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potential negative consequences.
BASIC CONCEPT OF DISASTER AND
DISASTER RISK
Philippines: A Country Prone to Natural
Disasters
The Philippines has experienced from an
inexhaustible number of deadly earthquakes,
volcano eruptions, and other natural disasters. This
is due to its location along the Ring of Fire, a large
Pacific Ocean region where many volcanic
eruptions and earthquakes occur.
Disaster is "a sudden, calamitous occurrence that
causes great harm, injury, destruction, and
devastation to life and property".
—Someone Famous
It disrupts the usual course of life, causing both
physical and emotional distress such as an intense
feeling of helplessness and hopelessness. A
preceding definition of disaster stresses that two
elements are affected - life (whether human or
animal) and property.
The effects vary - it maybe a minor damage (like
broken windows and doors), major damage (like
torn rooftops, collapsed walls), total destruction
(like completely destroyed houses and structures
rendering them useless and inhabitable) and the
worst scenario, it can lead to death. (Asian
Disaster Preparedness Center, ADPC, 2012)
According to the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO, 2008), disaster is "a serious
disruption of the functioning of a community or a
society involving widespread human, material,
economic or environmental losses and impacts,
which exceeds the ability of the affected
community or society to cope using its own
resources".
Any adverse episode or phenomenon can exploit a
vulnerability in the affected population or
community to create damage and this awareness
will form the basis for an adequate intervention.
Meanwhile, the United Nations International
Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines disaster as
a serious disruption of the functioning of a
community or a society involving widespread
human, material, economic or environmental
losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of
the affected community or society to cope using its
own resources.
Disasters are often a result of the combination of:
the exposure to a hazard; the conditions of
vulnerability that are present; and insufficient
capacity or measures to reduce or cope with the
Its impacts may include loss of life, injury, disease
and other negative effects on human physical,
mental, and social wellbeing, together with damage
to properties, destruction of assets, loss of
services, social and economic disruptions, and
environmental degradation.
Classification of Disasters:
Disasters can be divided into 2 large categories:
A. Natural Disasters - a natural phenomenon is
caused by natural forces, such as earthquakes,
typhoon, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, fires,
tornados, and extreme temperatures. They can be
classified as rapid onset disasters and those with
progressive onset, such as droughts that lead to
famine. These events, usually sudden, can have
tremendous effects.
B. Man-made - Disasters caused by man are
those in which major direct causes are identifiable
intentional or non-intentional human actions.
1. Technological/industrial disasters -
Unregulated industrialization and inadequate
safety standards increase the risk for industrial
disasters.
EXAMPLE: leaks of hazardous materials;
accidental explosions; bridge or road collapses, or
vehicle collisions; Power cuts
2. Terrorism/Violence - the threat of terrorism has
also increased due to the spread of technologies
involving nuclear, biological, and chemical agents
used to develop weapons of mass destruction.
EXAMPLE: bombs or explosions; release of
chemical materials; release of biological agents;
release of radioactive agents; multiple or massive
shootings; mutinies.
3. Complex humanitarian emergencies - the
term complex emergency is usually used to
describe the humanitarian emergency resulting
from an international or civil war. In such situations,
large numbers of people are displaced from their
homes due to the lack of personal safety and the
disruption of basic infrastructure including food
distribution, water, electricity, and sanitation, or
communities are left stranded and isolated in their
own homes unable to access assistance.
EXAMPLE: conflicts or wars and Genocide the
deliberate killing of a large group of people,
especially those of a particular ethnic group or
nation
The damage caused by disaster cannot be
measured. It also differs with the kind of
geographical location, climate, earth's specific
characteristics, and level of vulnerability. These
determining factors affect generally the
psychological, socio-economic, political, and
ethnical state of the affected area.
Risk has various connotations within different
disciplines. In general, risk is defined as "the
combination of the probability of an event and its
negative consequences" (UNISDR, 2009). The
term risk is thus multidisciplinary and is used in a
variety of contexts. It is usually associated with the
degree to which humans cannot cope (lack of
capacity) with a situation (e.g. natural hazard).
The term disaster risk refers to the potential (not
actual and realized) disaster losses, in lives, health
status, livelihoods, assets, and services which
could occur in a community or society over some
specified future time period.
Disaster risk is the product of the possible damage
caused by a hazard due to the vulnerability within a
community. It should be noted that the effect of a
hazard (of a particular magnitude) would affect
communities differently (Von Kotze, 1999:35).
It can also be determined by the presence of three
variables: hazards (natural or anthropogenic);
vulnerability to a hazard; and coping capacity
linked to the reduction, mitigation, and resilience to
the vulnerability of a community.
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EFFECTS OF HAZARD, EXPOSURE AND
VULNERABILITY TO DISASTER RISK
Hazard is a harmful condition, substance, human
behavior or condition that can cause loss of life,
injury or other health effects, harm to property, loss
of livelihood and services, social and economic
disruption or damage to the environment. Any risk
which is imminent is threat.
Exposure is the presence of elements at risk or
chance of being harmed from a natural or man-
made hazard event. Elements include the
individuals, households or communities, properties,
buildings and structures, agricultural commodities,
livelihoods, and public facilities, infrastructures and
environmental assets present in an area that are
subject to potential damage or even losses. The
more a community is exposed to hazard factors,
the higher is the disaster risk or higher chance
disaster occurrence.
Vulnerability means the characteristics and
circumstances of a community, system, or asset,
that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of
a hazard and inability of a community to prevent,
mitigate, prepare for and respond to hazardous
events.
Risk implies the probability of possible adverse
effects. This results from the interaction of social
and environmental systems, from the combination
of physical danger, and exposed item
vulnerabilities.
Disaster is a serious disruption to the functioning
of a community or society which causes
widespread human, material, economic or
environmental losses that exceed the capacity of
the community or society concerned to cope with
the use of their own resources. It results from the
mix of hazards, risk conditions and inadequate
capability or measures.
Exposure and vulnerability, on the other hand,
are distinct. A certain community can be exposed
but it does not mean that it is vulnerable. Buildings
and structures in Japan are exposed to
earthquake, but they are not vulnerable since their
architectural and engineering designs are
earthquake proof or resistant. However, to become
vulnerable, it must be exposed to hazard first.
Disaster mitigation measures are those that
eliminate or reduce the impacts and risks of
hazards by means of proactive measures taken
before an emergency or disaster takes place.
Mitigation is the action of reducing something's
severity, seriousness, or painfulness.
Reduction of the level Vulnerability and exposure is
possible by keeping people and property as distant
as possible from hazards. We cannot avoid natural
events from occurring, but we can concentrate on
addressing the reduction of risk and exposure by
determining the factors causing disasters.
Risk Factors are processes or conditions, often
development-related, that influence the level of
disaster risk by increasing levels of exposure and
vulnerability or reducing capacity.
The following are also taken into consideration
when risk factors underlying disaster are
involved:
SEVERITY OF EXPOSURE - which measures
those who experience disaster first- hand which
has the highest risk of developing future mental
problems, followed by those in contact with the
victims such as rescue workers and health care
practitioners and the lowest risk are those most
distant like those who have awareness of the
disaster only through news.
GENDER AND FAMILY- the female gender suffers
more adverse effects. This worsens when children
are present at home. Marital relationships are
placed under strain.
AGE - adults in the age range of 40-60 are more
stressed after disasters but in general, children
exhibit more stress after disasters than adults do.
ECONOMIC STATUS - of country evidence
indicates that severe mental problems resulting
from disasters are more prevalent in developing
countries like the Philippines. Furthermore, it has
been observed that natural disasters tend to have
more adverse effects in developing countries than
do man- caused disasters in developed countries.
FACTORS WHICH UNDERLIC DISASTERS:
1. Climate Change - can increase disaster risk in
a variety of ways - by altering the frequency and
intensity of hazards events, affecting vulnerability
to hazards, and changing exposure patterns.
For most people, the expression "climate change"
means the alteration of the world's climate that we
humans are causing such as burning of fossil fuels,
deforestation and other practices that increase the
carbon footprint and concentration of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere.
This is in line with the official definition by the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) that climate change is the
change that can be attributed "directly or indirectly
to human activity that alters the composition of the
global atmosphere and which is in addition to
natural climate variability observed over
comparable time periods"
2. Environmental Degradation - changes to the
environment can influence the frequency and
intensity of hazards, as well as our exposure and
vulnerability to these hazards.
For instance, deforestation of slopes often leads to
an increase in landslide hazard and removal of
mangroves can increase the damage caused by
storm surges (UNISDR, 2009b). It is both a driver
and consequence of disasters, reducing the
capacity of the environment to meet social and
ecological needs.
Over consumption of natural resources results in
environmental degradation, reducing the
effectiveness of essential ecosystem services,
such as the mitigation of floods and landslides.
This leads to increased risk from disasters, and in
turn, natural hazards can further degrade the
environment.
3. Globalized Economic Development - It results
in an increased polarization between the rich and
poor on a global scale. Currently increasing the
exposure of assets in hazard prone areas,
globalized economic development provides an
opportunity to build resilience if effectively
managed.
By participating in risk- sensitive development
strategies such as investing in protective
infrastructure, environmental management, and
upgrading informal settlements, risk can be
reduced. Dominance and increase of wealth in
certain regions and cities are expected to have
increased hazard exposure (Gencer, 2013).
4. Poverty and Inequality - Impoverished people
are more likely to live in hazard- exposed areas
and are less able to invest in risk-reducing
measures. The lack of access to insurance and
social protection means that people in poverty are
often forced to use their already limited assets to
buffer disaster losses, which drives them into
further poverty.
Poverty is therefore both a cause and
consequence of disaster risk (Wisner et al., 2004),
particularly extensive risk, with drought being the
hazard most closely associated with poverty
(Shepard et al., 2013). The impact of disasters on
the poor can, in addition to loss of life, injury and
damage, cause a total loss of livelihoods,
displacement, poor health, food insecurity, among
other consequences.
5. Poorly planned and Managed Urban
Development - A new wave of urbanization is
unfolding in hazard-exposed countries and with it,
new opportunities for resilient investment emerge.
People, poverty, and disaster risk are increasingly
concentrated in cities.
The growing rate of urbanization and the increase
in population density (in cities) can lead to creation
of risk, especially when urbanization is rapid,
poorly planned and occurring in a context of
widespread poverty. Growing concentrations of
people and economic activities in many cities are
seen to overlap with areas of high-risk exposure.
6. Weak Governance - weak governance zones
are investment environments in which public sector
actors are unable or unwilling to assume their roles
and responsibilities in protecting rights, providing
basic services and public services. Disaster risk is
disproportionately concentrated in lower-income
countries with weak governance (UNISDR, 2015a).
Disaster risk governance refers to the specific
arrangements that societies put in place to manage
their disaster risk (UNISDR, 2011a; UNDP, 2013a)
within a broader context of risk governance (Renn,
2008 in UNISDR, 2015a). This reflects how risk is
valued against a backdrop of broader social and
economic concerns (Holley et al., 2011).
7. Geographical Location - The Philippines is one
of the most vulnerable countries in the world to
natural disasters. The country's location makes it
vulnerable to storms that cause flooding,
mudslides, and typhoons.
Furthermore, the Philippines is vulnerable to
tsunamis due to the presence of offshore trenches
such as the Manila Trench. Regrettably, the list
does not stop there. The Philippines also sits
above the Ring of Fire, a path that runs through the
Pacific Ocean basin.
Certain factors are related to a survivor's
background and recovery is hampered if survivors:
were not functioning well before the disaster; have
no experience dealing with disasters; must deal
with other stressors after the disaster; have low
self-esteem; feel uncared for by others; think they
exercise little control over what happens to them;
and unable to manage stress.
More factors contributory to worse outcomes:
death of someone close; injury to self or family
member; life threat; panic, horror, or similar
feelings; separation from family; massive loss of
property; and displacement.
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DISASTER AND ITS EFFECTS
A disaster is a damaging event that occurs
suddenly and involves loss of life and property. It
can be of two types, natural and man-made.
Natural disasters- are devastating outcomes that
result from natural hazards.
Man-made disasters- also called technological
disasters, are destructions from man-made
hazards such as bomb explosions, chemical spills,
and even war.
What is the difference between hazard and
disaster?
A hazard is a dangerous situation or event that
carries a threat to humans. A disaster is an event
that harms humans and disrupts the operations of
society
Hazards can only be considered disasters once it
affected humans. If a disaster happened in an
unpopulated area, it is still a hazard.
EFFECTS OF DISASTER:
1. Displaced Populations
One of the most immediate effects of natural
disasters is population displacement.
When countries are ravaged by earthquakes or
other powerful forces of nature, many people need
to abandon their homes and seek shelter in other
regions.
A large influx of refugees can disrupt accessibility
of health care and education, as well as food
supplies and clean water.
2. Health Risks
Aside from the obvious immediate danger that
natural disasters present, the secondary effect can
be just as damaging.
Severe flooding can result in stagnant water that
allows breeding of waterborne bacteria and
malaria-carrying mosquitoes.
Without emergency relief from international aid
organizations and others, death tolls can rise even
after the immediate danger has passed.
As a result, food prices rise reducing families'
purchasing power and increasing the risk of severe
malnutrition or worse. The impacts of hunger
following an earthquake, typhoon or hurricane can
be tremendous, causing lifelong damage to
children's development.
4. Emotional Aftershocks
Natural disasters can be particularly traumatic for
young children. Confronted with scenes of
destruction and the deaths of friends and loved
ones, many children develop post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD), a serious psychological condition
resulting from extreme trauma.
Left untreated, children suffering from PTSD can
be prone to lasting psychological damage and
emotional distress.
Great damage caused by a disaster can be
reduced if everyone will take responsibility in
anticipating its effects.
Here are some ways on how to plan ahead of a
disaster:
1. Check for hazards at home.
2. Identify safe place indoors and outdoors
3. Educate yourself and family members
4. Have Disaster kits/supplies on hand.
5. Develop an emergency communication plan.
6. Help your community get ready
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PERSPECTIVES ON DISASTER
1. Physical perspective
Calamities are phenomena that cause great
physical damage in a community infrastructure, its
people and their properties, e.g. houses and
environmental sources of living. These cited effects
of a disaster can be easily measured and the most
common.
Natural disasters generally affect the physical
infrastructural facilities, agricultural productivity and
even lead to loss of life and cause damage to
property. Various factors influence the effects of a
disaster on a country among them are the
magnitude of the disaster, the geography of the
area affected, and the recovery efforts directed
towards reducing the immediate effects of a
disaster.
includes the visible or tangible materials, whether
natural or man-made, which have been affected by
a disaster. The altered or removed structures may
change the landscape, zoning, and accessibility of
an area.
Effects of Physical Disasters:
 Injuries
 Physical disabilities or illness
 Sanitation
 Damage in infrastructure
2. Psychological perspective
Refers to the people’s emotional, cognitive, or
interpersonal reaction to difficulties. Catastrophic
events can cause shock, terror, anxiety, disbelief,
nightmares, trauma, social withdrawal or
alienation, or depression to victims.
For instance, a person who witnessed a loved one
struggling for survival or dying in the process
during disaster may be traumatized. This traumatic
event or situation can cause long-term depression
and can affect the person’s well-being.
Victims of disasters may suffer from Post
Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and other
serious mental health conditions, which are not
being given much attention to by the authorities or
even by the victims, themselves. (This may be
sensitive statement)
Disasters are mostly unpredictable, which leave
the victims in a state of shock. They tend to deny
the loss and try to escape from reality. Being in a
denial state makes the victims more vulnerable to
stress, anxiety, and other different maladaptive
reactions. Death of a closed one also leaves the
victim in a state of insecurity because the sense of
love, attachment and belongingness are deprived.
Psychological effects of a Disaster:
Distress, Intrusion/avoidance, Hopelessness,
Emotional effects, Hatred/revenge
,Dependence/insecurities ,Grief/withdrawn/isolation
,Guilt feeling ,Lack of trust ,Cognitive
Effects ,Physical Effects ,Interpersonal
effect ,Helplessness
3. Sociocultural perspective
Centers on the response of the people, whether
victims or not, to emergency situations and to the
kind of assistance they receive. The characteristics
of affected families such as their religions,
customs, attitudes, beliefs, and values can
influence their approach to or their recovery from
the disaster.
Filipinos are generally known as “matiisin”,
resourceful, helpful, optimistic, and prayerful.
These characteristics are manifested in the
country’s recent fight against COVID 19. Due to
the National Health Emergency, Enhanced
Community Quarantine (ECQ) prevailed in the
whole country.
A lot of people temporarily lost their jobs, some
people stranded in different regions, repatriated
OFWs were held in different quarantine facilities in
Metro Manila, and all people were restricted to go
out of their homes for months. As a result, most
Filipino families would rely on government’s help
for them to get by. However, limited resources and
aids from the government make people find
possible ways to survive amid the pandemic.
These traits help a lot of Filipinos to survive the
challenge of COVID 19 in the country. To people
who are used to natural calamities like typhoons,
flash floods, and volcanic eruptions most citizen
would find contentment with what they have at the
moment. The culture of “malalampasan din natin
‘to..” belief and “bahala na and Diyos” syndrome
give hope to most Filipino in the midst of a
disaster.
Such perspective helps a lot especially those who
belong to the marginalized sector to be hopeful
and continue fighting against any challenge at
hand. Their belief that a help from someone or
from God would arrive at a time they most needed.
It also helps most people survive a lot of oddities in
life.
Socio-Cultural Effect of Disasters
 Change in individual roles
 Disruption of social relationships and
personal connections
4. Economic perspective
Focuses on the disruption of economic activities in
the community. Disaster, whether small- or large –
scale, brings about serious economic
consequences.
Disasters affect the economic condition of a
community because they reduce local and
international trade. It can also partially or totally
paralyze a country’s transportation system, just like
what happened in the COVID19 pandemic.
Implementation of a partial and total shut down of
local business operations result to a lot of people
losing means of living.
Economic Effects of Disasters
 Loss of life
 Unemployment
 Loss of property
 Loss of household articles
 Loss of crops
 Loss of public infrastructure
5. Political perspective
Natural disasters are commonly thought to be less
politically argumentative than armed conflicts, yet a
closer look shows that both the effects of a natural
disaster and the resulting distribution of
humanitarian aid are profoundly linked to politics.
Just as vulnerability to disasters is mediated by the
political system of a country, disasters can have
major consequences for political stability and
political legitimacy (Hörhager, July 2017.
Since agencies of government have a significant
role to play in directing disaster preparedness,
prevention and recovery. Social systems establish
vulnerability to natural disasters and governments
are often considered to be responsible for the
disaster effects.
Deals with how government services are used to
reduce loss or damage by preparing for and
preventing disasters. This perspective is critical
because in some cases, there exists inequities in
societies that create political prejudice in
developing plans and policies related to disaster
risk reduction and recovery plans.
Political Effects of a Disaster
People who have trust in political institution will
assess the Government’s risk assessments as
credible and accept their hazard.
Policies (Johnson 1999) Low level of trust in public
institutions therefore means that citizens may
ignore the recommendations and disregard the
information provided by these institutions
(McCaffey 2004).
6. Biological Perspective
The disturbing effects caused by a prevalent kind
of disease or virus in an epidemic or pandemic
level is known as biological disaster.
(a) Epidemic Level: Biological disaster
affects large numbers of people within a given
community or area. Ex: Dengue.
(b) Pandemic Level: Biological disaster
affects a much large region, sometime spanning
entire continents or the globe.
Effects of Biological Disasters
 Loss of lives
 Public demobilization
 Negative economic effect
 Unemployment
 Hunger