PRASHANT KIRAD

MAHA MARATHON

CLASS - 1Oth
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

CHEMICAL
REACTIONS and
EQUATIONS
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Types of Changes:
Physical change : change in colour or state occurs, but no new substance is formed. e.g.
boiling of water
Chemical change : one or more new substances with change in Chemical composition
along with a change in shape/size/state changes e.g. Rusting of Iron

Chemical Reactions: A chemical reaction is a process in which substances undergo a

transformation, resulting in the formation of new substances with different chemical
properties.
The substances which take part in a chemical reaction are called reactants.
The new substances produced as a result of a chemical reaction are called products.

Chemical Equation: A chemical equation is a symbolic representation of a chemical reaction,

using chemical formulas and symbols to show the reactants and products involved.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
NCERT ACTIVITY
Aim : To observe and study the burning of magnesium ribbon.
Procedure :
1. Clean a magnesium ribbon about 2 cm long by rubbing it with
sandpaper.
2. Using tongs, hold a piece of magnesium ribbon at one end.
3. Light a Bunsen Burner or a candle.
4. Hold one end of magnesium ribbon in the flame of the burner or
candle. Make sure that the flame touches the magnesium ribbon.
Observation:
1. Magnesium ribbon burns with a white dazzling flame and changes into white ash. The white powder (ash)
is magnesium oxide.
2. The ash may fall onto the watch glass.
Conclusion : It is clear that Mg burns and changes into a new substance of a new state, which is
magnesium oxide (MgO).
Combustion: When the magnesium ribbon is heated in the flame, it undergoes combustion, combining
with oxygen from the air to form magnesium oxide (MgO). The chemical equation for this reaction is:
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
NCERT ACTIVITY
Aim : To observe the formation of a precipitate when solutions of lead nitrate and potassium iodide
are mixed.

Procedure :
1. Take two clean and dry test tubes say A and B.
2. In test tube A, take lead nitrate solution and in test tube B take potassium
iodide solution.
3. Using a dropper, carefully add potassium iodide solution to the lead nitrate
solution in test tube A

Observation:
1. A yellow precipitate forms in test tube A when the solution are mixed.
2. The yellow precipitate is the precipitate of lead iodide

Conclusion : On mixing Pb(NO3 )2 and KI, the yellow-coloured precipitate of PbI2 is obtained.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
NCERT ACTIVITY
Aim : To observe and compare the reactions of zinc with hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid.

Procedure :
1. Take two clean and dry test tubes, label one as “HCl” for the
hydrochloric acid reaction and other as “H2SO4 ” for the
sulphuric acid reaction.
2. Place a small amount of zinc granules in each test tube.
3. Add hydrochloric acid to the HCl test tube and sulphuric
acid to the H2SO4 test tube, ensuring that the zinc is
completely immersed in the acid.
4. Stopper each test tube with a stopper that has a delivery
tube attached.
5. Connect the delivery tube from the “HCl” test tube to a rubber tubing and place the other end of the
tubing in a glass beaker filled with water.
6. Connect the delivery tube from the H2SO4 test tube in the same way.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
NCERT ACTIVITY
Observations:
In both the test tube, upon adding the dilute acid to the zinc granules, we will notice bubbles forming
around the zinc granules.
The bubbles are formed due to the release of hydrogen gas during the reaction between zinc and the
dilute acid.
On touching the test tube, we will observe a change in temperature, with the container becoming warm.
We verified that it is Hydrogen gas forming around the zinc metal when passed through soap solution.

Conclusion :
● In both case, the Zn granules react with acid, releasing H2 gas as bubbles.
● Acid react with metals to form salt and hydrogen gas.
● The increase in temperature indicates that the reaction is highly exothermic
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
Characteristics of a Chemical reaction:
1. Change in Colour: Fe + CuSO4 (Blue) → FeSO4 (Blue green) + Cu
2. Change in Temperature: CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Heat

3. Change in State: H2 (g) + O2 (g)→ H2O (i.e. from gas to liquid)

4. Evolution of gas: (Zn(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

5. Formation of precipitate: Pb(NO3 )2 (aq) + Kl (aq) → Pbl2 (s) + KNO3 (aq)

6. Endothermic reaction (energy is absorbed):

CaCO3 + Heat → CaO + CO2 (photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction)

7. Exothermic reaction (energy is released):

CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Heat (Digestion and respiration are exothermic reactions)
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Balanced Chemical reaction

A balanced chemical equation has the number of atoms of each element
equal on both sides.

Step 1: Write the unbalanced equation.

Step 2: Count the atoms of each element on both sides.
Step 3: Balance the most complex molecules first by adding coefficients.
Step 4: Adjust coefficients to balance the atoms.
Step 5: Recheck the atom count after each adjustment.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Balance:
1.. CO(g) + O2 (g) ⟶ CO2 (g)
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

2. Pb(NO3 )2 + KI ⟶ KNO3 + PbI2

 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

3.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
Limitations of Chemical Equations :
1. It does not inform about the physical states of the reactants and the product i.e. whether they are solids,
liquids and gases.
2. It does not inform about the concentration of reactants and products.
3. It does not inform about the time taken for the completion of the reaction and the rate at which a reaction
proceeds.
4. It does not inform about the heat changes during the reaction i.e. whether the heat is given out or absorbed.
5. It does not inform about the conditions such as temperature, pressure, catalyst etc. which affect the reaction.
6. It does not inform about the nature of the reaction i.e. whether it is reversible or irreversible.

Removal of limitations :
Mention the physical state of reactants when denoting a chemical reaction. Use common notations like (s) for solids, (l)
for liquids, (g) for gases and (aq) for aqueous medium. These denote the phases of the reaction.
Apart from this, the temperature, pressure and catalyst information is mentioned on the arrow that directs towards the
product.
⇌
If the reaction is reversible and can proceed in both directions, then two half arrowheads ( ) are used, whereas if the
→
reaction is irreversible and proceeds only in one direction, i.e., forward direction, then a single arrow ( ) directing
towards the product is used.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Combination Reaction and its types:

In a combination reaction, two elements or one element and one
compound or two compounds combine to give one single product.
The general chemical equation for a combination reaction is:
A+B → AB
(i) Calcium oxide (Quick lime) reacts with water vigorously to produce Calcium
hydroxide (slaked lime) releasing a large amount of heat (exothermic):
CaO (s) + H2O (l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Heat

(ii) Formation of water: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l)

(iii) Burning of Coal: C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g

 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Decomposition reaction and its types

Reactions in which one compound decomposes in two or more compounds or
elements are known as Decomposition Reaction.
A general decomposition reaction can be represented as follows :
AB →A+B
Types:
Thermal Decomposition : In a thermal decomposition reaction, a compound
breaks down into simpler substances when heated. For example,

a. The decomposition of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) into calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon
dioxide (CO2) when heated is a thermal decomposition reaction
heat
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

b. Thermolysis of hydrated ferrous sulphate:

C. Thermolysis of lead nitrate: On heating lead nitrate, it decomposes to give yellow

lead monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen gas.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
NCERT ACTIVITY

Aim : Decomposition of Ferrous sulphate.

 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
NCERT ACTIVITY

Aim : Decomposition of Lead Nitrate:

 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
NCERT ACTIVITY
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Electrolytic Decomposition or Electrolysis :

Electrolysis is a chemical process in which an electric current is used to decompose
or break down compounds into their constituent elements or ions.

a. Electrolysis of water : When an electric current is passed through water, it breaks

down into hydrogen gas (H2) at the cathode and oxygen gas (O2) at the anode
2H2O (l) → 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)
Electricity

b. Electrolysis of sodium chloride : When an aqueous solution of sodium chloride

(table salt) is subjected to electrolysis, it decomposes into chlorine gas (Cl2) at the
anode and hydrogen gas (H2) at the cathode
2NaCl (l) → 2Na (s) + Cl2 (g)
Electricity
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Photo Decomposition : Photo decomposition reactions are

initiated by exposure to light.
a. Decomposition of silver chloride (AgCl) into silver (Ag) and
chlorine (Cl2 ) when exposed to sunlight.

b. Decomposition of silver bromide (AgBr) into silver (Ag) and

bromine (Br2 ) when exposed to sunlight
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
NCERT ACTIVITY
Aim : Decomposition of silver chloride in the presence of sunlight

Observation: When silver chloride is placed in sunlight. The white colour of silver chloride changes.
Conclusion : On the decomposition of silver chloride which is white in colour, it changes to grey (due
to the formation of silver metal.

Silver chloride decomposes into silver and chlorine. so, the decomposition reaction takes place in the
presence of sunlight, it is called Photolysis.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Displacement Reaction and its types:

The chemical reactions in which a more reactive
element displaces a less reactive element from a
compound is known as Displacement Reactions.
A general displacement reaction can be represented by
using a chemical equation as follows :
→ AC + B
A + BC
Examples: Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Displacement Reaction are of 2 types:
1. Single Displacement Reaction
2. Double Displacement Reaction
On the basis of this reactivity series, more reactive
element will displace the less reactive element from its
salt solution in a displacement reaction.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

1.Single Displacement Reaction:

A single-displacement reaction is a specific type of chemical reaction in which
a single element is replaced by another element that is part of a compound.
Analogy : A + BC → AC + B , for example:
a. When iron is added to a copper sulphate solution, it displaces copper metal
as iron is more reactive than copper.

b. When lead is added to a copper chloride solution, it displaces the copper

metal as lead is more reactive than chlorine
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
NCERT ACTIVITY
Aim : The displacement of copper from copper sulphate by iron

Observation: After 20 minutes we take out both the nails from test tube B.
Now we compare both nails with the nail kept aside, and we find the iron nail that remained
suspended has a brownish coating on its surface.
We also find that the blue colour of the copper sulphate solution fades and changes to light green
colour which is different from the colour of the copper sulphate solution in test tube A
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Conclusion : Iron displaces copper from the copper sulphate solution.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

2. Double Displacement Reaction:

A double-displacement reaction is a kind of reaction which involves the
exchange of ions between two reactants to create two new molecules.
Also, called precipitation reduction as a precipitate is produced in such
reactions.
Analogy : AB + CD → AD + CB
Double Displacement Reaction are of 3 types:
1. Precipitation Reactions
2. Neutralisation Reactions
3. Gas-forming Reactions
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
NCERT ACTIVITY
Aim : Decomposition of silver chloride in the presence of sunlight

Observation:
If sulphate ions are present in the sodium sulphate solution, a white precipitate of barium sulphate (BaSO₄)
will form. This is a chemical reaction represented by the following equation:
Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
The white precipitate of barium sulphate is insoluble in water and will settle at the bottom of the test tube.
The appearance of this white precipitate confirms the presence of sulphate ions in the original solution.

Conclusion : Sodium sulphate and barium chloride undergo double-displacement

reaction and form insoluble white barium sulphate precipitate
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Oxidation: Addition of oxygen or non-metallic element or removal of

hydrogen or metallic element from a compound is known as Oxidation.
The substance which gives oxygen for oxidation is called an Oxidizing agent.
The substance which removes hydrogen is also called an Oxidizing agent.

Reduction: Addition of hydrogen or metallic element or removal of oxygen

or non-metallic element from a compound is called Reduction.
The substance which gives hydrogen for reduction is called a Reducing agent.
The substance which removes oxygen is also called a Reducing agent.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Redox Reaction :
The reaction in which oxidation and reduction both take place
simultaneously is called Redox reaction.
In a redox reaction substance getting oxidised is called a Reducing agent.
And the substance getting reduced is called an Oxidising agent
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
Effects of Oxidation :
Corrosion: The process of slow conversion of metals into their undesirable
compounds due to their reaction with oxygen, water, acids, gases etc. present in the
atmosphere is called Corrosion. Example: Rusting of iron.
Rusting: Iron when reacts with oxygen and moisture forms red substance which is
called Rust.
Tarnishing: The surface of silver metal gets tarnished (becomes dull) on exposure to
air, due to the formation of a coating of black silver sulphide(Ag2S) on its surface by
the action of H2S gas present in the air.
Rancidity: The taste and odour of food materials containing fat and oil changes when
they are left exposed to air for a long time. This is called Rancidity. It is caused due to
the oxidation of fat and oil present in food materials. Methods to prevent rancidity: By
adding anti-oxidant, Vacuum packing., Replacing air by nitrogen. ,Refrigeration of
foodstuff.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
TOP 5 QUESTIONS:
1. Solid calcium oxide was taken in a container and water was added slowly to it.
(CBSE 2013, 2019)
(a) Write the observations.
(b) Write the chemical formula of the product formed.

(i) Following are the two observations:

Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to form slaked lime.
The container becomes hot because a large amount of heat is released during
this reaction.
(ii) The product formed is slaked lime for which the chemical formula is Ca(OH)
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
TOP 5 QUESTIONS:
2.What change in color is observed when white silver chloride is Left exposed to sunlight?
State the type of chemical reaction in this change.
(CBSE 2014, 2019, 2023)

When white silver chloride exposed to sunlight it produces to black metallic coloured
silver along with liberation of chlorine gas
2AgCl 2Ag + Cl : it is photodecomposition reaction
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
TOP 5 QUESTIONS:
3.Write the chemical equation of the reaction in which the following changes take place with
an example of each. (CBSE 2023, 2015)
(a) Change in color (b) Change in temperature

3. (i) Change in colour:

The reaction between lead nitrate solution and potassium iodide solution.
Pb(NO3​)2​(aq) + 2KI → PbI2​(s) + 2KNO3​(aq)
In this reaction colour changes from colourless to yellow.

(ii) Change in temperature:

The action of dilute sulphuric acid on zinc.
Zn(s) + H2​SO4​(aq) → ZnSO4​(s) + H2​(g)
In this reaction, heat is evolved.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
TOP 5 QUESTIONS:
4. In the electrolysis of water, (CBSE 2020, 2013, SP-2018)
A. Name of the gases liberated at anode & cathode.
B. Why is it that the volume of gas collected on one electrode is two times that on the
other electrode?
C. What would happen if dilute H2S04 is not added to water?

4. (a) At cathode, H2 is evolved and at anode O2 is evolved.

(b) At cathode, H+ ion takes two electron to convert itself into H2 gas. 2 moles of H+ gives 1 mole of H2.
→
2H+(aq)+2e− H2(g)
At anode, OH− ion releases two electrons to convert into water and O2. 2 mole OH− gives 0.5 mole O2, i.e
why volume of one gas collected at one electron is double of another.
c) Acid is added to make the water conduct electricity as the distilled water is a non-conductor of
electricity.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
TOP 5 QUESTIONS:
5. A shining metal ‘M’ on burning gives a dazzling white flame & changes to a white powder ‘N’.
(CBSE 2020, 2022)
A. Identify ‘M’ & ‘N’.
B. Represent the above reaction in the form of a balanced chemical equation.
C. Does ‘M’ undergo oxidation or reduction in this reaction? Justify.

5. A. Reaction of Magnesium metal:

1. As, it is given that the metal ‘M’ on burning gives the dazzling white flame and also changes to the
white powder ‘N’.
2. So, the metal ‘M’ would be Magnesium metal as on the reaction of burning in the air, Magnesium
reacts with the Oxygen present in the air and gives the white powder on burning.
3. This Magnesium metal is basically the chemically active one.
4. Hence, the metal ‘M’ : Magnesium burns in the presence of Oxygen to form ‘N’ Magnesium oxide.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

ACIDS, BASES
and SALTS
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

ACIDS BASES
An acid is any hydrogen containing compound A base is any hydrogen containing compound
which gives H+ ions in aqueous solution which gives OH– ions in aqueous solution.

Acidic substances are usually identified by their Bases are characterized by a bitter taste and a
sour taste slippery texture

Acids are known to turn blue litmus red. Bases are known to turn red litmus blue.

Its pH value ranges from 1 to 7. Its pH value ranges from 7 to 14.

Examples - Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric Examples - Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH), Baking
acid (H2SO4 ), Citric Acid (citrus fruits) Soda(NaHCO3 ), Ammonia (NH3 )
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Indicators:
Indicators are those substances which tell us whether a substance is acidic or basic by change in
colour.

INDICATOR ACIDIC SOLUTION BASIC SOLUTION

Litmus Paper Blue litmus paper turns red Red litmus paper turns blue

Phenolphthalein Colorless Pink or red

Methyl Orange Red Yellow

Turmeric Paper Yellow Red or brown

Olfactory indicators are substances that change their smell in the presence of certain chemicals. These
indicators are used to detect whether the substance is an acid or base based on the changes in odor.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

REACTION WITH ACIDS BASES

Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas Metal + Alkali + Water → Salt + Hydrogen
1. METAL e.g., 2HCl + Zn → ZnCl2 + H2 e.g., 2NaOH + Zn → Na2ZnO2 + H2

Acid + Metal Carbonates/Bi Carbonate →

2. Carbonates and
Salt + Water + CO2
Metal Hydrogen
e.g., 2HCl + Na2CO3 → 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O
Carbonates
e.g. HCl + NaHCO3 → NaCl + H2O + CO2

Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water

3. Metallic oxides
e.g.,CuO (s) + HCl (l) → CuCl2 (s) + H2O (l)

Non-metal oxide + Base → Salt + Water

CO2 (g) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) → CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)
4. Non-metallic oxides
SO3 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Acid or a Base in a Water Solution:

It is recommended
When acid is added to water, hydrogen ions (H+ ) are produced.
→ H3O+ + Cl
that the acid should
HCl + H2O be added to water and

(H3O+). H + + H2O →
not water to the acid

When a base is dissolved in water, OH- ions are produced in water.

NaOH + H2O → Na+ + OH
SIMILARITIES:
Both acids and bases are good conductors of electricity. (electrolytes)
When dissociated in water, both acids and bases become neutralized.
Acids and bases both produce ions in water solution. Acids release
hydrogen ions (H+ ) whereas Bases release hydroxide ions (OH– ).
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Introduction to pH
pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺) in a
solution. The more hydrogen ions, the more acidic the solution; the
fewer hydrogen ions, the more basic the solution.

0-7 - Acidic substances (1 being the most acidic point on the pH scale)
7 - NEUTRAL
7-14 - Alkaline or basic substances
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Universal Indicator
A universal indicator is a mixture of different types of indicators that exhibits
different coloration at different levels. It is used to detect the acidic or basic
nature of a substance or a solution.

pH Paper
pH paper helps in determining if a liquid is acidic, basic, or neutral. When you dip
pH paper into a liquid, it changes color. You then compare this color to a chart to
see what the pH level is.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Importance of pH in everyday life :

Digestion: The stomach uses hydrochloric acid with a pH of one to three to break
down food.
Soil: Plants like soil with a pH of 6.3 to 7.3. Adding lime helps if it's too acidic, and
gypsum if it's too basic.
Tooth Decay: Bacteria in our mouth make it acidic, causing tooth decay.
Toothpaste, which is basic, helps keep the mouth pH balanced.
Blood: Blood needs a pH between 7.0 to 7.8 to work well.
Plants and animals: They like specific pH levels. Most plants grow best in soil with
a pH around 7.
Bee Stings: Baking soda helps when a bee sting makes your skin acidic.
Acid Rain: Pollution can make rain acidic, which harms fish and other animals in
rivers.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Salts:
Salts are the ionic compounds which are produced after the
neutralization reaction between acid and base.
Salts are ionic compounds composed of positively charged ions (cations)
and negatively charged ions (anions), These ions are held together by
ionic bonds.

1. Common Salt (NaCl): It is formed after the neutralisation reaction

between hydrochloric acid (a strong acid) and sodium hydroxide (a strong
base). It is found abundantly in nature and is often obtained from sea
water or salt mines.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
USES of NaCl:
1. It is used as a raw material for making a large number of useful chemicals in the
industry such as s sodium hydroxide, baking soda, washing soda, bleaching powder
and many more.
2. It is used in cooking food.
3. It is used as a preservative in pickles.
4. It is used to melt ice.

2. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)/ Caustic Soda: It is formed after the electrolysis

reaction between sodium hydroxide (a strong base) and sulphuric acid ( a strong
acid) in a process called the chlor-alkali process. The name chlor-alkali is because of
the products formed– chlor for chlorine and alkali for sodium hydroxide.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Uses of NaOH:
1. It is used as a cleansing agent and in the manufacturing of washing soda.
2. Sometimes, sodium hydroxide is also used as a reagent in the laboratories.
3. It is used in the preparation of soda lime.
4. It is used in the extraction of aluminium by purifying bauxite
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
3. Calcium Oxychloride (CaOCl2)/ Bleaching Powder: When calcium
hydroxide (slaked lime) reacts with chlorine, it gives calcium oxychloride
(bleaching powder) and water is formed.

Uses of Calcium Oxychloride:

1. In laundry it is used as disinfectant and decolorizing agent.
2. It also helps in purifying water as it is a disinfectant it kills Microorganisms
present in water making it fit for use.
3. In chemical industries it is used as an oxidizing agent.
4. It helps in formation of chloroform.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
4. Sodium hydrogen carbonate(NaHCO3)/ Baking Soda : Baking soda is obtained by the
reaction of brine with carbon dioxide and ammonia. This is known as Solvay process.

Uses of Sodium Hydrogen carbonate:

1. Baking soda is used in making of baking powder, which is used in cooking as it produces
carbon dioxide which makes the batter soft and spongy.
2. Baking soda is used as an antacid.
3. Baking soda is used in toothpaste which makes the teeth white and plaque free.
4. Baking soda is used in cleansing of ornaments made of silver.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
5. Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3 . 10H2O) / Washing Soda : Washing soda can
be prepared by heating sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), recrystallisation of
sodium carbonate gives washing soda

Uses of Sodium Carbonate:

1. It is used in the cleaning of cloths, especially in rural areas.
2. In the making of detergent cake and powder.
3. In removing the permanent hardness of water.
4. It is used in glass and paper industries.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
6. Calcium Sulfate hemihydrate(CaSO4.1/2 H2O) / Plaster of Paris : It is
produced by heating gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate, CaSO₄·2H₂O) to a
specific temperature. The heating process removes water molecules, resulting
in the formation of plaster of Paris.

Uses of Sodium Carbonate:

1. Construction: It's great for decorative elements in buildings.
2. Medical: Used to set broken bones.
3. Art: Popular in crafting for its moldable nature.
4. Dental: Essential for making dental molds.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
TOP 5 QUESTIONS:
1.List the important products of the chlor-alkali process. Write one important use of each.
(CBSE 2020, 2023)

Sodium hydroxide - It is used in the manufacturing of paper.

Chlorine - It is used to make plastics (PVC), chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), chloroform,
carbon tetrachloride etc.
Hydrogen - It is used in the hydrogenation of oils to obtain vegetable ghee.

2. Give the reasons for the following:

(i) Only one half of water molecule is shown in the formula of plaster of Paris.
The Formula actually means that two molecules (or two formula units) of CaSO share
one molecule of water so that the effective water of crystallization for one CaSO unit
comes to half a molecule of water.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
TOP 5 QUESTIONS:
3. (a) Identify the acid and the base whose combination forms the common salt that
you use in your food. Write its chemical formula and chemical name of the salt.
(b) What is rock salt?
(c) Mention its color and the reason due to which it has this colour. (CBSE 2019, 2013)

(a) HCl is an acid and NaOH is a base whose combination forms the common salt.
Its formula is NaCl Sodium chloride. It is obtained from seawater.
(b) Deposits of solid salt which are large crystals and brown due to impurities is
called rock salt.
(c) This brown color is due to all the impurities present in the salt along with
sodium chloride. When the impurities are removed and pure sodium chloride is
obtained, it turns into white crystals.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
TOP 5 QUESTIONS:
4.Write the chemical equations when zinc granules react with:
(a) Sulphuric acid (b) Hydrochloric acid
(CBSE 2014, 2020)
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
TOP 5 QUESTIONS:
5. How is sodium hydroxide produced? Write the balanced chemical equation also. Why is
this process called the chlor-alkali process? In this process name the products given off at:
(a) anode
(b) cathode. (CBSE 2022, 2015)

When electricity is made to pass through an aqueous solution of

NaCl, it decomposes to form NaOH. This process is called chlor-
alkali process because of two products - chlor for Chlorine and
alkali for Sodium hydroxide.

(a) Anode - Cl Gas

(b) Cathode - H Gas
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

METALS and
NON METALS
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

METALS - Metals are the elements which form positive ions by losing electrons. Thus,
metals are known as Electropositive Elements. Metals are the elements that conduct
heat and electricity and are malleable and ductile. e.g. Iron (Fe), Aluminium (Al), Silver (Ag).
NON METALS - are the elements which form negative ions by gaining an electron.
Thus, non¬metals are also known as Electronegative Elements. Non-metals are the
elements that do not conduct electricity and are neither malleable nor ductile. e.g. Carbon
(C), Sulphur (S), Phosphorous (P).

ELEMENTS
Metalloids Noble Gases
Boron (B), Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypto
Antimony (Sb), Arsenic (As), Tellurium (Te). (Kr), Xenon (Xe) and Radon (Rn).
 PRASHANT KIRAD
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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
PROPERTY METALS NON-METALS

HARD Exception : Lithium, Sodium and

HARDNESS SOFT Exception : Diamond.
Potassium.

NON-LUSTROUS Exception: Iodine and

LUSTRE LUSTROUS
Graphite

MALLEABILITY MALLEABLE Exception: Mercury. NON-MALLEABLE

DUCTILITY DUCTILE Exception: Mercury. NON-DUCTILE Exception: Carbon fibre.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY GOOD CONDUCTOR POOR CONDUCTOR . Exception: Graphite

HEAT CONDUCTION HIGH Exception: Lead, Mercury and Bismuth LOW . Exception: Diamond

MELTING POINT HIGH Exception: Gallium and Caesium LOW Exception: Diamond
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Chemical Properties of Metals & Non Metals
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REACTION OF METALS WITH OXYGEN:

Metals react with oxygen in the air to form metal oxides.
Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide
Example:
At room temperature : 2Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO (s)
Strong Heating : 2Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO (s) + Heat
energy + Light Energy

Amphoteric oxides: Metal oxides which react with both

acids as well as bases to form salt and water.
For example :
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REACTION OF METALS WITH WATER:

Metals react with water to form metal oxides and hydrogen.
Metal + Water → Metal Oxide + Hydrogen
Example: Na (s) + H2O (l) → Na2O(s) + H2 (g) + Heat
Oxides like Na2O, K2O, CaO, MgO are soluble in water and forms metal hydroxides.
Metal Oxide + Water → Metal Hydroxide
REACTION OF METALS WITH COLD WATER
Metal + Cold water → Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
Example:

Metals like potassium and sodium react violently with cold water.
The reaction is so violent and exothermic that the evolved hydrogen immediately catches fire. It catches
fire more rapidly in case of Potassium.
For Ca, reaction is less violent
For hydrogen to catch fire
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REACTION OF METALS WITH HOT WATER

Metal + Hot water → Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
Example: Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g) + Heat
Magnesium starts floating due to the bubbles of hydrogen gas sticking to its surface.
No other metal react with hot water.
K> Na> Ca> Mg

REACTION OF METALS WITH STEAM

Aluminium, Iron and Zinc do not form hydroxide as their oxides are not soluble. They
do not react with hot water but steam.
Metal + Steam → Metal oxide + Hydrogen gas
Example:

Metals such as lead, copper, silver, gold and platinum do not react with water at all.
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REACTION OF METALS WITH DILUTE ACIDS

Metals above hydrogen in the Activity series can displace hydrogen from dilute acids

Aqua Regia - It is a freshly prepared mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and concentrated nitric
acid in the ratio of 3 : 1. It is a highly corrosive, fuming liquid and it used for dissolve gold and platinium.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
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REACTION OF METALS WITH SOLUTIONS OF OTHER METALS

Metal A + Salt solution of Metal B → Salt solution of Metal A + Metal B
Reactivity of A > Reactivity of B

Only more reactive metals can displace a less reactive metal from compound.
Reaction of lead with copper chloride solution:
Green colour copper chloride feds to colors less solution.

Reaction of copper with silver nitrate solution: When a strip of copper is kept immersed in
a solution of silver nitrate (AgNO3 ), the solution gradually becomes blue and a shining
greyish-white deposit of silver metal is formed on the copper strip
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REACTIVITY
SERIES
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What would you observe when zinc is added to a solution of iron (II) sulphate? Write the
chemical reaction that takes place.

When zinc is added in the solution , the colour of iron sulphate solution changes. As zinc is
more reactive than iron, so it displaces iron from its solution and a grey precipitate of iron and
a colourless zinc sulphate is formed.
Zn + FeSO4 → ZnSO4 + Fe

Which gas is produced when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to a reactive metal? Write the
chemical reaction when iron reacts with dilute H2SO4.
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Samples of four metals A, B, C and D were taken and added to the following solution one by
one. The results obtained have been tabulated as follows:
Use the table above to answer the following questions about metals A, B, C and D

1. Which is the most reactive metal?

2. What would you observe if B is added to a solution of Copper (II) sulphate?
3. Arrange the metals A, B, C and D in the order of decreasing reactivity.

(i) B - It gives displacement reaction with iron(II) sulphate.

(ii) Displacement reaction will take place , blue colour of Copper(II) Sulphate solution will fade and
red-brown deposit of copper will form on B.
(iii) B,A,C,D
 PRASHANT KIRAD
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REACTION OF NON-METALS WITH OXYGEN & WATER

Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metal oxide

Generally non-metals do not react with water because they cannot displace hydrogen from
water.

Non-metal oxide + Water → Acid

Non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature : CO2, SO2,
SO3 etc.
Non-metallic oxides can be neutral in nature as well :
CO, H2O, N2O etc.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
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Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are compounds made up of ions that form charged particles when an
atom (or group of atoms) gains or loses electrons. A cation is an ion charged positively; an
anion is an ion charged negatively.
Examples: Table salt, NaCl, is an ionic compound

PROPERTIES:
Ionic compounds are brittle.
Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points because force of attraction
between ions of ionic compounds is very strong.
Ionic compounds generally dissolve in water.
Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in the solid state.
Electrovalent compounds usually dissolve in water and are insoluble in solvents like oil,
petrol, kerosene, etc.
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OCCURENCE OF METALS
The earth’s CRUST is the major source of metals.

METALLURGY: The branch of science and technology concerned with the properties of
metals and their production and purification.

MINERALS: The elements or compounds, which occur naturally in the earth's crust.

ORES: Those minerals which contain a very high percentage of a particular metal and the
metal can be profitably extracted from it are called ores.

GANGUE PARTICLES: Impurities present in ores in the form of sand, soil, dust etc.
ENRICHMENT OF ORE OR CONCENTRATION OF ORE: The process of removal of gangue
particles from ores.
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Ores of some
Common Metals:
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Step 1 : Crushing and Grinding of Ore

Step 2 : Concentration/Dressing/Benefaction/ Enrichment of Ore

One of the most significant phases in extracting metal from its ore
is the concentration of ore, also known as ore enrichment, ore-
dressing, and benefaction. It is a technique for removing gangue
particles and other contaminants.
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Step 3 : Extraction of Metals from Concentrated Ore

(i) Extraction of low reactivity metals (At low in the reactivity series of metals)
(ii) Extraction of medium reactivity metals ( At middle in the reactivity series of metals)
(iii) Extraction of high reactivity metals (At top in the reactivity series of metals)

Roasting: Roasting is a process of metallurgy where ore is converted into its oxide by
heating it below its melting point in the presence of excess air.

By self-reduction: When the sulphide ores of less electropositive metals like Hg, Pb, Cu
etc., are heated in air, a part of the ore gets converted to oxide which then reacts with the
remaining sulphide ore to give the crude metal and sulphur dioxide. In this process, no
external reducing agent is used.
Metal Sulphide + Oxygen → Metal oxide + Sulphur dioxide
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 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Copper
Case

Mercury Case
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MAHA MARATHON

STEP 3 : EXTRACTION OF METALS OF MEDIUM REACTIVITY

These metals are usually present as sulphides or carbonates in nature.
These sulphides or carbonates are first converted into oxides because it is easy to extract
metals from its oxides.
Sulphides are converted into oxides by roasting and carbonates are converted into oxides
by calcination

Ore : ZnS (Zinc Blende)

Roasting :

Zinc Ore : ZnCO3 (Calamine)

Calcination :
Case
The metal oxides thus obtained are then reduced to the corresponding metals by reduction
process. Depending upon the reactivity of metals, reduction is done in different ways
 PRASHANT KIRAD
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STEP 3 : EXTRACTION OF METALS OF MEDIUM REACTIVITY

Smelting : Reduction by Carbon coke In this process, the roasted or calcined ore is mixed
with suitable quantity of coke or charcoal (which act as reducing agent) and is heated to a
high temperature above its melting point.

Aluminothermy : this consists of exothermic chemical reactions using aluminium as the

reducing agent at high temperature. The process is industrially useful for production of
alloys of iron. The most prominent example is the thermite reaction between aluminium
and iron oxides:
 PRASHANT KIRAD
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STEP 3 : EXTRACTION OF METALS OF HIGH REACTIVITY

Metals at the top of the reactivity series are highly reactive, making them resistant to
reduction by carbon heating. Examples include sodium, magnesium, calcium, and
aluminum. Carbon fails to reduce their oxides due to these metals' stronger affinity for
oxygen. Thus, they are obtained via electrolytic reduction, such as sodium, magnesium,
and calcium derived from the electrolysis of their molten chlorides.

Electrolytic Reduction
On passing electric current into the molten solution, metal is
liberated at cathode while impurities are settled down as
anode mud generally.
The metals are deposited at the cathode (the negatively
charged electrode), whereas, chlorine is liberated at the anode
(the positively charged electrode).
 PRASHANT KIRAD
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Refining or purification of metals: Metals extracted from various methods contains some
impurities, thus, they are required to be refined. Most of the metals are refined using electrolytic
refining.

Electrolytic Refining: In the process of electrolytic refining, a setup typically involves an electrolytic
tank containing a solution of copper sulfate. A thick block of impure metal serves as the anode, while a
thin strip of pure metal acts as the cathode. The electrolyte is a solution of the metal salt intended for
refinement. When an electric current is applied, metal ions from the electrolyte are reduced to form
solid metal, which accumulates on the cathode. Simultaneously, an equivalent amount of pure metal
from the anode oxidizes into metal ions, which then enter the electrolyte. Eventually, these ions migrate
towards the cathode and contribute to the deposition of pure metal.
This process enables the purification of metals through the
selective transfer of ions, separating impurities from the desired
metal.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Corrosion:
Corrosion is the gradual degradation of metals as they react with atmospheric
elements, forming surface layers that lead to the loss of the underlying metal.

PREVENTION:
Painting, Oiling, Greasing Galvanisation - Is a method of protecting steel and iron
from rusting by coating them with a thin layer of zinc.
Chrome plating - Is a technique of electroplating a thin layer of chromium onto a
metal object.
Anodising - creates a protective oxide layer on metals like aluminum to improve
durability and corrosion resistance.
Alloying - Is a very good method of improving the properties of a metal corrosion
can also be reduced
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Common Alloys
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MAHA MARATHON
TOP 5 QUESTIONS:
1. Why do ionic compounds conduct electricity in molten state and not in solid state?
(CBSE 2014, 2023)

Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in solid state because ions are not
free to move. In molten state, ions are free to move

2. The reaction of metal X with Fe O is highly exothermic and is used to join railway
tracks. Identify metal X. Write the chemical equation for the reaction. (CBSE 2016, 2023)

X is Aluminium.
2Al + Fe203 Al 2O3 + 2Fe
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
TOP 5 QUESTIONS:
3. Zinc is a metal found in the middle of the activity series of metals. In nature, it is found as a
carbonate ore, ZnCO . Mention the steps carried out for extraction from the ore. (CBSE 2023, 2013)

Conversion of the carbonate ore into metal oxide: This is done by calcination (for
carbonate ores). Calcination is the process of heating the ore strongly in the absence or
limited supply of air. The zinc carbonate on heating decomposes to form zinc oxide as
shown:
Reduction of the metal oxide to metal :As zinc is moderately reactive, zinc oxide cannot be
reduced by heating alone. Hence, it is reduced to zinc by using a reducing agent such as
carbon.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
TOP 5 QUESTIONS:
4. Differentiate between roasting and calcination giving chemical equations for each.
(CBSE 2013, 2023)

5. Why are copper vessels corroded with a green coating in the rainy season? (CBSE
2015, 2016, 2019)
Solder is an alloy which is made up of lead and tin. Solder has a low melting point so
it is used for welding electrical wires.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
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CARBON and it’s

COMPOUND
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Atomic number = 6 (6p and 6e)

CARBON:
It has 6 neutrons.
Mass number = 12 (6p + 6n)
Electronic configuration = 2,4

Versatility of carbon:
1. Catenation - A property of carbon which leds to direct bonding between
atoms of same elements to form long chains, branches or ring structures
2. Polymerisation - .Process of combining several monomers to form a
polymer or polymeric compound.
3. Isomerisation- Compounds having same molecular formula, but different
structures are called isomers and this property is called isomerism
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4. Tetra- Valency:
Valency of carbon is 4 and it forms compound only by sharing electrons.
Carbon neither gains nor loses 4 electrons to attain the noble gas electronic
configuration because:
It could gain four electrons forming C4– anion. But it would be difficult for the
nucleus with six protons to hold on to ten electrons, that is, four extra
electrons.
It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation. But it would require a large
amount of energy to remove four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation
with six protons in its nucleus holding on to just two electrons.

Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms
of carbon or with atoms of other elements i.e. Covalent Bond.
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PROPERTIES OF COVALENT BOND:

Physical state - Solid, liquid and gas
Electrical conductivity - Poor conductors of electricity. (Exception -
Hydrochloric acid)
Solubility - Soluble in organic solvents and insoluble in water.
(Exception - Sugar in water)
Melting and boiling point - Low

TYPES:
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ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
Different forms of an element that has same chemical properties, but different physical properties are known as allotropes.

DIAMOND GRAPHITE FULLERENE

It exists as a three-dimensional In Graphite each Carbon

network with strong carbon- atom is bonded with Fullerene is the hollow
carbon covalent bonds. other three carbon cage which exists in the
Diamond is hard in nature with atoms in order to form form of sphere. It
high melting points. hexagonal rings. resembles the
It shines in presence of light It serves as good structure of fullerene.
and it is a bad conductor of conductor of heat and But along with
electricity. electricity. hexagonal rings,
The most common use of It is used as dry lubricant sometimes pentagonal
diamond is in making jewelry. for machines parts as or heptagonal rings are
It is also used in cutting and well as it is used in lead also present
drilling tools pencils
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Classification of Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic hydrocarbons: hydrocarbons based on chains of C atoms.

There are three types of aliphatic hydrocarbons.:
Alkanes are aliphatic hydrocarbons with only single covalent bonds.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain at least one C–C double bond
Alkynes are hydrocarbons that contain a C–C triple bond
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IUPAC Nomenclature
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MAHA MARATHON

Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

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Cycloalkane
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RULES FOR IUPAC

NOMENCLATURE:
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FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
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MAHA MARATHON
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MAHA MARATHON

Homologous series
Homologous series is a series of compounds with similar chemical properties
and same functional group differing from the successive member by CH2
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Lewis dot structure

A Lewis Structure is a very simplified representation of the valence shell electrons in a
molecule.
It is used to show how the electrons are arranged around individual atoms in a
molecule.
Electrons are shown as "dots" or for bonding electrons as a line between the two atoms.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
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Lewis dot structure

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Chemical properties of carbon compounds

1. Combustion reaction
i) C + O2 → CO2 + heat and light
ii) CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light
iii) CH3CH2OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light

2. Oxidation reaction
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3. Addition reaction

4. Substitution reaction
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Ethanol

Uses of ethanol:
Used to make denatured alcohol
In manufacture of paint, medicine, dye, perfume, vanish etc.
Making of petrol.
It is an active ingredient of all alcoholic drinks like beer, whisky etc
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Ethanoic acid
Esterification Reaction Saponification Reaction

Uses of ethanoic acid:

Used to manufacture cellulose acetate, i.e. rayon.
In manufacture of acetone, dyes, perfume etc.
Making of vinegar
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
Soap and Detergents

Cleansing action of soap:

The dirt is generally oily in nature and insoluble in water. The soap cleanses the dirt by the process of micelle formation.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

Difference between Hard and Soft water

HARD WATER SOFT WATER

High mineral presence in the content Low to no mineral presence in the content

Has a peculiar taste Has a briny taste

Calcium and magnesium ions are present Sodium ions are present

Foam is not formed under hard water’s effects Foam is obtained here

Temporary hardness Permanent hardness

Boiling water can remove the dissolved salts Boiling does not affect it

Often formed naturally through the dissolving of magnesium,

The exchange of ions gives soft water through the use of
iron, or calcium and forming bicarbonates or sulphates or
sodium resins
chlorides due to limestones
 PRASHANT KIRAD
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Structure of soap
Soap has two parts, one is the ionic part and the other is a long carbon chain. These two
parts are known as:
Hydrophobic tail: It is water repellent in nature and dissolves in oils. It is ionic in nature.
Hydrophilic head: It is water attractive or water-loving and dissolves in water. It is made
up of a long chain of hydrocarbons.

Micelle formation
A micelle is formed by the cluster of molecules where the molecules arrange themselves in a
spherical shape with the hydrophobic end facing inwards and the hydrophilic end facing
outwards.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
TOP 5 QUESTIONS:
1.Draw the electron dot structure of Nitrogen. (CBSE 2023, 2021)

2.Write the chemical formula of benzene and draw its structure. (CBSE 2017, 2021, 2023)

The molecular formula of benzene : C6H6

 PRASHANT KIRAD
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TOP 5 QUESTIONS:
3. What will you observe on adding a 5% alkaline KMnO solution drop by drop to some
warm ethanol taken in a test tube? Write the name of the compound formed during the
above chemical reaction. (CBSE 2013, 2020)

The purple color of KMnO decolourises and ethanoic acid will be formed.

4.Why do covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points?(CBSE 2020, 2021)

The molecules of covalent compounds are held by weak intramolecular forces. Thus, a
very small amount of energy is required to break the bonds between two or more
molecules. That is why they have low melting and boiling points.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON
TOP 5 QUESTIONS:
5.What is meant by a homologous series of carbon compounds? Write
the general formula of (CBSE 2015, 2014, 2016,2019)
(a) alkenes
(b) alkynes

The series of organic compounds having the same functional group and similar
chemical properties is called the homologous series.