1

Theme :

Unity and Diversity

Level of Organization :
Molecules

Written and drawn by :

PETER MARIER
 A1.1.2—Hydrogen bonds as a consequence of the polar covalent bonds within water molecules

Chemistry review
Oxygen has 6 valence electrons ,
thus needs I more to have full valence and be stable .
It 2 -

I valence to have full valence and be stable H ⑧

Hydrogen has electron ,
thus needs I more .

atomic number H20

Carbon
chemical name
6
-
number of
protons pt in nucleus ... one
Oxygen atom can share 2 electrons with 2 Hydrogen atoms covalently as water
6 protons
C
carbon has
chemical symbol ex
:

relative atomic mass Ar electrostatic attraction between positive

12 01
-

average mass of the atom nucleus only H H nuclei and shared pair of electrons
⑧
electrons are not considered as too light 0 0005
.
⑧ ⑧
H H
Ar= protons +
neutrons
O e

⑧
... e

⑧ electrons :
negative subatomic particle located around ⑧
⑧
⑧8

atom's nucleus : if lost gained ion

3 nucleus :

contains
But
Oxygen
has a
higher electronegativity than Hydroge a

neutrons : neutral subatomic particle

8
00

protons positive
:

subatomic particle 8 protons is I proton ot

: ! e

-
E
e

g
. -

8 pt O nucleus has
E
stronger
-
-

1pt
!
⑧
8 n
*
pull on electrons than H

electronegativity :
tendency of a nucleus to attract bonding electrons electrons spend more time

i . e . the more it attracts, the more electronegative

00
around O than H H
0

depends on number of protons in nucleus causes

N 0 F

slightly positive charge It

.

to lower electron
.
eX : ! Pe Pe
more protons in nucleus around Hydrogen end of water due density
6pt 7pt : i Spt Ipt Ipt
mean stronger pull
· · · ⑧

increasing electronegativity polar covalent bond unequal sharing of electrons pairs to

leading unequal distribution of
:

Spt
electrical charge and polarity . Water is comprises 2 polar covalent bonds
and
depends on distance between nucleus bonding pair of electrons ⑧
⑧
⑧ when a molecule has I different electrical charges

greater distance slightly negative charge - around Oxygen end of water due to
ex :
higher electron density
38 38

08

Li ⑧
:: ⑤ o
8888 -
more orbitals
- -
means weaker 18 18 ... covalent bonds are within
-
08

attractive force How to draw : As water is polar ,

the a water molecule -
intramolecular
O -

decreasing electronegativity slightly positive hydrogen ↑ very strong

8-
is attracted to the H81 represented by solid line

... Difference between electronegativities determines of bond ↑

type :
slightly negative oxygen
81
very large
1 4 .

Parling scale
,
one atoms pulls from another = jonic between ions
18 H
and forms hydrogen bund
a
81
- 18 hydrogen bonds are between
H -
small 0-0 4 .

Parling scale , e equally shared between atoms = covalent an intermolecular force

8 -

- H8 water molecules -
intermolecular
-
8-
moderately large 0 4-1 4
.
.
Parling scale e unequally shared =

polar covalent weak , but stronger in large numbers

H8 constantly forming , breaking and

re-forming
H81
represented by dashed line -
 A1.1.3—Cohesion of water molecules due to hydrogen bonding and consequences for organisms
A1.1.4—Adhesion of water to materials that are polar or charged and impacts for organisms

Cohesion :
the attraction of a molecule to another of the same
type ⑧ Adhesion :
the attraction of a molecule to a different type
⑧ ↑
i water attracted to another water molecule water

attracter sever
..
. e .
↑ e

adhesion

in a
S ↑
water molecule form hydrogen bunds ⑧
every ↑
can ...
...
⑧

-
...
...
with 4 others in tetrahedral formation .
....
↑
.

...
a ...
- ...
⑧
-
A

&
↑ .
.. .
..
...
liquid -
...

·
H
·ch
00
⑧
- ...........
... ⑧
I
... . . .

...
8
Po -
-

-
.
⑧ 8 -

~o
......
8 ↑ ↑ ...
...

X
...............= :
-

...
...... -
:

..... *
... * ↑ X

Y
...

.
⑧

:
. &
*
I

............... 8 -

Capillary action when water ascends up tube due to

N
narrow
↑

a
:

When frozen , water molecules have less as liquid ,

water molecules move adhesion , cohesion and surface tension

hydrogen causing hydrogen

↳
energy causing bonds to become more bonds to -

- -
, ,

leaf
oooo
stable , lattice form break and reform often ex in vascular plants water is carried by xylem which attract water due to their

E⑧
water molecules in
:

arranging a
,
,

- Str e
to float
&
lowers density causing ice shape undefined

8
,

W j80
- 0
& L
down

~
.

D
18850
O

-%
Transpiration flow of water from
-
stream plants
:

roots to leaves in
I ⑧
-IS
1) -
capillary

-ai
M

like force
water up straw , water up due to
suction
⑧ cell wall -

sucking a moves a , -

I⑧.
↑ I
going from higher pressure to low *
-

-
W
an

$
area
pressure
of

X
:
↳ & e
-
⑧ ⑧ -p
mar the Sun evaporates water
⑧
0

↑
We
-

ha C O
↑
-
* in leaves of
causing E
area

⑧ exter
an

&
,

R
low P low pressure and tension gravity

I Sa
.

V Water is pulled up towards -

this area and moves in a chain ⑱ gas exchange B3 1 .

S
then water will travel action

↳
I Ore to cohesion-water pulling each via
capillary
Wi M

high P W wor other from roots to leaves

o
⑨*
the the tube greater attraction
=

more narrow

cr -
3&
Surface tension tension of the surface film liquid caused 2 -v
:
of a
by cohesion -

2, " v

in the surface layer which minimizes surface area

-

-
geci
o

8
as there are no molecules above , 2X :
1 water strider 2X :
adult mosquito 2X :

st
-
hydrogen bunds stronger at surface

↳
↳
surface water is attracted to substances
many

- ↳⑨
=>
* - M
- within soil If soil is porous water
** yuuuuuuuyyese
.

-
-

8
- moves
up via capillary
=
,

S·
⑧

pupa
action through ⑧
gravity
uni small channels , -
x

molecule surrounded all Sides , take advantage of surface making it available

on
mosquitoes
so attractive force spread out more surface tension

force
gravitational
force
water strider able to

move on top of water

tension

their
by laying eggs on surface and

surface
for roots of

plants
young developping just below
 A1.1.5—Solvent properties of water linked to its role as a medium for metabolism and for transport in plants and animals

Chemistry review water as a medium for metabolism

x

solute
:

substance being dissolved 1I heterogeneous solution : In order for a chemical reaction to occur reactant(s) product(s) there must be a successful collision
Br
8 solution with non-uniform composition and sufficient energy -
activation energy
solute doesn't interact with solvent the majority chemical reactions occurring in organisms regulated by enzymesoenzymes (1 1

-
⑧ ⑧. of are
.

11
- Enzymes :

proteins that function as biological catalysts a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction

I I homogenous solution : without

being changed or used
up

3 ·W

-
solution with uniform composition
1

&

W
-
0
D

solvent Metabolism web of all enzyme-catalysed reactions in

a
solute dissolves in solvent
-

substance solute dissolves

:

in which an
organism
:

.
-

-
/-
- -
substances that do not dissolve in water are
hydrophobic non-polar uncharged ,
ex : lipids the inside of cells -

cytoplasm ,
is where most cellular chemical reactions take place ⑧
I

I
&

Cytoplasm is mostly made up of water which is an ideal medium for metabolism :

substances that dissolve in attracted to water hydrophilic
are
polar charged ,

⑧
many enzymes require a certain amount of water in their structures allowing to maintain their shape and work effectively
& ,

why is water such good solvent ? most substrates dissolve

top of leaves
cytoplasm , allowing readily aqueous solution
⑧
the in them to

↳
a in
move

have cuticle where most enzymes function effectively substrate

hydrophobic
it dissolves ionic
charged NaCI
hydrogen . .
·
·
substances ex
preventing water loss bonds form readily in water and allow the substrate to bind more
readily with
enzyme
:

I
I
e
C1- NatCl- Nat
I H H
#

8-
I ·
some substances are
hydrophobic and don't dissolve . This is important for their functions :
- enzyme

⑧
⑧ ⑧
I

·
#
Cl Cl-
Cl- Nat S cell membrane is composed proteins embedded in cell hormones like testosterone
Nat Nat
⑧

↑
1 8 I
8- of
non-polar sections I membrane have hydrophobic are
hydrophobic , allowing OH

D- and ⑧
parts to keep them attached them to pass through
polar sections
-

Nat Cl Nat H H
I
membranes B2 1

hydroph
interactiofre
making it stable and semi-permeable
.

and membrane easily or

An ionic substance is held together the cation + becomes attracted to the 8

oxygen
r

with ionic bonds (electrostatic end of water and the anion -

becomes attracted to ⑳
as medium for transport
transport 13 2
a
.

lipids
Bl I .

attraction between cations + the 8 hydrogen end of water ion dipole interaction

and anions -

compound separates and dissolves in

aqueous solution In humans substances are carried in the liquid portion of blood In vascular plants ,
substances

mostly water and thus carried

resto
-
plasma which is aqueous are in > main
,
*
· it dissolves polar compounds ex :

glucose #
...
t O

A lonic substances Amino acids HN

3 Xylem
i ......
A
*

dissolve into have both

positive and negative
8
⑧
the ions in aqueous mineral ions
-

H
H
·
8 -

- H
H various
polar regions are

#
Cat will dissolve in
-
plasma
8
Nat , Cl, Kt,
↑

↑ charges carried
8
so dissolved
-

within the glucose molecule plasma

.

8
are
-

⑧
-

Af
..
C ↑
↑
C
-
-
8 -

CH zOs , are attracted aF H H

*

=
I

I
in
xylem sap
-
↑ +
#

Certifi
...*
8-

-
-

~
Oxygen Oz
-

non-polar
8-
18
to water small
-

8 - j-
+ * -

c -
X
, making it I
H H but
..................... ↑
Phloem
.
hydrophilic allowing to Polar substances size allows it to dissolve but
It .. it
sparingly
:
S
I ↑ 8 -

C ,
.

...
⑧

form bonds Haemoglobin red blood cells carry O2 blood

hydrogen
I

polar dissolve in blood plasma in and other

readily in
-

sugars are
H
8 -

H
H
sucrose
/

it
substances I
and dissolve and carried ...
products of

4814
↑ 8 -

H H
-
. W
11
8 A /
.... * ! e
8
easily -I Lipids non-polar and hydrophobic .
&- - photosynthesis carrie
Hi =
A

⑧
H

· carbohydrates Bl I #
1

Must be carried lipoproteins

/
in
within phloem sap
.

*
 A1.1.6—Physical properties of water and the consequences for animals in aquatic habitats

-66 Air

mininit
I :I
Physical Property Water Gavia arctica adaptations Pusa hispida adaptations

Broyancy : theability of any fluid (liquid gas or to provide vertical density = 998 .
21
kgm-3 density = 1 .
204kgm-3 & black-throated loon has largewings
=
Ringed scal is quite heavy so

upwards force on an object placed in or on it to generate lift in less buryant air diving is not an issue but
= has solid bones
living organisms have an Air has a much lower unlike other birds
floating is more difficult .

the force is equal to the weight of overall density close to density than living to increase its weight and to Large fat reserves , blubber, is

the fluid much in its lungs and stored under

displaced by the object organisms so compress air the skin to increase

required to feathers in order to decrease

-t
making water suitable has low density
a energy is its
buoyancy as it

**
object density fluid density habitat fly its
buoyancy allowing,
Also seals use
E
⑧ ⑧⑧
= S in

object density fluid density to dive fur

80
⑱
-E
floating
I

i
ice as Se
S
/ -
W
/ W
W IlI ~
object density fluid density underwater Eyx ~

-
habitats .

En
o
prey

flow of fluid Streamlined body

Viscosity the resistance to liquid = is
hydrodynamic
:

a a r

and reflect air for lift and flight to reduce drag through the water

viscosity due to the internal friction Seal

is
-
viscosity They are aerodynamic to reduce drag uses
flippers to propel
caused when part fluid friction during flight ↑

I
and itself through water
-
of -F
one
↑I ruli
a
-
I
I

forms hydrogen bonds

2

moves relative to another viscosity so is W

Webbed feet - -
-

more viscous than air but through water easily -

-
.

?.....

more viscous more friction =

more resistance to flow back propel it during swimming C

-

Thermal conductivity ·
the ability of a substance to transfer = To
prevent heat
loss in water
,

heat when there is a temperature difference acting as an insulator and preventing seals have large stores of blubber

heat loss
maintaing body temp which acts insulator

A
. as an
,

heat transferred y
how quickly is being across thermal
conductivity (compared loons can easily lose heat in water
material depends gland and + ↑+ + x
a on collisions and electrons to metals but much higher particles are far apart and so
they have an oil
using -
- -
-
-
-
-

their beak ,
rub it on their feathers S

: conductor = fast insulator = slow energy transfer are closer and can transfer easier as an insulator as it is hydrophobic lipids
Bl I .

866

I artery
-

water , heat to be well

mostly so is able
3333
how much needed to change the temperature something Water has high specific Air has far lower specific distributed in the
body it helps
is
*
and
energy of a
very a vein

heat capacity due to its

hydrogen heat capacity compared to maintain constant body temperature .

specific heat capacity

=

a lot of energy is needed as it absorbs a lot bunds . To warm

up , the H-bonds water as the particles are The cells are
mostly water, so they can remain stable in different temperatures
out
need to be broken and when it more spread and thus

... heat of heat formed and ⑧ seal do not have

capacity cools H-bonds temperatures large
o
to substance / C pups
-
amount
energy required change a ,
are can easily change young
specific heat capacity = amount of heat energy required per unit mass release energy
... Water can absorb as there are no intermolecular in cold temperatures compared to the air , blubber stores so can cool quickly .
To

. it is independent of mass or volume a lot of energy without changing temp bunds that need to be overcome loons spend a lot of time on the water keep them warm , pups are raised in

and is stable in differing conditions rather than land E insulated ice lairs

<
i

*
to stay - DDDOO !
where air be
iiiiiiii.......
warm - ...
S
·
can
::
.......... ....
S

-
↓
I

.. 100888888880
I -
I S

... ... : -
.. ..
... ,

easily warmed
 A1.1.1—Water as the medium for life

~
4 S billion
.

years ago ,
E
.

⑳m
E
There Earth cooled
·8⑱
. ~1 4 billion km2 and
-

Earth formed and was

!

is extended in HL
--

s
3
~
.

- water Earth ! 3 8 billion

i
-

of on hot molten
~
years
wih mass
.

a
,
ob

Fas
⑳
had water
* ago , Earth
of Earth's

2
Over 70 %

j Zo
surface is water !

S Hence
The
our

Blue
nickname,

Planet'
as it
appears blue life started in the occans

from space UV radiation

Early Earth did not yet have an ozone Os layer to block harmful UV from the Sun

S
but as UV enters the oceans
,
it dissipates and becomes less harmful with
increasing depth -

Water Earth is mainly

on
protecting organisms below and
allowing life to thrive
found in oceans 97 %

-
The
early cells evolved membranes to
separate their insides cytoplasm
from the water Bilayers naturally form water

I
oceans ocean in
I
.
.

⑧
outside

/ 1) freshwater the 3% left is

4
inside
glaciers a ice
caps freshwater which

is further subdivided ↳
· membranes B2 I lipids
Bl I cell membrane
-
.
.

groundwater
surface freshwater Water acts as an
important solvent and is crucial for organisms

lakes

rivers
& ⑨
-
d

water vapor
soil
mos ture
· makes up the fluid

makes up

is
the fluid
cytoplasm

inside the

found between cells of multicellular organisms

in all cells where all

organelles in cells
metabolic reactions

interstitial fluid
occur

⑧
S
water in living organisms
allows transport substances into and cells

-
"
of out of

X
I

Water forms large proportion

↓
a

si /
of living organisms main component of blood plasma
~
65 % -95 %
by mass for most
multicellular plants and animals stable medium for aquatic organisms to live

3 888
⑧

·; necessary for many enzymes

-

to function and catalyze

W
-

~ 80 % of our cells reactions

a
consist water !
F
-
-
of

⑮-
&

without water ,
life would not exist on Earth
 A1.1.7—Extraplanetary origin of water on Earth and reasons for its retention
HL A1.1.8—Relationship between the search for extraterrestrial life and the presence of water

When Earth first formed it Definitions

1 was far too hot for water -

water likely has an
extraplanetary

⑤
to condense into liquid outside of Earth
in asteroid
rocky body orbiting the Sun
:

a
planet , origin
so most of it would have C -

& been lost to space E de meteoroid fragment of asteroid

- W
n
:
an
- C

O
... there are
competiting hypotheses for the origin of water on Earth , a
prominent one is asteroids :
& W meteor :
when a
space fragment enters

⑧-
-
Earth's atmosphere and heats up
W

M
Asteroid hypothesis for origin of water on Earth

meteorite :

the it geE
hypothesis states that during Earth's early history meteor that
-- Es
once E
-
I -
!
--
a

3
,

started to cool
many colliding
water
I

,
was delivered to Earth via H
s
has landed on
H

asteroids from space in the form of hydrated minerals Earth's surface

⑳

while currently there aren't

many collisions , billions
of years ago
Earth's formation is estimated to have been millions of years How did water stay Earth after its delivery ?
during ,
there many collisions over
,
on

which would account for the large amount of water currently today
present
·
Due to the Earth's size , its gravity holds oceans to its surface as well as
gases the atmosphere
... asteroids analyzed today don't contain a lot of water but over time water would evaporate due to

water proportionally if Earth smaller , its lower gravitational pull could keep water at its surface
the Sun so most collisions likely occured early and contained more were not

Evidence · After Earth recieved water ,

dre to its proximity to the Sun , water remained as
liquid which due to
,
. .

⑦
>
⑤ cohesion and hydrogen bonding ,
is easier to hold to its surface than vapour .

Atoms naturally exist in different forms isotopes where they may have different number
of neutrons

&.ofda I
Goldilocks aka habitable The distance
in their nucleus thus atomic mass away from
as zone :
zone .

&
⑧ ⑧
the Sun where the amount of solar energy is not too hot

ex
:

Hydrogen-1 'H Protium ① neutrons Hydrogen-2 "H ,

Deuterium I neutron to vaporize or too far away to freeze but 'just right'
,
a ,

water to remain in
to allow a
liquid state

Water can have different forms depending Scientists have analyzed the ratio of
on what isotope of hydrogen it is comprised Deuterium to Protium in the Earth's ... zone also depends on : size of the star
energy emitted
oceans and on asteroids that have passed too hot just right too cold size of the planet gravitational pull
the Earth's orbit and meteorites
⑧ ⑧
through
Search for extraterrestrial life
⑧ ⑧

results :
PD ratio 1 .
56x104 ,
was found to be When
searching for life on other planets ,
a
key feature to look for is liquid water as it is essential for life
,

similar for the and know it Planets therefore must be in similar

extremely ocean as we a Goldilocks zone

normal' water is most common 'heavy' water is rare

samples of asteroids and meteorites
many
to determine if -
Eye
such as the carbonaceous chondrites . a distant planet has water we can use

Water bodies are comprised of both and a ratio This supports the idea that asteroids transit spectroscopy which analyses the absorbance -
of the two can be determined were the source of water on Earth of light that passes through its atmosphere wavelength