Department of Civil Engineering

University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

CE-402: Irrigation Engineering and

Water Management

Lecture 15
Canal Outlets, Cross-drainage Works

8th Semester (4th Year)

Civil Engineering
Spring 2022

Lecturer: Alamgir Khalil

1
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Canal Outlets
➢ An outlet is a hydraulic structure conveying irrigation water from a state-owned
distributary or a minor to privately owned water course.
➢ The outlets are large in number as compared to other irrigation structures in an
irrigation system and hence their design and type has maximum bearing on the
equitable distribution of water. Thus, an outlet is a sort of head regulator for the
field channel delivering water to the irrigation fields.
➢ The responsibility of maintenance of the distributing channel and the whole canal
network lies with government, while of the field channels lies with the farmer.

2
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Canal Outlets (cont.)

Canal Outlet
Pakka Nakka (Turnouts)
3
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Essential requirements of an Outlet

➢ An outlet should be strong and be without movable parts to minimize tempering.
➢ Tempering by cultivators should be readily detectable.
➢ The outlet must carry its fair share of silt from parent channel.
➢ It should be able to work with small working heads.
➢ It should be simple so that construction is easy.
➢ The total cost of installation and maintenance should be minimum.

4
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Types of Outlets

Semi-Modular Modular
Non-Modular (Flexible) (Rigid)

Pipe or Barrel Type, Weir Type Orifice Type (OSM) With moving parts
with drowned flow
at d/s
Harvey-Stoddard Kennedy’s Gauge
outlet Outlet
Without moving parts

Crumps open Crumps

flume outlet adjustable Gibbs module
Scratchley outlet proportional
(a pipe type, with a module (Crumps Khanna module
cistern d/s) APM)
Ghafoor rigid flume
Jamrao type Adjustable module
open flume orifice semi
module (AOSM) 5
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Types of Outlets (Modules)

1) Non-Modular Outlets
➢ It is one in which the discharge is dependent
upon the difference of head in water course
and parent channel. Hence, a variation in
either affects the discharge.

2) Semi-Modular (Flexible)
➢ It is an outlet in which the discharge depends upon the water level in distributary
only and is independent of water level in water course.

3) Modular (Rigid) Outlets

➢ It is an outlet in which the discharge is independent of the water level in water
course and parent channel. It can be fixed for any designed value.

6
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Types of Non-Modular Outlets

➢ A non-modular outlet may be in the form of a rectangular opening or open sluice,
or a simple submerged pipe. Pipe outlet (when submerged) is a very simple type of
a non-modular outlet.

Submerged Pipe Outlet

✓ The pipe diameter varies from 10 to 30 cm.
✓ Pipes are generally embedded in concrete and are generally fixed horizontally at
right angles to the direction of flow.
✓ The discharge, however, for all practical purposes, may be easily computed by using
the simple relation:
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴 2𝑔𝐻𝐿
Where 𝑞 = Discharge through the outlet
𝐶𝑑 = Coefficient of discharge for the pipe outlet.
𝐴 = Area of the pipe
𝐻𝐿 = Difference of head between the FSL of distributary and FSL of water course,
usually called working head of irrigation outlet. 7
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Types of Non-Modular Outlets (cont.)

Submerged Pipe Outlet

8
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Types of Non-Modular Outlets (cont.)

Submerged Pipe Outlet

9
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Types of Semi-Modules or Flexible Outlets

➢ The common types of semi-modules are :
1) Pipe outlet discharging freely into the air.
2) Venturi-flume outlet or Kennedy's Gauge outlet.
3) Open flume outlet.
4) Adjustable orifice semi-module

Venturi Flume Outlet or Kennedy's Gauge Outlet

➢ Kennedy's Gauge Outlet is of a Venturi flume type. It is made of cast iron and
consists of three main parts : (a) an orifice with a bell mouth entry ; (b) a long
expanding delivery pipe ; (c) an air-vent connecting the throat of the delivery pipe
to the atmosphere.
➢ The discharge through this type of outlet is given as : 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴 2𝑔𝐻𝑜
Where 𝑞 = Discharge through the outlet, 𝐴 = Area of cross-section of the pipe at
the throat, 𝐻𝑜 = Head measured from FSL of distributary to the center of the pipe
at throat, 𝐶𝑑 = Coefficient of discharge which may be as high as 0.97
10
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Types of Semi-Modules or Flexible Outlets (cont.)

Venturi Flume Outlet or Kennedy's Gauge Outlet

11
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Types of Rigid Modules

➢ There are a few types of rigid modules which have no moving parts, such as ::
1) Gibb's module
2) Khanna’s rigid module
3) Foote module
➢ Out of all these modules, Gibb's module is the most important and widely used.

Gibb's Rigid Module

➢ The discharge range of Gibb's module varies between 0.03 to 0.45 cumec
(1 to 16 cusecs). For lower values of discharge, i.e. between 1 to 3 cusecs, it is often
economical to construct it in R.C.C., but for higher discharges (greater than 3 cusecs)
it may be constructed in brick masonry.

12
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Types of Rigid Modules (cont.)

Gibb's Rigid Module

13
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

14
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Types of Rigid Modules (cont.)

Gibb's Rigid Module

➢ The discharge through the Gibb's module is given by Gibb's formula as :

1.5
𝑚2 − 1 1 𝑚2 − 1
𝑞 = 𝑟2 ∙ 2𝑔 𝑦1 + ℎ2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑚 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑚 +
𝑚3 𝑚 2𝑚2
𝑟1
Where 𝑚 = 𝑟2
𝑟1 = radius of inner semi-circle ; 𝑟2 = radius of outer semi-circle
𝑦1 = Depth of water at inner circumference
ℎ2 = Head at outer circumference.
Gibb's formula given above, is based on free vortex flow and holds good only for his
standard design in which
where D is the difference of level measured from
ℎ2 1
𝑚 = 2 and = the minimum water level in the parent channel to
𝐷 7 the floor of eddy chamber.
15
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Criteria for Judging the Performance of Modules

➢ The behavior and functioning of a module can be judged by the following important
terms and definitions :

Flexibility
➢ Flexibility is defined as the ratio of the rate of change of discharge of the outlet to
the rate of change of discharge of the distributary channel.

𝑑𝑞/𝑞
𝐹=
𝑑𝑄/𝑄

Where 𝐹 = Flexibility of the outlet

𝑞 = Discharge passing through the outlet
𝑄 = Discharge in the distributary channel

16
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Criteria for Judging the Performance of Modules (cont.)

Proportionality

➢ The outlet is said to be proportional when the rate of change of outlet discharge
equals the rate of change of channel discharge. In other words, the outlet is
'proportional' when 'flexibility' equals unity.

𝐹=1
➢ Hyper-proportional outlet: An outlet is known to be hyper-proportional if its
flexibility is greater than unity.

𝐹>1

➢ Sub-proportional outlet: An outlet is known to be sub-proportional if its flexibility is

less than unity.

𝐹<1
17
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Criteria for Judging the Performance of Modules (cont.)

Sensitivity

➢ Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the rate of change of discharge through the
outlet to the rate of change of water level of the distributary, referred to the
normal depth of the channel. For rigid modules, the discharge is fixed and hence
the sensitivity is zero.
➢ For flexible modules, where the discharge through the outlet is independent of the
water level of the watercourse and depends only upon the water level of the
distributary, a gauge can be fixed and calibrated so as to indicate its reading G = 0
when q = 0. Thus

Where 𝑆 = Sensitivity of the outlet

𝑑𝑞/𝑞 𝑞 = Discharge passing through the outlet
𝑆=
𝑑𝐺/𝑦 𝐺 = Guage reading in the distributary channel
𝑦 = the depth of water in the distributary.

18
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Criteria for Judging the Performance of Modules (cont.)

It is also evident that :

1) Greater is the variation in the discharge of an outlet for a given rise or fall in
water surface level of the distributary, the larger is the sensitivity of the outlet.

2) The sensitivity of a non-flexible module is zero.

19
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Canal Outlets (cont.)

Tail Cluster
20
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Cross Drainage Works

➢ In an Irrigation project, when the network of main canals, branch canals,
distributaries, etc. are provided, then these canals may have to cross the natural
drainages like rivers, streams, etc. at different points within the command area of
the project.

➢ The crossing of the canals with such obstacle cannot be avoided. So, suitable
structures must be constructed at the crossing point for the easy flow of water of
the canal and drainage in the respective directions. These structures are known
as cross-drainage works.

➢ Thus, a cross-drainage work is a structure carrying the discharge of a natural

stream across a canal intercepting the stream.

21
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Cross Drainage Works (cont.)

➢ A cross drainage work is a structure which is constructed at the crossing of a canal
and a natural drain, so as dispose of drainage water without interrupting the
continuous canal supplies.
➢ In whatever way the canal is aligned, such cross drainage works generally become
unavoidable. In order to reduce the cross drainage works, the artificial canals are
generally aligned along the ridge line called watershed. When once the canal
reaches the watershed line, cross drainage works are generally not required, unless
the canal alignment is deviated from the watershed line.

22
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Cross Drainage Works (cont.)

➢ A cross drainage work is generally a
costly construction and must be
avoided as far as possible.

➢ Since a watershed canal crosses

minimum number of drains, such
an alignment is preferred to a
contour canal which crosses
maximum number of drains.

➢ The number of cross drainage works may also be reduced by diverting one drain
into another and by changing the alignment of the canal, so that it crosses below
the junction of two drains.

23
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Cross Drainage Works (cont.)

Magdeburg Water Bridge, Magdeburg, Germany

24
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Cross Drainage Works (cont.)

Necessity of Cross-drainage Works
✓ The watershed canals do not cross natural drainages. But in actual orientation of
the canal network, this ideal condition may not be available and the obstacles like
natural drainages may be present across the canal. So, the cross-drainage works
must be provided for running the irrigation system.

✓ At the crossing point, the water of the canal and the drainage get intermixed. So,
for the smooth running of the canal with its design discharge the cross-drainage
works are required.

✓ The site condition of the crossing point may be such that without any suitable
structure, the water of the canal and drainage can not be diverted to their natural
directions. So, the cross-drainage works must be provided to maintain their natural
direction of flow.

25
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Cross Drainage Works (cont.)

Necessity of Cross-drainage Works

26
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Types of Cross-Drainage Works

➢ The drainage water intercepting the canal can be disposed of in either of the
following ways :

a) Type I — By passing the canal over the drainage.

1) an aqueduct
2) a syphon-aqueduct.

b) Type II — By passing the canal below the drainage.

1) a super-passage
2) canal syphon generally called a syphon.

c) Type III — By passing the drain through the canal, so that the canal water and
drainage water are allowed to mix with each other. This may be accomplished
through
1) a level crossing
2) inlets and outlets.
27
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Type I (Irrigation canal passes over the drainage)

Aqueduct
➢ The hydraulic structure in which the irrigation canal is taken over the drainage (such
as river, stream etc.) is known as aqueduct. This structure is suitable when bed level
of canal is above the highest flood level of drainage. In this case, the drainage water
passes clearly below the canal.

28
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Type I (Irrigation canal passes over the drainage) (cont.)

Aqueduct

29
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Type I (Irrigation canal passes over the drainage) (cont.)

Aqueduct

30
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Type I (Irrigation canal passes over the drainage) (cont.)

Syphon Aqueduct

➢ In a hydraulic structure where the canal is taken over the drainage, but the
drainage water cannot pass clearly below the canal. It flows under syphonic action.
So, it is known as syphon aqueduct. This structure is suitable when the bed level of
canal is below the highest flood level.

Fig: Syphon Aqueduct

31
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Type II (Drainage passes over the irrigation canal)

Super Passage
➢ The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is taken over the irrigation canal is
known as super passage. The structure is suitable when the bed level of drainage is
above the full supply level of the canal. The water of the canal passes clearly below
the drainage.

32
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Type II (Drainage passes over the irrigation canal) (cont.)

Canal Syphon
➢ The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is taken over the irrigation canal, but
the canal water passes below the drainage under syphonic action is known as a
canal syphon. This structure is suitable when the bed level of drainage is below the
full supply level of the canal.

Fig: Canal Syphon

33
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Type II (Drainage passes over the irrigation canal) (cont.)

Canal Syphon

34
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Type III (By passing the drain through the canal)

Level Crossings
➢ When the bed level of canal and the stream are approximately the same and
quality of water in canal and stream is not much different, the cross-drainage work
constructed is called level crossing where water of canal and stream is allowed to
mix.
➢ With the help of regulators both
in canal and stream, water is
disposed through canal and
stream in required quantity. Level
crossing consists of following
components
i) Crest wall
ii) Stream regulator
iii) Canal regulator.

35
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Type III (By passing the drain through the canal) (cont.)
Inlet and Outlet
➢ When irrigation canal meets a small stream or drain at same level, drain is allowed
to enter the canal as in inlet. At some distance from this inlet point, a part of water
is allowed to drain as outlet which eventually meets the original stream. Stone
pitching is required at the inlet and outlet. The bed and banks between inlet and
outlet are also protected by stone pitching. This type of CDW is called Inlet and
Outlet.

36
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Type III (By passing the drain through the canal) (cont.)
Inlet and Outlet

37
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Selection of a Suitable Type of Cross-Drainage Work

➢ The relative bed levels, water levels, and discharge of the canal and the drainage are
the primary factors which govern and dictate the type of cross drainage work that
may prove to be most suitable at a particular place.

➢ If the bed level of the canal is sufficiently above the HFL of the drain, an aqueduct is
the first and obvious choice.

➢ If the bed level of the drain is sufficiently above the canal FSL, a super passage may
be constructed.

➢ When a canal carries a small discharge compared to the drain, the canal may be
taken below the drain by constructing a syphon, as against a syphon aqueduct
which is adopted when the drain with smaller discharge can be taken below a large
canal.

38
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Selection of a Suitable Type of Cross-Drainage Work (cont.)

➢ However, in actual field, such ideal conditions may not be available, and the
choice would then depend upon many other factors, such as :

1) Suitable canal alignment.

2) Nature of available foundation.
3) Position of water table and availability dewatering equipment.
4) Suitability of soil for embankment.
5) Permissible head loss in canal.
6) Availability of funds.

39
 Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Selection of the Suitable Site for Cross-Drainage Work

➢ The canal and the drain should cross each other at right angle. Acute or obtuse
angle crossing should be avoided.

➢ There should be sufficient straight reaches of canal and drain on both the upstream
and the downstream sides.

➢ A sufficient reach of drain on the upstream should be stable and uniform.

➢ Foundation should be suitable for cross drainage works.

40