Components of Nuclear Power Plant

Non-nuclear Components of a NPP

**NSSS: Nuclear Steam Supply System

 Steam Turbine
2

 Steam turbine consists of a series of bladed wheels

affixed to an axle, which rotates at a high speed as
steam at high temperature and pressure strike the
turbine blades.
 There may be two or three turbines per steam
generating unit. They are called High Pressure Turbine
(HPT), Intermediate Pressure Turbine (IPT) and Low
Pressure Turbine (LPT) respectively.
 Liquid water droplets mixed in the steam may lead to
excessive erosion of the blades, so the delivered steam
is always dry. However, in the HPT of a NPP, the steam
is saturated while for the remaining stages, it is
superheated.
 Steam Turbine
3

 Steam turbines are Reaction Turbines, which means that

they use mainly the pressure difference of the steam on the
two sides of the blades for energy conversion.
 There are two types of blades, moving blades that are
attached to the shaft/ axle and fixed blades that are
attached to the outer casing. The moving blades rotate with
the shaft while the fixed blades guide the flow direction of
steam.
 In a reaction turbine, each set of blades is called a stage.
Since pressure drops across the blades, the blades near the
exit are bigger than the ones near the steam inlet. Steam
may enter from one end (HPT and IPT) or the middle (IPT
and LPT).
 Typical Dimension: Length 18m, Width 8.5m, Height 5.5m
(SST-400 series, Siemens)
Steam Turbine
4
Steam Turbine
5
 Steam Turbine
6

 Steam Turbine blades are

usually twisted. In such
design, the forces on the
blades will have a
component directed parallel
to the tangent of the shaft.
Otherwise, the shaft would
not have rotated, it would
have vibrated only.
 Condenser
7

 Condenser is basically a type of heat exchanger.

 The spent steam from the LPT passes into a condenser where it is
cooled by water from a suitable outside source (Cooling tower, sea-
water, river water, etc.), and the steam is condensed to water.
 The condenser may be longitudinal (coolant flow parallel to turbine
axis) or transverse, depending on the availability of space. The
condenser may have single or multiple shell tanks. For Large NPPs,
condensers are usually transverse and have more than 3 shell tanks.
 In NPPs, surface condensers are used. These condensers are named
such because condensation occurs over the tube surfaces and the
two fluid s don’t mix.
 Shell and tube condensers are preferred over plate and frame
condensers, although recent designs are evolving.
 Condenser pressure is typically ranged 4-8kPa
Surface Condenser
8
 Feed-Water Heater
9

 A Feed-water Heater (FWR) is a power plant component

used to pre-heat water delivered to a steam generator.
 The energy used to heat the feed-water is usually derived from
steam extracted between the stages of the steam turbine. The
percentage of the total cycle steam mass flow used for the
feed-water heater is termed the extraction fraction.
 Feed-water heaters can also be open or closed heat
exchangers. An open heat exchanger is one in which extracted
steam is allowed to mix with the feed-water. A de-aerator is
a special case of the open feed-water heater which is
specifically designed to remove non-condensable gases from
the feed-water.
 Closed feed-water heaters are typically shell and tube heat
exchangers where the feed-water passes throughout the tubes
and is heated by turbine extraction steam.
 Cooling Tower
10

 Perhaps the most iconic symbol of a nuclear power plant is the

cooling tower
 They work to reject waste heat to the atmosphere by the
transfer of heat from hot water (from the turbine section) to
the cooler outside air. Hot water cools in contact with the air
and a small portion, around 2%, evaporates and raises up
through the top.
 Many nuclear power plants simply put the waste heat into a
river, lake or ocean instead of having cooling towers.
 Cooling towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very
large hyperboloid structures that can be up to 200 meters
tall and 100 meters in diameter.
 Cooling tower exit water temperature should be 4-5 degrees
higher than the Wet-bulb Temperature of the area. This is
why cooling tower works well in dry season and performs
poorly in rainy season (in Bangladesh, may be summer also!!).
Cooling Tower
11
Components of a Nuclear Reactor
12
 Reactor Vessel
13

 It houses the core, control rods, blanket (if any) and

reflector (if any) of a nuclear reactor.
 In case of Light water reactors (LWRs), the coolant inside
the vessel is pressurized. Therefore, the vessel is called
Reactor Pressure Vessel (RPV).
 In Heavy water reactors (HWRs) and Light water graphite
reactors (RBMKs), the total vessel is not pressurized; only
the coolant in contact of fuel is pressurized inside tubes.
These tubes are called Pressurized water tubes.
 The Basic Gas-cooled reactor (MAGNOX) operated in 0.7-
2.5MPa pressure, but Advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR)
pressure vessels have around 4MPa coolant pressure
 Sodium fast breeder reactors (SFBR) have atmospheric
coolant pressure.
 Reactor Pressure Vessel (LWRs)
14

 The primary function of the Reactor Pressure

Vessel (RPV) is to contain the core and the
auxiliary systems, such as core support plates,
shroud and internal pumps (if any) inside a sealed
and pressurized volume.
 Due to their large volumes and thick walls, RPVs
are made of thick bended steel plates that are
welded together. The preferred material is a special
fine-grained low alloy ferritic steel, well suited
for welding. The inside is lined with austenitic
steel cladding to protect against corrosion.
 Reactor Pressure Vessel (LWRs)
15

 Typical pressure vessel of PWR (with the power in

the range of 1300 MWe) is 12-13 m high, has the
internal diameter about 5 m and the wall thickness
about 20-30 cm. The vessel is designed for a
pressure of 17.5 MPa and the temperature of
350°C.
 The pressure vessels in BWRs have large
dimensions, however, since the operating pressure
is lower (7 MPa), the wall thickness can be kept in
the range of 15-20 cm.
 Reactor Pressure Vessel (LWRs)
16

 For almost all reactors, the control rod assemblies are

located at the top portion of the reactor so that they are
inserted in the core through gravity force in case of
emergency power failure. But a distinct feature of BWR
Pressure Vessel is that the control rod assembly is located
at the bottom portion of the reactor vessel. This is
because the top portion is occupied by steam dryer and
other accessories. Therefore, boron solution is injected
during an emergency.
 On the other hand, the distinct feature of PWR RPVs is that
it is always accompanied by a Pressurizer to maintain a
pressure that prevents water boiling. In BWRs, the RPVs
are just like boilers or steam generators. So, the pressure is
regulated through Steam Relief Valves (SRVs).
 Finally, the coolant circulation inside the RPV of a BWR is
maintained by jet pumps.
Reactor Pressure Vessel (LWRs)
17

PWR BWR
 Reactor Pressure Vessel (LWRs)
18

 Jet Pumps work on the

principle that when a
flowing fluid is passed
through a smaller area, its
pressure decreases. The
reduced area is called a
nozzle.
 If the nozzle is located inside
another pipe, the outer pipe
will draw more fluid due to
the pressure drop.
 Reactor Vessel (HWR)
19

 The reactor vessel of HWR is called Calendria.

 In this reactor, the heavy water (coolant) inside the
tubes are pressurized while the surrounding heavy
water (moderator) is not.
 Reactor Vessel (GCR)
20

 It is similar to HWR in fuel array (circular).

 CO2 is usually used as coolant while Graphite as
moderator. CO2 pressure was initially 0.7MPa in
first unit of MAGNOX reactors (steel vessels), but
the pressure was increased to 2.6MPa in the
improved designs (concrete vessels).
 However, the coolant outlet temperature was only
360degC, reducing efficiency of the plant below 20%.
 In AGR, the pressure has been increased to 4MPa so
that coolant outlet temperature reaches as high as
640degC, taking the efficiency to 41% (Higher than
LWRs and HWRs)
Reactor Vessel (GCR)
21
 Reactor Vessel (SFBR)
22

 In a SFBR, the reactor coolant is Sodium. As a result,

temperature as high as 550degC is obtained for the primary
coolant.
 Since Sodium is not liquid in atmospheric pressure (melting
point 97 degC), heat supply is necessary all the time to keep
the coolant in liquid form even after shutdown.
 The main problem with sodium is that it reacts violently with
water in presence of air. To prevent contact between the two,
special precautions are necessary.
 Another problem is Na-23(n,gamma) Na-24 reaction. Na-24
has a half life of 15hrs. As a result, primary sodium is
extremely radioactive. In order to prevent this problems, two
sodium loops are used.
 Recently, researchers have suggested the second sodium loop
with molten salt for safer operation.
 Reactor Vessel (SFBR)
23

 There are two designs; pool type and loop type.

 In the loop-type design, the two Na coolants flows their
respective loop through the Intermediate Heat
Exchanger (IHX).
 In a pool-type design, sodium is drawn from a pool to the
core. The pump, blanket and IHX is located in the
reactor vessel.
 The radioactive coolant flows through the IHX and
transfer heat to another stream of liquid Na drawn from
the loop. This way, the liquid Na going to the Steam
Generator is less radioactive.
 Proper shielding is required in the IHXs to control the
radioactivity level of second Na loop.
 Reactor Vessel (SFBR)
24

 The loop-type design is not that much different from

ordinary PWR. All the primary loop components are
separate and independent. This makes inspection,
maintenance and repair easier. However, substantial
amount of shielding are required around all the primary
loop components, making it a large and expensive plant.
 On the other hand, in pool-type design, no radioactivity
leaves the reactor vessel, so no other components need
shielding. Furthermore, it is an usual practice to locate
pool-type reactor at least partially underground, so that
only the upmost position needs shielding.
 French Super Phenix is pool type and Japanese Monju is
loop type.
 Reactor Vessel (SFBR)
25

Loop-type Pool-type
 Reactor Core
26

 The central region of a reactor is called core.

 For thermal reactors, the core consists of fuel, coolant
and moderator. For fast reactors, the core consists of fuel
and coolant only.
➢ For LWRs, the core has square fuel array (except VVER-
1200!)
➢ For AGRs and PHWRs, the core has mixed fuel array
(circular)
➢ For SFBRs, the core has hexagonal fuel array (also
VVER-1200!).
 In USA, the reactor core damage frequency is 10^-4 to
10^-7 per reactor year (very low probability of accident).
Reactor Fuel Array (PWR)
27
 Why Hexagonal Array in VVER?
28

 There are two main reasons:

➢ In other countries, the transportation of reactor
vessel is possible through sea routes, but it is not the
case for Russia. The reactor vessel must be
transported via railroads. Therefore, the vessel must
be lightweight, which is possible for hexagonal array.
➢ Hexagonal array core is more under-moderated than
square array core. As a result, the negative void
coefficient is larger for VVER compared to other
PWRs.
Why Hexagonal Array in VVER?
29
 Reactor Fuel
30

 The fuel should contain fissile materials (U-235, U-

233, P-239) in the required amount to sustain chain
reaction.
 In most cases, the fuel also contains fertile materials
(U-238, Th-232) that may be converted to fissile
material.
 In case of UO2 fuelled reactors, around 1/3 of the
total power is obtained from burning Pu-239, which
is produced from U-238.
 Reactor Fuel
31

 The fuel may be in oxide form (for example, UO2) or in metal

form (for example, U metal in MAGNOX reactors).
 Using U metal fuel has an advantage; the thermal conductivity
is 20W/m.K, much higher than UO2 (2-3W/m.K)
 However, U metal has a lower melting point (<1200 degC),
thus the maximum reactor core temperature is lower than
1000 degC. On the other hand, UO2 has a melting point
>2800 degC, and the core temperature can be as high as 2200
degC.
 U metal fuel needs magnesium alloy as cladding since because
the magnesium allows neutrons, produced by the fission
reactions, to pass through and into other fuel rods. For UO2, a
wide range of options is available (SS, Al alloy, Zircaloy, etc.)
 Offline vs. Online Refueling System
32

 online refueling is a technique for changing the fuel of

a nuclear reactor while the reactor is critical. This allows the
reactor to continue to generate electricity during refueling.
 In a conventional design with a pressurized core, refueling the
system requires the core to shut down and the pressure vessel
to be opened (timing depend on the refueling cycle).
 Due to the pressurized tube design in CANDU and RBMK,
only the single tube being refueled needs to be depressurized.
This allows the system to be continually refueled without
shutting down.
 AGR and Russian FBRs can utilize both on-line and off-line
refueling, since the system pressure is much lower than
LWRs.
 In all the cases, costly machines/robots are used.
 Reactor Coolant
33

 It is used to remove heat from the core and other

parts of the reactor.
 Water, heavy water and various gases (CO2, He, etc.)
are the most commonly used coolants.
 Moderators and Reflectors
34

 The moderator, which is present only in the thermal reactors, is used to

moderate i.e. slow down the neutrons.
 Heavy water is the best moderator (Gold standard), followed by
Graphite and Light water.
 Beryllium and its oxide are good moderators, but very costly.
 A reflector is used to reflect back the neutrons that were escaping from
the core. Use of reflector improves neutron economy inside the core.
Without reflector, a reactor is called “Bare reactor”. Graphite is the
most preferred neutron reflector.
 Shielding Material
35

 There are two types of shield in a reactor; biological/

radiation shield and thermal shield.
 For Gamma shielding, Lead (Pb) is the most suitable
option. But thick layer concrete also has gamma
attenuation properties at low energy levels.
 On the other hand, neutron can only be attenuated through
slowing down and absorption. H-1 can slow down neutron
rapidly. Therefore, water (H2O) and Concrete (Contains 15-
20% water) are good neutron shields.
 Usually about 6-8ft thick high-density concrete is used as
biological shield.
Shielding Material
36
Shielding Material
37
 Shielding Material
38

 Through the absorption of gamma and neutron, that part of

the shield that is in immediate contact with the core can
heat up considerably and may require special cooling
facilities to prevent cracking or other damages.
 For this, the inner portion of the shield is constructed with
steel plates. They are known as the thermal shields.
 Control Rods
39

 Control rods are movable elements that can be inserted into

or withdrawn from a reactor to change the reactivity. They are
manufactured from materials that are strong absorbers of
neutrons.
 These are usually special alloys, for example 80 % silver, 15%
indium and 5% cadmium. Generally, the material selected
should have a good absorption cross section for neutrons and
have a long lifetime as an absorber (not burn out rapidly).
 A control rod that is referred to as a black absorber absorbs
essentially all incident neutrons. A grey absorber absorbs only
a part of them.
 While it takes more grey rods than black rods for a given
reactivity effect, the grey rods are often preferred because they
cause smaller depressions in the neutron flux and power in
the vicinity of the rod. This leads to a flatter neutron flux
profile and more even power distribution in the core.
 Control Rods
40

 If grey rods are desired, the amount of material with a

high absorption cross section that is loaded in the rod is
limited. Material with a very high absorption cross
section may not be desired for use in a control rod,
because it will burn out rapidly due to its high absorption
cross section.
 The same amount of reactivity worth can be achieved by
manufacturing the control rod from material with a
slightly lower cross section and by loading more of the
material. This also results in a rod that does not burn out
as rapidly.
 Common materials are boron and cadmium. Hafnium Is
very costly.
 Control Rods
41

 Another factor in control rod material selection is that

materials that resonantly absorb neutrons are often
preferred to those that merely have high thermal neutron
absorption cross sections.
 Resonance neutron absorbers absorb neutrons in the
epithermal energy range. The path length traveled by the
epithermal neutrons in a reactor is greater than the path
length traveled by thermal neutrons. Therefore, a
resonance absorber absorbs neutrons that have their last
collision farther (on the average) from the control rod
than a thermal absorber.
 This has the effect of making the area of influence around
a resonance absorber larger than around a thermal
absorber and is useful in maintaining a flatter flux
profile.
Control Rods
42
 Control Rods
43

Classification based on purpose:

 Shim Rods: used for coarse control and/or to remove
reactivity in relatively large amounts
 Regulating Rods: used for fine adjustments and to
maintain desired power or temperature
 Safety Rods: provide a means for very fast shutdown
in the event of an unsafe condition. Addition of a
large amount of negative reactivity by rapidly
inserting the safety rods is referred to as a “SCRAM"
or "trip“.
[SCRAM = Safety Control Rod Axe Man]
Control Rods
44
 Control Rods
45

Classification based on Structure:

 Air Follower (AFCR): The control rod contains void in
the end portion. Thus, the void fraction is increased with
withdrawal of control rod, resulting in a gradual power
development inside the core.
 Fuel Follower (FFCR): The control rod contains fuel in
the end portion. Thus, withdrawal of control rod means
increase of fuel inside core, increasing thermal neutron
flux and power
 Graphite follower (GFCL): It is a special control rod
design in RBMK reactors where the end of the control
rods contain graphite. As a result, withdrawal of the
control rod increases moderator inside the core,
increasing thermal neutron flux and power (reason
behind Chernobyl Disaster!)
 Pressurizer
46

 The pressurizer is a cylindrical pressure vessel with hemispherical ends,

mounted with the long axis vertical and directly connected to the reactor
coolant system. It is located inside the reactor containment building.
 Although the water in the pressurizer is the same reactor coolant as in the rest
of the reactor coolant system, it is basically stagnant, i.e. reactor coolant does
not flow through the pressurizer continuously as it does in the other parts of
the reactor coolant system.
 Pressure in the pressurizer is controlled by varying the temperature of the
coolant in the pressurizer. Water pressure in a closed system tracks water
temperature directly; as the temperature goes up, pressure goes up and vice
versa. To increase the pressure in the reactor coolant system,
large electric heaters in the pressurizer are turned on, raising the coolant
temperature in the pressurizer and thereby raising the pressure.
 To decrease pressure in the reactor coolant system, sprays of relatively cool
water are turned on inside the pressurizer, lowering the coolant temperature in
the pressurizer and thereby lowering the pressure.
Pressurizer
47
 Steam Generator
48

 In commercial power plants, there are two to four

steam generators per reactor; each steam generator
can measure up to 21 m in height and weigh as much
as 800 tons. Each steam generator can contain
anywhere from 3,000 to 16,000 tubes, each about
19 mm in diameter.
 The heated primary coolant from the reactor is passed
through the tubes of the steam generator by coolant
pumps before returning to the reactor core.
 That secondary coolant (water) flowing through the
steam generator boils water on the shell side to
produce steam.
 Steam Generator
49

❖The shell side pressure is

usually 7MPa for NPPs (for the
same reasons as RPV of BWR)
❖Most of the steam generators
are vertical in NPPs, only VVER
employs horizontal design.
❖RBMK steam generator acts
more like a steam separator, as
steam formation starts inside the
pressure tubes.
Steam Generator
50
 PWR Steam Generator vs. Boiler
51

 In a boiler of a PP, usually hot flue gas flows through the

shell and steam-producing water flows through the tubes
(Water-tube boilers). This is done because the flue gas
has lower pressure (nearly atmospheric) than water-
steam system (10-17MPa), reducing chance of boiler
burst due to overpressure.
 On the other hand, in a steam generator of a PWR, the
steam pressure is always lower than the primary coolant
pressure (15-16MPa). Also, primary coolant is highly
radioactive. So, it can’t be placed in the shell-side.
 The shell-side steam also limits the maximum design
pressure of the SG.
PWR Steam Generator vs. Boiler
52

SG (PWR) Water Tube Boiler

 Horizontal vs. Vertical Steam Generator
53

 In case of boiling across horizontal tube

arrangement, the steam bubble flow gets interrupted
by the upper tube, thus the rate of heat transfer
decreases. The decrease will depend on multiple
parameters such as system pressure, shell diameter,
tube material, etc.
 This is not the case for vertical tube arrangement, as
there is no obstacle in the path of flow. So, the heat
transfer rate is higher, and the size and cost of the SG
is lower.
 Vertical design is, thus, the more common one
(exception: VVER-1200).
Horizontal vs. Vertical Steam Generator
54

Horizontal Tube Vertical Tube

Why Horizontal Steam Generator in VVER?
55

 It has been observed that for horizontal steam

generator, there is no history of head change in its
entire lifetime.
 Another reason is that a horizontal steam generator
can ensure better natural circulation heat transfer
characteristics compared to a vertical steam
generator. This is because the flow of primary
coolant has no bend in the vertical direction for a
horizontal steam generator.
 Containment Building
56

 A containment building is a reinforced steel, concrete

or lead structure enclosing a nuclear reactor.
 It is designed to prevent the escape of radioactive steam
or gas to a maximum pressure of 5bar (0.5MPa)
 Containments for nuclear power reactors vary in size,
shape, materials used, and suppression systems. The
kind of containment used is determined by the type of
reactor, generation of the reactor, and the specific plant
needs.
 In Gen III LWRs (especially BWRs), there may be two
containments (primary and secondary).
 Containment Building
57

 The containment of PWR and BWR are different in design.

 For a pressurized water reactor, the containment also encloses
the steam generators and the pressurizer, and is the entire reactor
building. The missile shield around it is typically a tall cylindrical or
domed building. PWR containments are typically up to 7 times larger
than a BWR.
 A BWR's containment consists of a drywell, where the reactor and
associated cooling equipment is located, and a wetwell. The drywell is
much smaller than a PWR containment and plays a larger role.
 During an accident, the reactor coolant flashes to steam in the drywell,
pressurizing it rapidly. Vent pipes or tubes from the drywell direct the
steam below the water level maintained in the wetwell condensing the
steam, limiting the pressure ultimately reached.
 Both the drywell and the wetwell are enclosed by a secondary
containment building.
Containment Building (PWR)
58
Containment Building (BWR)
59