Introduction to Civil Engineering

BESCK104A

PREPARED BY,
Prof. ashwija k c
Department Of Civil Engineering
 Module 1
Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science:
Introduction To Civil Engineering: Surveying, structural engineering, geotechnical
engineering, hydraulics and water resource engineering, transportation engineering,
environmental engineering, construction planning and project planning.
Basic materials of construction: Bricks, cement and mortar, plain ,reinforced and pre
stressed concrete, structural steel, construction chemicals.
Structural elements of a building: foundation, plinth, lintel, chejja, masonry wall, column,
beam, slab and staircase.

Surveying:

Surveying is the science of map making. The study of surveying enables the engineer to
determine relative positions of points on the surface of earth. Before the construction of any
structure, surveying of the land on which construction is to come up, is always done. From
the field observations in surveying taken in horizontal plane the plan is prepared of the
existing features of ground and relative positions of points in the vertical plan are shown by
sections obtained by taking measurements in the vertical plan termed as leveling.

Mainly surveying is classified in to two types:

1. Plane surveying
2. Geodetic surveying

Plane surveying: In this type of surveying, the effect of curvature of surface of earth is not
taken into account. The surface of earth is taken to be plane surface. The extent of area up to
which this assumption of plane surface holds well is 260sq. km. Therefore, plane surveying is
adopted for small areas. The degree of accuracy of plane survey is relatively low.

Geodetic surveying: In Geodetic surveying the curvature of earth’s surface is taken into
account. Geodetic surveys are carried out for large distances and areas with a high degree of
precision. In India, Survey of India a Government department undertakes the work of
Geodetic surveying

General classification of surveying

Classification based on purpose of surveying

 Topographical survey
 Cadastral survey
 City survey
 Mine survey

Classification based on instrument used for surveying

 Chain survey
Compass survey
 Theodolite survey
Tacheometry survey
Plane table survey

PURPOSE OF SURVEYING

 Surveying is necessary for preparing the plans or the projection of any object on the
horizontal plan. The differences in height are denoted by contour lines.
 Surveying is necessary for planning design of any engineering work. Accuracy of
surveying influences the success and governs the economy of the project.

Structural engineering:
Load acting on the structure is ultimately transferred to ground. In doing so, various
components of the structure are subjected to internal stresses. For example in a building load
acting on a slab is transferred by slab to ground through beams, columns and footings.
Assessing the internal stresses in the components of the structure is known as structural
analysis and finding the suitable size of the structural component is known as design of
structure. The structure to be analyzed and designed may be of masonry, RCC or steel.
Frequent earthquakes in the recent years have brought, importance of analysis of the
structure for earthquake forces, designing earthquake resistant structures is attracting lot of
researches.

Geotechnical engineering:
Soil properties changes from place to place. Even in the same pace it may not be uniform at
various depths. The soil property may vary from season to season due to variation in moisture
content. The load from the structure is to be safely transferred to soil. For this safe bearing
capacity of the soil is to be properly assessed. This branch of study in civil engineering is
called geotechnical engineering.

Apart from finding safe bearing capacity for foundation of buildings, geotechnical
engineering involves various studies required for design of pavements, tunnel, earthen dams,
canals and earth retaining structures. It involves study of ground improvement techniques.

Hydraulics and water resource:

Water is an important need for all living beings. Study of mechanics of water and its flow
characteristics is another important field in civil engineering and it is known as hydraulics.

WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

Water is to be supplied to agriculture and for drinking purposes. Hence suitable water
resources are to be identified and water is to be stored. Identifying, planning and building
water retaining structures like tanks and dams and carrying stored water to fields is known as
water resources and irrigation engineering.

Transportation engineering:

Transportation facility is another important need. Providing good and economical roads is an
important duty of civil engineers. It involves design of base course, suitable surface finishes,
cross drainage works, road intersections, culverts, bridges, tunnels etc.

Railway is another important long way transport facility. Design, construction and
maintenance of railway lines, signal system are part of transportation engineering. There is
need for airports and harbors. For proper planning of this transportation facility, traffic survey
is to be carried out. Carrying out this traffic survey, design, construction and its maintenance
of roads, bridges, railways, harbors and airport is known as transportation engineering.

Environmental engineering

Proper distribution of water to rural areas, towns and cities and disposal of waste water and
solid waste are another field of civil engineering. Industrialization and increase in vehicular
traffic are creating air pollution problems. Environmental engineering while tackling all these
problems provides health environment t public.

Construction planning and project management:

Management is the science and art of planning, organizing, leading and controlling the work
of organization members and of using all available organization resources to reach stated
organizational goals. Construction management deals with economical consumption of the
resources available in the least possible time for successful completion of construction
project. ‘Men’, ‘materials’, ‘machinery’ and ‘money’ are termed as resources in construction
Management.
Objectives of Construction Management:
The main objectives of construction management are,
 Completing the work within estimated budget and specified time.
 Maintaining a reputation for high quality workmanship
 Taking sound decisions and delegation of authority
 Developing an organization that works as a team.

Functions of Construction Management:

 The functions of construction Management are (a) Planning (b) Scheduling (c)
Organizing (d) Staffing (e) Directing (f) Controlling (g) Coordinating

(a) Planning in Construction Management:

 It is the process of selecting a particular method and the order of work to be adopted for a
project from all the possible ways and sequences in which it could be done. It essentially
covers the aspects of ‘What to do’ and ‘How to do it’.
Bricks:
Different types of bricks are used in masonry construction based on material such as clay,
concrete, lime, fly ash etc. Filed field identification of bricks for their properties, uses and
suitability for different construction works are important. A brick is an important construction
material which is generally available in rectangular shape manufactured from clay. They are
very popular from olden days to modern days because of low cost and durability.

Types of Bricks used in Masonry Construction

Based on the manufacturing process, bricks are broadly classified into two types, 1. Sun-
Dried or unburnt bricks 2. Burnt bricks

1. Sun-Dried or Unburnt Clay Bricks

Sun-dried or unburnt bricks are less durable and these are used for temporary structures.
Unburnt bricks preparation involved in 3 steps they are preparation of clay, molding and
drying. After molding, bricks are subjected to sunlight and dried using heat from sun. So,
they are not that much strong and they also have less water resistance and less fire resistance.
These bricks are not suitable for permanent structures.

2. Burnt Clay Bricks

Burnt bricks are good quality bricks but however they also consist some defected bricks. So,
burnt bricks are classified into four types and they are
 First class bricks
 Second class bricks
 Third class bricks
 Fourth class bricks

First Class Bricks

First class bricks are good quality bricks compared to other classes. They are molded by
table-molding and burnt in large kilns. So, these bricks contain standard shape, sharp edges
and smooth surfaces. They are more durable and having more strength. They can be used for
permanent structures. However, because of their good properties they are costly than other
classes.

Second Class Bricks

Second class bricks are moderate quality bricks and they are molded by ground-molding
process. These bricks are also burnt in kilns. But because of ground molding, they do not
have smooth surfaces as well as sharp edges. The shape of bricks also irregular due to
unevenness in ground. These also will give best results in strength and durability. Smooth
plastering is required on the brick structure.

Third Class Bricks

Third class bricks are poor quality bricks which are generally used for temporary structures
like unburnt bricks. These are not suitable for rainy areas. They are ground-molded type
bricks and burnt in clamps. The surface of this type of bricks are rough and they have unfair
edges.
Fourth Class Bricks

Fourth class bricks are very poor quality bricks and these are not used as bricks in the
structure. They are crushed and used as aggregates in the manufacturing of concrete. They are
obtained by over burning, because of this they gets overheated and obtains brittle nature. So,
they can break easily and not suitable for construction purpose.
3. Fly Ash Bricks
Fly ash bricks are manufactured using fly ash and water. These bricks have better properties
than clay bricks and great resistant to freeze thaw cycles. These bricks contains high
concentration of calcium oxide which is used in cement production, thus it is also called as
self-cementing brick. Fly ash bricks are lightweight and thus it reduces self weight of
structures. The advantages of fly ash bricks over clay bricks are that they have high fire
insulation, high strength, uniform sizes for better joints and plaster, lower water penetration,
does not require soaking before use in masonry construction

4. Concrete Bricks
Concrete bricks are manufacturing using concrete with ingredients as cement, sand, coarse
aggregates and water. These bricks can be manufactured in sizes as required. The advantages
of using concrete bricks over clay bricks are that they can be manufactured at construction
site, reduces quantity of mortar required, can be manufactured to provide different colors as
pigmented during its production. Concrete bricks are used for construction of masonry and
framed buildings, facades, fences, and provide an excellent aesthetic presence.

5. Engineering Bricks
Engineering bricks have high compressive strength and are used special applications where
strength, frost resistance, acid resistance, low porosity is required. These bricks are
commonly used for basements where chemical or water attacks are prevalent and for damp
proof courses.

6. Sand Lime or Calcium Silicate Bricks

Calcium silicate bricks are made of sand and lime and popularly known as sand lime bricks.
These bricks are used for several purposes in construction industries such as ornamental
works in buildings, masonry works etc.

Identification of Bricks Quality at Construction Site

To build a good quality structure, observing quality of materials is important. Here we discuss
about how good bricks are identified at construction site.
 The color of bricks should be bright and uniform.
 They should be well burned and having smooth surfaces and sharp edges.
 Thermal conductivity of bricks should be less and they should be sound proof.
 They shouldn’t absorb more than 20% by weight when we placed it in water.
 When we struck two bricks together, ringing sound should be delivered.
 Structure of bricks should be homogeneous and uniform.
 The bricks should not break when we dropped it form 1m height.
 There should not be any scratch left on the brick when we scratched with finger nail.
 There should not be any white deposits on brick, when we soaked it in water for 24
hrs.

cement and mortar

A Cement is a binder or an adhesive for different materials used for construction that sets and
becomes hard by adhering to different surfaces of various building materials used in the
construction.
The composition of Cement broadly consists of the following two types of constituents: a
constituent in its body, which are calcareous compounds like lime, chalk, and marine shells
 which have a heavy amount of calcium in them, along with argillaceous compounds like clay,
marl, and shale having a good amount of silica in them. So, the elemental composition of
Cement is lime (obtained from calcareous compounds) and silica(obtained from argillaceous
compounds) which covers a significant portion of the Cement body. Alongside vast lime and
silica, there are few other constituents like Alumina, Calcium sulphate, Iron oxide, magnesia,
sulphur, and alkalies.

Constituents of Ordinary Portland Cement

Compound Chemical Formula Percentage

Lime CaOCaO 62% – 67%62% – 67%

Silica SiO2SiO2 17% – 25%17% – 25%

Alumina Al2O3Al2O3 3% – 8%3% – 8%

Calcium Sulphate CaSO4CaSO4 3% – 4%

When Cement is mixed with water and aggregates, it undergoes an exothermic reaction called
hydration. The chemical substance in Cement reacts with water to form hydrates products,
also known as hydration products.
During the hydration process, heat is also released, called the heat of hydration, and this is
maximum for Tricalcium aluminate followed by tricalcium silicate and tetra calcium alumino
ferrate and the least for Dicalcium silicate.

Types of Cement
There are different types of Cement depending on the use and the composition of cement.
Every type of Cement has a different way of being used and has its advantages and
disadvantages.

1. Rapid Hardening Cement

2. Extra Rapid Hardening Cement

3. Sulphate Resisting Cement

4. Quick Setting Cement

5. Low Heat Cement

6. Hydrophobic Cement

MORTAR:

cement mortar means a mortar made of one part of cement to three of sand, all portions are to
be by volume; “cement plaster” unless otherwise specified means a plaster made of not less
than one part of cement to two of sand.

Cement mortar composite has wide application in masonry work, plastering, repairing
damaged concrete, patching or filling, rendering, floor leveling, and the development of
precast products. The composite is composed of binder, sand, water, and fibers with a
maximum size of fine-grain material of 2 mm.

Applications of cement mortars

It is suitable where high strength is essential and in structures which are likely to keep wet
condition like piers, dams, deep foundation etc.

It is applicable for exterior plastering and pointing work.

It should be utilized for damp proof course under ground level.

It is useful for exposed work like exterior walls and parapets, engineering construction with
bricks containing extreme strength.

It is effective for concrete since cement mortar unites the particles of course aggregate into
one solid mass.

Plain Cement Concrete(PCC):

Plain Cement Concrete (PCC) is a construction material that is made by mixing cement, fine
aggregates (sand), and coarse aggregates (gravel or crushed stones) with water. It is
commonly used in pavement, footpaths, and other small-scale construction works. PCC is a
versatile material that can be easily moulded into various shapes and sizes and provides good
resistance against weathering and erosion.

PCC has no reinforcement, and its strength depends on the ratio of cement to sand used in its
mix. It is a cost-effective solution for construction works that do not require high strength and
durability, making it a popular choice for small to medium construction projects.

Plain Cement Concrete: Uses

PCC, or Plain Cement Concrete, is a construction material used in engineering for various
applications. Some of its common uses include:

 Foundation: PCC is used as a base material for the foundation of buildings and
structures. It provides a strong, stable, level surface for constructing the
superstructure.

 Pavement: PCC is commonly used in the construction of pavements, such as

sidewalks, driveways, and parking lots. It provides a durable, long-lasting surface that
can withstand heavy loads and traffic.

 Retaining walls: PCC is used to construct retaining walls to prevent soil erosion and
stabilise the soil structure.

 Floor slabs: PCC is used in the construction of floor slabs, which provide a smooth
and level surface for installing flooring materials.

 Culverts: PCC is used in the construction of culverts, which are structures that allow
water to flow under roads, railways, or other obstructions.
  Bridges: PCC is used to construct bridge decks and piers to provide a solid and
durable surface that can withstand heavy loads and harsh environmental conditions.

 Driveways: PCC is also used for constructing driveways due to its high compressive
strength and ability to withstand heavy loads.

 Precast elements: PCC creates precast concrete elements such as pipes, poles, and
blocks.

 Water tanks: PCC is commonly used to construct water tanks, as it is water-resistant

and can withstand the weight of the water.

Reinforced cement concrete:

Reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C) is the combination of ordinary concrete with the
reinforcement to increase its compressive and tensile strength to a great extent.

Concrete is a versatile material for modern construction which is prepared by mixing well-
proportioned quantities of cement (even lime in some cases), sand, crushed rock or gravel,
and water.

It has been used from foundations to the rooftops of buildings, in the construction of
highways roads traffic, and hydro-power tunnels, irrigation canals, drains, and all other
conceivable structures.

Purpose of Reinforcement in Concrete.

As you know that, Concrete has a very high compressive strength, but it is low in tensile
strength. Thus, when only the compressive loads are acting on the concrete surface, then there
is no need of using reinforcement in it .But where tensile forces are also involved, as in,
beams and slabs, there is a very high risk of its failure when plain concrete is used. Steel,
however, as we know, has a very high tensile strength (and also have good compressive
strength).Hence, when these two (concrete and steel) are combined together, a material of
construction is obtained that is capable of withstanding all the three types of forces likely to
act upon a structure, i.e., compressive loads, tensile stresses, and shear forces. Such a material
is known as Reinforced Cement Concrete. It has proved extremely useful and reliable in
engineering construction.

Advantages of Reinforced Concrete (RCC).

There are 100s of advantages of Reinforced Concrete, but here we will discuss some
important advantages of Reinforced Concrete.

(i) Structures made from Reinforced Concrete are durable.

(ii) It has a high compressive strength (due to concrete).

(iii) It has a high tensile strength (due to reinforcement).

(iv) It is resistant to fire and other climate changes.

(v) Easily available almost anywhere in the world.

(vi) Too much expertise is not required for working on it, normal skilled labor can also do it.

(vii) It can be molded in any form, shape.

(viii) It can be used in any part of the structure i.e., from foundation to the top roofing.

(ix) Repairing cost is almost nil.

(x) It is more economical compared to other materials.

Prestressed concrete
Prestressed concrete is a system into which internal stresses are deliberately induced without
any form of external loads to improve its performance. The internal stresses induced in the
concrete structure is used to counteract the stresses coming from the external load
application.

Advantages of Prestressed Concrete

The major advantages of Prestressed Concrete are:

1. The prestressing of concrete by using high tensile steel improve the efficiency of the
materials

2. The prestressing system works for a span greater than 35m.

3. Prestressing enhance shear strength and fatigue resistance of concrete

4. Dense concrete is provided by prestressing systems thus improving the durability

5. Best choice for the construction of sleek and slender structures.

6. Prestressing helps to reduce the dead load of the concrete structure

7. Prestressed concrete remains uncracked even at service load conditions which proves
the structural efficiency

8. Composite construction by using the prestressed concrete unit and cast-in-unit derives
the economical structure

Structural Steel :
Structural Steel is a special kind of Steel. It is used for construction purposes. Due to its
rigidity and high strength-to-weight ratio, structural Steel is mainly employed in buildings.
Structural Steel is used in houses, warehouses, airplane hangars, educational facilities,
bridges, stadiums, etc.

Structural Steel is Steel that contains carbon, not more than 2.1%. These are also called
Carbon Steel, and structural Steel typically has a carbon content of less than 0.6%.

Types of Structural Steel

Carbon is the most often used commercial steel alloy. Increased carbon content improves
hardenability and boosts hardness and strength. Conversely, carbon increases brittleness and
lowers weldability because of its propensity for forming martensite. As a result, the carbon
content in commercial Steel can be both a blessing and a burden. Based on the carbon
content, the mechanical properties of different types of structural Steel and their uses are
given below:

 Carbon steel: Steel in which the carbon content is upto 2% is known as carbon steel.
The Specified ultimate tensile strength is 410 to 440 MPa, and the yield strength is
350 to 400 MPa.

 High-strength carbon steel: These steels are used in structures such as transmission
lines and microwave towers. The specified ultimate tensile strength is 480 to 550
MPa, and the yield strength is 350 to 400 MPa.

 Medium and high strength micro-alloyed steel: Alloys such as chromium, nickel,
molybdenum, etc., are used to increase the strength while retaining the desired
ductility. The specified ultimate tensile strength is 440 to 590 MPa, and the yield
strength is 300 to 450 MPa.

 High strength quenched and tempered Steel: Heat treatment increases strength
in this type of Steel. The specified ultimate tensile strength is 440 to 590 MPa; the
yield strength is 300 to 450 MPa.

 Weathering Steel: These are corrosion-resistant Steel and are often not Painted. The
specified ultimate tensile strength is 480 MPa, and the yield strength is 350 MPa.

 Fire-resistant Steel: These steels are also known as thermo mechanically treated
(TMT) steel and are used where the structures are more prone to fire.

Types of Reinforcement used in R.C.C:

Reinforcement used in concrete is principally made of steel of different types.Further, it may

be made in required shape and volume. Some common types of reinforcement are:

(i) Mild Steel Bars:

These bars have a plain and smooth surface without any ribs. The diameter of mild steel bars
varies from 6 mm to 50 mm. These bars cannot develop a good bond with concrete hence
hooks are essentially required at the ends.

2. Deformed Steel Bar:

Deformed steel bars have lugs, ribs, and other deformations on their surface which increase
the bond strength between steel and concrete. Deformed bars have high tensile strength, yield
strength, and bond strength. Since deformed bars have greater bond strength than plain mild
steel bars, hooks are not required at their ends.

Types Of Deformed Steel Bars:

The deformed steel bars are classified into two types of rebar.
 1. TMT bars,

2. Cold twisted bars.

a) TMT bars:

TMT or thermo mechanical treatment is an advanced process in which red hot rebars are
quenched through a series of water jets making a hardened outer layer surface surrounding a
softer core.

b) Cold Twisted Bars:

Cold twisted bars (CTD) are high-strength deformed bars (HSD) whose quality is improved
by various processes of cold working (stretching and twisting).

CTD bars have considerable large yield stress about 50% more than ordinary mild steel bars.
The sizes of these rebars vary from 4mm to 50 mm. In India, these bars are known as TOR
steel.

3. Carbon Steel Rebar:

This is the most common type of rebar made up of carbon steel and is sometimes referred to
as a black bar due to its carbon color. One major drawback is that it corrodes easily, which
makes it unsuitable in high humid areas or structures that are frequently exposed to water.
However, carbon steel rebars are one of the best choices for all other types of structures.

4. Epoxy Coated Rebar:

Epoxy coated rebar is nothing but black steel rebar having an epoxy coat over it. The epoxy
coating is applied in the factory using an electrostatic spray. This type of rebar is ideal for
structures that are exposed to saltwater or where there is an increased risk of corrosion.

Construction Chemicals:
Construction chemicals are compounds that are added to concrete and mortar to enhance
compatibility with the structure of buildings. These chemicals improve properties such as
durability, surface finish, compressive strength and resistance to undesirable working
conditions, and climatic and are expected to drive the industry growth.

 Concrete Hardeners.

 Protective and Decorative coating.

 Concrete Curing.

 Epoxy Coating.

 Mould Releasing Agents.

 Polymer Bonding Agent.

 Ready Mix Plaster.

  Polymer Modified Mortar.

Structural elements of a building:

The basic components of a building structure are the foundation, floors, walls, beams,
columns, roof, stair, etc. These elements serve the purpose of supporting, enclosing and
protecting the building structure.

Lintels

Lintels are constructed above the wall openings like doors, windows, etc. These structures
support the weight of the wall coming over the opening. Normally, lintels are constructed by
reinforced cement concrete. In residential buildings, lintels can be either constructed from
concrete or from bricks.

Beams and slabs

Beams and slabs form the horizontal members in a building. For a single storey building, the
top slab forms the roof. In case of a multi-storey building, the beam transfers the load coming
from the floor above the slab which is in turn transferred to the columns. Beams and slabs are
constructed by reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C).

Columns
Columns are vertical members constructed above the ground level. Columns can be of two
types: Architectural columns and structural columns. Architectural columns are constructed
to improve the building's aesthetics while a structural column takes the load coming from the
slab above and transfers safely to the foundation.

Walls

Walls are vertical elements which support the roof. It can be made from stones, bricks,
concrete blocks, etc. Walls provide an enclosure and protect against wind, sunshine, rain etc.
Openings are provided in the walls for ventilation and access to the building.

Stairs
A stair is a sequence of steps that connects different floors in a building structure. The space
occupied by a stair is called as the stairway. There are different types of stairs like a wooden
stair, R.C.C stair etc.

A staircase or stairway is one or more flights of stairs leading from one floor to another, and
includes landings, newel posts, handrails, balustrades and additional parts. A stairwell is a
compartment extending vertically through a building in which stairs are placed.
The most common types of stairs are straight stairs, circular stairs, spiral stairs, switchback
stairs, winder stairs, split stairs, and stairs with intermediate landings

Plinth

The plinth is constructed above the ground level. It is a cement-mortar layer lying between
the substructure and the superstructure. The plinth level refers to the base or foundation of a
building or structure. It is the level at which the ground floor or the base of a building is
constructed. The primary purpose of the plinth level is to provide a stable and level surface
for constructing the walls and floors of a building.

Foundation
The Foundation is a structural unit that uniformly distributes the load from the superstructure
to the underlying soil. This is the first structural unit to be constructed for any building
construction. A good foundation prevents settlement of the building.

Types of foundadtion:

 Shallow Foundations. Made in depths as little as 3ft, shallow footings are also called
spread or open footings. ...
 Individual Footings. ...
 Combined Footings. ...
 Strip Footings. ...
 Raft or Mat Foundations. ...
 Deep Foundations. ...
 Pile Foundations.

Shallow Foundations

Made in depths as little as 3ft, shallow footings are also called spread or open
footings. They are made by digging the soil till the bottom of the footing & then
constructing the actual footing. They are called open footings because, during the
early stages of construction, the entire footing is visible to the eye. As the water
in the soil can freeze & expand, shallow footing must be protected during winter
months. Thus, they are either built below the frost line or protected using
insulation.

Individual Footings
The most common type of footings used, individual or isolated footings are
constructed for a single column. Used when loads from the structure are carried
by a single column, individual footings are square-shaped or rectangular, the size
of which is calculated on the basis of the load & the bearing capacity of the soil.

Combined Footings
Constructed when two or more columns are close together and their individual
footing overlap, combined footings are rectangular in shape. While they may
seem like a simple combination of individual footings, they differ in their
structural design.
Strip Footings
Strip footings are also known as spread or wall footings. Their wider base
spreads the weight or loads from the structure across a wider surface area to
provide greater structural stability. While they do provide more stability than
individual footings, strip footings must not be used on soils where there is a flow
of water above the load-bearing layer as this may result in liquefaction & serious
water damage.

Raft or Mat Foundations

Foundations that are spread across the entirety of the structure, raft or mat
foundations support heavy structural loads from both, columns & walls. While
they are suitable for expansive soils, they can be more economical when used
along with individual & wall footings.

Deep Foundations
Made in depths of 60-200ft, deep foundations are used for large, heavy
buildings.
  Deep foundation

 Pile Foundations
Pile foundations are a type of deep foundation used to transfer heavy structural
loads to hard rock strata way below the ground level soil. They are also used to
prevent uplift of structures & protect them from earthquakes & wind forces. Pile
foundations are used especially when the surface soil is weak & the building load
has to bypass the surface to reach a layer of stronger soil & rock. Each pile
foundation is generally a combination of end bearing & friction pile footings.

Chajja:
Chajja- A sloping or horizontal structural overhang provided over openings on
external walls for protection from the weather. A chhajja is an overhanging eave
or roof covering found in Indian architecture. It is characterised with large
support brackets with different artistic designs. Variation is also seen in its size
depending on the importance of the building on which it features or the choice of
the designer.