he im por t an ce of

heat t r eat m en t is oft e n lost si ght of in t he busi n ess of s e le c t in g

a ce r t ai n t ype of s t ee l for a gi v e n l
c ass of wor k . The c om po
si t i ou ,
of t he st e e l an d t he pr oc ess e s Of for g i n g , an n ea l
in g ha r d
,

enin g , an d t em pe r in g t he s t oc k ar e of v it al im port an ce in
pr od ucin g a fin is h e d ar t ic e l whi c h wi ll en d ur e , an d i t t he r e for e

be hoov e s ev er y m et a l wor ke r t o look c ar e fu lly t o t he ac q uir e m e n t

of t he in f or m at i on c
n e ess ar y t o han dle t his ki n d of wor k .

(I The aut hor of t his ar t i c le has had m an y ye ars of e xpe ri e n ce ,

n ot only in p r ac t i c a l wor k but al

so in t he fie ld of in s t ruct ion ,
an d t he refor e t he in for m at ion whi ch he has gi v e n s houl d be
doubly v aluable . Th is disc uss ion Of t he he at t r e at m ent of st ee l

is par t i cular ly t i m e ly an d is t he r es u lt O f m an y p
e x e r im e n t s wi t h

diffe r e n t t ypes Of s t ee l . I t is t he hope of t he publis he rs t hat t he

t r e at ise wi ll pr ov e of di st in ct l
v a ue , n ot on ly t o t he t r ai n e d m an

but t o t he la ym an who wis he s to k ee p abr e as t of t he t im es .

 CONT ENTS
MECHANICAL DETAILS

For gin g m at e r i al
s

Com m on t ools

M achi n e t ools
Dr op h am m e rs
Power h am m e rs

Bulldoz e rs

We ldin g he at

Lap we ldi n g

An g le we ldi n g

Sim ple be n d for gi n g

Calculat ion of s t oc k for be n t s hape s

M e dium for ge d wor k

Calculat ion of st oc k

Tools t e e l wor k
- .

St an d ar d form s
M is ce llan e ous pr oc e sses
Shr i n kin g

Be n di n g cas t ir on
 CON TENT S
P AG E
Forg in g ope rat i on s (c on t in ue d )
M isc e llan e ous proc es s e s
Pi pe be n d in g
Du plicat e wor k

HEAT TREATM ENT

Tes t of heat e ff e ct

Ge n e r alpr oc e ss
Hi gh s pe e d st e e l
-

Coppe r an d br as s

M e asur in g an d t es t i n g in s t r um ent s

Pyr om e t e rs .

Re duct ion of br i t t le n es s
Bat hs for t e m pe r in g .
 PART I

M ECHA N ICA L DET A ILS

M ATERIALS AN D EQ UIPM ENT
Forg in g M at e r ials Forg ing in g eneral treats of the hammer
.

in g working or fo r m n of h eated m etal s

, ,
The material s upon .

which forging or bl acksmith ing is done ar e wrought iron and stee l , .

As explained i n M etall urg y

“ ”
wro ught i ron is an iron from which
,

the sili con pho sphorus and m o st O f t he carbon has been removed
, ,
.

Steel usually c ontain s some of the imp urities th at are ch aracteri stic
O f c a st i ron with th e marked p ecul iarity of h olding a var ying per
centag e of c arbon M ild steel s ar e so call ed on account of the small
.

amount of c arbon which they c ontain As th e p ercentage O f carbon .

increase s it become s more difi c ult t o wel d th e m etal G reater care

,
.

m ust al so be used in heating l e st the metal be b ur ned an d it s strength

destroyed Until r ecently all h eavy forgings in volving welding
.

were m ade O f wrought iron but n e w it is c ustomary t o make mo st

,

forgings Of mild steel particul arly l arge ones altho ugh wro ught iron
, ,

is somew hat more s ati sfactory where a great am o unt Of welding i s

r equired .

Clas ses The se metal s may be ro ughly divided i nto three general
.

cla sses although the divi sion l ine may not be shar ply drawn be
,

tween any two classe s as follow s : ( 1 ) wro ught i ron (2 ) machine steel ;
,

and (3 ) tool steel The characteri stic s and method O f manuf actu re of
.

the metals ar e described in M etallurgy

“ ”
A r o ugh di stinction .

su ch as a b l ack smith wo ul d use i s abo ut as follow s : W ro ught iron

has a fibro us structure with stringy streak s of s lag r unning l ength

wi se Of the bar giving it a decided fiber s imilar t o wood M achine
, .

steel more p roperl y de scribed as mil d steel or s ometime s ca ll ed soft

, ,

steel has m uch th e s ame p ropertie s as wro u ght i ron ex cepting that
,

it l acks th e fiber and is somewhat stronger Too l steel differs from the .

other t wo material s in the fact that by s uddenly cooling from a high

heat it may be made very hard or harden s to u se the technical term
, ,
.

Wrought iron or machi ne steel are n ot h ardened by the s ame treat

2 F OR GING

ment T ool steel is practically t he same thing as wro ught iron or

.

machine steel with a smal l percentage of carbon added I n fact .

,

either Of the two m etal s may be turned into tool steel by th e addition
of c arb on . Thi s p rinciple is used in c a seharden ing N orway iron .

or Swedis h ir on is a gr ade of very p ure wr o ught iron containing l ittle

sl ag. I t i s more expen sive th an ordinary wr ought iron Refined .

iron i s a grade of wr o ught iron n ot as good as N orway iron but better

than ordinary i ron N orway i ron c o sts abo ut twice as m uch as
.

machine s teel which i s s omewhat c h eaper than wrought iron of

,

almo st any grade M achine steel made by both the O pen hearth
.
,
-

and Be ssemer p roces se s is used for forging , .

S i zes of S tock M aterial from which forging s are ordinarily made

.

comes to the forge sh op in the shape O f bars hav ing un iform s ection s
thro ughout ; generally round square or rectangular in s ection and , , ,

varying from i inch thick to 18 inches sq uare H eavier sizes may be .

had t o order Bars are ordinarily 12 to 2 0 feet in l ength Thin

. .

st uff i inch or l e ss in th i c kne s s u sually c ome s in strip s of abo ut 40

, ,

feet Thi s may be had from stock up to 6 or 8 inche s wide Tool

. .

steel al s o come s in bar s generall y abo ut 6 or 8 feet l ong The ordinary .

s i ze s O f tool steel s tock are known as bas e s i zes and the price i s fixed
- .

on the s e b as e s izes S tock of a l arger or smaller s i z e than t he base

.

s ize s i s generall y c harged for at an increa s e in price Th us inch .

sq uare too l s teel which i s a bas e s ize i s worth in certain grade s a b o ut

, ,

14 cents a p o und S teel of exactly the s ame grade and ch aracter

.
,

3
1g O f an inch sq u are c o s t s a bo ut 1 8 cent
, s .

Clas s ificat io n of Eq uipm e n t Th e o utfit of a forg e sh op c ons ists

.

in general Of the heating apparatus the forge fu rnace s e t c ; —

, , .

and the h andling eq uipment the anvil th e vario us tool s and the —
, ,

machines for shaping and working .

HEAT I N G APPARAT US
While forges or fire s are O f many s hape s and si z es th e
For g e s .
,

principles O f their construction remai n t he same An ordinary .

blacksmith forge is a firepl ace in the bottom O f whi ch there i s a tuyere

for adm itting a blast of air t o blo w the fire Where th e air b l ast is .

furnished by a hand b ellows the pipe l eading therefrom to the tuyere

,

i s open thro ugho ut Where a power driven blower furnish es th e bl ast

.
-
,

there is a valve in the pipe for regulating it .

 °

F ORGING

T he al form of t uyer e cons i sts Of a single bla st pipe open

usu ,

ing into the b ottom Of the fire pit Thi s may be a s imple no z z l e as
.

in Fig 1 with the blast

.
,

re gu lated by a damper i n

th e pipe ; or it may have a

,

regul ator at th e mouth of

t he t uyere as shown S ome .

times th e tuyer e has several

openings and is then in the
,

form of a grate Whatever .

it s form it sh o uld be pos

, Fg 1 T y i . u e re

s i bl e to c lean it from below ,

in order that c oal and c l inkers falling into it may b e remove d .

Fi g 2 . . Md
o e rn Forg e
Cou r t es y of B ufla lo F or g e Com pan y, B afialo, N ew "or k

A modern type Of forge i s shown in Fig 2 Thi s i s provided . .

with a h ood for carrying Off the smoke T he pipe connec ted to the .
4 F OR GI N G

hood ext end s down ward to an underground flue l eadin g t o an

exhaust fan whic h draws out t he air The b l ast p ipe i s al so un der
.

ground and a sm all p ipe l eads upward t o t he tuyere t he am ount of

, ,

blast admitted t o th e fi re being regul ated by a slide in thi s p ipe .

T hi s system O f undergro un d p iping i s known as the down draft -

sy stem .

I n s ome shop s n o p rovi sion i s made for carrying off th e smoke ,

while in others hood s are pl aced above th e forge s and connected t o

Fi g 3
. . M ot or D r i v e n E x
b
h aus t e r or Bl owe r

Court es y of B ufla lo F or g e Com pa n y. B ufialo, N ew "or k

' '

overhead pipes which may be either connected to an exhaust fan or

,

led directly to the roof The down draft system i s the m ore modern
.
-

and generally the best .

Blas t The b l a st is furni shed to the fires O f a blacksmith shop

.

by blowers of various kind s For many years the ordinary bellow s

.

was used Thi s has been supers eded by the fan blower which i s n ow
.

almo st u niversally used even for h and p ower

, .

S u ch a fan blower i s shown i n Fig 3 I t i s formed of a thin . .

cast iron shell in which there are a se t Of rapidly revolving blades

- .
 FORG I N G 5

Thes e bl ades se t up a cu rrent of air which presse s again st the side

of t he s hell and e s capes thro ugh th e tangential op ening The .

pressur e of t he bl ast used for an open b lacksmith fi re v aries from

about 2 t o 7 ounces pe r sq uare inch The l owe r p ressure is used.

for a l ight fir e an d light work The higher p ressure i s suitabl e

.

for h eav y cl a sses Of work .

Fue l The common fuel for smal l fi res is soft or bitumino us

.

c oa l c oke for l arge fi re s and fur nace s and occasiona l ly hard c oa l in

, ,

small furnace s The soft coal used i s of a g rade known as s m i t hi n g

.

coal. I t sho ul d be very clean and free from imp urities A lum p of .

good forge c oal breaks ea sil y with a cr um bly l ooking fractur e and
the c oal shows clean an d bright on all faces I t will not break up .

“
into l ayers as steaming coal will such seamy l ooking breaks being
,

caused by the more or l e ss earthy imp uritie s I f forg e coal spl its .

and shows d ull l ooking streaks or l ayers it is p oor coal G ood coal , .

has l ittle cl in ker and break s ea sily When u sed the coal is damp
.
,

ened and kept wet before p utting on the fire I t s ho uld be b roken .

up fine before dam p eni ng and not used in l ump s

, .

Fi r es The fire m ust be carefully watched I t i s very im portant

. .

th at it should be in fir st cl a ss condition at all times for the work in

-

hand A certain depth of fi re i s always nece ssary I f the fire be t oo

. .

sha ll ow the co l d b l a st wi ll penetrate the fire in sp ots making it

, ,

impo ssibl e t o heat t he metal There S ho ul d be depth enough to

.

the fi re t o p revent thi s For small work there Sho uld be at l east
.

three or fo ur inches O f fi re below the metal th at i s h eating There .

s ho ul d a l s o be thickne ss eno ugh of fire above the work being h eated

t o p revent the meta l from l o sing heat to the o ut side air The fire .

sho ul d be kept a s small as po ssible to h eat the work pro p erly As a .

general r ul e the fire w ill follow the bl ast I f the fire i s wanted l arger
.
,

it may be made so by l oo sening th e edges of the fire by a bar allowin g ,

the b l ast t o come thro ugh aro und the s ides and causin g the fire to ,

Spread When a sma ll fi re is wanted the damp coal sho uld be packed
.

down tig htly around the side s an d t he center of the fire loo sened up
sl ightl y For l ight work a small ro und fire is used For heavier heat
. .

ing the fi re i s started by placing a l arge block on top of the tuyere ,

on e ac h s ide of which green coa l i s p acked down h ard in the Shap e

of an Ob l ong mo un d The block is then removed and the fi re star ted

.

in th e ho l e l eft These mo und s are left undi sturbed an d fre sh fuel i s

.
6 F ORGI NG

added to the fire in the shape Of coke which has either been previo usl y
made by loo sely banking a q uantity of g reen coal over the fire and
partiall y b urning it t o coke or i s bo ught ready m ade With a small
, .

fire the fuel i s con stantly added around the s ides where it i s t urned
into coke Thi s coke i s rak ed in to the center Of the fire as wanted
.

and more coal added aro und the sides and p atted down to keep t he
fire in shape .

When too m uch bl ast i s b lown through the fire al l the oxygen
i s not b urned out of the air Thi s attacks the iron form m g a heavy
.
,

Fi g 4
. . Sm lH
al e at i n g Furn ace

coat O f oxide or scale (the black s cale which fall s from h eated iron) .

T hi s s ort of fi re i s known as an oxidi zi n g fi r e and s ho uld n ot be used

when it is pos sibl e to avoid it When j ust enough air i s being admitted
.

t o keep the fire b u rning brightl y an d a ll O f the Oxygen i s burned the ,

fir e is in good conditio n for heating V ery l ittl e s cale i s formed and

.

some of the s cale a l ready formed may even be turned back t o iron .

T hi s s or t Of a fire i s known as a r educi n g fir e I n other word s when

.
,

the fire i s in condition to give oxygen t o anyth ing it is an oxidi z ing ,

fire I f in condition to take away o xygen it is a red ucing fire

.
, .
 F ORGING 7

Ban ki n g The fire may be kept for s om e tim e by p lacing a

.

bl ock of wood in the cent er and covering over with fre sh c oal .

Furn ace s I n n early a ll manuf acturing work and in l arg e work in

.

the j obbin g shop th e he atin g is done in furn aces T he heat i s generally

,
.

suppl ie d b y either h ard coal coke oil or g as c oke bein g more com
—
, , ,

m on ly empl oyed in j obbing shop s Sometime s ordinary coal i s used . .

S m all Type A fur nace u sed for heating small work for man u
.

fact ur in g is shown in Fig 4 This . .

may be used with either ordinary

coal o coke G s furnaces a impl e
r a
. s f ,

type of which for all ar ound work ‘

is shown in Fig 5 are used when .

,

an even heat is wanted p articularly ,

.

for h ardening and t empering For .

manuf actur ing work the furnaces are

sometim e s fi xed t o do the h eatin g

automatically The pieces to be

.

hardened ar e carried thro ugh the

furnace on an e ndless chain which
moves at a speed so timed that the
pieces have j ust time enough to be
h eated t o th e right temperature as
they p ass through the furnace S u ch .

a furnace i s shown in Fig 6 . .

Re ve r ber atory A reverberatory .

,

or air furnace i s a fu rn ace in which

Si pl G
,
Fi g 5 F m e as u r n a ce
metal or oth er materi al 15 Co mm , A i G F
. .

or e
, , C p y 0 m er ca n a,
-
ur m e om an ,

N w " k m y e or
expo se d t o the action Of flame but ,

not t o the c ontact of bur ning fuel The flame p asses over a bridge .

and then downward upon the material spread upon the hearth .

Such furnaces are ext en sively used in s hop s where hea v y work
is being exec uted They are al so used for meltin g iron or other metal s
. .

For this p urp o se however they are not economical since they
, , ,

requi re about twice as m uch fuel as that used in the c upola for the
prod uction of good hot ir on TO be effective th e flame m ust be mad e
.

to reverberate from the low roof of the furnace down upon the he art h
and work The form Of the roof and the velocity Of the c urre nt s
.

determine the hotte st part Of the furnace .

8 FORGI N G

A common form Of reverberatory furnace is shown in Fig 7 .

Th e whole i s lined with fire brick from the top O f the grates to the

Fi g 6
. . Au t om at i c G as Fur n ace
Cou rt es y of A m e r i ca n Ga s F u r na c e Com pa n y, N e w "or k Cit y

top of the stack The fuel is burned in a fire box separated from the
.

heating portion O f the furnace by a l ow bridg e wall D Access to .

Fi g 7
. . Se c t i on of R e v e r be r a t or y Fu r n ace

th e grate is Obtained by suitabl e doors both above and bel ow When .

in service both doors ar e tightly clo sed and a strong forced dr aft
,
10 F ORGING

Hence, u nless the handle 13 properly fitted in thi s partic ular there ,

will b e constant dan ger Of striking a glancing blow The handle .

s ho uld al s o s tand at right angle s to a center l ine drawn from the ball

Of the peen to the face .T he eye in the h e ad i s u sually so se t that the

weight on the face s ide is greater than that on the peen T he eff ect .

F ig . 8 . Com m on T ype s of H am m e rs

Of thi s is to s o balance the tool that heav ier and more acc urate blow s
can b e struc k than if the weight were evenly b alanced on each side
Of the eye .

S le dg e s S ledge s are heavier hammers u sed by the black smith s

’
.

helper and vary in weight fr om 5 to 2 0 po und s T he three common .

s hape s ar e s hown in F ig 9 ; A B and C being cro ss pe e n s traight

.
, , ,
-
,

peen and do uble faced Sledges respectively A sledge for common

,
-
, .

Fig 9 . . Com m on Type s of S l dg

e es

work ordinarily weigh s abo ut 12 po und s S ledge handles are generally .

abo ut 3 0 t o 3 6 inche s long depending on the nature Of the work

,

to be done .

An v ils N ext to the hammer in importance i s the anvil This

. .

may be any b loc k Of metal upon which the piece to b e shaped is laid .
 F ORGING 11

The anvil m ust be of s uch a weight that it can ab sorb the blow s that are
stru ck upon it witho ut experiencing any perceptib l e motion in it s elf .

The ordinary anvil Fig 10 has remained unchanged in form

, .
,

for m any hundred s of years Anvil s are sometime s made O f special

.

shape s but the on e here s hown i s the common on e

, An anvil O f thi s .

form serves for the execution Of any work that may be d esired .

As now made the body a i s Of wro ught iron t o which a fa ce of

,

harde ned steel i s welded From on e end there p rojects the horn b
.
,

and the overhang Of t he body at the other end 0 i s called the tail .

At the bottom there are fo ur proje ction s d called the feet which s erve , ,

to increase the base upon which the anvil rests as well as to aff ord
the mean s for clamping it down into po sition I n the tail there is .

Fi g 1 0
. . An v i l
a sq uare hole and a circul ar h ole The former is called the ha rdi e
.

hole the latter the s pud hole

, .

An v il s are al s o m ade of ca st iron with the w or k i n g fa ces

ch i lle d th u s g iv i n g a s or t Of c as e h ar de n ing e ff e c t
, .

T he anv il shou ld b e placed u pon the end Of a h eavy b loc k of

wood s unk into the gro und to a depth O f at l ea st 2 feet so that ,

it may re st upon a firm but elastic fo undation As the an v il i s sub .

d to con tant vi b rat ion b y the nat ure of the work it i s nece ssary
j e c t e s s , ,

that it sho uld be firmly fa stened to the block .

Wei g ht Class ification Anvil s are classed and sold by weight

. .

T he weig ht i s generally stamped on the s ide of the anv il T hree .

num bers are used The first to t he l eft shows the weig ht in Engli sh
.

hundredweight of 112 pound s each T he middl e n um ber Shows the .

additional q uarters of h undredweight and the right hand fig ur e the -

number of Odd po und s For instance an anvil marked 2 3 4 wo ul d

.
,
- -
12 F ORGI NG

weigh of 3 l2 pounds and would b e ou d =

p n s

known a s a bo u t a 3 00 po und anv il -

.

To n g s N ext to the h ammer and anvil in importance and

.

usage are the tong s They vary in S ize from tho s e suitab le for hold
.

ing the smalle st wires

to tho se capab le Of
handling ingots and
bar s O f many ton s in
weight The jaws are .

al so adapted to fit
o v er the piece to be
R handled and are of a
“5
great variety of shapes .

As the req u irements

Fi g 1 1 Typ f T g
. . es o on s
Of e ach piece O f work

vary s o m uch from tho se Which precede a n d follow it it is c ustom ,

ary for the b lacksmi t h to d r ess hi s Own to n gs and ad apt them ,

from time to time to the work he has in h and Comp ar ati v ely
,
.

few t he r e for e of the var io us sh ap e s O f tongs fo und in shop s are

, ,
.

m an uf actured and for s al e A few Of the genera l types and form s

.

in common use are here given .

A Fig 1 1 show s a p air of flat j awed tong s the commone st shape

,
.
,
-
,

us e d .B i s a pair O f pick up tong s u s ed for h olding work while tem

-

p e rin g and picking up piece s Of ,

hot metal C i s a common shape .

u se d for h ol ding b oth sq u are a n d

ro und iron the jaw s being bent ,

to fit the s tock in each cas e A .

modification O f thi s shape i s al so

u s ed for h ea v y s team hammer -

work Tongs freq uently h av e .

the jaw s made in some sp e cial

S h ape for a p a rtic u l a r pi e ce Of
Fi g 1 2 Fi t t i g T g f
. . W k n on s or or
’

work the Object always being to ,

h av e the jaw s grip the work as firmly as po ssible .

Fi tt i n g Ton gs t o Wor k Tong s m u st be always carefully fitted to

.

the w or k To n gs which tak e hold O f the work as shown at A an d B

.
,

Fig 12 sho uld not be used The first pair shown h ave the j aw s t oo
.
, .
 FOR G I N G 13

c l o se together the second too far apart When properly fitted the
, , .

jaw s sho uld touch the work thr ougho ut the entire l eng t h as shown in
the lower sketch C To fit tongs the j aw s are heated red hot the piece
.
,

to be held placed between them and the j aw s hammered down until ,

t ouching the ir e ntire l eng th Tongs whi ch do not fit t he work pe r

.

fe ct ly sho uld never under an y c irc um stances b e used Wh en in u se

, , .

on al l but the sm allest work a l in k is driven over the handles t o g rip ,

t he tong s in p osition as shown , .

S e t H am m e r s an d Platt e r s The se tool s are used for s moothing .

off flat work when finishing The s e t hammer F ig 1 3 i s us ed for work

.
, .
,

Fi g . 13 . Se t H am m er Fi g 14
. . F lat t e r

ing up into corners and narrow places The flatter Fig 14 is used On .
, .
,

w ide flat s urface s The face of the se t ham mer used on l ight work is
.

generally ab out 1 7} inche s s quare That Of the flatt er about 2 % i nches .

sq uare altho ugh the s ize s vary depending upon the kind Of work
, , .

S wag e s Swag e s shown in Fig 1 5 ar e u sed for finishing ro und

'

. .
, ,

and convex s urfaces The upper .

tool is known as the top swage and

is provided with a handle The .

lower on e is the bottom swage

and is held in place by a square
stem or s hank whic h extend s

downward and fit s into the h ardie

hole of the anv il Tools Of this .

character sho ul d never be used

on an anvil where they fit so
i
tight that it s nece ary d ive F F ll
l j d ggggffl
s s t o r i f F ie 1 6 or . u e rs
n

them into place The swage s .

shown here are u sed for ro und work Swages ar e al so made for .

octagonal hexag onal and ot her shape s

, , .
14 F ORGIN G

Fulle r s Fullers which are u sed for working grooves or h oll ows
. ,

into shape are al so made top an d bottom as shown in Fig 16

,
. .

The t op fuller is for fin

ishin g i nto round corners ,

aro und bo sses and on the ,

in s ide Of angle s as il l ustrated

'

l ater on The fuller is al so .

used to sprea d metal when

it is wished t o work the
metal only in one direction .

The met al spreads at right

angles to the working edge
of t he fuller .

S wag e Bloc k s Swage .

bl oc ks a common s ort Of
S w g B lo k
,
Fi g 1 7 . . a e c
which is shown in Fig 1 7 .
,

ar e us ed for a variety of p urpo s e s mo stly for ta king the place Of

,

bottom swage s T hese bloc ks are com .

m on ly made from ca st iron an d weigh

abo ut 150 pounds .

Ot he r Too ls T he tools us ed com .

m on l are caliper a carpenter foot ’

y s s 2 ,
-

steel s q uare divider s r ule s ho v el tong s, , , , ,

ladle poker and a straight bar for loo sen

, ,

in g the fire I n addition to the ordinary .

cal ipers a bl acksmith us ually has a pair

,

Of do uble cal ipers s imil ar to tho se shown

in Fig 18 Wit h the se two dimen sions
. .
,

may be used on e s ide being se t for the ,

thickness and the other for the width

, ,

of the material .

Meas u ri n g When several meas ur e .

ments are t o be made particul arly on

l arge work a strip Of light stock about
,

Do bl C up
u e a
i nch
em
b y 1 i n c h wid e is u s ed T h e diff er .

ent dimensions are l aid Off on this with

chal k or soap stone I n use the str ip is h eld aga inst the work and
.

used in the s ame manner as a r ule A light rod having a small

.
 FORGI N G 15

bent end made by bending over about 5 inch of stock at right angles
, ,

is al s o s ometimes u se d particul arly when working un der the stea m

,

hammer The dimens ion s

.

may be l aid Off from the

inside Of the hooked end .

When in use the hooked e n d

is pulled against th e end
of the material S oap stone
.

crayon is ordinarily used for

markin g on iron T he marks .

do not b urn Off b ut will not

,

sho w at a red h eat Marks .

to sh ow at a high heat m ust

be made by nicking the
corner of the bar with a
ch isel or by markin g with
the c enter p un ch Another .

common way Of makin g

mea surements on hot mate
rial is t o l ay Off t he different
distance s on the side Of the
anvil with chalk the dim e n ,

s ion s b eing laid Off from one

corner or end .

M AC H I N E T OO LS
M a n u f a c t u r i n g Re
q u ir e m e n t .The m an ufac

turing shop differs very

essentially from the j obb in g
shop I n the latter shop very
.

fe w forgings are made at the

same time exactly al ike Pitt 19
,
Bo d D op H . ar r am m e r

C t y f E W Bl C “ ”B kl11
ou r e s N ” " k
o t 88 om m m " " 8 or
whi le m m an ufact ur m g eac h
. .

forging is generally d uplicated a l arge n umber Of times and special

machines are used for doing the work .

Dr op H am m e r s Drop hammers are used for q uic kly formin g

.

c omplicated sh ape s out Of wro ught i ron or steel They consi st .

,
16 F ORGING

as the name indicates of a head that may b e dropped from any

,

desired height upon the piece to b e shaped T he head O f the drop .

and the anvil are in the form of d ies into which t he metal is forced to
flow and thu s t ake on t he form de s ired I n drop forging the meta l
, .
-
,

m ust be heated to a h igh temperatu re so as to be s oft and plastic .

A common t ype Of d rop hammer u sed for this kind O f work is

.

s hown in Fig 1 9 T he hammer in this ca s e i s fa stened to a board

. .

and is raised by the friction rollers

at the top Of the frame b ein g
pr e ssed again st the b oard When the .

hammer reaches t he top Of the

frame it i s dropped by releas ing the
rollers from the b oard This may b e .

done automatically or by a foot

treadle Drop hammers are al so
.

b uilt in the same general way as

steam hammers as referred to in
,

the section s on Heavy Forging and

Drop Forgin g Dies for drop forging .

generally con sist Of a roughing or '

breaking down die where the rough

-

stock i s fi r st given approximately the

des ir ed S hape an d a smoot hing die

when t he finishin g is don e T hese .

dies have in their faces holes Of the

same s hape as t he req u ired fo r ging .

Powe r H am m e r s Another tool .

Fi g 2 0 J
. ti
. H us ce
which
am m e r
i s used to q uite a large ext ent
in man ufacturin g as well as in the ,

jobb ing shop is the power hammer T hese ar e r un by b elts and

,
.

are u sed where a q u ic k rapid blow is wanted T he type shown in .

Fig 20 is kn own as a J ustice hammer ; that shown in Fig 2 1 is a

. .

B radley Shaped dies are fr eq uently u sed on t he se hamm e rs

. .

S pri n g Ram Type F ig 22 show s the B eaudry power hammer

-
. . .

T his hammer has many cla im s in it s favo r s uper ior el ast icity ; —

per fect control Of blow struck T he se ar e Obtained by a dev ice which

.

is s imple and e ff ective allowing the r,

am the g r e at e s t fr e e d om Of throw
a n d ca u s ing it to rebo u nd t he i n st a n t t h e b l o w i s s tr u c k .
18 F ORGING

pendent casting h avin g no c on

n e ct ion wi t h the frame an d th us ,

preventing crystalliz ation Of the

hammer part s ; it is held in place
by it s own fo undation b olt s and
stand s in the cent er Of t he ham

mer foundation T O it is keyed .

an in dependent sho w die and to

that in turn is keyed t he bot
t om die .

Pr e ss e s may b e of
. Pre s se s
either the gear driven or the hy -

dr aulic ally O perate d type They .

s erve the s ame p u r po s e as d rop

ham mers T hey do the work

.

more sl owly however T he cla s s

, .

of work is in s ome re sp e ct s the

, ,

s ame , the prin c ipal difference

lying in pec uliaritie s of shape
that req uire different time inter
Fi g 2 2
. . B e au dry S pr in g -R am P owe r H a m m er val s for the flow of the metal .

Cour t es y of B ea udr y d: Com pa n y. B ost on ,

M a ss ac hus ett s Where the shape is such that the

Fi g . 23 . Close V ie w of dy
B e au r Fi g 2 4
. . Close V i e w of B e au d ry An v i l
Ra m
 FORG I N G 19

metal m ust move slowly in order to acq uire it s new shap e or fil l the
di e the pre ss S ho ul d be used
,
.

Flon gi n g Type A particular type of forging pre ss i s the flan g in g

.

pre ss Thi s is used more particularly in b oiler work and is generally

.

a h eavy hydra ulic press T he flan g in g i s done b y placing the heate d

.

metal on the bed Of the pre ss and clo sing the die s together b y hydr au
lic pre ssur e
.

Bulldo ze r Thi s is a tool u sed for b end ing and consi sts Of a
.

heavy cast iron b ed with a b lock or b ol ster at on e end and a moving

-
,

head which slides back and forth on the b ed A common type i s .

shown in Fig 2 5 Heavy die s are clamped again st the b ol ster and
. .

Fi g 2 5 . . d
B u ll oz e r— U se df B
or S t oc
e n di n g k
Cou r t es y of Wi lli a m s Whi t e
, dc Com pa n y, M oli n e , I lli n oi s

on the moving head of such a shape and in s uch a way that when the
,

moving head is neare st the bol ster the shape le ft b etween the t wo ,

dies is exactly the shape to which it i s desired to bend the stock .

I n operation the moving h e ad s lides b ack and fort h on the b ed T he

, .

b ar to be bent i s heated and placed between the dies when the head
is farthest from t he bol ster A cl utch is then thrown in an d the .

h ead move s fo rward to the bol ste r bending the iron as it go e s

~
, .

Bo lt H e ade r s The s e are re ally up setting machine s th at form

.

the head s O f bolts upon straight rods Owing to the rapidity with .

which they do their work they are invariably u sed for man ufacturing
,

bolts in q uantities .

Cr an e s Where heavy work i s to b e handled it i s nece ssary to

.
,

have some means Of conveyi n g the work from on e part Of t he shop t o

20 F ORGING

another This is done by means of crane s of two g eneral types

.

( )
1 the traveling crane ; and ( )
2 the ji b crane T he f ormer type .

r u n s on an overhead track from one end of the s hop to the other ,

generally .

J i b Type The J lb crane type i s u sed more commonly for han

.

dlin g work u nder the ham mers and i s merely an arm or b oom
,

swinging aro und a po st and having a s uita b le a r r angement for rai s ing

and lowering the work When handling heavy work whenever

.
,

po ssib le it is suspended from the crane by it s cen ter in such a way

, ,

that it nearly b alances The su spending .

is generally done b y mean s of an endless

chain such as il l ustrated in Fig 2 6 and .
,

in thi s way it may be ea sily rolled and

sw ung from s ide to side For ea s e in .

handling large forging s a bar or handle ,

known as a por ter bar i s sometime s

welded on .

FO RG I NG O PERATIO NS

S M IT H W ELDI N G

Nat ur e of Pr oc e s s
a piece Of steel . If
or iron i s h eated the metal b ecomes ,

s o fter as the temperat ure i s rai sed .

Finally a heat is reached c alled the ,

welding heat at which the m e tal i s so ,

s oft that if two piece s S imilarly heated

,

W m m d by J ib are placed in contact they wil l tic k

g fgg
Fig 2 6 O'
r
S , .

I f the pieces so heated are placed

together and hammered they may be joined in on e p iece T his
,
.

process i s known as we ldi n g .

W e ldin g H e at The greate st diffi culty in welding is to heat

.

properly which m ust be done e v enly and clean ly I f the temperature

,
.

i s rai sed too high the iron will b urn throwing Off bright st ar li ke
, ,
-

spark s . I f the temperature i s too low the pieces wil l not stick to ,

each other The proper heat can only be determined by experiment

.

ing which may be ea sily done by do ub ling o v er a piece Of scrap iron

,

for 2 or 3 in che s and welding i n to a solid piece .

 F ORGING 21

As the welding heat i s reached in heating wrought iron and mild

,

steel ,small particle s of the meta l are melted and blown u pward

from the fire b y the b la st and as the s e small par t icle s come in contact
,

with the air they b urn and form small expl osi v e Sparks l ike little
,

white stars Whenever these sparks are seen coming from t he fire
.
,

it i s a sure indication that the iron i s b urning ; They are s ome

time s used as a sort O f an indication Of the welding heat but the only ,

sure way O f determining the heat i s by the appearance Of the heated

iron which might be des cri bed as sort O f creamy white T he welding
, .

heat i s sometimes de scri bed as a white heat Thi s i s not correct .

,

because iron or steel i s nev er rai sed to a white heat ev en when

melted as may be ea sily proved by comparing a piece Of wrought
,

iron at welding heat with an ordinary arc lamp

, .

Sc ale When two piec e s Of metal are welded together there

.

m ust be nothing between them Heated iron or steel i s always .

covered with s cale (iron oxide) This scale if allowed to stay on

.
,

the s urfaces to b e joined wil l prevent a good weld I t is necessary

, .

when weld ing to heat the iron or steel to a high enough temperature
,

to melt this scale and when the two pieces are put together if the ,

j oint or s carf is properly made most Of this melt ed scale i s ea sily

,

forced from between the t wo piece s leaving the clean s urface s of the ,

metal in contact T his scale only melts at a very high heat m uch
.
,

higher than the heat at which it would b e possible to weld the iron
if it co ul d be kept free from scale .

Fluxe s Fl uxes are used t o lower t he melting point of the scale

. .

The flux i s s prin kled OHthe s urface s to be j oined j u st before the

metal reaches the welding heat T he met al is then put back into
.

the fire raised to the welding heat and the weld m ade as u sual T he
, .

scale i s acted u pon b y the flux and melt s at a lower heat than when

n o flux i s u sed As the flux melts it spread s or r un s over the hot

.

metal and form s a s ort of protectiv e covering which b y keeping out , ,

the air prevent s to a large ext ent the formation of more scale T he
, .

flux in no way act s as a ceme nt or gl ue to stick the piece s t ogether ,

but merely help s to melt Off the scale already formed and prevents ,

the formation Of more .

S an d an d Bor ax Thes e s ub st ances are common fl uxes Sand

. .

m ay b e u se d when weld in g w r ou ght ir on and mac hine steel ; b orax

i s s ub stit uted for s an d for fine work and when wel ding tool steel .
22 F ORGING

B orax is a better flux a s it melts at a lower temperat ure than sand

, ,

and th us makes wel ding po ssible at a lower heat Borax and sal .

ammoniac (ammonium chloride) are sometime s mixed and used as a

-

welding compo und or flux the proportion be ing ab o ut 4 part s borax

,

to 1 part s alammoniac This mixt ure is al s o a good flux for brazing

. .

Borax contain s a l arge amount O f water which makes it bo il an d

foam when melting and in this condition is very l iabl e to dr op away
from the heating metal If b orax is heated red hot an d allowed t o
.

cool the water is driv en Off and the b orax is l eft in a glass like con
,
-

dition Borax treated this way and then powdered is the be st for
.

weld ing as it melts and sticks to the metal without any boiling
, .

We ldi n g Com poun ds Thes e are fl uxe s servin g the s ame p urpose
.

as s and or borax Some of the better one s u se borax as a b as is

. .

S ome Of thes e compound s are fi r st cla ss for their p u rp os e and others

are not SO good being simply intended as cheap s ub stitute s for
,

b orax .

Pr oce s s e s

Scar fin g For mo st welding the ends of the pieces t o be j oined

.

m ust be so shaped that when welded they make a s mooth joint .

T his S haping O f the

ends is known as s carf
ing and the shaped ,

end is called a s carf .

The s c a r f e d end s
s ho uld not fit tightl y

b e f o r e wel di ng but
sho uld be s o s haped

that they touch in the

center Of the j oint ,

leaving t he s ides some

what ope n I n this .

Fi g 2 7 W k S f d f L p W ld
. . or c ar e
'

way when the weld is

or a e
,

made the melted scale is forced from between the pieces I f the
, .

s carfs were m ade to to u ch on the edge Of the joint le aving the center ,

hollow the sc ale not hav ing a chance to e sc ape wo uld b e held in t he
,

center Of the joint leavin g a weak place and making a bad weld
, , .

Lap W e ldin g T his is the common weld u sed for join in g flat
.

bars together T he end s t o b e welded are scarfed or S haped as

.
 F OR GI N G 23

s hown in Fig 2 7 I n preparing the ends of the p ieces t o be welded

.
,

Should be first u p set u ntil they are cons iderably thicker t han t h e

rest of t he bar Thi s is done t o all ow for the iron that b urns off or is
.

l ost by scalin g and also t o allow for t he h am mering when welding

,

th e p ieces t o gether To make a proper weld th e j oint S hould be well

.

hammered and as t hi s reduces the S ize of the iron at that point the
, ,

piece s m us t be upset to allow for this reduct ion in siz e For light .

Fig 2 8
. . S hapi n g S c ar f Fig 2 9
. . Fi n is hi ng S c ar f

work the sc arfin g may be done with a hand hammer For heavy .

work a full er and sl edge sho uld be used After upsetting on l ight .

work the e n d t o be scarfed is ro ughly shaped with the peen end

,

of the ham mer as il lust rated in Fig 2 8 the final finishing being done
.
,

with the flat face of the h ammer .

For this work (finishing the edge of the scarf) as well as for all
pointed work the end Of the bar Shoul d be brought to the extreme
,

edge of the anvil in t he manner indicated in Fig 2 9 I n this way a . .

hard bl ow may be struck with the

‘

center of t he face Of t he hammer

without danger of strikin g the h ammer
on t he anvil For all ordinary l ap
.

welding the l ength of t he s carf may

be about 11} times the thi ckness Of the F ig 3 0 O l ppi g f W ld . . v er a n or e

bar . Thus on a bar inch thick the

, ,

scarf will be a b o ut i of an inc h l ong The w idth Of the end Fig 2 7 .

, .
,

sho uld be sl ightly l e ss t han the widt h Of the bar I n wel ding the .

pieces together the fir st piece held by t he helper should be placed

scarf s ide up on ?t he anvil an d the second piece l aid on top scarf ,

side do wn overlappi n g th em t o ab o ut the amo u

, n t s h own in Fig 3 0 . .

As it i s generally so m ewhat diffic ul t to l ay the top piece directly i n

24 F OR G ING

place it shoul d be steadied by resting light ly again st the corner of

,

t he anvil and th u s g uided into place .

Rou n d Lap We ld This is the weld used to j oin roun d bar s end
.

t o end to form a continuous bar Allt he p reca utions regarding the

.

scar f etc
, used for mak ing t he l a p weld sho uld be taken with thi s as
.
,

well . The general shape of t he s carf is shown in Fig 2 7 It will be . .

n otice d that th e end i s hammere d to a s harp p o int I f t he s carf be .

made with a flat or chisel shaped end simil ar t o t he flat l ap wel d

-
,

the c orners will p roject beyond t he s ides of the bar in welding and
c a use con siderable tro ub le as it will th en be n ece ssary t o work
,

entirely aroun d t he bar before t he j oint is cl osed down With .

a p ointed s carf t he weld may be fr e

q uently made by hammering on t wo

S ide s onl y This is n ot so impor t ant .

when weldin g between swages .

Ri n g Rou n d S tock Wh en a ring .

i s made the ex act amoun t of stock may ,

be c ut the end s upset an d sc arfed as ,

though maki ng a ro und lap wel d the ,

stock bent into S hape as shown in ,

Fig 3 1 and welded The ends s hould be .

, .

l apped sideways as Shown at A I n t hi s .

position a ring may be welded b y sim

ply l aying it flat on t he anvil whil e if ,

l apped t he other way B on e en d in

Fi g 3 1.L pp g Ri g E d
. a in n n s
, , ,

the other out it would be necessary to ,

do the welding over the horn Of the anvil I n all welding the piece .

S ho uld be s o l apped that the hammering may b e done in the q uicke st

an d ea s ie st manner .

A llowan ce f or We ldi n g I n work of this character when the

.
,

stock i s c ut to a cert ain length allowance is s ometime s made for l o ss

,

due to welding The exact amount is hard t o determine depending

.
,

on how caref ul ly t he iron is heated and th e n umber of heats req u ired

to make th e wel d The only real l oss whic h occurs in welding is

.

the amo unt which is b urne d Off and l ost in s cal e Of cours e when .
,

prepar ing for the weld the ends of t he pieces are upset and t he stock
,

con seq uently Shortened The piece is still fur ther sho rt ened by
.

overlapping t he en ds when making t he weld but as al l Of this material ,

26 F ORGING

in to shape and welded ; the welding be ing done over the horn O f t he
anvil The he at in g m ust be carefully done or t he outside lap will
.

be b urned before the in side is

nearly h ot enough to wel d .

Flat or Was he r Ri n g This is .

a ring made by bendin g flat iron

edgeway s The ends Of the stock .

are first upset but not s carfed ,

Sh i Fi 3 6 F l at R i e x cept f or care fu l work the ring

F l t Ri g
p g a g n g n
,
. .

a n R d y fo W ld g ea r e m
bent Into S hape and the corners ,

tr immed Off on radial l ines as shown in Fig 3 5 The ends ar e then . .

s carfed with a fuller or peen of a h ammer an d lapped over ready for

weld ing as shown in Fig 3 6 . .

Butt W e ldin g When pieces .

are S imply welded together end

to e n d making a sq uare j oint
,

thro ugh the weld it is known as ,

a b ut t weld I t is be st when .

making a weld Of this kind to

d B fo d A ft round the end s slightly as ill us
ealm
Fig 3 7
. . T ypi l B t ca e re an er ,

t rat e d in Fig 3 7 T he ends are . .

heated and driven together and this roun d shape forces out the s cale
an d leave s a clean j oint AS t he piece s are driven together they are
.

more or le ss upset at the joint ,

makin g a sort Of a b urr This .

up s et part sho uld b e worked

down at a welding heat between
swages A b utt weld is not as
.

s afe or as stron g as a lap wel d .

Long pieces may be b utt welded -

by plac ing on e piece in the fire

from each side When the weld .

ing heat i s reached the pieces are

placed end t o end on e piece ,
Fi g 3 8 J p W ld um e“ ”
. .

b a c k e d u p with a heavy
weight an d the weld made by striking with a sl edge hamme r
,
.

J u m p Weld Another form of b utt wel d S hown in F ig 3 8 i s

. .

a j um p wel d w hich however is a form t hat sho ul d b e avoided as

, ,
 F ORG IN G 27

m u ch as possible as it is very l iable t o be weak I n making a wel d

, .

of this kind the piece t o be b utted on the other S ho uld have it s e n d

,

ups et in suc h a mann er as to flare out and form s ort of a fl ange t he ,

wider t he better When the weld i s made t h is

.
,

flange may be worked down with a fuller or set

ham mer thus making a fairly st rong wel d
, .

S plit W e ldin g He av y S t ock Heavy stock is

.

s ometim e s welded b y usin g a s carf of the S h ape

s hown in Fig 3 9 . On e p iece i s split and shaped

.

into a " while the other has i t s end brought t o a

blunt point When properly Shaped t he p ieces
.
,

are heated to t he welding heat and driven toget her .

The e nds of the " are then cl osed down over t he

other piece and the weld completed A secon d .

he at i s sometimes taken to do this This wel d is .

Often used when jo ining tool steel to iron or to

g
S iiit v iii
F g t i

machine steel Sometimes the pieces are placed

'

together before taki ng t he weld

ing heat .

An g le W e ldin g I n al l wel d
.

in g it should be remem bered

that the Obj ect Of the sc arfin g
is to s o shape the pieces to be
welded t hat they will form a
joint easy to wel d and give the
Fig 4 0 Ri g h t A g led W ld - n e
roper ize for t h e work F
. .

p s rs .

q u e n t y
l there are s evera l eq u ally
good methods Of scarfin g for the
s ame s or t of a weld and it,

S ho ul d be remembere d that the

method given here is n ot n e ce s

sar ily the o nly way in which that

part ic ul ar wel d may be made .

Fig 40shows on e way Of scarfin g

T W ld
.

Fi g 4 1 - e
for a right angled weld made Of
. .

flat iron Both pieces are scarfed exactly al ike the scarfln g bein g
.
,

done by the peen end Of the hammer I f neces sary the ends of t he
.
,

pieces may be upset before sc arfin g Care should be u sed to see.

28 F ORGING

that the pieces touc h first in the center Of the sca rf otherwis e a ,

pocket will be formed whi ch will ret a in the s cale and spoilt he weld .

T-W e ldin g A method O f s carfin g for a I we ld is illust rated in

.
-

Fig 4 1 The s carf is formed mostly with the peen end Of t he ham
. .

mer t he p oints are sh or t for e asy we ldm g The stem A should b e .

placed on the bar B when w el ding so that there is a ht t le l ap ov er

, ,
-
.

Roun d S tock T Weld Two m e thods of s carfin g f or a T weld

- -
.
-

made from r ound st ock ar e shown in Fig 42 T he s ca rfs ar e formed . .

mostly with the peen e n d Of the h am mer The illustration will .

explain itself The stock should be well up set in e it he r m et hod

. .

W e ldin g Tool S t e e l The general m ethod Of s carfin g is the .

s ame in all wel ding but greater care m ust be used in he atin g when

welding to ol steel The flux used .

for welding to ol steel S ho uld

be t he sal am m oni ac an d borax
m ixture m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e .

Spring st e el or low carbon steel -

may be satisfactor ily welded if

care i s us e d TO we ld steel s uc .

c e ssful ly t he fo ll owing pre cau

tion s S hould b e ob served C lea
M t h d f M ki g T W ld f
n .

Fig 4 2 . . e o o a n -
e or
R d Sm “ mm
the fire Of all cinders and ashes .

Put s ufficient coal upon the fire S O that it will be un n e cessary to add
more coal while taking the welding heat Upset both piece s near .

the end an d s carf carefully When p oss ible pun ch a h ol e and rivet .
,

the two pieces t ogether Heat t he steel t o a f ull r ed heat and .

s prinkle wit h borax Repl ace in the fir e and rais e t o th e wel ding
.

heat Clean the scar fed sur face and strike l i ghtly at first foll owing
.
,

wit h heavier blow s The appearance of steel when at a welding

.

he at is a p al e straw color Always avoid a weld Of high carbon .

-

s tee l alone when p o s si ble

, .

We ldi n g S tee l an d Wr oug ht I r on Steel may al so be welded t o .

wrought iron This is done in the manufacturin g of edged tools

. .

The body O f th e tool is Of ir on to which a piece of steel is welded to ,

form t he cutting edge Thi s class of work is b e st done with a fire

.

Of anthracite coal though coke or charcoal may be used The fir e

, .

should be b urning brightly when t he h eating i s done Lay the iron .

and steel on the coal until they are red hot Then sprinkle the .
 F ORGIN G 29

surfaces of b oth with the flux and le t it vitrify A convenient method .

of doing this i s to have the powdered flux (borax preferred ) in a pe p

per pot As s oon as the heat has changed the metal s to a straw
.

color lay them toge ther an d strike A Single blow Of a drop hammer .
,

or fo ur or five with a light s ledge wil l do the work Be sure that .

'

these pieces are wel l covered with a flux before attempting to weld .

S I M P LE BEN D FORG I N G
Fu n d a m en t a l For g i n g Ope r at i on s

S hapin g the metal has been heated it is s haped with the

. After
h ammer T his shaping may con s ist Of drawing up setting or
.
, ,

bending I n drawing a bar Of iron it is made longer and of smaller

.

diamet er Up settin g con sists of Shortening the bar with a corre

.

spon din g increa s e Of diameter This work is us ually done with

.

the a ss istance of a helper usin g a Sledge hammer ; the s mith using

a lig ht h and hammer They st rike alternate blows T he helpe r m ust
. .

watch the point up on which t he smith strikes and st r ike in the s ame
place Where two helpers are employed the smith st rikes after each
.

m an . A blow on the anvil by t he sm ith is a signal to stop striking .

Fin is hin g As the hammer u s ually ma r ks the metal it is

.
,

customary to leave the metal a l ittle full an d to finish by the u se of

flat t e r s and swage s Th is applies to work that has b een shaped
.

under the sledge Light work can be dressed Smoothly and the
.
,

hammer can b e made to o blit erate it s own marks .

Drawin g Out I n dr awm g out as well as in all other forging

.
,

ope ration s where heavy work i s to be done it is alway s best to heat ,

the work to as high a tempera

ture as the metal wil l stand
w i t h o u t in j ury Work can .

sometime s b e drawn out m u ch

faster b y wor king over the horn

Of the anvil than on the face ,

the reason b eing this : When a Fig 4 3 M t h d f D wi g O t W k . . e o o ra n u or

piece Of work is ham mered on

t he an v il face it flatten s out and spreads nearly as m uch in width
a s it doe s in length working it out longer and wider
,
AS the piece .

is n ot wante d wider but merely longer all t he work spent in in c r e as ,

in g the width Of the stock is wasted I f the ham mer ing is d one .

ove r the horn Of the anvil as il l u strated in F ig 4 3 , the rou nded .

30 F ORGING

h orn acts as a bl unt wedge forcing the metal l engthwise and thus ,

u til iz e s almo s t t he entire ener g y of a b l ow i n stretc hi n g t h e meta l

in the desired d irect ion Fullers are also used to serve the same.

purpose and when workin g under the steam hammer a round bar
somet imes takes t he pl ace of

the ful ler or horn of the anvil .

Rou n d S t oc k When .

drawing out or point ing ro und

Fi g 4 4
. D wi g Dow Ro d B
. ra n n un ar

stock it s ho uld alway s firs t ,

be forged down square to the required size and then rounded up

in as f e w blow s as p o s s ib l e Fig 44 ill us trate s in a general way
. .
, ,

the different steps in drawing down a r o und bar from a l arge to

a smaller s iz e the first st ep b ein g to hammer it down sq uare as at B
,
.

This square shape is then m ade octagonal as at C and the octagon is

finally rounded up as at D I f .

an att empt be made to ham

mer the bar by po unding it .

ro und and round without the

preliminary squaring the bar ,

W g F B 46 S t i S h wi g I S v e ry habl e t o Spl i t t hr n lg h
figt lpd o0f “D w
45 ron on o
lt f W g
I ec n

f
. .

i ra R es u o ron
m
m “ “ the center th e acti on bei ng a
m
,

good deal as ill us trated in Fig 45 t he effect of the blow coming as .

,

shown by the arrow s A The metal is s quee zed together in this dire c
.

tion and forced apar t in the direct ion at right angl es as indicated by
the arrows B Then if the piece be sl ightly rolled for another blow
.
, ,

t he s ides will roll by each other and crac ks and spl it s will s oone r ,

Fig 4 7
. . I r re g u l
ar S h ape s Fi g 4 8 . . Me t hd
o of S q ua ri n g U p B ad Corn e rs

or l at er develop l eaving the bar if it sho uld be sawed throu gh the

, ,

center in a good deal the shape shown in Fig 46 Partic ular care
, . .

should be taken in making conical point s as it is al mo st impo s sible

to work stock to a roun d point u nl ess the point be firs t forged

down to a square or pyramidal shape .
 F ORGIN G 31

Tr uin g Up W ork
I n dr awing out it often happens t h at t he
.

bar becomes worked into an irregular or diam ond s hape s im il ar t o ,

the section shown in Fig 47 To remedy t h is an d square up t he

. .
,

bad corners the bar sho uld be l aid across t he anvil an d worked
,

m uch as shown in F ig 48 the blows coming in t he di rection indicated

.
,

by the arrow J ust as the hammer strikes t he work it sh ould be

.

given a sort of sl idin g motion No att empt sh ould be made to sq uare

.

up a corn er b y striking s quarel y down upon t he work The ham .

mering should al l be done in such a way as t o force the metal back -

into the bar and away from the h igh corner .

Ups e t t in g When a piece is worked in s uch a way that it s

.

l ength is shortened and either or both it s thickness and width

increased the piece is s a id to be
, r

up set an d the opera t ion i s known

as u ps ett i n g . There a r e s everal

method s of upsetting the on e u sed ,

depending l argely upon the shape

of the work . I n short piece s the
work is generally stood on end
on t he anvil t he hammer ing b ein g
,

done directly down upon the upper

en d. The work s ho uld always be Fi g 4 9 Up t t i g m m . . se n ,

kept straight and as soon as a

,

bend or kink is started it should be s t r aightened out When a

, .

l ong pie ce is t o be up set it is generally swung b ack an d forth hori

z on t all
y a n d the u p s etting done by ramming the end ag ain st the
anvil The e ff ect of t he blow has a decided in fluence up on the
.

shape of the u p set p iece as shown i n Fig 49 , Light b l ows affect. .

the metal for a short distanc e only as shown by t he swelle d out e n d;

,

the hea v ier blows are felt more u niformly t hro ugho ut the entir e length .

When rivets are to be driven t o fill holes tightly t he blows ,

sho uld be heavy th us up sett ing the rivet t ightly in to t he hole s

, .

I f a rivet is wanted to hold two pieces together in such a way that

they may move as for in stance the rivet in a pair of tongs t he head
, ,

sho uld be formed with l ight blow s th u s work in g only t he en d of ,

the rivet The p art of the work w hich is heated to t he highes t

.

temperature is the part which will be most upset and when upsetting ,

is wished at on e point only t hat point sho ul d be heated to t he

,
32 F OR G ING

hi ghe st tempe rature l eaving the other p art s of the bar as cold as
,

possible Upset ting l ong p ieces i s sometimes done b y raising t he

.

piece and allowing it to drop on a heavy cast iron plate se t in the -

floor These plate s are known as upsetting p lates

. .

Pun chin g T wo kind s of .

punches are common ly us ed for

Fig 5 0 P . h f Ro d H l
. un c
ma
or
k ingun
hole s in hot metal ; the
o es

straight h and p un ch u sed with

a h and h ammer and the on e u sed for heavier stock provided wit h a
, ,

handle and used with a sledge hammer Punches sho ul d of co urse .

be made of tool st e el For p unching small holes in thin iron a

.

hand punch is o r dinarily used This is a bar of ro und or octagonal .

steel 8 or 10 inche s in l en g th , ,

w ith the en d forged down ta

pering to the s am e sh ape but ‘
,

s lightly smal l er than the h ole to

be p unched S uch a p unc h for .

round holes is shown in Fig 50 . .

T he end of the punch s ho u ld be

Fi g 5 1 P hf H y dF t W k
un c or e av an as or
pe rfectly s quare acro ss n ot at
. .

all ro unding For heavier an d faster w ork with a helper a p unch

.
,

s im il ar to F ig 5 1 is used the striking being done with a sledge hammer

.
, .

Cor r ect H and Met hod Fig 5 2 ill u strate s t he s uccess ive step s
. .

in p unch ing a clean hol e throug h a p iece of hot iron The work .

i s first l aid flat on the

anvil a n d t he p un ch
driven ab o ut half way
‘

through as shown at A .

T his compre sses t h e

Fi g 5 2 St g. f P .hi g R d H l
a es o un c
W
metal directly un der
n e at h t he e n d O f the
n ou n o e
r

punch and rais e s a slight

'

b ulge on the oppo site side of the b ar T he piece is then t urned over .

an d the p unch driven into the bar from this s id e (the hole be ing

located by the b ulge) while the b ar is lying flat on t he anvil The .

p un c h s ho u ld b e driv en a b o u t hal f way thro u gh lea v ing t he work a s ,

M F G; The bar i s then m oved over the small ro und hole in the e n d
"

i
“
(i f t he an v il or i s pl aced on some object h avin g a h ol e slightly
'

,
34 FORGING

the first example : I n this case if the ce nter line of the stock be,

measured 75 inches w ill be t he lengt h for each l eg th us makin g a

, ,

total of 1 5 inches of stock required t o make that partic ular bend .

This is a univers al r ule which sho uld always be followed when m eas
uri n g stoc k to take the l en g th of t he center l ine
, .

Ci r cles On circles and parts of cir .

cles the length of stock may be easily

calc ulated T he c irc umfere nce or dis .
,

tance aro und a circle is fo und by m ul ,

t iplyin g the diameter by 3 3, or m ore ,

accurately As an ill ustration

, ,

the stock necessary to bend up t he ring

figf
F ig 55
. . l l ti g a cu a n

in Fig 54 wo uld be calc ul ated as foll ows :

.
,

The i n side diameter of t he ring is 6 inches and th e stock is 1 inch

thick T his wo uld make 7 inches the diame t er C of the circle made
.

by the center l ine which may be called the calculating diameter and
, ,

t he length of stock req uire d wo uld be 7 X 3 3, or 2 2 inche s .

A comb ination of circle and straight l ine s is il l ustrated

in Fig 55 T hi s link may b e d ivided into t wo semicircles at the
. .

e n d wit h two s t raight piece s at the s ide s

, The .

o utside d iameter of the ends being 2 inches wo uld ,

leave the straight s ides each 2 inche s long T he .

calc ulatin g diameter for t he end s would be 15 —

inches The total l ength of stock then required

.

for t he end s wo uld b e I % X 3 3, = 4f; or appr ox i ,

mately li é i n ches As each of the straight s ides

- A
.

w ould t ake 2 i n che s of s t ock t he total l en gt h ,

re q uired w ould be 4 + 4 fi = 8 fl inches W ith a .

slight all owan c e for weld ing t he amo unt c ut ,

sho uld b e 8 2 ; i nche s .

Fi g 5 6 M i g M e as ur in g W he e l Anot her met hod of m eas

Wh l
, e as ur n .

ee
uring stock is b y us ing a meas uring whee l s u c h

as i s shown in Fig 56 This i s simply a light runn ing wheel

. .

moun t ed on a han dle with some s ort of a pointer attache d T he .

wheel is sometimes m ade with a circum ference of 24 in ches an d the .

rim grad uated in in c he s and eighths To use it the wheel i s placed .

,

l ightly in con ta c t w it h t he l ine or object which it is wished to me as

ur é with the z ero mark on the wheel corre sponding t o the p oint
,
 F OR G IN G 35

from wh ich the measurement is started The wheel is then p us hed .

along the sur face following the l ine to be measur ed with j ust ,
—

enough pressure to cause it to revolve By counting the re v olu .

t ion s an d part s of a revol ut ion made by the wh eel the requi red ,

distance may be easily measured .

M e as ure m e n t by S t r in g or W ir e S cr olls an d I r r egular S hapes

. .

Diffi cult s hapes may be measured by either of two methods T he .

commoner way is to l ay the scrol l or shape off full s ize and mea sure
t he l ength by l aying on thi s ful l siz e d draw ing a str ing or thin
-

piece of w ire caus ing the string or wire t o follow the c enter line
,

of the be nt st ock The wire or string i s then straightened and the

.

length measured Thi s is about the e as iest and best way of m eas
.

uring work of this character .

M e as ur e m e n t by Div ide r s Another method whi ch is more

.
,

practical in the drafting room consists of using a pair of dividers

, .

The points of the divide rs are se t fai r ly clo se t ogether and the center
line is then stepped off an d the n um ber of steps counte d The same .

number of spaces are then l aid off al ong a straight l ine and the l ength
measur ed .

Be n d Type s

Rin g an d Eye Be n din g I n mak ing a ring or an eye the first

.
,

step of co ur se i s to calc ulate the amo un t of st ock r eq uired In .

making ordinary rings 4 or 5

in ches in diameter the s t o c k ,

sho uld be h eated for a b o ut h al f

it s l e n gt h. I n starting the bend ,

t he ext reme end of the piece is

gzfi
F ig 5 7 Fig . hi s n
E§
.

fi r st be n t by plac m g the b ar acros s

t he horn of the an v il and bending it down as ill ustrated in F ig 5 7 . .

The bar i s th e n p ushed ahead and bent down as it is fe d forward .

T he bl ow s s hould not come directly on top of the horn b ut s ho uld

fal l o uts ide of the point of s upport as ill ustrated , T his bends .

the iron and does n ot hammer it out of shape Orie half of the circle .

is bent in thi s way t h e n the stoc k ist urned end for end the ot her
, ,

e n d he ated and the s econd half bent in the s ame way as the first
, ,

the bend n g be in g start ed fro m t he end a s be fore .

Eye bendin g is d on e in a s omewh at different manner S uppo s e .

it b e required t o b end up an eye as shown in Fig 58 T o calc ulate . .

36 FORGI N G

the amount of st ock req uired : T he diameter in t his case to b e used

is 2 inches and t he amo unt of stock req uir ed 2 in c h X 3 } inch
, 1

6 3, in ches or practical ly 6 3 i nche s

, This di stance is l aid off by mak
-
.

in g a chalk mark on the anvil inches from the end The iron is .

d 01 ll
552
Fi g 5 9
. . S u c c e ssi v e S t e ps i n E ye B e n i n g Fi g 6 0
. . 1 3 Up Sm a
1 8

heated and placed again st the anvil with on e end on the chalk mark
and the other end ext ending over the end of the anvil T he hand .

hammer i s then held on the b ar w ith on e edge at the edge of the anv il ,

th us mea suring off the requi r ed di stance on the bar St ill holding the .

hammer on the bar the piece is laid acro ss the anvil with the edge ,

Fig 6 1
. . Be n d
s wi t hS q u are -
For g e d Corn e rs

of the h ammer ev en w ith t he edge of the an v il and t he 6 % inches

exte ndin g o v e r t he edge or corner T hi s p iece is t hen be nt down .

into a right angle as shown in the first il lustrat ion of F ig 5 9 T he . .

eye is be nt in m uch the s ame manner as the ring except that all ,

the bendin g is done from on e end the succe ss ive ste p s being shown ,

in t he il l ustr ation Smal l eyes are closed up in the manner s hown

.

in Fig 6 0
. .
 F ORGING 37

Be n dwit h S q uare -Fo r g e d Corn e r Ups ett i n g Brackets and . .

other forgings are frequently made with the o uts ide corner squ are
and s harp as shown at C Fig 6 1 and of the two ways of doing this
,
’
, .
, , ,

one meth od i s to use t he s ize of stock required for the s ides first ,

shaping t he corner as a t A This corner is then squared by up setting

.

the metal at the be n d the bl ows c om ing as shown by the arrows at

,

B . The work sh ould re st on the an v il face and not over on e corner , ,

while bein g hammered .

Dr awi n g Down Lar g e St ock A second method i s to use thicker .

stock and to dra w out the en ds l ea v ing a hump s hown a t D where , , ,

the o utside corner of the bend is to come T he dotted l ines show .

the original s hape of the bar ; the solid lines the shape before b ending .

Sometimes st oc k of the size u sed in the fi r st me t hod i s ta ken and

is up se t to for m the ridge in pl ace of drawin g out the h eavier stoc k
,
.

T he first m ethod is the on e more commonly used on medi um

s ized work .

Tw is t e d G ate Hoo k I t sho uld be understood that the de sc r ip

.

tion given here will serv e n ot only as a descript ion of the partic ul ar

Fi g . 62 . T wi s t e dG at e H ook

piece in q uestion but al s o as a general description of a variety of

simil ar ly shaped fo r g in g s T he methods u sed m ay b e employed
.

on other forgin gs of the s ame g e ne ral shape .

Fig 6 2 shows a twiste d gate hook T o s tar t with it is necessary

. .
,

to determ ine exact ly what l en gth s the diff erent part s of the h oo k w ill
hav e after they are fo r ged to dimen sion s and b efore they ar e bent ,

to shape Before be nding the work is first drawn down to size as

.
,

is i n d icated in the ill ustration T he b ar is left s q uare in the c e nter

.

for the central p ar t an d each end is drawn to

, inch ro und to form
the h ook an d eye e n ds The length of stock after being drawn
.

out to i nch ro und req u ired to make the eye is 2 3 inche s Allowing
, ,
-
.

about i inch for the s t r aight p art before the eye is reached w o uld
make the tot al amo unt of stoc k req uired for the eye 2 2 inches To .
38 F ORGIN G
O

obtain the amount of stoc k for t he hook it is n ecessary to lay off

the hook full siz e I f the draw ing is full siz ed the measuring may
.
-
,

be done directly on the drawing but if not a ro ugh sketch having , ,

the proper dimension s should be l aid off and t he measuring done

on that the measuri n g of co urse being done along the dotted center
,

line . This measu in g is done by sim my l aying a string on the dotted

r

line then straightening out the st ring and measuring it s length

,
.

I n this way it w ill be fo und that 2 3 {inches is req uired by t he —

hook The first step is then to forge the work into the shape s hown
.

in Fig 6 2 . .

For m in g S ho ulde r s The shoulder where the ro un d stock.

joins the sq uare should b e forged in the manner indicated in Fig 6 3 . .

The bar i s l aid acro ss the an v il with the point where the sho ulder
is wi s he d l yin g direct ly on the corner of the anvil The s e t h ammer .

is then placed on t op of the work i n s uch a way that the edge of t he

Fig 6 3 Forg i n g Shou lde r Fig 64 M aki n g S ouh ld O ler n y

i
. . . .

on On e S de

se t hammer c omes directly in line with the edge of the anv il The .

s e t hammer i s then driven into the work with a sledg e hammer .

T he bar sho uld be turned continually or an uneven s ho ulder wil l

be t he re sult I f a shoulder is wanted on on e s ide only as ill ustrat ed
.
,

in Fig 6 4 it sho uld be worked in as indicat ed there ; that is on e

.
, ,

s i de of the i ron s ho uld l ie flat on the anvil face while the s e t hammer

works d own the metal next to the s houlder .

After the two end s of the h ook are d rawn out the eye and t he ,

h ook are bent up int o shape T he twist in the center of the hook .

may be made either by us ing two pairs of tongs or by twist ing in

a v ise By the latter meth od a mark is fi r st made on the vi s e in
‘

s uc h a way that when the end of the ho ok i s plac e d even with the
,

mark the edge of the v ise w ill come at t he end of the point where
,

the twist is wanted The hook s ho uld be heated an d pl aced in the

.

v i se t he other e i lbeing gra sped by a pair of tongs in s u ch a way

,

that the d istance between the tongs and the vise is j ust eq ual in
 F ORGING 39

l ength to the twi st T he twist is made by s imply revolv ing t he

.

tongs aro un d I n making a twi st of this kind no allowance need

.
,

b e made in length as it practically has no

‘
,

effect on the length of the stock .

Eye Bo lt s Eye bolts are made by

.

two general method s being either solid or ,

welded The s olid eye bolt is m uch

.

stronger A solid eye bolt or forged eye

.
, ,

as it is s ometime s called may be st arted in ,

the general manner ill ust rated in Fig 6 5 g S li d

nygiigii
F i g Gs t . . . o

A nick is made on either s ide of a fl at b ar

by us ing top and bottom fullers as ill ustrated The end is then .

rounded up as shown in Fig 6 6 Partic ular attention sho uld b e . .

given to seeing that the eye is

forged as nearly to a perfect
c ircle as poss ible before any
p unchin g is done T he stock .

around the eye is ro unded up

o v er the horn of the anvil as
at A by swinging it back and
,

fort h as it is hammered The .

h ole when first p unched is like

B but
,
w hen fini shed s ho uld be

l ike C T he other end of the

.

bar is then drawn down to form B 0

Fi g 6 6 R di g U p S l d E y B lt ou n n o i e o
the l OU Ild shan k I f a v e r y
‘
.
. .

long s hank is wanted a short stub shank may be formed in

forging the eye and a ro un d b ar of the proper s ize welded on .

Welded eye b olt s may be made

in t wo different ways T he ea sier .

m e thod produces an eye shaped as

in F ig 6 7 T o mak e s uch a bolt
. .
,

fi r st s c arf the end s o that it will

fit ov e r the b end of the rod al ong
t he dotted line a b Bend t he eye .
Fi g 6 7 W ld d E y B lt . e e e o

o v er the hor n of the anv il Fin ally .

b r in g t o a welding he at an d wel d in accordance with instructions

already giv en .
40 F ORGING

An eye of be tter appearance as shown in Fig 6 8 is made as , .

,

follows : Up set the body of the metal as a s eat for t he s carf at the
end as
, s hown at a S carf the end of the bar and be nd over the
. ,

Fi g 6 8 . . E ye B olt of Som e what B e t t e r Form t h an F ig 6 7

.

horn of the anvil into a true c ircle to fit the seat at a an d then weld ,

as before .

The l ength of metal required for an eye or ring is nearly eq ual

to the lengt h of the c ir cumfer ence of a cir cle whos e diameter is eq ual
to the mean diame ter of the ring T h us in F ig 6 8 the len gth req u ired . .

for the eye will be approximat ely t he length of the circle a bc b who se
diameter is a c .

Chain Hook s T hese are made in a variety of s hapes and with

.

solid or welded eye s t he gene r al method of ma k in g the eye s bein g

,

exactly as de scr ib ed before u nder Eye Bolt s .

A c ommon s hape is shown in F ig 6 9 The stock . .

is forged into s hape s imilar to F ig 70 before

‘
.

being bent T o determine t he length A the .

drawing i s measured in the same way as described

in making the gate hook T he weakes t point .

in most hoo ks is the part lying between the lines

mar k ed m s: in Fig 69 Thi s part of the b ook . .

Fi g 6 9
. Ch i H k
. a n oo

s ho uld be heavier and stronger than t he other

part s When a strain is put on the h ook there is always a tendency

.
,

t o straighten out or to a ss ume t he s hape shown by the dotted l ine s .

When forging the hook into shape ,

k A —
4 -

the dimen sion B Fig 70 s hould be .

, ,

made s uch that the heaviest part of

F i g 70 H k b f
. B. di g oo
the hook come s
e or e
in thi s wea
en
kn
e st point .

After the hook i s ent irely forged to

size it s h ould b e b ent into shape
, Hooks are al s o made from ro und .

and from square iron When made for hook ing over a l ink and so .
,
42 F ORGI N G

quart er of a ton I n t he line marked T is found the load 4; direct ly

.

bel ow it are the figures H showing the size of stock to be used , .

The dimensions of the hook are foun d as follow s

D= 5 inches .

i 1 % inche s ( abo ut) -

Et c .

I about inch . 9 1 5, or

When reduc ing the decimal s the dimen sion s whi ch have t o do
only with the be ndin g of the hook i e t he openin g l ength , . .
, , ,

l engt h of point etc may be t aken to the nearest l6 t h but th e

, .
, ,

dimen sion s through the body of the h ook or stock shoul d be r educed
to t he n earest 3 2n d on smal l hooks The compl eted dimen sions .

of th e hook in que stion of 500 pound capacity wo ul d be as foll ows :

,
-
,

D 1 % in ches
= I = £3 inch
E 1%
= inches J = 1? inch
F = H inch inch
G = 1 inch inch
0 =
ifi n c h M = H inch
= 1§ inch es U
Q ~
inch
H = inch
Bolt s . the t w o methods of making
Upset Head Types . Of
bolts either ,
wel ding t he heads the first method
by upsetting or by ,

is more common on small bol ts and

machin e made bolts The wel ded head .

is more com monly us ed for heavy h and

forged bolts The upset head is the .

to stronger pro v ided both ar e eq u ally well

made The si z e of t he bolt is al ways .

,

given as the di ameter an d l eng t h of

s hank or stem Thus a bolt known as .

m 7 2 B l t wi t h Sq w
. . do s3 inch by 6 inc
ua
h or i inc
an
h bo l t 6 in
7 -che s -
,
-

H m ” H “ m
e
l ong wo uld mean a bol t hav in g a shank ,

i nch in diameter and 6 inche l o n g from th e un der s ide of t h e head

5 s

to the end of the stem having the di mension s of t he bolt shown in

,

Fig 72 The dimension s of the bolt heads are always t he same for
. .

the s ame s ized bolt and are determ ined from the diameter of the
,

shank The diameter of the head at D Fig 72 is the distance

. , .
,
 FORGIN G 43

across the head from fl at side t o flat s ide and is known as the di am ,

et er ac r os s t he flats The th ickness of t he head is taken as shown

.

at T I f 8 equal s the diamet er of t he s hank of the bolt the diman

.
,

s ion s of the head wo ul d be as foll ow s .

inch
T S
=

For a t w o-
in ch bolt th e dimensions would be as follows
Diameter of head inches
The thickness of head T would be equal to di ameter of the shan k ,

or 2 inches These di mensions are for ro ugh or un fini shed heads

. .

Each dimen sion of a finished head is 1 5 inch 1

less than t he same dim ension of a ro ugh

head Bolts generally have the t op c orners
.

of the head roun ded or cham f ered off This .

may be done with a hand hammer ; or wit h

a cupping tool which i s s impl y a se t hammer
,

with t he bottom face holl owed out into a Fig 73 gt i g B l t

Effi
. . n o

c up shape .

Where l arge q uantitie s of b olts are to be made the bars are ,

heate d in a fur nace and headed by special machinery Where the .

work is done by hand t he tool s are of the s implest character The .

meth od of up setting is shown in Fig 73 The header con sists of . .

a disc in whi ch a hol e has bee n drilled t o cor respon d to t he diameter

of the bolt A handle 1 2 or 15 inches in lengt h is welded to t he
.

di sc Such a tool is shown in Fig 74 The hole sho ul d be a b out

. . .

£5 inc h l arger th an the nomina l s i z e of iron To mak e a bolt with .

t his tool : First cut off the iron t o the required lengt h ; then heat
t he e n d to be headed to a d ull st raw color ; stri ke the en d with
,

a h ammer or again st the anv il and upset it so that t he portion

F ig 74
. . l l
T ypi c a B o t He a d er

intended for the formation of the head w ill not pass through t he
header Then place the hole of the header o v er the sq uare h ol e
.

in th e ta il of the anvil and drop the cold end of the bol t thr o ug h it .
44 F ORGIN G

Strike the proj ect ing porti on of the b ar and up set it until the requi
site thickne ss of hea d is o b tained Thi s will probably l eave a head of
.

c urved but irregular o ut l ine Remove from the header and square t he
.

h ead thus up set on the face of the anv il This w ill probably thicken
, .

the head Again drop the cold end through the h eader and strike
.

the head until it is reduced to proper thickness After which again .

,

sq uare th e edge s on the face of the anvil I n doing this work the
.
,

s mit h wil l h old t he h eader in his l eft h and T he work wil l be fac il
.

it at e d if a helper a ssi sts with a sl edge h ammer .

There are a n umber of simple t ool s in use for clamping the

bar whil e it is bein g headed so as to avoid the prel iminary upsetting .

We lded Head Type Bolts of this type are made by welding

.

a ring of sq uare iron aroun d the end of the shank to form the head .

The ring is generally bent up

on the end of a bar as shown

at A , Fig 75 but not welded .

,
.

This ring is c ut off and placed

on th e en d of the s hank as

shown at B The j oint in .

the ring should be l eft

sl ightly open to allow for the

expan sion in welding Th e

W ld d H d Bt lt
.

F ig 7 5 e e - ea -
ring is fastened t o the en d of
. .

th e s ha n k by striking it on one side and squee z ing it against the shank .

T he bolt is put into the fire heated to the wel ding heat an d the
, ,

head welded up int o the req uired s hape The ring should n ot be .

welded ro und at first as it is diffi cult in thi s way to m ake a so und

,

j oint t here being a m uch better chance of doing sound work by

,

welding the head directly square or hexag onal as re quired No .

attention n eed be paid t o t he joint in t he ring as this will take care

of itself Considerable care m ust be used in taking the welding heat
.
,

as all the heat whic h r eache s the joint m us t p ass thro ugh the ring and

there is a good chance of burning the rin g before t he shan k reaches

the welding heat if the heating is not d one sl owl y and careful ly .

To n g s . Common fiat j awed tongs s uch as are used for hol ding
-
.

l ight work may be made as r ollows : The stock sh ould be abo ut

,

1 inch by inch The first St e p sho uld be to work the stock down
.

over the edge of th e an v ii as shown at A Fig 76 Turn t he flat

, , . .
 F OR GI N G 45

side at an angl e of about 45 degrees on anv il assh own at B and work ,

down to hal f the thickn ess of the j aw h ammered out Then work .

down the stock on th e r ound horn of t he anvil as shown at C T hen , .

F ig 76 .
. S t e ps i n k
Ma ing F l at -J awe dT on g s

dr aw out the h andle, as s hown at D al l owing enough sto c k t o work

,

out t he p roper l engt h ; or a smal l amo unt of stock may be taken ,

a sh ort stub drawn out an d th e ro und stock welded on mak in g t he

, ,

proper length as shown in Fig 77 The l ast step is to p unch the hole
. .

for the r ivet I t is always a

Z Z Z
.

ood pla t o l igh tl y increa e D

g n s s

t he in side face of th e j aw with

Fi g 7 7 W ldi g O R d S t k. . e n - n ou n oc

a full er as shown at E Fig 76

, , .
,

as thi s i n sure s th e j aws gripping the work fi rmly with the edge s and ,

not touching it simply at one point in the center as they sometimes ,

do if this crease is not made The tongs are then riveted together t he
.
,
46 F ORGING

riveting being done with the round end of the h am mer ; in th is way a
head is formed on the rivet without upsettin g the shank of the rivet
very m uch where it passe s through the h ol e After r iveting the .
,

tongs will probably be stiff or hard

t o move They may be l oosened .

up by h eating the eye p ar t re d h ot

and moving t he h andl es forward

and backward two or three times .

They should then be firmly fitt ed

to the work to be h andled .

‘
Ton gs f or R o u n d Stock
d
.

m th d
ii iigr fifi
F ig 7 8 ‘ h fO R m or oun
i e

g
.

T ong s for handling round stock

' °

i s

may be made by t he g eneral

method described above t he only difference be ing that after the j aws
,

are s haped and before riv eting together they sho ul d be rounded
, ,

up as il l u strated in Fig 78 u s ing a full er and swage as shown .

, . .

Lig ht Ton gs L i g h t .

tongs may be made f rom

flat stock in the manner
il l ustrated in Fig 79 With . .

a full er a c ut i s made near ,

on e end in a pie c e of flat

stock as at A Thi s end

Lig ht T g M d f o F l t S t k
.
,
Fig 79 on s a e r m a oc
is twi sted over at r ight
. .

angles as shown at B Another c ut is made on the opposite side

.
,

as at C an d the end dr awn out as indicated by the dotte d

,

lines T he tongs ar e then finished in t he usual way Tongs of this

. .

character may be used for very l ight work and are easily m ade .

Fig 8 0 . . Met hd
o of For g i n g Pi c k Up T
-
on g s

P ick Up Ton gs . Pick

tongs are made in much t he sam e
-
up

way as describ ed above the diff erent step s being il l ustr at e d in

,

Fig . 80 .
 FORGI N G 47

Bolt Ton gs . Bolt t ongs ade from r ound stock

m ay be m ,

alth ough square may be sometimes used t o advantage The first .

step i s t o be n d t he bar in t he sh ape sh own in Fig 8 1 which m ay be .

,

Fig 8 1
. . k
S t e ps i n M a in g Bolt To ng s

don e by t he h am m er at the edge of t he anvil shown at A and on , ,

t he anvil horn as at B The j aw proper is rounded and finished

.

as sh own at C The part between t he j aw prope r an d

.

may be worked down into

sha pe by t he fuller and se t

ham mer The finishin g

.

may be done as indicat ed

.

in Fig 82
. The eye and
.

handle are then flattened

down an d drawn out t he ,

tongs are punched riveted ,

toge t her finished an d F ic 8 2 “ i m h

, ,

fitte d in th e usual manner .

L a dle s a . e
L dl s s imil ar t o t he o n e s h ow n in Fig 8 3 may be .
,

d
m a e fro m t wo p iece s we l de d toge t her o n e form in g the h an dle , ,

the other the bowl or as sometimes is done t he h andle may be

, ,
“ ”
riveted on A piece of flat stock is first l aid out as shown i n
.
48 F ORGING

Fig 84 .Thi s is then c ut out with a cold chisel and the h andle
.

is welded on at the projecting point I n forming the bowl the stock .

Fi g 83 L dl a e Fig 84 Flat S t uc k f or
L
. .
. .

a dle

is heated eve nly and placed over a ro und hole in a s wage block
or other o bject a hole being cho sen which i s sl ightly s maller
—

Fi g 8 5. . Me t hd
o of d
Rou n i n g L dl
a e B ow l
than the o uts ide diameter
the piece to be worked and to
of .
—

ro und the b owl it is worked as in dicated in

Fig 85 with the peen end of t he hammer
.
, .

The forming sho uld b e done as m uch as

po ssible by working near the edge of the
piece rather than in t he center Af ter the .

bowl has been properly shape d the edges

“ m ““ a“ Li p
s ho uld be gro und off smooth and t he l ips
Fig 86
' ° m s

formed as shown in Fig 86 T his is done by placing the part from

. .

which the lip is made again st one of the small groove s in the side of
50 F ORGING

end wo uld have a v ol ume of

C c ubic inch T he stock .

has a v ol ume of % X 1 X 1 c ub ic inch for each inch of length .

The n um ber of inches of stock required for the end C would then be
or inches The e n d A is a round shaft or cylinder 4 inches
.

long and } inch in diameter To fin d the v ol ume of a cylinder

4
.
,

multiply the square of the radius the di amet er) by 3 4; and then
m ultiply this result by the l ength of the cylinder This will give the .

vol ume of A as { x i x si and t he amoun t of stock r equi re d

to make this piece would be whi ch may be taken as 1 3
inches There is of course som e sl ight l o ss due t o scal in g in work
.
, ,
.

ing the iron whi ch m ust be allowed for This is generally done by
,
.

adding a slight amount t o the m inim um amount r equired in each

c ase The amount of stock required in t his case would be about
.

Ro und s haft A inches

Block B 2 inche s
Square s haft C i s inche s

T ot a l 5 % inches

When t he forging is started which are afterward opened , t

c u s,

up wit h a full er m ay be m ade ,

as sh own b y the upper sketc h in

Fig 88 I n this partic ul ar . .

cas e it is not absol utely n e c

essary that exactly the proper
Fi g 89 Di g f C
. . ti g R d
a r am o on n e c
amo unt of stock be taken as
n o
,

it would be a very easy matter to ta ke a l ittl e too m uch an d trim

off the s u rpl us from the end s after t he forg ing was made , .

With the forgin g s uc h as shown in Fig 8 9 however it is essen .

, ,

tial that t he exact amo unt be used This forging which is the .
,

general s hape of a connecting rod wo uld be started as s hown in ,

Fig 90 and it is q uite import ant that the dista nce A b e correct
.
, .

The stock used s ho uld b e 2 inches

by 4 inches Each end will of .
,

co urse requ ire j ust 6 in ches of ,

s tock The center part is a cylinder

ti g R d W k
.

Fig 90 S t t i g C ar n on n e c n -
o or
2 inche s in diameter and 2 4 inches
. .

long the vol ume of which would be 1 X 1 X 3 4X 24 = 75 7 c ubic

,
3
1

inches which m ay be taken as 75§ cub ic inches For e ach inch

, .

in le ngth the 2 inch by 4 inch stock wo uld have a vol ume of

- -
 F ORGIN G 51

T ABLE 11

W e i g ht of Flat Rolle d I r on
(L n x c m 12 Is ca n s )

4 X 2 >< 1 = 8 c ubic inches Therefore it wo uld require

.

inches of stock to form the central p iece con sequentl y the distance
, ,
'

between the c uts shown at A in Fig 9 0 w ill be 9 1 5 inches To7

'

.
, .

this might be added a sl ight all owance for l o ss in s calin g The total .

7
amo unt of stock req uired would be = 2 1 1 5 inches An y .

forging may generally be separated into s imple part s of uniform

shape as was done ab ove I n t his form the calc ul ation may b e
.

easily made .

W e ig ht of Forg in g T o find the weight of any forging the vol

.

um e may first be fo und in c ub ic inche s and thi s m ultiplied b y 2 779 .

,

t he weight of wro ught i ron per c ub ic inch I f the forging be made .

of steel the fig ur e s 2 8 3 5 sho uld be use d in place of 2 779

,
. T his . .

gives the weight in po unds Below is gi v en the weight of wro ught

.

iron ca st iron and steel both in p ounds per c ub ic inch and per
, , ,

c ubic foot .

Cast iron 450 per c u ft 2 6 04 per c u inch

. . .

Wro ught iron 480 per c u ft 2 779 pe r c u inch

. . .

Ste el 490 per c u ft 2 83 5 pe r c u inch

. . .
52 F ORGING

S uppo se it were req uired to find the weight of the forging shown
in F ig 87 A has a vol ume of 4} c ubic inch C 2 c ubic inch and
. .
,
-
,

B 1 c ub ic in ch making a total of
, c ub ic inches I f the forgin g .

were made of wrought iron it wo uld we igh 7 po und . .

T he forging in Fig 89 has a tot al vol ume of 1 7 1 9; c ubic inches and

.

would weigh if made of wrought iron

, pound s , .

A m uch ea sier way to cal c ulate weight s i s t o use tables s uch as

‘

II and III giv en herewith Table II gives the weights per foot .

of flat iron bars I n T able III is given the weights for each foot
.

of l ength of round and sq uare bars .

When using Table II to a scertain the weight of any s ize of

fl at iron per foot of l ength l ook in the first col umn at the left for,

the thickness T hen follow out in a horizontal line to the col um n

.

givin g the w idth The n umber given will be the weight in po unds
.

of one foot of the de sired size .

T o u se the ta ble for cal c ulating weights the procedure wo ul d ,

be as foll ow s :
T akin g Fi g 89 as an example each end is 2 inche s by 4 inche s
.
,

and 6 inches long and as far as the weight is concerned the t wo

, , ,

end s would be eq ual to a b ar 2 inches by 4 inc hes and 1 foot long .

From the table it will be seen that a bar 2 i n c hes by 2 inche s weighs
.

po unds and a b ar 2 in ches by 4 inche s be in g twic e a s thick

, ,

woul d weigh twice t hat or po un d s A bar 2 inches in diam

, .

eter weighs pounds per foot and as the ce n tral part of the for g ,

in g is 2 feet l ong it will weigh , po unds making t he t otal weight ,

of the forging po unds .

Fin is h M any forgings are machined or finished after leaving

.

the forge shop The drawings are alway s m ade to represent the
.

Fig 9 1
. . Fi ni s he d Si n g le -
T h r ow Cr an k Sh ft a

fin ished work and therefore give the finished dimen sions and it is ,

necess ary when thi s finishing is to b e done to make allowance for ,

it when making the forging that all part s wh ich hav e to b e fini shed,

or machined m ay be left with an extra metal to be remo v ed in

 F ORG IN G 53

TA BLE 1 11

We i g ht s of Rou n d an d S q u are Rolle d i r on

(m m 1 2 I n cn n s )

finishing The parts req uired to be finished are generally marked

.

on t he drawing S ometimes the finished s urfaces have the word

.

fi n i s hed mar k ed o n them S omet

. ime s the fini s h in g i s s hown s imply
by the symb ol f as used in Fig 9 1 showing that the shafts and pin
, .
,

only of t he crank are to be finished When all su rfaces of a piece

.

are to b e finishe d the words fin is h all over are sometimes marked
on the drawing .

T he allowance for finishing on smal l forgings is general ly abo ut

1
13 inch
'

on eac h s ur face T h
. u s i f a bloc,k were wanted to fini s h
4 inche s by 2 inches b y 1 inch an d 1 3 inch were allo wed for fi n ishing
1
, ,
54 F ORG I N G

the dimensions of the forging would be 4% inches by 2 % inches by

li inche s On a forging like Fig 8 9 ab o ut 4 in ch allowance would
. .
,

be made for finishin g if it were called for T h us the diameter , .

of the central shaft wo uld be inches the thic kne ss of the ends ,
'

2 % inche s etc On l arger work } inch is s ometimes allowed for

, .
1

machining The amo unt of finish allowe d depends to a l arge extent

.

on the way t he forging is to be finished With hand finishin g that .

,

is filing or s craping
, inch or even 3 ; inch i s enough ; when a
1
,

lathe or other machine is used more material s hould be l eft , .

When a forging call s for finis h in calculating the amoun t of

'

stock or the weight the d imen s ion s ta ken s ho uld not be the actua l
, ,

ones shown by the drawing but the se dimens ions with the proper
‘
,

auowai i c e made for fini sh .

S t an dar d La r g e T y pe s
Cran k S hafts T here
are several methods of forging cran k
.

shaft s . T he on e more commonly u sed is the commercial method ,

as de scrib ed in deta il below When forgings were mostly made of .

wrought iron the cran ks were welded up of several pieces On e

, .

piece is u sed for each of the shafts on e piece for each cheek or s ide , ,

and another piece for th e crank pin Crank s are sometimes bent .

up out of round stock but this method i s o n ly used on small work

, .

Com m on Met hod of Maki n g T he common method n ow .

employed where machine steel is u sed is to forge the crank from ,

on e s olid piece of ma

t e r ial The stock is .

taken l arge eno ugh to

s hape the l arge st part

of the c ran k wi thout

any upsettin g I f a .
0

crank is r e q u i r e d
F ig 9 2 Fi t S t p i M ki g C k S h f t
rs e s n a n r an a
s imilar to Fig 9 1 the
. .

.
,

s ize of stock to be used sho uld be lé inches by 4 inche s in ection

s .

T he fir st thi n g to do of co ur s e is to calc ulate the amo unt of stock

required The long end would contain
. c ubic inches As each .

inch of stock con t ain s 6 c ubic inches it would req uire inche s of ,

st ock to form this end provided there was no waste from scal e, .

Waste does take place however and m ust be allowed for so about , , ,
 FORGI N G 55

2 inches of toc k shoul d b e taken T he s hort end contains

s .

cubic inches and wo uld re quire inch of stoc k witho ut allow ,

ance for scal e Abo ut lfiinches s ho uld be taken The total stock
. .

then r equi red woul d be 7% inches .

The fir st step is to make the c uts ,

and spread th e ends as shown in Fig .

92 . T hese end s may then be forged

down with a sledge h ammer as ill us ,

t r at e d or may be worked out un der

,

t he steam h ammer t he finishing up ,

again st t he shoulders being done as

ill ustrated in Fig 9 3 The shaft may
. .

be rounded down and fini shed between

Fm
swages . Care m ust be taken to se e F ig 9 3 UP Sh fl i
fi
m ef

t hat t he c ut s are properly spread before drawin g out the ends If .

the c uts ar e l eft without spreading the metal acts somewhat after ,

the mann er shown in F ig 94 The t op part of the bar as it is

. .
,

worked down fold s over and l eaves a crack

,

or col d sh ut as ill ustrated

-
When the metal .

starts t o act in thi s way the fa ult s ho uld

be corrected by trimming off the overlap

ping corner al ong the dotted line shown in
the upper sketch .

When the forging l eaves th e shop it ,

will be le ft in a shape similar to that shown R lt f I p p e su s o m ro e r

Sp di g n
by the solid l ines in Fig 9 5 the dimensions .
,
re a

sho wn here a l lowing for t he nece ss ary finishing T he crank i t sel f .

would be left in a solid block the t hroat being afterw ards c ut out a s
,

indicated by the dotte d l ines A line of holes is first drill ed as shown

.
,

Fi g 9 5
. . Cr an k -S h ft F
a or g i n g R e ady for M hi
ac ni n g

and the block of metal to b e taken out is removed by m aking t wo

slits with a cold s aw and the b l oc k then knoc ked out with a s ledge

hammer I t is possible to form this thro at by chopping out t he

.
56 F ORG I NG

su rpl us metal with a hot chisel 111 the forge shop but on small cran k s ,

in part ic ular such as here shown it i s generally c heaper i n a well

, ,

equipped shop to u se the first method .

Mu lti ple Thr ow Cr an ks When a crank shaft has more than on e .

c ra n k or crank p in it i s spoken of as a m ultiple throw c r ank ; a

,
-

F ig . 96 . Fi n is h dD
e ou b le T
- h r ow Cr an k Sh ft a

double throw cr k is a crank

- an with two cranks ; a three throw shaft -

or triple throw
-
on e with three crank s ; etc
, As a general rule .
,

multiple t hr ow cranks are forged flat i e the cranks are al l forged

-
, . .
,

in l in e w ith each other The shaft s and pins are then rough turned
.

and the cranks are heated and twisted into s hape The forgin g for .

the doubl e throw crank -

shown fini shed in Fig 9 6 .

w ould first be made in

the general s hape shown
in Fig 9 7 The parts . .

Fi t S t M ki g Do b l T h w Showll by t he d 0 t t e d
'

F ig 9 7 rs n u e- ro
gM k Sh ft
. . e in a
a
l ine s would then be c ut
out with a drill and saw a s de scribed a bove and the shaft s and pin s ,

rough t urned i e turned roun d but left as l arge as possible The

, . .
, , .

forging i s then ret urned to the forge s hop where it is heated and
the cran ks twisted to the desired angle When twisting the crank .
,

would be gripped j ust to the right

of the point mar ked A T his may .

be done with a vi se or a wrench if ,

the crank is small or it may b e held ,

“3 9 8 m "m c " Tw m ‘
under the s team hammer The tw ist
° ° m m ‘s
.

ing may b e done with a wrench s imilar to t hat shown in F ig 9 8 .

,

which may be easily made by b ending up a U of flat stock and weld

ing on a handle .

Thr e e Thr ow Cr an k A three throw crank witho ut any inter

.
-
58 F ORGIN G

worked b ack into shape is sl ightly thinned Although no stock is .

lo st by the hammerin g an all owance must be made for the thin ning
,

and stretching and it is nece ssary t o make the stock sl ightly wider
on this account a s noted ab ove Allow , .

ing inch for h ammering and taking ,

stoc k 1 } inches wide the amount of ,

stoc k requ ired would be equ al

to inches Allowin g a small amount .
o

for l o ss by scale etc 3 i t inches of stock , .

,

s hould be ta ken I n makin g this cal e u .

Ri g 1 4 “ “ d ”
E gg ? 2 l ation th e thickne of the tock i not
n 3
}3
s s s , s

taken into consideration as the thick ,

ne ss of the fin ished ring is the same as the stock ; Th is general

method is used on a l arge variety of work par t icul arl y where ,

r in gs are to be made of tool stee l and sho uld be made without a weld .

Another meth od of makin g weldless rings un der the steam ,

hammer is ill ustr ated in Fig 102 The proper amo unt of stock is
, . .

firs t forged into a disc a hole is punched into this disc and a mandrel
,

i n serted A U shaped re st is th en placed on the anvil of the steam

.
-

hammer an d the mandrel l aid on this The ring is turned on the .

m andre l an d forged into shape Larger and larger mandrel s are

.

s ub stituted as the h ole in the ring increa se s in s ize .

Le v e r wit h Bo s s Taking as an example the forging shown in

.

Fig 103 the foll owing de scription will serve for many forgings of the
.
,

s ame general s hape There are two general ways of makin g work
.

of this c haracter On e is to take stock of the p roper s iz e for t he l ever

.

and to weld on a ch unk for the bo ss T he other is to take stoc k .

l arge eno ugh to form the bo ss and to draw out either the entire lever ,

Fig . 1 03 . Le v e r wi t hB oss Fi g . 104 . S t oc kB en t for For g i n g Boss

or a short stub to whic h the l ever is welded The work may b e

, .

started for the fir st method by be nding over the end of the stock as

i ll ustrated in Fig 104 This is welded up and rounded by the same

. .
 F ORGING 59

general method as afterward described for the other boss T he .

second method of shap ing is ill u strated in F ig 105 T he stock in . .

this case would b e 2 inches s q uare T he fuller c ut is fi r st made as .

ill ustrated at A The end is then drawn out into the shape shown at
.

F ig . 1 05 . M e t hod of S hapi n g L ev e r wi t h Bos s

B .I n drawing out the stock if the metal be allowed to fl atten down ,

into shape like C a cold shut w ill b e formed close to the bo ss as the
,
-
,

corner at X wil l overlap and work into th e metal making a crack in ,

the work The proper way to draw out the stock is shown at D
. .

The squ are piece l eft for the bo ss i s ro unded u p over the corner of
the anvil as show n in F ig 106 S ometimes to make the work easier
. .

Fig . 1 06 . Rou n di n g - U p B os s

to get at the end is b ent b ack out of the way and straightened after
,

the for ging is completed T he b oss m ay b e smoothed up by using a

.

s e t hammer or sw age in the m anner indic ated .

Kn uck le s On e ex ample of a very n umero us cla ss of forgings is

.

shown in Fig 107 T his i s the sh ape u sed for what ar e k n own as
‘

. .

marine end s of connecting rods knuckle j oints on valve rods and , ,

60 F OR G IN G

various other pieces A common method employed to make s uc h a

.

forging is shown in Fig 108 Two fuller c uts are fi rst m ade as
. .

indi cate d at A and th e part for the shaft of th e

forging drawn out The thick end is then punched .

and split as indi cated at B This split end is

, .

opened up an d forged out in t he manner indi

Fi g 1 07 K kl
c at e d in Fig 109 if the work i s done on the
. . n uc e
.
,

anvil Fig 1 10 ill ustrates the method of work ing out under the
. .

stea m hammer the end b eing fi r st flatt ened as indic ated and then
,

gradually t ipped up to the position shown by

the dotted l ines When drawn to size t he .
,

ends are flattened out straight acro ss and t he

finishin g done aro und the shank with a ful ler ,

as in dicat ed in Fig 1 1 1 The forgi n g is then . .

bent into a U shaped l oop of approxim ately -

the shape of t he finished kn uckle A bar of .

iron the same dimension as the in side of the

finished kn uckl e is insert ed between the sides
of the l oop and the s ides clo sed down flat as , ,

s hown in Fig 1 1 2 Fig 1 13 shows other for g . . .

ings which may be s haped by this s ame gen

eral method T rim E F ig 108 to the dot .
, .
,

ted line .

W r e n che s S Wr en c h A simple tool t hat .

-
.

is freq uently called for is the S wrench T his -

.

Fig 1 08 M t h d f M k i g wrench i s u su ally made with a gap at each

. e o o a n
K kl n uc e
end s uited for n uts of different s ize s I t is .

s hown complet e in Fig 1 14 T he jaws at . .

the end should be parallel with each other .

A l ine drawn from on e pair of jaw s to the

other s hould make an angle of 3 0 degrees
with the center l ine of eac h There are .

two ways in which such a wrench can be

forged On e is to forge the jaws separately
.

Fig 1 09
. op i g U p .
"

and then
en n
we l d to the handle I n the other .

t he jaw s are c ut from a s olid piece of metal

and the iron between is then drawn down to the proper size for t he
handle The l atter is preferable since it avoids all wel ds
. , .
 F ORG I NG 61

To make the wrench by the se cond process select a piece of steel ,

lar ge enough to fo r m the h ead Fuller it down b ack of the head as .

shown in A Fig 1 1 5 at a a
, _
Round the end and p un ch the hole b
.
, . .

treat the other end in the same way and draw out t he in ter

1 10 . W or ki n g Ou t K n uc k l e un d er S t e am
Ham m e r

me diate m et al givin g the form shown at B Now c ut out the holes .

6 b se c ur ing the for m shown at C I t n ow r emain s to bend the heads .

to t he proper angl e and t o give the des ired c urve t o the shank I n .

forging s uch a wrench t he oute r edges should be slightly ro unded so

Fi g 111 Fi n is hi n g K n u ck l F ig 1 12 C l os i n g Si d
e s of
d Sh k
. . e . .

ar oun an K n u c kle

that they will not c ut the hand The inside of the jaw s sho uld be .

perfectly sq uare with the sharp edges ; this finish can best be obtained
by filing .

S ocke t Wr en c h S ocket wrenches are made in several ways

. .

”
The eas iest way in h urry up work is the method ill ustr ated in-
62 F ORGING

Fig 1 16 A stub is forged to the same s ize and shape as the finis hed
. .

hol e is to be and a rin g b ent up of thin flat iron welded aro und
, , ,

Fig . 1 13 . T ypi ca l S hape s Si m i l ar l

t o K n u ck e s

thi s stub When finishing the s ocket a n ut or b olt head of the same
.
,

siz e as that the wrench is i ntended to fit s ho uld b e placed in t he hol e

and the s oc ket fi n ished over this b etw e en s wage s A b etter way of
, .

Fi g . 1 14 . For g e d S W
-
re n c h

making wrenche s of this kind is to make a forging having the same

d ime n s ions as the finished w ren ch with t he s ocket e n d le ft solid '

The s ocke t end is then drilled to a de pt h slightly greater than t he

 F ORGING 63

socket is want ed The diameter of t he dr ill ed hol e shoul d be as

.
,

shown in F ig 1 1 7 eq ua l to the s hortes t di ameter of the fin ished hole

.
, .

Aft er drill ing , the socket end i s heated and a p unch of the s ame
,

Fig . 1 15 . k
S t e ps i n M a i n g W re n c h
shape as the finished hole is driven into it The end of the p unch .

sho uld b e s qu are ac r o ss and the corne rs sharp As the p unch is .

driven in it will shave off some of the metal aro und the corners of
,

F ig . 1 16 . Soc ktW
e re n c h
th e hol e and for ce it to the bottom th us m aking it necessary to have
,

t he drilled h ol e slightly deeper than the fi nis hed s ocket .

Ladle S hank The ladle shan k s hown in Fig 1 18 may be made

. .

in several ways The ring may be welded up of flat stock and a

.
64 F ORGING

handle welded on with a or sq uare s toc k may be T- wel d , ‘

worked out and split as shown in Fig 1 1 9 these split ends

, .
,

being aft erward welded to make

'

the ring Another met hod of .

m aking w i t h o u t a n y welds
at al l would be to S plit
the stock as indicated in

Fig . 1 17 . k
M a in g Ho el i n Soc k e t W re n c h

1 I

1 19 . l
Lad e S han k Md
a e fr om Sq uar e S t oc k

Fig 120 and to work out in the same way tha t a weldle ss rin g is
.

made The l atter method wo uld take mo r e time but would make
.

t he so under forgin g .
 O
BEMEN T S TEAM DR P HAM MER
 FORGIN G
PAR T II

FORGING OPERATIONS —
( Con t i n ue d)

T OO L-S T EEL W OR K
Too l S t e e l. not strictly true technically for ordinary
Al t hough ,

pur po ses tool steel may be considered simply a comb ination of iron
and c arbon The more common grade contains perhap s 1 per cent
.

of carbon . M achine ste el an d wrought t ron do n ot contain this

element carbon to any great e xtent I f a piece of wrought 1ron or
.

machine steel is heated red hot and then suddenly cooled the m etal ,

remains practically as it was before heatin g but if a piece of toolsteel ,

b e s ubjected to this treatment it becomes very hard and brittle By

'

, .

a m odification of this heatin g and cool ing almo st any degree of hard
,

n e s s may be impart ed to t he stee l .

Prope r Fo rg in g H e at Before attempting any work w ithtool

.

steel a piece of s crap stee l i s to be experimented with h eated and

, ,

hardened several times at v ario us heats until the manipulator is s ure

of the e fle c t of the vario u s heats upon t he g r ain of the steel The _
.

steel s hould a l s o be experimented with to determine j ust how hig h a

heat it w ill stand When heavy forging is to be done i e when the

.
, . .
,

first ro ugh s haping is done upon a t ool a comparatively high heat,

sho ul d be u sed . The steel should be forged at about what might be

cal led a good yel low heat The l ighter hammering when finishing
.
, ,

shoul d be done at a l ower h eat abo ut the hardenin g heat tho ugh
, ,

very little if an y hamm ering sho uld be done below that point I f
, , .

t he grain of the s teel has been rai sed by t oo high a heat it can gen ,

e r ally be q uite decidedly red uced by a litt le hammering at s ome heat

above the hardening temperature ;
S t an da r d For m s

Cold Chise ls .tock sho uld be heated to a good yellow heat

T he s

and forged into shape and finished as smo othly as possible When .

properly forged the e n d or c utting edge projects as sho wn a t C in

,
68 F ORGING

F ig 123 I t is a good plan to simmy nick th is end across at the

. .

point where the finished e dge is t o come and then after t he c hisel , ,

has been tempered this nicked end may b e broken off and t he grain
,

examined Whenever po ssibl e it is a good pl an t o l eave on a tool

.
,

Fi g . 123 . T ypi c a l V i e w s of l
Co d Chi s e l
an e n d of this sort that may be broken off after t he tempering is
done When hardening a chisel shoul d b e heated red hot abo ut as
.
,

far back from t he cutting edge as the point A Fig 124 Care m ust , . .

be taken t o heat slowly enou gh to keep the par t being heated at a

un iform temperature thro ugho ut I f the point becomes .

overheated it sh ould n ot be dipped in water t o cool

,

off but sh o uld be al lowed t o cool in the air t o bel ow

,

the hardening heat and then reheated more carefully .

Wh en properly heated the end sho uld b e hardened by ,

dipping in col d water to the point B As soon as the .

end is cold the chise l shoul d be withdrawn from t he

,

water and the end polished bright by rubbing with a

piece of emery pape r The part of the chisel from .

A t o B will still be red hot and the heat from this

part will gradually reheat the hardened point As .

this col d part is reheated the polished surface will ,

change color showin g at first yell ow t hen brown an d , ,

at l ast purple As s oon as t he purple (almost a blue

.

color) reaches the ni ck at the end the chisel should be ,

completely cooled The waste end may now be snapped .

off and the grain examined I f the grain is t oo coarse

‘ ‘

.
,

the tool shoul d be rehardened at a l ower temperature ,

whil e if the metal is too soft and the end bends ,

wit hout breakin g it shoul d be rehardened at a higher temperatur e

, .

Cape Chis el This is a chi sel used for c utting groove s key
.
,

s eat s etc The end A Fig 12 5 should be wider than the rest of t he
, .
, . .
 FORG IN G 69

blade back t o B The chise l is star ted by thin ning down B with t wo
.

full ers or over th e horn of t he anvil as shown at A Fig 126 The

, , . .

Fig . 1 25 . Cape Chi se l

A" W?

An m ?
Fig . 12 6 . Met hdo of For g i n g Cape C i se h ls

end is then drawn out and finished with a ham mer or flatter in the
manner ill ustrated at B A cape chisel is given t he same temper as
.

a cold chise l .

S qu ar e an d Roun d
Nos e Chi s e ls . T he s e
two
chisel s the ends of which
,

are shown in Fig 12 7 are .

,

forged and tempered in pr ac

tically the same way as the
ordinary cape Chisel the Fi g 1 2 7 ’
Sq N d Ro d N Chi l . . uar e - ose an un -
ose se s

onl y difference being in the

s hape of the ends Ro und no s e cape chise l s are sometime s used for
'

-
.

centering drills and are then known as cen t e ri n g chis els .

Lat he Tools T he same general form s of lathe tools are used

.

in nearly al l shops but the sh ape s are altere d somewhat to s uit

,

individual ta stes .
70 FORGING

Ri g ht Hand and Many l ath e tool s are made

Left Han d Tools .

in pairs and are called right hand and l eft hand tool s I f a tool is- -
.

made in such a way that the c utting edge comes toward the left

t-se c t i an a s

Fi g . 12 8 . V i e ws of L at he T ool S howi n g C l e ar a n c e

hand as t he tool is held in po sition in the l athe it is known as a ,

right hand tool i e a tool which b egins a c ut at the right hand end
-
, . .
,
-

of the piece and moves from right to left The one commencing at .

the l eft hand end and c utting toward the right would b e known as a
-

l eft hand tool The general shape of the right hand and left hand
- .
- -

tools for the same use is generally the same excepting that the cutting
edges ar e on oppo site sides .

Clea r an ce When makin g all lathe tool s care m ust be taken to

.
,

se e that they have proper clearance i e the c utting edge m ust pro , . .
,

beyond r o ut side of the other parts of the tool I n other word

j e c t o . s .
,

the s ides of the tool m ust be underc ut or slant downward and b ack
ward away fr om the cutting edge T his is ill ustrated in the section .

A B of F ig 12 8 where the lower .

,

edge of the tool is made consider

ably thinner than t he uppe r edge ,

in order to give the proper

clearance .

Rou n d Nos e -
an d Thr e a d
These tool s are practically Tools .

al ike except ing for a slight diff er ,

ence in the way the ends are

ground The general shape is .

T ool H d i g
shown in Fig 1 2 8 W hen hard . .

Fig 1 29 . . ar en n

c u ing the tool s sho ul d be heated ,

abo ut as far as the line A F ig 1 2 9 an d cooled up to the l ine B

,
.
, .

T he te mper is then drawn in the s ame ge n eral way as described

for tempering of cold chisel s except in g that when a light yell ow ,
 F ORGIN G 71
,

color shows at the cutting edge the tool is cooled for the second .

tim e
. All lathe tool s are given practically the s ame tempe r .

Sometimes tool s are l eft m uch harder I n one quite wel l known .

plant the tool s are simply reheated until the water evaporates from
the c utting end indicating a ,
-

r eheating to a temperature of
2
about 2 00 Fahrenheit
°
.

Cu tti n g Of Tool Cutting

-
.

off tool s are forged with the b lade

either on one side or in the center

of the stock The easier way to F ig 1 3 0 T ypi l C t t i g OE T l
.

. . ca u n -
oo

make them is to forge the blade

with on e side fl ush with the side of the tool as shown in F ig 1 3 0 ,
. .

For u se in a l athe the tool is generally forged on the left side so

as to leave the c utting blade straight on the s ide toward the face

plate of the l athe For planer work tool s are often made in the
.
,

ce nter of the steel The c utting edge the ext reme tip A of the '

.
, ,

bl ade should be wider than any other part of the thinne d part B
, ,

in other words this edge should have clearance in all di rections as

,

indicated in the draw ing The clearance angle at the end of the
.

tool as shown in the s ketch is generally ab o ut 2 0 degree s

, ,
.

For hardening heat very litt le of the steel except the blade ;
,

the end of the tool sho uld be heated ab o ut as far as C C and cool to ,

a n v il

Fi g . 13 1 . M et d
ho of For g i n g Cu t t i n g -OB T ool

abo ut the line DD eno ugh s o that the heat left in the steel wil l not
,

work toward the point of the tool too qui ckly T his heat which i s .

le ft in the steel is for tempering or drawing and care sho uld b e ,

taken so as not to leave the tool hard at the section B as here not ,
72 F ORG I N G

hardness but toughness is req uire d Temper generally t o dark

, ,

st raw color or a b o ut 43 0 F ahr enheit

°
.

The tool is started by pl ac ing e nough of the steel on the anv il

t ci draw out to the lengt h wante d Par t of t he face of the hammer.

is ext ended a l ittl e over the side of t he anvil as shown at A Fig 1 3 1 , , . .

After ro ughly shaping the end is trimmed off with a h ot chisel along
,

the dotted l ines shown at B

Bori n g Tool The general s hape of thi s tool is shown in F ig 1 3 2
. . .

The length of the thin end depends upon the depth of the hole in

Fig . 13 2 . Typi ca lB or i n g T oo l

whi ch the t ool is to b e used and as a general rul e shoul d be made as

sho r t and t hick as p o ss ib le in order to avoid springing
, The tool .

'

may be started in t he same general way as t he c utting off tool the -

,

full er c ut being made on the edge of the stock in st ead of on the s ide .

The c utting edge of the tool is at the end of th e smal l nos e and this
‘

n o se is the only part which s ho uld be temp ere d .

Di am on d P oi n t I n Fig 1 3 3 is sh own the general shape of

. .

diamond points and in Fig 1 3 4 th e different step s of making them

, . .

The s hape is started by us ing a

bottom ful ler working the stock ,

down abo ut on e third as shown -

,

at A The rounded edge of the .

anvil can al s o b e used in place of

Fi g 1 3 3
. T ypi l D i
ca dP i t T l
a m on
the f uller
o n
W ork do
oo
wn the point .

as shown at B t ur ning on the s ide ,

as shown at Cfor sta rt ing the diamond s hape and worki n g both s ide s ,

un til the proper s i z e and shape are obta ined Then plac ing the tool .
,

point on the flat s ide on the anvil use a hot chisel t o c ut t he po int ,

to the p roper l ength shown at D I n cooling this tool for harden

, .

in g l eave but l ittl e heat in the rear end of the steel so as t o draw
,

slowly to l ight straw color or abo ut 4 10 Fahrenheit for even

°
,

temperature which means an even hardness in the po int

, .
74 F ORGING

in such a way as t o bring dee per in the water that end of the b lade
which was t oo soft before .

Cen teri n g Tool Th e centering tool shown in Fig 1 3 6 is use d

. .

for starting hol es on faceplate and c huck work The end may be .

F ig . 13 5 . M t hod
e of For g i n g an d H ar d e ni n g Si d e T oo l
by makin g a fuller c ut and t hen flattening out the metal ,

trimming t he cutting edge to shape with the hot chise l .

D E ED]

Fi g . 13 6 . Ce n t e r in g T oo l F ig . 13 7 . Fin ishi n g l
T oo

Forming tool s for turret l athes are sometimes

For m i n g Tools .

forged up in the same g eneral shape as above and t e mpered like

other l athe t ools .
 F ORG IN G 75

Fi n is hi n g ToolThis tool F ig 1 3 7 may be start ed either with

.
, .
,

a fuller c ut or in the same way as the diamond point The e n d is .

then flattened out and shaped with a s e t hammer as shown in Fig 1 3 8 . .

T hi s generally l eave s t he end bent out t oo nearl y straight b ut it may ,

be easily bent back into shape as indi cated at B Thi s bendi ng will .

probably l eave the point somethi ng l ike C A fe w bl ows of the .

hammer at the point indicated by the arrow will give the tool the
s hape as at D The c ii t t in g edge s hould be tempered the same as
.

for other l athe tool s For planer and shaper t ool s of thi s shape the
.
,

end should b e more nearly at right

angle s to the edge of the tool ,

making an angle of about 6 or 8

degree s l ess than the pe rpe n dic u
l ar ; in other words the tool should
,

have l ess end rake

'

Fla t Dri ll Flat drill s need

.

n o p artic ul ar de scription as to

forging and shaping The S i ze .

of the drill is determined by the

width of the flat end this bein g ,

the same size as the hol e the drill

is intended to bore I f thi s .

dimension were 1 inch the drill ,

would be known as 1 inch drill -F i c B it

Fi xa
t
igzfif
d .
hw i s -

o
n

The drill should be made s ome

what s ofter than l athe tool s the temper being drawn until a light
,

brown shows at the c utting edge .

S pr i n g s
. Springs are generally tempered in oil The spring is .

heated to a uniform hardening heat and hardened by cooling in oil ,

usually lard or fish oil as mineral oil i s too un certain in compos ition
,
.

The temper is drawn by h olding the spring still covered with oil , ,

over the flame of the forge and b y heating until the oil b urn s over
,

the entire spring I f the spring i s not uniform in s ect ion through
.

out i t i s general l y advisable while heating to pl unge it ever y few

, , ,

second s into the oil bath taking it out in stantly and contin u ing the
,

heating This momentary pl unge tends t o equalize the heat by

.

cool ing the thinner parts .

The above method of tempering is known as blaz ing off the ,

76 F ORGING

blazing point of the oil being ed to indicate the temperature in us

place of the color of the s cale T he s ame res ults co uld b e ob tained
.

by polishin g the spring

and heating until it
tur ned bl ue .

Ha m m e r s When .

making a hammer the

stock s ho uld b e taken

large enough to make

the largest par t of the
hammer witho ut any
u p sett in g As a gen .

eral r ule the hammer i s

forged on the end of a
b ar and is finished as
completely as po ss ible
F i g 13 9
. .M t h d f M ki g H
e o o a n am m e r

before c utting ofl ’
.

Ri ve t i n g H am m e r About the ea siest hammer to shape i s the

.

rivetin g hammer shown at D F ig 8 Thi s hammer as well as all , . .

,

other hammers i s start ed by first p unching the hole for the eye as
,

s hown at A F ig 1 3 9
, .When the eye is p unched the stoc k i s generally
.

b ulge d out sideways and in orde r to h old the shape of the eye while
, ,

flattenin g down this b ulge a drift pin s uch as shown in F ig 140 is

,
.

used . T his pin is made l a rger in the cen ter an d tape ring at b oth
end s The center or larger part of the pin has the same shape as the
.

finished eye of the hammer T his .

pin is driv en into the p unched hole

and the sides of the eye forged into
sh ape a s ill ustrated at B F ig 1 3 9
, , . .

Afte r the eye has be e n properly

A B . .

Fi g 1 40 . D i ft
r Pi n Fi g . 14 1 . H ar d e ni n g H am m er H e ad

hammer will come , as s hown at C . T he end of the hammer toward the

 F ORGING 77

face is then slightly tapered in the manner in dicated at D After the .

hammer has been as near ly as possible finished it is c ut from the b ar

'

an d the face trued up For temperin g the whole hammer is heated to

.
,

an even hardenin g heat T he hammer is then grasped by placing one

.

j aw o f the tong s thro u gh the eye B oth end s are tempered thi s .
,

being done by hardening first on e end and then the other T he .

smal l end i s fir st hardened by dipping in the water as s hown at

F ig 141 As soon as this end is cooled the po sition of the hammer is

. .

instantly reversed and the face end hardened While the large end .

is in the water the smaller end is poli shed and the temper color
watched for When a d ark b rown scale appears on the small end
.

Fi g 1 4 2
. . Met h od of M ak i n g Ba ll P
- ee n H am m er

the hammer is aga in rever sed b ringing the lar ge end uppermost and
the pe en in the water T he face end is then p olished and the temper
.

drawn I f the large end is proper ly har dened before the temper
.

color appears on t he s mall end the hammer may b e taken c om ,

ple t e ly ou t o f the water the l arge ,end poli s hed and the co l ors ,

watched for on both end s at once As soon as on e e n d show s the .

proper color it is promptly dipped in water the other end foll owing ,

as s oon as the color appea r s there ; the eye s ho u ld ne v er b e cooled

while still red hot For s ome work hammer face s should b e l e ft harder
.
,

but for ordinary u s e the temper as gi v en a b ove i s very s atisfactory ,

.

Ba ll P e on Ham m e r
-
T he ge ne r al method of mak in g a hammer
.

of this kind is ill ustrated in F ig 142 Startin g with ro und stock

. .
78 F ORGING

( car b on s teel ) flatten

, under a power hammer if one i s avail a b le a s , ,

at A ; otherwis e use a se t ham mer on an anvil in t he same manner ,

and then work enough down for the ball peen as shown at B Then , .

fullers are us ed as at C to space ofl for the hole to be punched between

,
’

the octagonal parts formed with the f ullers To keep from flat t e n .

in g the part thro ugh w hich the hole is p unched it sho ul d be placed ,

on a b o ttom fuller of the proper s i z e Care sho uld be taken not to

.

heat the stee l too hot for this operation as heat cracks are sure ,

to take place The steel sho uld be of fairly high carbon ; not le ss
.

than 1 pe r cent Harden and .

temper to ab o ut dark straw col or ,

or 43 0 Fahrenheit °

Blac k s m it h s Too ls S uc h
’
.

tool s cold chi sel s hot chisel s

—
, ,

se t hammers and flat t e rs are ,

—

made in m uch the s ame way as

hammers The wide face of the .

flat t e r s may b e up set b y u s ing a

F i g 14 8
. . Bl k f Up t t i g
oc or se n
block s uch as is shown in Fig 143 . .

The heated end of the t ool is droppe d into the hole in the b lock and
t he face up set into the wide s hallow opening Swages may al s o be .

worked up in this way .

M I S C ELLAN EO US PRO C ES S ES

S hr in k in gWhen iron is he ated it expands an d upon bein g

.
,

cool ed it contracts to abo ut it s original s iz e T his prope rty is util iz ed

.

in doing what is known as

shrink in g Fig 1 44 show s . .

a collar s hrunk on a s haft .

T he collar and s haft are

made separate the h ole ,

thr o ugh the coll ar being

yi
slig ht l le ss in diameter than
Fig 144 Coll Sh k o Sh ft
ar r un n a
. .

the out side diameter of the

shaft .T he collar is then heated red hot and the heat ca use s the
collar to expand making the hole larger in diameter than the shaft
,
.

T he coll ar while
,
s t ill hot i s the n pl a ced o
,
n the s ha ft in proper posi
tion an d cooled as quickly as po ssible by p ouring water on it As
,
.
 F ORGING 79

TA BLE IV “

Color S ca le of I r on He a t s

Cow s

R ed , lowe st v i si bline dark

lowe s t v i s ible i n dayli gh t

li ght (scali n g h e at )
g e , full
g e , li gh t
"e llow, f ull
"ellow, lig h t

the collar is cooled it cont racts and squeez es or locks itse lf firmly in , ,

position This principle of shrinking is used to a l arge ext ent where

.

a firm tight fit is wanted the only o bject ion being that it i s rather
, ,

diffic ult to take a piece off after it has once been shrunk into pl ace .

A llowan c e f or S hri n kage I n doing work in the blacksmith shop

.

it m us t be con stantly remembered that the work is l arger when being

worked than it is when cool Allowance m ust therefore always be .
, ,

made for shrinkage As the pattern maker allows for the contraction
.
-

of the mol ten metal to the cold ca sting s o the blacksmith m us t all ow ,

for the contraction of the hot iron or stee l to the cold forg ing .

From the scale of iron heats at the several colors given in T abl e ,

IV it will b e seen that the temperature at which forgings are finished

,

under the hammer s ho uld b e at a b o ut 9 00 Fahr enheit

, W hen °
.

these s ame forgings are cold their temperature will be from 6 0 to °

70 Fahrenheit T here is therefore a difference of at l east 8 40

° °
.
, ,

betwee n the working and the finished temperature The expansion .

of iron may b e taken to average a b o ut 000006 6 2 of it s length for .

each increase of on e degree F ahr enheit in it s temperatur e I f a bar .

of machine steel exactly 2 feet l ong when cold is heated r e d h ot and

measur ed it will be fo un d to have increased nearly i inch in length
, .

°
T aking the temperature of the red heat as 13 70 Fahrenheit and ,

that of the cold b ar as 70 Fahrenheit the increas e in l ength wo uld

°
,

be X 2 4 (length in inche s) inches This .

expans ion m ust be allowed for when meas uring forgings r e d hot .

“T b l
a IV i
e b d s t paset gi onby M em T yl d W hi t
e r a u r esT t io v en e ss r s . a or an e r a n s ac ns

So i t y f M h i l E g i
,

A i
m e r c an c e o V l X XI
ec a n ca n n ee rs . o . .
80 F ORGING

When t wo piece s of ir on or steel are welded together

Br az in g . ,

they are joined by making the pieces so hot that t he particles of one
piece will stick to those of the other no medium being used to join
‘

them I n b razing however the brass acts in joining two pieces of

.
, ,

metal toget her in somewhat the same manner that gl ue doe s in jo in ing
two pieces of wood Briefly t he process i s as foll ows : The surfaces
.

to be joined are cleaned held together by a suitable clamp heated to

, ,

the temperature of melting b ras s flux added and the brass melted , ,

into the joint The brass used is generally in the shape of spelt er
.
,

which is a finely gran ulated bra ss which melts at a comparatively l ow

temperature Spelter comes in several grades designated by hard
.
,

s oft etc
, the harder s pelters melting at higher heat but making a
.
,

stronger joint Brass wire or strips of rolled bra ss are somet imes
.

used in place of spelte r b ra ss wire in pa rtic u

, lar being very convenient

Fi g . 14 5 . B r az e dJ oi n t s

in many pl aces A simple example of a b r aze d joint is shown in

.

Fig 145 where a flange is brazed to the end of a s m all p ipe I t is not
.
, .

necessary in this cas e to u se any clamps as the pieces will hold them
s elve s together T he joint between the t wo s ho uld be made ro ughly
. .

I f a tight j oint be u sed there wil l be no chance for the brass to r un m .

The j oint sho uld fit in spots but not all aro un d Before p utting the .

two pieces together t he s urfaces to be jo ined should be cleaned free

,

from l oo se dirt and s cale When ready for brazing the j oint is
.

smeared with a flux ( 1 part s alammoniac 6 or 8 p art s borax ) whi ch ,

may be added dry or put on in the form of a paste mixed with water .

T he j oint is then heated and the spelter mixed with flux sprinkl ed
on and melted into place Bra s s wire could be used in place of the
.

s pelter in the manner i ndicated the wire being bent into a ring and ,

laid ro und the joint as shown Ordin ary borax may be used as a .

flux altho ugh not as good as the mixt ure used above
, The heat .
82 F ORGING

done by heating the pipe and in serting one end in on e of the hole s in
a swage block as s hown in Fig 147 the pipe being then bent b y bear .
,

ing down on the free end As soon as a slight bend i s made it is .

generally necessary to l ay the pipe flat on the anvil and w ork down
the b ulge with a flatter Where many pieces are to be bent a .
,

grooved jig such as shown in Fig 148 is somet imes used T he jig is . .

of s uch a shape that the pipe is completely s urrounded where it is

b eing bent th us not having any opport unity to collap s e or bulge
,
.

Pipe i s s ometime s filled hi ll of sand for bending T his help s to s ome .

extent Care m ust b e taken to se e that the pipe is ful l and that
.

the ends are s olidly pl ugged F or b ending .

thin copper tub ing it may be filled with ,

melted ro sin T his give s very satisfactory .

res ults this character of work After .

Fi g . 14 8 . Be n d i ng P i pe in G r oov e d J ig F ig 1 49 . B l oc k l
for S i m p e Be n d
bending the ros in is removed by s imply heating the pipe
, .

Duplicat e W o rk Where s everal pieces are to b e exactly alike

.

in a shop that is not equipped for spe c ial work it is sometimes pr ac ,

tical to u se a jig for perform ing the operations For s imple bending .

the jig may con sist of a se t of cast iron blocks Fig 149 ill ustrates -
. .

a s imple bend with the block used for doing the work The work is .

done as s hown at B The piece t o b e b ent is placed as shown by

.
,

the dotted l ines with th e bending block on top T he bending is

, .

done by on e or two stro kes of the st eam hammer For convenience .

in handling the b ending bloc ks are s ometime s held by a spring

,
 F ORGING 83

handle as shown in F ig 150 The blocks in this case are for bending
. .

the hooks shown at A T he handle is s imply a piece of 5 inch

.

roun d iron with the ends screwed in to the cast iron blocks and held -

firmly by the l ock n uts shown T his makes a cheap arrangement for .

Fi g . 150 . d
S pri n g - H an le d B e n di n g J i g

a variety of work as the same handles may be used on various sets of

,

blocks Where a great n umb er of pieces are to b e made these blocks

.
,

or b end ing die s may b e m ade of s u ch a shape that they can b e keyed

on the steam hammer in place of the regular flat dies .

Die Forg in g . Piece s are sometime s shape d between formed steel

dies where many are to b e made exactly alike An example of this .

s ort of work is the eye bolt F ig 1 5 1 Round stock i s u s ed and i s

, . .

first s haped like A F ig 152 T he shaping is done in the die s shown

, . .

at B which are s imply two small blocks of tool steel fastened together
,

with a spring handle the inside faces of the blocks being formed to
,

shape the piece as s hown T he end of the b ar is heated placed

.
,

between the die blocks and hammered until

it takes the required shape being turned ,

through ab o ut 9 0 degrees between each

two blow s of the steam hammer and the ,

hammering continued until the die faces

j ust to uch For the second step the ball
.

is flattened to abo ut the thic kne ss of the

fini hed eye and the hole p nched under
s u
Fi 8 1 5 1 E y - e

the steam hammer with an ordinary punch leaving the work as ,

shown at C . T he final shaping is done with the finishing die D .

T his die is so shaped that when the t wo parts are together the hole ,

left is exact ly the shape of the fin i shed forging I n t he first die it .

84 F ORG I N G

will be noticed that the hole s do not conform exactly to the de sired
s hape of the fo r ging being in stead of s emicirc ular
, considerably
, ,

rounded off at the edge s T h is i s shown more clearly in F ig 1 53

. .

Fi g . 1 52 . l
S hapi n g E ye B o t i n Di es

at A where the dotted line s show the shape of the forging the sol id
, ,

lines the shape of the die The obj e ct of the a bove i s thi s : I f the
.

hole is semicir cular in section the stock being lar ger than the smaller
, ,

part s of the hol e after a blow w ill b e left lik e B the metal being
, ,

forced out b etween the fl at face s of the

die an d forming fin s When the b ar is .

turned the se fin s are worked b ack and

mak e a cold s hu t When the hole i s a -
.

mod ified semicircle the stock will b e

formed lik e C and may be t urned and ,

w orked without danger of cold shuts -

.

Die s for thi s kind of work are s om e

times made of ca st iron When made .

of tool steel it i s s omet ime s po s s ib le to

Fi g 1 5 3 S h paf F g g
es o d Di
or in an e
s hape them hot A ma ster forging i s
. .

first made of tool steel to exactly the shape of the required forging .

T he bl oc k s for the die s are t hen forged with flat face s These .

blocks are fastened to the ha n dle and then heated red hot The .

maste r for gin g is th e n pl aced b e tween them and the die s hammered
down over the forging leaving the cavity j ust the p rope r shape
,
.
 F ORGING 85

HEA V " F ORG I N G

S t e am H am m e r An ordinary fo r m of steam hammer is shown
.

in Fig 1 54 I t s e ssential parts ar e an inverted steam cyl in der to

. . ,

who se piston rod the hammer head is attached and the frame for ,

carryin g the whol e The h ammer i s raised by admitting steam

.

beneath the piston The blow is dealt by exhausting the steam from
.

beneath the piston and admitting above The head is thus acce le r .

ated by gravity and by the pressure of steam above the piston T he .

val ve gear i s so arranged that

the intensity of the bl ow may be
varied by changing the amount
of steam admitted to the piston
on it s downward stroke The .

steam admitted below on the

s ame stroke form s a c ushi on for

the absorption of the momentum

of the head I n this way the
.

lighte st of tap s and the heaviest

of bl ow s can be delivered by
the same hammer These ham .

mers are al s o made in a great

variety of sizes Steam ham .

mers are rated by the weight

of the falling part s i e the pis , . .
,

ton rod ram or head and ham

, ,

mer die A hammer in which

.
F g 154 T ypi lS t H i . . ca e am am m e r

these part s weigh 400 pound s C t y f N il B t P d Co p y ou r e s o es - em e n - on m an .

would be called a 400 po un d hammer Steam hammer s are made in

-
.

t wo distinct parts : the frame carrying the hammer or ram and the , ,

anvil on which the hammer strikes T he frame i s carried on a

, .

heavy fo undation and the heavy anvil which i s generally made

, ,

of cast iron and fitted with a die block of t ool steel re sts upon a
‘
,

heavier fo undation of timber or mas onry capped with a tim ber The .

object of these separate fo undations i s to allow the anvil to give

slightly u nder a blo w witho ut dist ur bing the frame On ve r y light .

power hammers the anv il and frame are s ometime s made together .

H am m e r Die s T he die s as mo st commonly used with a steam

.
,

hammer have flat faces The best one s are made of tool steel The se
, . .
86 F ORGING

dies may be made of tool ste e l and left unhardened then when t he ,

dies become batter ed out of shape from use they may be trued up ,

and refaced without goin g to the trouble of annealing and hardening .

Dies of gray cast iron and cast iron with a chilled face are al so quit e

Fi g 155
. . T on g s for H e av y Wo k r

commonly us ed Ordinar y gray cast iron is used particularl y when

.
,

special s haped die s are employed for weldin g and light bending .

To n g s T ongs for steam hammer work sho ul d alway s be fitted

.
-

carefully and sho uld grip the stock firmly on at least three sides
, .

A qu ite common shape for tongs for heavy work is sh own in Fig 1 55 . .

T o hold the tongs sec ur ely on the work and to mak e it eas ier to handle
t hem a link is somet ime s u sed of t he s hape shown
, This i s driven .

firmly over the handles of the tongs and the projecting end s are used
as handle s for t urning the wo r k .

H am m e r Chise ls T he common shape for hot chi sel s for use

.

under the s team hammer is given in F ig 1 56 T he handle and b lade . .

Fi g . 1 56 . S t e a m H am m er h
C i s e ls Fi g . 157 . S e c t i on s of h l Bl d
C ise a es

are sometime s made from on e piece of tool steel Sometimes the .

blade is made of tool steel and an iron handle welded on as shown in

the sketch The handle next to the blade should be flattened out
.

to form sort of a spring which permits a little give when us ing the
chi sel T he edge of the chis el should be left sq uare across and not
.

ro unding T he proper shape is shown at A Fig 157 S ometimes

.
, . .
 F OR G I N G 87

for pecial work th e edge may be slightly beveled as at B or C For

s .

cuttin g or nicking bar s cold a chi sel s imilar in s hape to Fig 158 is, .

sometimes use d Thi s is made very flat and stumpy to res ist the
.

crushing eff ect of heavy blows i For c utting into corners a chisel

Fig . 1 58 . h l
C i se for Cut t i n g Col B ars d F ig . 159 . h lf
C i se or Cut t i n g I n t o Cor n e rs

s imilar in shape t o Fig 159 is sometimes used For bent or irregul ar

. .

work the chi sel may be formed accordingly For c utting off hot .

stock the method us ed i s a b o ut as il l us trated in F ig 1 6 0 i e the .

, . .
,

work is cut nearly through as shown at A T he bar is then tur ned

.
.

ov er and a thin strip of stee l with s q uare corners placed on top as

shown at B A q uick .

heavy blow of t he ham

mer drives this steel bar
through the work and
1 6 0 M t h d f C t t i g on H t S t o k
car r ies away t he thin F ig . . e o o u n o c

fin shown l eavin g both of the c ut end s clean and smooth

, .

Too ls S wages
. T he tool s u sed for steam hammer work are
.
-

generally very simple Swages for finishing work up to 3 or 4 inches

.

in diame ter are commonly made in the s hape s hown in F ig 1 6 1 . .

T he handle is made in
the shape of a spring and
may be either made in
one p iece with the b locks
and drawn out as shown °

at C or may be in serted
,

as s hown at B This .

s ort of too l is known as

a s pri n g t ool Another .

F ig 1 6 1 Sw g f St H Wo k a e or e am - am m e r r
s ort of swage s ometime s
. .

us ed is il l us trat e d in Fig 16 2 the top swage at A the bottom swage

.
, ,

at B This sort of swage is used on a die block which has a square

.

hole c ut in it s face sim il ar to the hardie hole in an anv il T he short .

88 F ORGING

h orn X of the swage fit s into this hole the other t wo projections

, , ,

coming over the side of the anv il b lock .

Tape ri n g an d Fulle ri n g Tool T he face s of the anvil and ham .

mer dies are flat and parallel and it is of cour se impo ss ible to fin ish
, , ,

tapering work smooth

between the bare dies .

T his work may be done

by us ing a tool s imil ar to
Fig 16 3 I t s method of . .

use is s hown in Fig 16 4 .

,

the ro ughing bein g done

with the ro und s i d e
down and the finishi ng
with the fl at s ide Fullers
Sw g U d Di B l k
.

F ig 16 2 a e se on e oc
us ed for ordinary hand
. .

forgings are seldom employed in steam hammer work Ro und bars -

.

are us ed in their place in the manner ill ustrated in Fig 16 5 I f a . .

nick i s wanted on on e side only s imply on e ro und b ar is u sed Care , .

m ust always b e taken t o be sure that the work is in the proper po si

Fi g . 16 3 . T ape r i n g an d F ulle r in g T oo l
tion before striking a heavy blow with the hammer To do this the .

hammer sho uld be bro ught down l ightly on the work t h us b ringing
the piece to a fl at b earing for the fi r st bl ow .

Fi g . 16 4 . M e t ho d fUi
o s ng T ape ri n g an d Fulle ri n g T oo l
S quar in g up W or k
I t freq uently h appe ns that work i s knocked
.

l opside d u nder the hammer being worked up into s ome s uch s hape
,

as s hown at A F ig 1 6 6
, T o correct this and bring the work up
. .
90 F ORGING
D RO P FORG I N G
De v e lopm Drop forgings were made first abo ut 6 0 years
e nt .

ago , and from the necessaril y crude methods which were first
employed , the art of forging has developed into on e of t he l argest
branches of the mechanical arts Great advancement has been .

made within the l ast few years s o that it s scope of us eful ness as
, ,

well as poss ibilities are practically unlimited T his progress has

, .

been made po ssible by scientific inv e stig ation s improved machinery ,

Fi g 16 8 S t ar t i n g Con n e c t i n g Fi g 16 9 D Ou t Con
r awi n g
i
. . . .

Rod For g n g n e c t i n g Rod

and die material s and especially by the exhaustive study of steel

,

and it s treatment .

The early history of drop forging s how s that more or less

depe nded on t he s kill of the blac ksmith He was ob liged to work .

out the material by hand almo st to the de s ired s hape then with the , ,

aid of portable tool s which were used in conj unction with the power
and the steam hammer the forgings were finished to un iform s ize
, .

Corre sponding to the development of machinery along other lines ,

however it was only nat ural that the same progress sho uld affect
,

the forging b usine ss .

T he sew ing mach ine shoe machine harvester machine and

-
,
-
,
-
,

a utomobile ind ustries have been more in strumental than any other
agencies in bringing stamp or drop forging to it s present s implicity .

From the fact that drop forging is p urely mechanical the word ,

s implicity clearly s ignifie s the method s u sed which effect a wonderful ,

red uction in the cost of prod uction .

 F ORGING 91

Forgings can be made i n greater variety and those that are ,

most d iffit or even impo ssible to finish over the anvil are made
with apparent ease under the drop hammer There seem s to be no .

. . D
Fi g 1 7 0 Typi c al rop For g e T ools
Cou r t es y of J H W i lli a m s a n d Com pa n y B r ook lyn . N cw "or k
. .
,

limit to de sign and the b est feature of all is that the work is done
,

more acc urately imparting a finish to every detail

,
.

From the fact that to a great extent drop forgings have replaced
mall eable iron cast ings there is no do ubt that n e w field s have ope ned
-
,

to create a demand for forgin gs greater than wo uld have developed

if the mechanical world had b een ob liged to depend on the former
method s of hand forging .
92 F ORGING

Pr oc e ss . Drop forging s are made by theof dies Thes e u se .

dies are made in two parts and into them are s un k exact impression s
of the part s wanted On e half of the die is sec urely attached to
.
-

the base of the hammer the upper part b eing fastened to the ram
,

which travel s vertically between t wo g uides By continually rais .

ing and droppin g this ram the heated metal which is held b etween
,

the t wo parts of the die is forced into the impression s c ut into the
dies I n forcing the metal into the die there i s a s mall amount
.
,

called the flas h whi ch overfl ow s the impression T his flash i s

,
.

removed by a heavy turn ing press to which are attached dies c ut

to the c orr ect size and shape to finish the forging .

I n the proce ss of forging a thin scale is formed on the forging ,

proper Thi s sc ale has to b e remove d in order that the finis hed
.

F ig . 171 . S t e ps i n Fo rgin g A u t om ob ile Par t

forging may be clean and smooth and thi s is accomplis hed by a ,

pick ling proce s s or b y s and bl asting T he pic kling proces s con s ist s .

of dipping each for ging in a str ong s ol ut ion of acid which eats off

all the s cale .

Drop H am m e r T o m e et the req u ire ment s of an up to date

.
- —

forge sh op either of the t yp e s s hown in F ig s 1 9 or 1 3 3 are s uit

, .

ab le .T hey are alm ost inde str u ctib le m achin es the capacity of ,

which s eem s to be limite d only b y the inge n uity of the die sinker .

T he b ase s ar e of c ast iron and in one pie ce a w e ight r ation of ,

b etween b ase and h amme r be ing adopte d I f the hammer we ighs .

p oun d s the b as e w ould w e ig h p ou n d s .

S pe c im e n s of Dr op Fo r g in g T he light w ork ill ustrated in .

Fig 1 70 is a g r oup of d r op forge d tool s made b y J H William s and

.
-
. .
94 F ORGING

are controlled by definite laws and with steel s containing a high per
, ,

cent of carbon with other alloying elements the operation of heat ,

treating is a very del icate one such that a slight variation even with
,

the best of steel would give ve r y poor re sults .

The proper or m o st practical heat treatment s for the various

steel s have bee n deter mined by their man ufacturer s b efore pl ac ing

them on the market and the direction s given should be carried

,

out . T o make on e heat treatment whi ch i s sati sfactory for all

s tee l s is impo ss ible so the man ufact urer s recommendation s s ho ul d
’
,

be followed .

Fac t ors in H e at Tre at m e n t Before going into the detail s of

.

heat treatment it is necessary to know some of the prope rties which

,

ent er into the steel so as to u ndersta nd the treatment more fully

, .

Steel as we obtain it from the market at the pre sent time is a

, ,

combin ation of iron and carbon and s ome impurities s uch as s ulphu r
and phosphorus though to prod u ce particular results these latter
, ,

sometime s are added together with many othe r element s s u ch as

manganes e s ilicon nickel chromium tungsten molybden um vana

, , , , , ,

dium etc either accidentally or pu rpo sely incl uded for their effects
, .
, .

Car bon P r i n ci pal Det er m i n i n g Ele m en t T he principal element .

determining the properties of crucible tool steel is carbon Pu re .

iron is very nearly as soft as copper while with an incr eas ing amount
, ,

of carbon stee l b ecome s harder and str onger but le ss du ctile u ntil
, , ,

a carbon cont en t of abo ut p e r cent i s reached S teel of thi s .

carbo n content is the one mo stly use d for common m achine shop -

tools Abo v e this point other addition s of carbon res ult in n ot only
.

increasing hardness but al so increas in g b rittleness .

Ste el s mo st generally u se fu l in the hardene d state have carbon

from per cent to p e r cent b etween which po,
i nts t he hard
ness is sufficient for almost every purpose Steel containing carbon .

up to ab ou t per cent carb on generally is called i n got i r on ; that

from per cent to per cent i s m ac hin e ry s te e l; that from
per cent to per cent is cruci ble m ac hi n e ry s t e e l; and that from
per cent up is t ool s t e el Steel s containing on ly carbon with
.

small q u antitie s of silicon manganese and the always present

, ,

s ul phur and phos phor us generally are called s t r ai g ht car bon s t ee l

,
s .

Thos e owing their pec uliar properties to some ingr edients other than
carbon are called alloy s teels .
 F ORGING 95

Cri ti cal Tem per atu r e i n Harden i n g For every grade of steel .

there is a so called cri ti cal te m pe r at ur e or point of transformation

- .

Thi s temperature varies accord ing to the variou s compo sitions and
the carbon content of the stee l s The phenomenon probably is .

more marked in the alloy ste el s t han in straight carbon steel s On .

heat ing through the critical tempe rature or critical range the steel
take s on hardness when cooled q uickly the hardness being according ,

to it s carbon content and the quickness of cooling .

When working a n e w steel for the first time a blacksmith sho uld ,

acquaint hi m self with the particular hardening temperature of the

material and in practice he shou ld be very sure not t o vary or
,

exceed it m uch .

Vari ati on of S t ruc tu r e T o harden steel m u st b e heated to or

.
, ,

a l ittl e above this critical temperature and be c ooled sudden ly t he

, ,

percentage of hardnesswhich the steel is capable of assuming bein g

proportional to the speed of cool ing the quicker the cooling the —
,

harder the steel I f heated below the critical temperature e ven

.
,

though q uenched stee l doe s not take on hardness but remain s soft
, ,

or p artly annealed On heating throu gh the critical temperature

.
,

the pre viously exi sting structur e is obliterated or tends to become

obliterated and up to this temperature or j ust above it is when
, , ,

steel po s se ss e s the fine st structure which it i s capable of a ssuming .

T he rate of o bliteration of the old stru ct ure in a piece of steel depends

upon the temperat ure reached and u pon the time the s teel i s ma in

t ain ed at that temperature the change proceeding more rapidly

,

with increa se of temperature S o with the obliteration of the old

.
,

str uct u re a n e w st r uct ure b egin s to grow and it s size increa s e s wit h
, ,

t h e and temperature but more rapidly with increa s e of tempera

,

tur e than with increase of time at a l ower temperature .

Once heated above the critical point and hav ing reached the heat
of hardening steel may be cooled slowly to a certain degree and not
,

lose it s power of hardening if cooled suddenly But to so let steel .

cool is very bad practice because d uring slo w coolin g the micro
, , ,

con stituents of the steel tend to separate as the coarser appearance ,

shows on breaking the stee l for the p ur po s e of examining the grain .

Bel ow the critical temperature sl owness of cooling has n o effect on

,

t he s ize of grain b ut leave s the steel s oft

, .

A bad practice sometimes fol lowed by users of steel is to break

96 F OR G IN G

off a bar of steel as it comes from the storeho use examine the frac ,

ture and if the steel shows a coarse grain to condemn the steel
, ,
.

The appearance of the grain in the steel depend s on it s heat when

it l eft the hammer or the rolling mill ; if the heat were high it would ,

s how a coars e gra in ; if the heat were low it would s how a clo ser fin e ,

grain I f the steel i s heated t o the proper hardening point after

.

ward the grain is the same and there is no difference in it s phys ical
, ,

properties .

PRO CES S ES OF TREATING

Diffe r e n t Purpos e s . Steel is

heated for four di stinct pu rpos es
( 1 ) f orging ; (2 ) annealing ; ( 3 ) har dening ; and (4 ) temperi n g .

H EAT I N G FOR FOR G I N G

H e at in g Ess e n tial I n the first place when steel is to

Un ifo r m .
,

be heated in a blac ksmith forge a clean deep fire i s necessary for ,

un iform r e s ults I f the fire i s shallow the steel oxidizes T he

.
,
.

trouble in a forge fire usually i s un even heat either too low or too ,

high U neven heating causes strains fr om which trouble may result

.

after ward in the form of fire crac ks when tool s are being hardened
'

I t i s e ssential that a piece of steel to b e forged should b e heated un i

formly throu gho ut it s s ection becau se if it is hot on the surface and
, ,

the interior is not yet up to heat work in g it may b reak the center ,

transversely while if it is hot in the ce nte r and cold on the sur face
, ,

g enerally the s mal l s u rf ace crac ks H eat s ho u ld b e rai s ed s

. l owly
and un iformly and s hould not be highe r than i s neces s ary for the
work required I f throu gh carele ssnes s the heat rise s t oo high the
.
,

temperature of the steel shou ld b e allowed to drop below t he critical

point and then should be raised to the proper point to avoid cracking
the steel .

Tr ou ble wi t h Q u i ck H eati n g Suppose the piece to be forged

.

has been put in a very hot fir e and forced as q u ickly as po ss ible to

high yellow heat I f so treated the o utside will be s oft and in good
.
,

c ondition for forgin g while the center pa r t s will be not more than red
,

hot The highly heated soft outside will ha v e very l ittl e tenacity
.
,

that is to say this part w ill be so far adv anced toward fu sion that
,

t he pa rticle s will s lide eas ily over on e another whil e the in side part s ,

will be hard and possessed of high tenacity and the part ié le s will ,

n ot s l ide 8 0 e a s ily over one another .

98 F ORG I N G

and b rittle Soaking does steel more inj ury than any b ad practice
.

known to the most expe rienced .

S im ple Te s t of H e at Effe ct A very simple method by whi ch.

any worker in steel should be able to obtain a s atisfactory test for

the effect of heat upon steel is to t ake a b ar of steel of ordin ary s iz e ,

s ay abo ut 1 inch by inch heat 6 or 8 inches of one end t o a low red

,

heat and nick the heated part all aro un d the bar at interval s of }
,
v

to of an inch u ntil eight or nine notches are c ut N ext place the

, .

end of the bar in a very hot fire and heat it white hot until it nearly
melts at the ext reme end leaving the other parts enou gh out of the
,

fire s o that they are heated by conduction Le t the end remain in .

the fire until the last piece nic ked is not quite red hot and the next ,

to the last barely red hot N ow if the pieces are n umb ered from 1
.
,

to 8 commencing at the ou ter end N o 1 i s whit e hot N o 2 is

, , .
, .

yellowish white N o 3 is high yellow N o 4 is yellow or orange hot

, .
, .
,

N o 5 is high red hot N o 6 is red hot N o 7 i s low red hot and N o 8

.
, .
, .
, .

is blac k As s oon as he at e d let the b ar be q i e n che d in cold water

'

i
.
,

and kept there until qui te cold .

After cooling the b ar should b e wiped dry careful ly especially

, ,

on the notches An examination by the file reveal s the followin g

.
,

if high c arb on steel has been us ed : piece N o 1 scratches glass ; N os

-
. .

2 3 and 4 are excessively hard ; N os 5 and 6 are well hardened ;

, , .

N o 7 is a b o ut hard eno ugh for tap steel ; N o 8 i s not hardened

. . .

N ow break off the piece s over the corner of the anvil t hey s ho ul d —

be ca ught in a clean keg or box to keep the fracture clean an d bright ;

No 1 i s fo und to b e as b rittle as gla ss with a coarse yellowish an d
.

very l ustro us g r ain ; N o 2 is fo und to be nearly as b rittl e and not

.

quite so coarse or yellow ; and so on u ntil N os 6 and 7 are reached , .

the se are very strong with a finer grain ; N o 8 is unhardened and .

s how s the or i gi nal gra in of the b ar .

A NN EA L I N G
G e n e r al Pr oc e s s Steel i s
annealed for two d i stinct reas ons
.

( )
1 t o s o ften the metal f or machini n g ; and ( 2 ) to relieve the s train s

in the steel caus ed by hammering or by bending in the mill or the

forge shop .

T he proce ss is heatin g and then sl ow c o oling T he steel s ho uld

, .

b e he ated a l it tle a bove it s critical tempe rat ur e ; for if heated below

 F ORG ING 99

this temperature all strain in the steel is not releas ed and warping
,

takes place when the hardening heat is reached .

”
As is noted u nder Hardening the rapidity of cool ing determines ,

t he final hardnes s of the steel and if the steel i s cooled very slowly it
will be l eft very s oft ; while if cooled rapidly it will be l eft hard , .

T his diff erence in the cool ing time i s the only difference between it s
hardening and it s annealing Both sho uld b e done from the same heat
. .

An n e alin g H ig h-S pe e d S t e e l For good re sults in annealing

.

high speed steel s the following rule s m ust b e ob served

-
,

( )
1 H eat s ho ul d be as near to 1500 degrees as po ssible I f the .

'

heat reached were on ly 12 50 degrees the steel would reta in it s ,

original hardness I f heated to 1 700 or 1800 degree s the steel

.
,

wo uld b e soft but would show b rittleness with a co arse grain I f .

there were a further increa se in heat the steel wo uld become hard ,

and unannealed and the fract ure from this temperature wo uld be
,

d ul l and l ifeless an d would show a marked decarboniz ation .

( )
2 The stee l s ho uld be pac k ed i n boxe s or p ipe s in powdered ,

charcoal or lime and sealed with fire clay and in pac kin g it should
, ,

be seen that no part of the steel comes in contact with the box or
pipe s I f the parts come together that does no harm
.
,
.

( )
3 The heati n g s ho uld b e s tarted s lowly and there s ho uld b
'

e
given plenty of time for cooling If a forge fire i s us ed for a n nealing
. .
,

leave the b ox in the fire and le t it remain u ntil cold or if the forge ,

fire has to be u sed for other p urpo se s the box can b e put in some ,

place out of the way and the n co v ered with a she s lim e or be tte r , ,

still charco al
, .I n all c ase s a sl ow cooling is n e c e s sary If a furnace .

is u sed he at s lo wly to ful l red or ab out 1 500 F ahrenheit Hold the

°
.
,

heat l ong eno ugh to b e s ur e of penetration through the b ox and the

steel to be annealed and then sh ut off the heat and let the steel cool
,

off with the furnace .

0

Wat er Met hod Another method is water annealing I f only a

. .

fe w piece s are to b e annealed for q ui ck u se heat the steel to b etween ,

750 an d 800 Fahrenheit pl unge it in to water which has been

° °
,

heated to ab o ut 1 50 or 1 6 0 Fahrenheit and allow it to remain

° °
,

until it b ecome s the s ame temperat ur e as the bath T he heating .

sho u ld b e s lo w and u niform f or good r e s u l t s f T o heat rapidly will

c au s e internal stra in s an d i s apt t o i n c r e a s e t he r i sk of r upt ure when

the steel is pl un g e d int o t he wat e r .

1 00 F ORGING

This l ast method is not to be recommended as it i s n ot effective

on all high s pee d steel s
-
.

An n e alin g Coppe r an d Br as s The treatment of these two

.

metal s cons ists in heating them to a red heat and then cooling
s uddenly in c old water When Copper or b rass i s hammered to any
.

extent it b ecomes hard and springy and if it has to b e further

, , ,

worked it m u st b e annealed or softened otherwis e it is almost sure

, ,

to split .

H AR DEN I N G

Purpo s e . Hardening generally is understood to mean the heat

in g of a piece of steel to a certain temperature and pl u nging it into a
b ath of some kin d for the p urpo se of cool ing it While this de fin i .

tion hold s good for most steel s a fe w alloy steel s n ow on the market
,

rev erse thi s method ; steel s kn own as air hardened or sel f hardening - -

obtain their hardest and toughest state b y a slow cooling process

rathe r than by a sudden on e .

T wo reas on s may b e mentioned for the de sirab ility of ha rdening

steel : ( )
1 to gi v e the s tee l a c ut t
. in g edge s u ch as i s req u i red for all
cutting tool s ; and (2 ) to alter the static strength and dynamic
qu aliti e s of the metal s o it will give the best re sult s for the moving
part s of machinery .

Es s e n t ial Fe at ur e s T o harden steel therefore it is requi site

.
, ,

that the heating produ ce a change in the structur e and that the ,

q uenching whic h follows t he heating retain the whole or a part of

the elements produced by thi s change It is therefore necess ary as .
,

in anneal ing that the temperature of the steel b e raised to a point

,
‘

sl ightly above the point of tran sformation .

P oi n t of Tr an sfor m ati on .As the p oint of tran sformation varie s

with the d ifferent ingredient s which are alloyed with steel it i s ,

necessary t o find out where this poin t i s in the steel to be hardened .

A steel may be heated to 13 00 Fahren heit which i s above th e

°
,

point of tran sformation in some steel s and no change in structure ,

may occ ur ; therefore n o re sult in hardness i s obtained I f th is same .

piece is heated to 1450 Fahrenheit which may be cons idered the

°
,

point of tran sformation in this piece the intermolecular transforma ,

tion which c onsists of the passage of the carb on fr om the comb ined
into the dissolved state take s pl ace and the steel a ssume s the hardest
,

state p o s sib le if properly cooled

, .
1 02 F ORGING

Liqu i d Bat hs liqui d baths commonly u sed for heating

. T he
s teel preparatory to hardening are molten lead cyanide of pota ss iu m , ,

b arium chloride a mixt ure of barium and pota ss ium chloride s and
,

other metallic s alts .

Anyone u s ing any of these d ifferent b ath s cannot b e too careful

in preventing an accident I f there is ever so little moistur e of any.

kind on the tool to be immers ed; it cause s the molten l iquid to fly

in all directions Before putting any tool into the b ath b e sure
.
,

that it is perfectly dry T he s afe method is t o pre heat all tool s

.
-

before i mmersing them .

Lead at any heat above 1 200 Fahrenheit gi v e s off a slight vapor °

which is poisonous Cyanide of pota ss ium s ho uld b e carefully u sed

.
,

a s it is a virulent poi son

‘
T he fu rnace s for heating thes e liq u id baths
.

s h ou ld b e eq u ipped with hood s to carry aw ay the fum e s I t is a .

ver y good idea to put powdere d charco al on t op of the molten l iqu id

as charcoal acts as a p urifier .

H ar de n in g Bath As it is necess ary t o maintain the steel in

.

the state it was at the mom ent q uenching began the q uenching b ath ,

is a very important part of the p r ocess of harden ing The b etter .

the b at h the more nearly perfection is attained

,
.

V ario u s bath s are u sed for coolin g steel when harden ing on ,
'

acco unt of the different rates at which they cool the heated metal .

An oil b ath is u s ed when the steel is wanted tou gher an d not exe c s
s iv e ly hard a s the o
,il cool s the s teel more Slowly than water B rine .

or an acid b ath i s u sed when the steel is wanted very hard as they ,

ab s orb heat more r apidly than water F or exce s sively hard work .

mercur y or quic ks ilve r is s ometime s us ed as it ab sorbs the heat v ery ,

rapidly .

I n the hardenin g of steel s the infl uence of the b ath depend s ,

upon it s temperat ure i t s ma s s and it s nat ure or to expre s s this in

, , , ,

another way upon it s specific heat it s cond uctivity it s volatility

, , , ,

and it s vi sco sity W ith other things equ al the lower the tempera
.
,

ture of the b ath the q uicker the metal cool s and the more pro
,

n oun c e d i s the h ardening e ffect Thus water at 6 0 degrees makes .

stee l harder than doe s water at 1 50 degree s and when the bath is , ,

in con stant u se the first piece quenched will b e harder than the
,

t wentieth owing t o the ri s e in the temperat u r e of the bath

, T here 3 .
-

fore i f u niform re s ult s are t o b e obtained the b ath m u st either be

, ,
 F ORGING 1 03

of a very l arge vol um e or b e kept cool by some mechanical means ;

in other word s the b ath m ust be kept at a co n stant temperature
,
.

A bath cons isting of a l iq uid whic h volatilizes ea sily at the

highest temperature it reaches from pl unging the metal into it , ,

form s a space fill ed with vapor around the steel which r etard s the
cooling action of th e liqu id M otion of the bath thr ows off this .

vapor as it brings the l iquid in contact with the metal and tend s to
,

equaliz e the temperature T o agitate the piece to be harde ned gives

.

better results than trusting to the volatility of the b at h as it is ,

more energetic in distributing the vapor .

Q u e n c hi n g T an k s Ess en t i a l
s The mai.n point t o b e c on s id .

ered in a que n c hin g b ath as mentioned befor e is t o ke e p it at a u n i ,

F ig 175 Com W Fi g 1 7 6 D b le Wat e r or Fi g Oi l

?
m on at e r ou 1 77 ue n 0hi n g
Bi
. . . .

or r ne T an k B ri n e T an k T an i

form temperature so that the s ucce ssiv e pieces q uenched w ill be sub
j e c t e d to the s ame heat T he next con s ider a
.tion i s to keep the bath
agitated s o that it w il l not b e of different temperat ure s in di fferent
,

place s I f thoroughly agit ate d and kept in motion as in connectio n

.

with the tank s hown in F ig 1 76 it is not e v en nece s sa r y t o keep the

.
,

pieces in motion a s steam is not l ikely to form aro und the pieces
,

quenched .

Com m on Tan k I n Fig 1 75 is shown a common water or brine

. .

t an k . I n this ca s e the wat er or b rine is p um ped from the storage

,

tank and returned to it contin uo us ly I f the storage ta n k contains .

a large vol ume of w ater there is no need of special mea n s for c ooling
, .

The bath is agitated b y the force with which the water is p umped
1 04 F OR G IN G

into it The holes at A are drilled on an angl e so as to throw the

.

water toward the center of the tank .

Double Tan k I n Fig 1 76 is shown the water or brine tank of

. .

a quenching bath Water is forced by a p ump or other means

.

thro ugh the s upply pipe into the in termediate space between the
o ut er and in ner ta nks From the in termediate space it is forced
.

into the inner tank throu gh small hole s as indicated The water .

return s to the supply tank by overfl owing from the irmer tan k into
th e o uter on e and then throu gh the overfl ow pipe as shown .

Oi l Type I n F ig 1 77 is shown an oil q uenching tank in whi ch

. .

water is circulated in an o uter surrou n ding ta n k for keeping the oil

bath cool Air i s forced into the .

oil bath t o keep it agitated .

S p e c i a l Form F ig 1 78 . .

show s a q u enchin g bath u sed to

harden the face s of hammers and

all similar tool s The stream of .

water ris ing straight from the

Ove r t ?o
b otto m of the q u enching tank

s trik e s the face of the hammer as

s hown and in thi s way in s ure s

the center b eing equally as hard

as the edge s beca u s e steam can ,

not generate and form a c us hion

a s it wo uld were the too l merel y

im m a se d in the wat er .

F i g 1 78
.
Q hi g B t h U d f
. ue n c n
C r ac k
a
s a n d Fi s
se
s ur e s
or
M uc h .

H “ Em
serio u s tr o ub le has been caused b y
am m e r

the sudden cooling of the steel M any times a piece s eparates .

abruptly from the par t quenched The reason for t his is eas ily .

given as d uring the cool ing different part s of the steel are at differ
, , ,

ent temperatu res This i s many times cau sed by thick and thin
.

s ection s in the s ame piece but it al s o occ u r s i n piece s of an even

,
'

thickne ss owing to t he transformation in temperature not takin g

,

place everywhere at the same time T his caus es internal strains .

which many times attain enorm ous val ue and re sult in the lessening
and al so stopping of the cohes ive force which hold s the molecules
of the steel together .
1 06 FOR G I N G

be employed something t hat possesse s strength and resistance t o

—

wear and still conform s with standard practice of design regarding

,

the proport ions of parts Su ch prob lems have come and have t o
.

be met by the manufacturer an d the mechanic ; they constitute the

probl em of cas e har den i n g I t is not a n e w subject but is on e that
.

is not well understood and n ot always easy to control This stat e .

ment is j ustified by t he diversity of opinion among di fferent in v esti

gators in regard to the fundamental principles underlying the process
of ca sehardenin g .

Pr in c iple s of Pr oc e s s The process consists as the name

.
,

impl ies of forming a case of high carb on which is cap ab le of hard

, ,

c u in g a s urface of a l ow car b on steel or wro u ght iron which in it sel f

-

has not the property of hardne ss T he prevailing theory i s based

.

on th e foll owin g p rinciples .

( )
1 The stee l to be car b urized m u st b e placed in contact wit h

c arbonaceo u s material .

( ) The h igh temp erature at which the steel and the carbona
2
c e ou s material i s heated g asifie s the carb on (if in a s olid state ) and

opens the pores of the stee l al lowing the gaseou s carb on to penetrate
, .

3
( ) The p enetration i s aided if the g as i s under pre s s ure and
in the presence of nitrogenous matter acting a s a carrier of the carb on .

Car bon iz in g M at e r ials The m ost important factor involved in

.

ca se hardening i s the carbonizing material for upon this depends ,

quality of cas e an d un iformity of produ ct T he great d iffic ulty at .

the pre sent time is to o bta in a definite un iform res ult and to d upli ,

cate it at w il l M any investigators are engaged in the s ol ution of

.

this prob lem whic h eventually w ill b e s olved by the discovery of a

reliab le carboniz ing material .

Old P r ocess I n the older proce ss charred organic matter

.
,

su c h as wood charcoal charred l eather b one horn and the l ike

, , , ,

was used for p ackin g Charred l eather be ing rich in n itrogen gave
.

a very good re sult but leather s crap became u seful for other pur
,

poses th us becoming un available for carboniz in g G ran ulated bone

, .

was next r e sorted to and i s u sed ext ensively yet but ow in g to it s , ,

high phosphorus content it i s apt t o make part s brittle and it

, ,

s ho uld be avoided on s mall part s Char coal does not s eem t o find
.

much favor although it i s fully as efficient as b one if properly

,

prepar ed .
 F OR GI N G 1 07

Oppos i n g Factors All of

the material s mentioned are more or
.

l ess unreliable for p rodu cing the desired effect on the steel The .

question then arises What would con stitute a re liable material ?

,

Before replying direct l y there m us t be con sidered the following

,

factors w hich hin der the carb uriz ation of the steel by bone charcoal , ,

or s im il ar p repared compo u nds .

( ) Uneq ual heating of the steel due t o the manner of pac k ing
1 .

I t ta kes con s iderabl e t ime for h eat to p enetrate to the center con
taining the steel and p acking ; con sequ ently the p ar t s near the wall s ,

of the cru cible are heated s ooner and carboniz ing begin s earlier ,
.

( ) Unequal composition of material s for pack ing ca using

2
v ariation in the amo unt of
g as and therefore u neq u a l pre s s
,
ure , ,

generated in different sections of the crucible or pack ing box To .

obviate this tro ubl e a packi n g material of perfectly unifor m compo

,

sit ion an d h igh cond uctivity s ho uld b e u s ed I t sho uld liberat e .

carbon fr eely yet not faste r than the steel c an ab s or b it S teel

, .

absorbs carb on at certain rates depe nding on the temperature ; high

heat gives fa ster penetration I f an exce ss of carb on i s liberated
.
,

the surface of the steel becomes supersat urated with car bon the ,

result being a brittle structur e T he case sho uld not b e more than .

from per cent to 1 per cent carb on whic h is generally the resul t ,

if proper heat and good carboniz ing material are used T he packing .

material should be free from s ulphur especially if moistu re is present , ,

for s ulphur ac idifie s moisture and the comb ined effect prod u ces a
,

scaled pitted s u rf ace .

Com pou n ds There are a number of casehardening compound s

.

on the market cla iming one or more of the ideal characteristic s In .

general these compound s cons ist of : carbon volatile matter and ,

hydrocarbon nitrogen ash s ulphur an d pho sphorus T hey are

, , , ,
.

l ikely to conta in sil ica al um ina lime ammonia an d carb onate

, , , ,
.

Us e of Cr uc ible P acki n g The parts to be casehar dened

. .

sh o uld be placed in the cru cib le in s u ch a way that none of them

may come in contact with it for other wise the res ult would be s oft
,

spots ; the r e s ho uld be a s pace of at lea st 1 inch from the wall of the

cru cible and ab o ut 5 inch b etween the parts .

The pac kin g material sho uld b e well tamped down s o as to leave
n o open space This is a ver y important and necess ary p r e caution
.

which m ust be ob served to obta in a s atisfactory re sult Af ter heat .

1 08 F ORGING

ing the contents of the crucible a shr inkage take s place w hich
,

amo unts to a bo ut 1 6 pe r cent of the total val ue in the crucible I f .

the specim en s are not packed tightly some of them or portions of , ,

them ar e l iable to be expo sed an d no appreciable carburiz ation

,

will result in the expo sed s u rfa c es This statement s imply reverts
.

to the p rinciple s involved in carb urizin g with s olid material v i z : ,

T here m us t be s olid carbon in contact with the steel and an inter ,

v e n in g g as ( CO) to eff ect carb urization .

S eali n g Hav in g care fully packed the s pecimens the crucible

.
,

sho uld be covered with a lid and l uted with fire clay I f neglecte d .
,

this operation wo uld caus e

an almo st total fail ure the —

specimen at the bottom

wo ul d have a slight case ;
those on top wo uld not
have taken on any carbon .

I f the cr ucible is not sealed ,

the gases forme d in side

e scape which mean s even , ,

t ually the a bs ence of on e ,

of the principal elements in

carb urizing viz the inter , ,

v e n in g g as .

Ti m i n g . T o dete r mine
the lengt h of time required
for the c r u c i b l e t o heat
t hro u gh the wi r e te s t is the
Fi g 1 79
. U . f T t Wi
se o f
es Ti g H
re s t
or m in ea
,

s afe st Steel wire s T T; inch .

I

in diame ter are i n serte d thro ugh s u itab le holes in the cover into the
pac kin g mixt ure F ig 1 79 s hows the manner in which they were
. .

placed The s e wires ar e drawn one by on e at different interval s

.

and the temperature n ote d fr om the c ol or of the wir e Suppos e the .

o uts ide wire is d r awn an d fo und to b e up to heat T he next is .

d r awn and if not up t o heat as indicated by the color more

, , ,

time should b e given for heating When the last wire i s up to heat
.
,

cou nt the time for c ar b urizing .

Cr u cib l e s s ho uld n ot b e too l arge I f s o the parts near the

.
,

crucib le wall take on m or e c arb on due to be ing rea ched by the heat
1 10 F ORGIN G

the steel will be coars e and brittl e A c ar bon iz in g heat of about

~
.

1500 Fahrenheit is better tho ugh it mean s a slower penetration

°
.

Fi g . 180
. Fr ac t ur e s of S t e e l B a r s S howi n g V a r i ou s T e s t s

T r e at m e n t af t e r C ar bon i z i n g
He at

S he ll an d Core Di s t in ct io n T he heat treat ment following car

.

bon i z in g sho uld be done very carefully owing to t he fact that t he

 F ORGING 111

p iece m ust have a very hard outer s urface in order to res ist wear
a n d a l s o a non br ittl e core whic h wi ll re s i st strain s
-
.

Fi g . 18 1 . Fr act ur e s of S t e e l B ar s S howi n g E fle c t of H e at T r e at m ent a ft e r Car bon i z i n g

Dou ble Q F or the be

u e n c hi n g
s t re
. s ult s as the carbon iz in g ,

te mpe ratur e i s a high one the p iec e should be allowed to cool th en

, ,
1 12 F ORGING

reheated to 16 50 F ahrenheit and q uench e d an d reheated again t o

°
,

1400 F ahrenheit and q uenched

°
.

T he reas on for the do uble q uenching is that the piece m u st b e

heated ab ove it s poin t of tran sfor mation to de str oy the c r yst alliz a
tion and con sequent b r ittlene ss wh ich i s l i able to be in the core
when it is ca r boniz ed at a high tempe rature ; but this le av es the
carb on at ed s urface l ayer not hard enough to re s i st we ar ; therefore
it m ust b e qu enched again at 1400 Fahren he it °
.

T hi s point of tran s fo r m ation va r ie s w ith t he d iff e r en t com

p o n e n t s of the high g r ade alloy -
s teel s and s h ou ld b e a s ce r t a ined
,

befor e ha r dening the piece .

By q uenching dir ectly from the c arb onizing retort a distinct

'
"

lin e is formed b etwe en the high car b on o uter she ll and the low -

carb on core an d this i s liable to ca u se the m e t al t o c r ac k on this

,

line b ut if the w or k is p r ope r ly h e at tr e ate d afte r car b onizin g this

,
-
,

distin ct lin e is m ade to d is appea r and the dange r of the steel ,

crackin g i s re m ov e d .

S pec im e n s i
Fg . 1 80 show s t h .e fr act ure s o f di ff e re n t s ampl e s o f
s teel an d the e ff e ct of t ime a n d t e mp e ratu r e on the de pth of c a s e

harde n in g of ste e l wit h d iffe r e n t p e r ce n t age s of c ar b on .

Fig 1 8 1 s how s the e ffe c t of he at t re atme n t aft e r c ar b on izi n g

.
-
.

Un t re at e d m e an s th at the s t e e l w as q ue nche d dir e c t fr om the c ar

b on iz in g r e t ort wh ic h i s t oo hig h a he at for g ood re s ult s
, Fi r s t t r e at .

m en t s h ows th at s t e e l w a s all owe d t o c ool an d th e n r e he ate d t o 1400

°

or 1 450 Fahrenhe it a n d q ue n c he d T h is gi v e s a g ood c as e b ut n ot

°
.

a go od cor e S econ d t r eat m en t s h ow s the re sults th at c ome f r om

.

p r ope r h e at tr e at m e n t T he s te e l was allowe d t o c ool re he ate d t o

-
.
,

16 50 d e g re e s q ue n c he d r e he at e d t o 1 4 50 d e g r e e s a n d q ue n c hed
, , ,

whi ch g iv e s b ot h a t oug h c or e an d a h ar d fi n e g r ain c ase -

.

Cya n i de H a r d e n i n g

Po t a s s i u m =Cyan ide Bat h S om e h ar de n e r s . p r e fe r c yan ide of

potas s ium t o l e ad for h e at in g c ut t in g t ool s , d ie s , etc I t i s a whit e .

tr an spar e n t s alt wh ic h m e l t s at a fa ir ly low t e m pe r atur e an d sh ould ,

b e c are fully u se d as it is a vir ul e n t p oison T he fu m e s a r e ve ry .

in j ur ious an d t he fur n ace sh oul d be e n cl os e d w it h a h ood c on n e ct in g

with a c h im n e y or v e n t il at in g s haft T his b at h is u se d a g r e at .

de al i n g u n sh op s for h ar de n in g c e r t a in p ie c e s on w hic h it i s w is he d
I 14 F ORGING

har dn e ss , e v e r yt hin g el se bein g equal the more rapid the cooling t he

°

, ,

harder the steel .

H ar de n in g H e at Ther e is only on e heat from which the steel

.

may be cooled and have the proper gr ain and this i s kn own as the ‘

har den i n g heat A piece of steel when c ooled fr om thi s hardenin g

.

heat has an ext remely fine s il ky l oo king gr ain and is left very har d
and b rittle The har den ing heat var ies wit h the amount of carbon
.

the steel contains the greater the pe rcentage of carbon the l ower
, ,

the hardening heat .

T o determine the hardening heat a bar i inch or inch squ are ,

“

i s heated to a good red heat on on e end and cooled in cold water , .

T his end i s then t e sted ; if too har d to file it has been hardened and ,

the heat from which it was cooled was either the p r oper hardening
heat or some higher heat I f the end can b e filed it was cooled from
.
,

some heat b elow the hardenin g heat I f the end proves to be s oft .
,

it s hould b e rehardened b y c ooling from a higher heat if hard it , ,

s hou ld b e b r o k en off and the fract u re examined I f the grain of the .

broken end is very fine the steel i s prope r ly hardened if coarse it

, , ,

was heated t oo hot and the end s ho uld be rehardened at a lower

heat T he experimen t should b e re pe ated u ntil t he Operator i s ab le
.

to give the steel a very fine gr ain every tim e An y variation either .

ab ove or b el ow the hardenin g heat will ma ke the grain coars e A .

temperature lower than the cr itical heat will not make t he steel as
coarse in structure as a temperatur e corr espondingly higher but ,

there w ill b e s ome difference .

S e lf H ar de n i n g S t e e l Sel f har d e ning steel i s u sed to a large

= .
-

extent in modern practice for l athe tool s m u ch b eing u sed in the ,

s h ape of s m all s q u are s t eel held

in spe cial h olde r s a s ill ustrated ,

in Fig 1 83 S e l f hardenin g steel . .

-
,

as i t s na m e indicate s i s almo st ,

s e l f h arden in g b y nat u re gener -

,

i s 18 3 . T ypi l T
S lf H d
lU i
ca
l
Bl d f
oo ally s n theg only a treatm
e
e nt that is
o
e g S em n t ee
-
ar

requ ir e d to har de n the ste el b eing

to heat it red hot an d allow it t o cool Sometime s the steel is .

cooled in an air blast or is dipped in oil I t is not n e ce ss ary to .

draw the temper T he se l f hardening q uality of steel is given to

.
-

it by the addition of chr omium molybdenum tungsten or on e of , , ,

 F ORGIN G 1 15

that gr oup of elements in addition to the carbon which o rdinary

,

tool steel contains High s pe e d s teel i s l ow e r i n c a r b on

. .

Sel f hardenin g stee l is comparatively expensive co sting from

-
,

40 cents and upward per poun d s ome of the more e xpen s ive grade s
,

costing $ 1 or so H owever when in use s el f hardening steel will

.
, ,
-

stand a m u ch h igher c utting s peed than the ordinary se called -

carbon steel and for this reas on it i s m u ch more ec onomical to

,

use altho ugh it s first co st is higher

, .

Self hardening steel cannot be c ut with a cold chi se l and mus t

-

be either c ut hot or nicked with an emery wheel and snapped off .

G r eat care m ust be used in forging it as t he range of temperat ure ,

thr o ugh which it may be forged i s comparatively slight run ning ,

from a good red heat to a yellow heat Some grades of sel f hard .
-

cu in g s teel may be a n nealed by heating the s tee l to a high heat in

the center of a good fire and allowing the fire and the steel t o cool
off together . Steel which has been an nealed in this way may be
hardened by heating to the hardening heat and cooling in oil .

Taylor Whi te P r oces s

-
This method of treating special grades
.

of s el f hardening steel was dis covered s ome years ago by the men
-

after whom it is named I t was found that if a piece of self harden ing
.
-

steel i s heated to a very high tempe ratur e (ab o ut the welding heat)

and then suddenly cooled to about a low red heat the steel would ,

be in a condition to stand very mu ch harder u sage and take a m u ch

heavier c ut Steel treated in this way s eemed to have the c utting
.

edge of the tool s almo st b urned or melted off and cons iderable
gr ind ing was necessary t o bring them into shape When put in .

u se the edge s wo uld almo st immediately be s lightly ro unded or

crumbl e off but after this slight breaking down of the cutting edge
, ,

the steel would stand up u nder excessively t rying conditions of

high speed and heavy cut T ool s of this character are of very
.

little or no use for fine finishing but are of great val ue for heavy,

and roughing cuts .

H ar de n i n g H ig h-S pe e d S t e e l H igh s peed stee l has

. a m u c h -

higher critical tempe rature than carbon steel s A temperature of .

ab out 13 50 to 16 00 Fahrenheit is sufficient for carbon steel s in

° °

general High speed steel s requ ire heating from 18 00 to 23 00

.
-
° °

Fahrenheit and to be cooled in oil such as machine fish or l inseed

, , ,
.

Stee l of this nature is clo se g ra ined an d shoul d be he ate d sl owly

1 16 F ORGING

u ntil red then forcing the heat fas ter up to da zz lin g white Whe n
, .

it s hows s igns of melting down it should b e q uickly put in the cooling

bath The treatm ent varies for the diff erent ste e l s and it is adv is
.
,

ab le to get di rections from the steel m aker as to the treatment ,

which varies acc ording to the alloys of the steel Air blast formerly
"

was recommended by s ome steel ma ker s but at pre sent oil is mo s t .

ext ensively used .

B ari u m Chlor i de B at h A b arium chloride bath for heating high

-
.
-

spe ed ste el ha s b ee n us ed b y s ome man ufact urer s for fini shed tool s
'

s uch as m illing cutt er s tap s and dril ls T o get the high heat requ ired
, , .

wit hout oxidiz ing a t hin coatin g of the barium chloride i s formed
,
‘

on t he steel which in transferring f rom the heating b ath to the oil

, ,

b ath k eeps the steel from coming in contact with air and thus
‘

, ,

avoids oxidation On e trouble with the b arium chl oride i s that

.

a thin surface ab out inch thic k i s soft but for c utters that ,

have to be grou nd this disadvantage is of no acco u nt .

S pecia l S hapes For tool s with special shape s that cannot be

.

gro un d such as gear c ut ters tw ist drill s taps thread ing dies
—
, , , ,

and m any other tools not permitting grin ding after hardening a —

m uffle fu rnace is be st t o use as in this furna ce tool s do not come in ,

contact with the fl ame and the thin c utting points are thus more
prot ected .

M e as u r i n g an d Te s t i n g I n s t r u m en ts

Pyrom e t e r s. harden ing room sn ow are equipped

All up t o- date é

with pyrometers in o r der t o in su re uniformity of the heat in the

furnaces and als o uniform re s ults in t he hardened prod ucts
, .

T he re ar e v ario us types of pyrometers depending u pon diff erent ,

principles for their w orkings s u ch as the therm oelectric re s istance , ,

radiation and others T he most commonly u sed i s the thermo

, .

elect ric type I n thi s type the tempe rature var iati on s are deter
.
,

mined by the mea su r em e n t of a n electr ic c urrent gener ated by the

action of heat on the j u nction of t wo dis s im il ar metal s that is , ,

when on e j unction of the therm o couple has a temperature different

from the other a c u rrent i s developed which indicate s on a meter
, .

The r m oe lect r i c Type Fig 1 84 show s the o utlin e s of the parts

. .

of a complete W m H Bristol therm oelectric pyrometer with the

. .
,

fire end applied for measuring the temperature in a bath of molten

lead This p ar tic ular fire e n d is be n t so that the tip A where the
.
,
1 18 FORGING
O

I t s ee m s to be the general op inion among some people that

pyromet ers are n ot of m u ch use in hardening that they do n ot give ,

accurate re adings and that better res ults can be attained by depend
,

ing upon a man s experience I t is q uite true that an experienced

’
.

3 En d i n
'
’
ot e c h on

Fi g . 185 . P ar t S e c t i on S how i n g M et ho d of I n st a lli n g a P yr om eter in a Fur n ace

man s eye is a good means for j udgin g the heat in a furn ace and
’

may be far better than an incorr ectly calibrated pyrometer How .

ever by freq uent calib ration it is po ss ible to ke ep the pyrometer in

,

s u ch condition that the readings ar e a great deal more acc u rate than

any e stimate of heat by the eye .

 F ORGING 1 19

H ardn e s s Te s t in g Fe w propert ies of ir on and steel are of more

.

import ance than that of hardne s s and e v en as far b ack as when men
,

fir st began to harden steel they prob ab ly sought some method of

,

te sting for hardn e ss Althou gh the file test for hardness is used
.

ext en siv ely today it is not con sidered accurate I n regard to

,
.

methods for te sting hard n e ss it might b e well to mention four

, ,

though of thes e four the r e ar e only two that are very wel l known

Fi g . 18 6 . B r i n e ll H a r dn e s s T e s t e r

and that are mo st commonly used the B rine] test bro ught out —
.
,

in 1 900 and the Shore test brought out in 1 907

, , .

S cle r om et er
. I n 1886 Prof T homas T urner brought out the
.

s cle r ometer
. I n this form of te st a weighted diamond point is
drawn acro ss a sm ooth s urface two or three t imes and the har dness
n umber is the w e ight in gram s required to prod uce a standard
s c r atch
.

Dr i ll Tes t
. Keep s te sting is known as the drill te st and was
introduced in 1887 I n this form of apparatus a standard steel drill
.
12 0 F ORGING

iscaused to make a definite n umber of rev ol utions whe n p r e s se d

with various standar d forces against the piece to b e tested T he .

hardne ss is automatically recorded on a diagram .

Fi g . 18 7 . S c le r os c ope T e s t i n g S e t
Cour t es y of S hor e I n st r u m e n t Com pa n y, N e w "or k Ci t y

Br in e ll Te s t erF ig 1 86 show s the Brin ell m e thod I n this

. . .

method a hardened ste el b all is p r e sse d into a sm ooth surface of the

m e tal so as t o make an in de ntat ion which i s m e as ur ed b y a micro
s c ope . T he s phe r ical are a of the inde n tation b e in g c al ib r ate d and
the pre ssure being known the stre ss pe r unit of ar e a whe n the b al l
,
12 2 F ORGING

F ig 18 7 shows a complete testing se t and F igs 1 88 and 18 9 t he

.
, .

differ e nt m e thod s of applying the in str ume n t to d ifferent kind s of work .

Fig 1 90 gives a general view of the working p arts I n t he

. .

s clero s cope action the vital part i s the diamond faced drop ham mer

which m ust always b e rai se d to it s hanger hook at the top where it

remain s in readin e ss for the te st In the automatic in strumen t .

F ig . 189 . T e s t i n g H ar d n e s s of P r oj e c t i l es

Cou r t e sy of S har e I n s t r u m en t Com pa n y, N e w "or k Ci t y

now manuf actured the necessary v alves the suction for the hammer
, ,

and it s relea se all are operat ed alternately by one b ulb acting on the
cam B Fig 1 9 0 thr o ugh the medium of the piston C the adj us table
, .
, ,

o scillator D an d the e n d ratche t s E Whe n the hammer i s down .

it w ill b e foun d imposs ible to s uck it up by the vac uum formed on

r elea s in g the hold on the b ul b b eca us e the valve is then wide open
’

a n d is h e l d s o by t he cam B .
 F O RGING 12 3

Fi g . 19 0
. D e t ai le d D r aw i n g S how i n g P a r t s of S hor e b ole r os c ope

T EM P ER ING

Es s e n t ials of Pr oc e s s te m pe r st e e l is t o re tu r n it t o a
. To
st at e of m ol e c ul ar e q u il ib r iu m at atm osphe r ic te m pe r ature by
r e l ie v in g an y s t r a in s in the m e t al whi c h h a v e b e e n c a u s e d b y s udd e n

q ue n c h in g a n d al so t o c or r e c t an y exag ge r ation of c e rt ain p r ope r tie s

,

whi c h hav e b e e n c au se d b y the h ar d e ni n g p r oc e s s I n ot he r w or d s .

,

the o bj e c t of te mpe r in g is t o re duce the b r ittl e n e s s in har de ne d

ste e l
, a n d t o r e m ov e t he i n t e r n al s tr a in s c a u s e d b y the s u dd e n

c oolin g in t he q ue n chin g b ath T he te m pe r in g p r oc e ss c on s ist s in

.

he at in g t he pie c e of w or k b y on e of v ar i ou s m e an s t o a c e r ta i n t e m
p e r a t u,
r e a n d in p e r m it t i n g it to c oo l gr ad u ally .

Te m pe r at u re Con di t ion s T he te mp e r atur e to which a piece

.

sh ould b e r a is e d f or tempe r in g d e p e nd s on s e v e r al c on d it ion s : the

u s e t o wh ich it i s t o be put ; t he c on d it i on in whic h it has b e e n le ft by

1 24 F ORGING

quenching ; and the compo s ition of the steel The degree of heat t o .

whi ch the tool to be tempered i s heated determine s the degree of

toughness it has atta ined the higher the tempering heat the le s s
—
,

brittl e and al so the less hard the t ool is T he maxim um tempera

, , .

ture desired need be maintained only long enou gh to b e sure t he

piece is heated evenly Steel s which are reheated slightly after
.

hardening give a freedom to the molecular change that lessens t he

mol ecular rigidity se t up by the har dening process .

Re duct io n of Br itt le n e s s T ool s are always left as hard as it

.
a

is po ss ibl e t o l eave them and still have them to ugh eno ugh for t he
work for which they are intended I n red ucing the brittlene ss of
.

the steel s ome of the hardne ss is of nece ss ity taken out and tem
, ,

pering is therefore sometime s spoken of as a redu ction of the hardne ss ,

but it is in reality merely a red uction of the b rittlene ss After a .

tool or piece of steel has been hardened s ome of the brittlene ss is ,

taken out by a slight reheating to a l ow temperatur e T he se tem .

p e r at u r e s vary from 2 0 0 Fahrenheit

°
to a b o ut 6 50 F ahrenheit
,
°
,

and are determined in various ways T he s imple st and perhap s .

the mo st commonly u sed method is to polish the steel after it has

been hardened and then to reheat the part to b e tempered u ntil
the surface show s a certain color .

I f any bright piece of iron or steel i s heated when a temperatur e ,

of about 400 Fahrenheit is reached the s urface turns pale yellow

°
,
.

As the temperat ure is increa sed this yellow grow s darker u ntil at
,

abo ut 500 Fahrenheit it is a decided brown When 6 00 F ahren

°
.
°

heit is reached a deep b l ue color shows on the s u rface T he se colors

, .

are prod uced by a thin scale which is formed on the s ur face of the
steel and are no indication whatever of h ardne ss merely s howing ,

to what heat steel or iron has been raised .

Bat hs for Te m pe r in g As the o bject of tempering i s s imply

.

to red u ce the brittleness and to remove the internal str ain s caused
by the sudden cooling in q uenchin g the comp osition of a tem ,

pering bath is of l ittle importance as comp ared with that of a quench

in g bath As ide from the operator s convenience and the po s sib le
’
.

bad effects upon his health the different bath s u s ed for this operation
,

must be considered chiefly with regard to initial co st and la sting

quality and al s o effect on finish
,
.

Vari ous M edi u m s . The two main points to b e c on s idered

12 6 F ORGIN G

to heat the steel in a bath of red hot lead T he lead is heated .

in a pot or crucible to t he h ardening heat of the stee l The top of

, .

t he l ead i s covered with powdered charcoal or coal t o prevent the

formation of the slag or dross on t op When steel is heated in l ead .

it m ust be perfectly clean dry and free from rust

, , .

Fi g 19 3 D ou b le D oo r F u r n a ce for H e at i ng an d
A W
. .

n n e a li n g or k

Cour t e s y of Gi lber t a n d B a r k er M a n uf a ct ur i n "

Com pa n y, S pr rn g fie ld . M as s ac hu s et t s

Te m per in gH ig h-S pe e d fit e e l T ool s of large s ize and for .

hard usage such a s l athe an d pl aner tool s do not require to be

, ,

tem pered and sho uld be cooled in th in oil s uch as lar d or kero sene
,

oil I n us ing ker o sene oil care s ho uld be used not to l et a red hot
.
-

part b e ab ov e the s urface of the oil as it will flas h ; such a piece should
,

be kept in the b ath until c ool e d t o the temperat ure of the oil Tool s . .
 F ORGING 12 7

l ike milling cutters drill s reamers taps are generally tempered

, , , ,

at from 400 to 500 F ahr en heit dependin g on the s ize as small

° °
, ,

tool s of the same kind require lettin g down a little more on hardnes s .

Furn ac e s for Te m pe r in g I n tempering furnace s as in all .

,

other kin d s of furnaces the really importa nt consideration is to

,

Fi g . 19 4 . L ar g e S i ze Fur n ace for H e a t i n g , A n n e a li n g , an d C ar bon i z i n g

Cou r t e s y of S t r on g , Ca r lzs le an d Ham m on d Com pa n y, Cle v e la n d, Ohm

insure that the furnace is so bu ilt as to heat the b ath u n iformly .

The furnace s for tempering ar e practic ally the s ame as the ones
us ed in hardening ; tho s e are the b e s t w hich permit of maintaining

a constant temperature and hav e appliance s for mea s uri n g the

heat s o that the corre ct temperat ure can be att ain e d .

Fig 19 1 shows an ordinary type of temperin g furn ac e The

. .

ge neral princ iples of comb ustion ar e the sam e a s for t he av e r ag e

128 F ORGING

oil b urning furn ace and the tool s to be tempered are l aid in t he
,

re ceptacle which is immersed in the oil F ig 1 9 2 s hows a thermometer . .

for indicating the t emperature of the oil bath The thermomet er .

is very m uch l ik e the ordinary merc ury thermometer except that

it registers as h igh as 500 to 700 Fahr enheit ° °
.

S pe ci al Ope r at i on I n Figs 1 9 3 and 19 4 are shown furnace s

. .

for heating anneal ing and carbonizing, The b urners enter t he

, .

Fi g . 19 5 . B ot t o m Bir ck of Se m i Fi g . 1 96 . d
F u r n ac e B r i g e
M uflle d F ur n a ce Cou r t e s y of S t r on g , Ca r li s le an d Ham
Cou r t e s y of S t r on g , Ca r li s le an d m on d Com pa n y
Ha m m on d Corn pa n y

comb u stion chamb e r u nderneat h t he he atin g o v e n ; the fl ame strikes

a b affl e and the t ile fl oor of the o v e n an d ab sol ute com b ustio n ,

take s place He at fr ee from oxidizing properties is prod uced an d

.

is di v erted to the heati n g o v en ab ove with a reverberating motion ,

which produ ce s a u niform circulati on ; all material s are thoro ughly

and unifor mly heated T he s urpl us heat i s vented thro ugh ports .

on top of the furnace which can b e utilized for pre heating or for -
_

tempering Blowers are u sually .

mo unte d upon brackets in the

rear or they may be placed in ,

any other conv enient l ocation .

T he air receiv er i s underneath ,

and compr e ssed air may be used

when red uced t o the proper
Fi g . 19 7 . B r i c k for M uffle d Fu rn ace
r e s sur e
00 24 7 18 8 21 Of S t r on g Ca r li s le
, and Ham m on d p °

c om pa n y
f A dva n t ages o Gel an d Gas
Types O il and
.
g as fir e d f u rnace s are a gr e at imp r-ovement over
coke and coal furnace s as with the latter it is almo st impo ss ib le to
,

regulate heat to a des ired and gi v en point to say n othing of the ,

in convenience of sho v eling coal and of cleaning out a she s while d ust ,

an d dirt that acc um ul ate fro m the s e operations are to say the l ea st , ,
13 0 F ORGI N G

Oi l Bu r n i n g Fu rn ac e
-
the installation is more co stl y
. Altho ugh
than that of a g as fur nace oil furnace s are used a good deal for ,

economy by large co n cern s A storage tan k under groun d is g e n .

e r ally use d together with a p um ping sy ste m to m aint ain a press u re

Fi g s 201 an d 2 02 . Fr on t an d B ac k V i e w of G as B u r n e r F i g 2 03 . S C an d H
, .

Cou r t e s y of Ta t e J , on es a n d Com pa n y P i t ts bu r g h Cas t - I r on P 0 13

,

cient for for c in g t he oil t o t he furn ac e The oil fl ow s t hr o ugh

s uffi .

a s imple re gulating v al v e an d is i m me diate ly atomiz e d w ith e ither

steam or air at a pre s s ure of fr om 3 5 to 1 00 po u nd s per s qu are inch .

At thi s p oin t it ente rs the forcing h ood in the form of fine mi st

where a volum e of air at a pre ssur e of ab out 6 to 1 5 o unce s per sq uare

Fi g 2 04 C as t I r on Pot Fi g 2 05 W i re B as k e t for I m m e rsin g W or k

d
-

L
. . . .

U s e f or e a d P ot i n 01 1 B a t h

in ch c arrie s it al on g the c om b ust ion c h amb e r in which it ignites

and b ur n s with an in te n se he at .

A g ood d e sig n of b ur n e r sh ould h av e e l imi n at e d t he tro ub le

s om e fe at ur e s of sp ut t e rin g a n d dr ip pin g oil w hic h c a u s e an ir r e g ul ar ,

fl am e The fl ame should be cl e ar wh it e an d fr e e from sm oke soot

.
, , , ,

an d dir t .

De t a ils of M ufie F u r n ace . I n Fig 1 9 5 i s s how n t he bottom

.

b rick of a se m i m uffle fur n ac e -

. Fig 1 9 6 s h ow s an ot he r b ri c k whi c h
.

i s c all e d the furn ac e b r i dg e . Fig . 197 s h ows the fur n ac e b ric k for
 F ORGING 13 1

this furnace T he heating chamb er is enclo sed entir ely Part s to

. .

be heated do not come in contact with the furnace fl ame .

Bu r ne rs
. I n F ig 19 8 is shown a b urner witho ut blas t con nec
.

tion s for u se where air bl ast is not av ailable T his is u sed by attach.

ing the b urner in such a w ay that air for comb u stion i s drawn into
the furn ace by the in jector effect of the atomized oil I n F ig 1 99 is . .

shown an oilb urner with bla st conn ection s .

The s upply of oil and the compressed air

for atomizing are re gulated by on e le v er .

Fig 2 00 show s the s ame b urner with

.

natural g as attachm ent T his burner is .

j ust as effi cien t a g as b urn e r as it is an oil

bur ner. F igs 201 and 2 02 show different m g 2 06 s p ” p t f A l
.
, e c, o or n n ea ,

g C h d g in or as e ar em n
V le W S of g as b u rner s An ai r bla st I S C m ” , S t
.
dH wom 0 r on g, an a
m “m “ w“ Oh”
introduced in the b ack of the burner “
.
m an n e

Con t ai n ers . Fig 203 shows a cast iron pot which can be used
.
-

for a n umber of things F ig 2 04 show s a c ast iron pot used for a

. .
-

lead pot Fig 2 05 shows a wire basket for immersing work to be

. .

tempered in the oil bath or it may be us ed as a b asket for holdin g

,

s m all t ool s a fter h ardenin g Fig 2 06 s how s a pot for either anneal
. .

in g or ca sehardening .
 IN DEX

ot he r t ools

S e l dge s .

g
s wa es

t on gs .

Cr an e s .

Cr an k haft s
s

Cy an id e h ar d e n i n g .

cas e har d e n i n g

pot ass iu m c y an id e-
b at h

Di e for gi n g
Dr op for gi n g .

d r op h am m e rs .

pe c i m e n s
s

Dr op h am m e r s .

Du pli c at e wor k .

c om m on t ools
he at t r e at m e n t
h e at in g app ar at us
m a c h i n e t ools

m at e r i a ls a n d e q u ip m e n t

c l ass ifi c at i on

m e c h an i cal d e t ai ls .

op e r at i on s .

For gi n g he at
For gin g m at e r ials .

For gin g ope r at ion s

an gl e w e ld i n g

bu t t we ldin g .

d r op for gi n g
h e av y for gi n g
lap we ldi n g
m e d i um for ge d w or k
m is c e ll an e ou s pr oc e s s e s

be n di n g c as t i r on
b zira ng
 IN DEX
P AG E
For gin g o e r at ion s
p (c on t in ue d )
m i sce ll an e ous pr oce sse s
di e
du pli cat e
ppi e b e n di n g
s hr i n ki n g .

sc ar fin g

ple be n di n g
s im

s m i t h we ld i n g

sp lit w e ld in g he av y s t oc k
T we ld i n g
— .

t ool st e e l wor k
-

we ld i n g t ool s t e e l
For gin g ope r a t ion s (fu n dam e n t al )
d r awi n g out

s h ap i n g .

t r ui n g u p wor k
u ps e t t i n g

F u lle r s
F u r n ac e s .

H am m er chise ls .

H am m er d ie s
H am m e rs

ball
pe e n
-

r iv e t i n g .

H ar d e n i n g
b at h
c ar bo i z in n g
c r ac k s an d fis s u re s
c y an i d e h ar d e n i n g

e ss e n t i a l fe at u r e s

h e at t r e at m e n t aft e r car bon i z m

s he ll a n d cor e di s t i n c t i on

s pe c i m e n s

i n flu e n c i n g f ac t or s
m e as u r i n g an d t e s t i n g i n s t r u m c v
‘

pr e par at or y he at in g
pur p os e
q ue n c hi n g t an ks
r e su l t s

t ool wor k .

H e at t r e at m en t

an n e a li n g
fac t or s i n
h ar d e n in g
 I ND EX
P A GE
H eat t r e at m en t (con t in ue d)

pr ocess es of t r e at i n g
s t e e l d e v e lop m e n t r e l at i on ,
to
t e m pe r i n g .

H e at in g appar at us

e xam ples of wor k .

h am m er di es
s q u ar i n g up wor k

I n s t r um e n ts, m e as ur i n g an d t e s t in g
Br in e ll t es t e r

pyr om e t e rs .

S hor e l
sc e r osc o e p .

K n uc kle s

Ladle han k
s

Lap we ld i n g
a ll owan c e for we ld i n g
b an d r in g

flat or was he r r in g
r in g r ou n d s t oc k .

Lat h e t ools
Le v e r wit h bo ss

M ac hin e t ools .

bolt h e ad e r s
bu lld oz e r

dr op h am m e rs

m an u fac t ur i n g r e q ui r e m e n t
p owe r h am m ers .

pr e ss e s
 P AGE
Tables (con t in u ed )
s i z es of h ois t i n g h ooks

we i ght of flat r olle d i r on

Te m p e r in g .

b at hs for 0 0 0 0 0

e ss e n t i al
s of p r oc e s s .

fur n ac es for
hi gh s pe e d
-
st e e l
r e du c t i on of b r it t le n e ss
Ton gs
Tool wor k
h ar d e n i n g h e at
h ar d e n in g hlg h s pe e d s t e e l-

l aws for h ar d e n in g
Tool-s t e e l wor k .

pr op e r for g m g h eat
s t an d ar d for m s

blacks m i t h s t ools ’

c old c h ise ls

h am m e r s
la t h e t ools
s pr i n g s .

T we ld i n g
-

W ldin g he at
e

We ld i g t ool st e e l
n .

We ldle ss i gs r n .