Research Project Report Final

Twinemukama Joseph (16/U/165/EBD/GV)
KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF LANDS AND ARCHITECTURAL STUDIES
AN ASSESSMENT OF PLASTIC TILES MANUFACTURED FROM PLASTIC

WASTES AND EGGSHELL POWDER AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO CERAMIC
TILES
BY:
TWINEMUKAMA JOSEPH
16/U/165/EBD/GV
+256783163832/+256750900669
SUPERVISOR: MR. AINOMUGISHA SAFIKI
FINAL YEAR RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT

OF LANDS AND ARCHITECTURAL STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A DEGREE IN BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN
BUILDING ECONOMICS OF KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY
NOVEMBER 2020
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DECLARATION
With the signature appended here under, I TWINEMUKAMA JOSEPH Registration Number
16/U/165/EBD/GV declare that the work presented in this project research report is my original
work and has never been submitted to any institution of learning for the award of any academic
qualification.
Signature
…………………………………….
Date
…………………………………….
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APPROVAL
This report is submitted with the approval of Kyambogo University under the supervision of
Mr. Ainomugisha Safiki
Signature: ……………………………. Date: ………………………….
MR. AINOMUGISHA SAFIKI
RESEARCH SUPERVISOR
KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY
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DEDICATION
I dedicate this project to my parents Mrs. Kebirungi Olivia and Mr. Turigye Joseph for their
tireless effort towards my academic journey.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First I would like to thank God who is the source of all the strength and has led me through this
research project successfully.
Secondly, I extend my heartfelt gratitude to my project supervisor Mr. Ainomugisha Safiki for
his valuable guidance that has helped me complete this research project.
Thirdly, I thank my parents Mr. Turigye Joseph and Mrs. Kebirungyi Olivia, my brothers,
sisters, relatives and mentors especially Mr. Twinamatsiko Leonidas, SP. Byarugaba Denis,
Mr. Nelson Mwije, Mrs. Bazairwe Annette for their selfless support and advice rendered to me
throughout my course of study. To my course mates with whom we have journey together up
to the completion of the course especially Kabeho Rohi, Waiswa Marcus Lino, Mugooda
Raymond, Ndelema Gloria your love, company and advice has played a bigger role in the
compilation of this project and throughout my academic journey.
Lastly, I would also like to thank the technicians and staff of Geotechnical Engineering and
Technology Laboratory Limited (GetLab) for their selfless help and technical guidance
throughout this study.
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Table of Contents
DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................ i
APPROVAL ..............................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION ......................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT............................................................................................................ v
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... vi
List of figures ............................................................................................................................ ix
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. x
LIST OF PICTURES ................................................................................................................ xi
List of Acronyms .....................................................................................................................xii
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... xiii
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem statement ............................................................................................................ 3
1.3 Main objectives ................................................................................................................ 3
1.4 Specific objectives............................................................................................................ 3
1.5 Research questions ........................................................................................................... 3
1.6 Justification ...................................................................................................................... 4
1.7 Significance ...................................................................................................................... 4
1.8 Scope ................................................................................................................................ 4
1.8.1 Geographical scope.................................................................................................... 4
1.8.2 Contextual scope........................................................................................................ 4
1.8.3 Time Scope ................................................................................................................ 5
1.9 Conceptual Frame work ................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................... 7
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LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Introduction. ..................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Building materials ............................................................................................................ 7
2.2.1 Wall finishes .............................................................................................................. 7
2.2.2 Ceiling finishes .......................................................................................................... 7
2.2.3 Floor finishes. ............................................................................................................ 7
2.3 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PLASTIC WASTE AND

EGGSHELL WASTES .......................................................................................................... 8
2.3.1 Egg shell waste powder ............................................................................................. 8
2.3.2 Polypropylene ............................................................................................................ 9
2.4 STRENGTH OF WASTE MATERIALS IN CONSTRUCTION ................................. 10
2.4.1 Plastic wastes ........................................................................................................... 10
2.4.2 Egg shell powder waste ........................................................................................... 13
2.4.3 Other wastes in tile production ................................................................................ 13
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................. 15
MATERIALS AND METHODS ............................................................................................. 15
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 15
3.2 Material preparation ....................................................................................................... 15
3.2.1 Plastic wastes (PW). ................................................................................................ 15
3.2.2 Egg shell wastes....................................................................................................... 15
3.2.3 Sand ......................................................................................................................... 15
3.3 Tests on physical properties of materials ....................................................................... 15
3.3.1 Determining of specific gravity of sand, plastics and egg shell .............................. 16
3.3.3 Determining of bulk density of Plastics .................................................................. 17
3.3.4 Sieve analysis test .................................................................................................... 18
3.4 SAMPLE PREPARATION ........................................................................................... 18
3.5 TESTS ON SAMPLE TILES ......................................................................................... 20
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3.5.1 Physical properties ................................................................................................... 20
3.5.2 Mechanical properties.............................................................................................. 21
3.6 Unit Cost ........................................................................................................................ 23
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 25
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .............................................................................................. 25
4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 25
4.1 Physical properties on materials ..................................................................................... 25
4.2 Water absorption results of tiles ..................................................................................... 27
4.2.1 Effect of plastic PP, egg shell powder and sand on the water absorption of tiles ... 27
4.3 Density results of the tiles .............................................................................................. 30
4.4 Flexural strength of sample tiles .................................................................................... 32
4.5 Impact resistance ............................................................................................................ 34
Unit cost of tiles ....................................................................................................................... 36
CHAPTER FIVE ..................................................................................................................... 38
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................. 38
5.0 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................ 38
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 39
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 40
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................... 43
Summarized raw data ........................................................................................................... 43
Experimental Pictures .......................................................................................................... 45
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List of figures
Figure 1: Arrangement for testing the specific gravity using pycnometer .............................. 17
Figure 2: Sieve analysis curve for sand ................................................................................... 26
Figure 3: Water absorption of tiles .......................................................................................... 27
Figure 4: The average water absorption with varying plastic PP percentages ........................ 28
Figure 5: Effect of plastic PP (%) on water absorption of sample tiles ................................... 28
Figure 6: The water absorption of the tiles with varying percentage additions of egg shell ... 29
Figure 7: Effect of egg shell powder variation on water absorption of tiles............................ 29
Figure 8: Effect of various sand quantities on the water absorption of tiles............................ 30
Figure 9: The variation in density with percentage additions in PP, EP and sand .................. 31
Figure 10: The variation in flexural strength due to plastic, egg shell and sand additions ...... 32
Figure 11: The effect of plastic PP on the flexural strength/modulus of rapture of tiles ......... 33
Figure 12: The effect of egg shell powder on the breaking strength of tiles ........................... 34
Figure 13: The extent of damage caused by the steel ball on the tiles..................................... 35
Figure 14: Water absorption of the tiles .................................................................................. 43
Figure 15: Flexural strength of the tiles ................................................................................... 43
Figure 16: Density of the tiles .................................................................................................. 44
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List of Tables
Table 1: Physical properties of egg shell (Maddah, 2016) ........................................................ 8
Table 2: Properties of polypropylene plastic material (Karthick J et al. 2014) ......................... 9
Table 3: Sample mixing ratios ................................................................................................. 19
Table 4: Sieve analysis of fine aggregates (sand) .................................................................... 25
Table 5: Determined physical properties of sand, egg shell powder and plastic PP ............... 26
Table 6: Shows average water absorption (%) of tile samples ................................................ 27
Table 7: The average density of sample tiles ........................................................................... 31
Table 8: The flexural strength of the floor tile samples ........................................................... 32
Table 9: The cost of materials per kg....................................................................................... 36
Table 10: Total cost per square metre of sample tiles ............................................................. 37
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LIST OF PICTURES
Picture 1: Tiles samples after the production ........................................................................... 20
Picture 2: An arrangement of a sample in the UTM machine ................................................. 23
Picture 3: Materials preparation for the production of samples ............................................... 45
Picture 4: Sample production process ...................................................................................... 46
Picture 5: Weighing the samples for the water absorption test ................................................ 46
Picture 6: Preparation of materials for specific gravity test ..................................................... 47
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List of Acronyms
ISO International Standard Organization
PW Plastic Waste
wt weight
PP Polypropylene
PE Polyethylene
EP Eggshell powder
ASTM American Standard Testing Method
BS Bristish Standards
Kg Kilogram
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ABSTRACT
The construction industry in Uganda keeps growing year after year and construction materials
are always on an increasing demand. On the other hand, plastics and other organic wastes from
the increasing population are creating a big strain on the environment where they are poorly
dumped. This research looked at utilizing these plastic wastes (Polypropylene), egg shell and
sand in the production of floor tiles. The material wastes were collected from the chapatti sellers
within Banda and from waste disposal facilities from within Banda and Kinawataka areas. The
materials were carefully cleaned, with the plastics being shredded and egg shell milled into
flour. The physical properties of Polypropylene, egg shell powder and sand were tested.
Various mix ratios of the aforementioned materials were prepared, tests on physical properties
of water absorption and tile density and also mechanical properties of flexural strength and
impact resistance were determined. The water absorption of tiles was determined and an
increase in plastics and egg shell powder resulted into a decrease in the water absorption for
the 24 hours of immersion in distilled water. This absorption rate ranged from 0.1% - 0.2% for
all the mix ratios. There was also a determination of density of the tiles and it was observed
that addition of plastics in the tile body reduces the overall density of the tiles. Sand and egg
shell powder on the other hand increases the density of the tile but all the determined densities
were within the range of 1570kg/m3 – 1832kg/m3 which is clearly related to that of the control
ceramic tile (1774 kg/m3). The flexural strength was observed to increase with an increase in
plastic polypropylene and egg shell powder, the two materials bonded so well to reduce on the
failure of the tile from the applied load. The flexural strength of all the tiles was found to be
about 300% higher than that of a normal ceramic tile (3.905KN/mm2). An observation on how
the tiles can withstand an object falling on them was determined by allowing a steel ball to
drop from a height of one metre above the tile surface and the tiles experienced less shuttering
compared to a normal ceramic tile that shuttered completely.
The determined properties showed that utilizing the plastic polypropylene and egg shell wastes
provide a strong and cost effective tile for the construction industry.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Ceramic floor tiles are being manufactured from clay components of feldspars, quartz, iron
oxides and hydroxides, titanium oxide, calcite, dolomite and organic substance (Hanuskova
&Manfredini, 2012). The clays used for these tiles should have properties advantageous for
modern continuous wet-processing (easy deflocculability in water), workability (plasticity,
body formation, drying behaviour, dry bending strength, sintering, and firing behaviour) and
quality (colour and transparency of the body). However according to (Wan, 2004) failures in
floor tiles is due to a lack of knowledge of materials such as their characteristics and proper
use, inappropriateness among the various systems, inadequate skills, lack of appreciation of
the new ISO standard for tiles and the pressing need for speed in construction. Ceramic tiles
used in Uganda’s construction industry are imported from Italy, Spain, China, Brazil, Indonesia
& Turkey because in these countries, there is optimal utilization of minerals and raw materials
which is directly proportional to the level of technology about the ceramic materials and the
effects of the minerals and their impurities on the process and the property of the end product.
More to the above, there is high automation in the manufacture of ceramic tiles that require
constant supervision at each production stage (Mondi et al. 2003). Also, the production of these
tiles involves the importation of raw materials like quartz feldspar, iron oxides and hydroxides,
calcite dolomite and titanium oxide (Manfredini & Hanuskova, 2012). It is therefore of great
importance to the construction industry to develop a tile that utilizes locally available raw
materials without compromising strength yet still cheaper than the ceramic tile.
On the other hand, the use of plastics has been a common practice for many purposes such as
packaging materials, garbage bags, fluid containers, household and industrial products, and
building materials (Momin et al. 2014). Currently, Uganda is facing a big strain on the
environment owing to the insufficient ways of recycling plastic wastes (Kiptoo, 2016). Most
of this plastic waste is usually dumped in landfills and some burned which emit toxic fumes
into the atmosphere depending on the composition of the plastic waste. In Kampala City, the
daily per capita waste generation is projected at 1 Kilogram (Bateganya, 2017). This means
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that with the likely day population of 4.5 million people, Kampala City produces about 45,000
tonnes of waste per day. According to KCCA, the city generates about three-quarters of the
waste that is organic with the remaining proportion constituting of plastic, glass, paper, metals
and other wastes from construction. Plastic waste constitutes 1.6% and the waste collected is
transported to Kitezi landfill in Wakiso district. The wastes collected is about 40% of the total
waste generated in the City, while the remaining waste not collected is normally burnt and or
dumped in prohibited sites, causing health and environmental problems (ENR-CSO Network,
2018).
According to the study done by Marzouk et al. 2007, the percentage of waste plastic volume in
concrete was below 50%, the compressive and flexural strength of concrete were unaffected.
Although several studies have been done on the utilization of plastic waste in the construction
industry, they are based on its usage in the replacement of aggregates. A few studies have been
carried on its usage on roof and floor tile manufacturing. Konin 2011, in his study to access the
possibility of using plastic waste (polypropylene basis) as a binding material instead of cement
in the production of roofing tiles, the tests on physical and mechanical properties showed that
plastic waste tiles whose plastic proportion was 40%, gave better results than micro-concrete
tiles (TP0). In a study done by El-Fadaly et al. 2010 to assess the possibility of recycling some
solid wastes of the ceramic industry heated up to 1190º C in the production of ceramic tiles,
results showed that the addition of cyclone dust improved the physico- mechanical properties
of the base body, while sludge additions weakened these properties. In research done by Momin
et al. 2014 using waste plastics, sand mixed with little asphalt and heated to make plastic floor
tiles, the physical property of water absorption and mechanical properties of transverse
strength, resistance to impact and abrasion gave better results at 40% of waste plastic mix but
the transverse strength of the tile reduced with addition of more plastic wastes in the sample.
There is, therefore a necessity to improve the tile strength of the tile without compromising
other properties. According to Karthick et al. 2014, the egg shell is about 95% CaCO3. The
remaining 5% includes Magnesium, Aluminum, Phosphorous, Sodium, Potassium, Zinc, Iron,
Copper, Ironic acid, and Silica acid. Also, the results from the study done by Freire and Holanda
(2006) indicated that the egg shell waste sample rich in Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) can be
used as an alternative raw material in the production of the wall tile materials. These properties
make it a good binding agent for plastic and sand hence this study utilizes plastic waste
materials (polypropylene) and eggshells as binders with sand in the manufacture of floor tiles
that are sustainable for Uganda’s construction industry.
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1.2 Problem statement

The construction industry is growing with a booming rate following the alarming population
growth rate. Floor tiles are one of the construction materials highly demanded and consumed
in the construction sector. Most of these tiles are produced from raw materials such as sand,
cement, clay, quartz, feldspar marble and other additives of which most of them are imported
thus higher costs of production. In Uganda a study by (Olupot, 2006) in the assessment of
ceramic raw materials in Uganda, he found out that there are few deposits where the raw
materials were located like Lunya (Mukono district), Mutaka (Bushenyi district) and Lido
Beach. More so, the importation of these materials has led to an increase in the cost of using
tiles as a floor finish in the country day by day because of high demand, scarcity of raw
materials and tax levied on them.
However, solid wastes including plastics once used and dumped can accumulate without
decomposing resulting in unsightly sceneries, reduction of soil fertility and widespread of
diseases. Plastics inform of polypropylene possess water-resistance properties, have a
relatively high bulk density that reduces the sample space and also, they have a high resistance
to heat. Egg shells consist of Calcium carbonate to about 95% and are also resistant to water
penetration and it is thus expected to increase on the strength of the tile sample. This study
utilized wastes from polypropylene plastic and egg shell in the production floor tiles.
1.3 Main objectives

To produce floor tiles from egg shell powder and plastic polypropylene waste.
1.4 Specific objectives

1. To determine the physical properties of eggshell and plastic wastes
2. To establish the physical and mechanical properties of tiles made with eggshell and
plastic wastes
3. To come up with a cost comparison of the final tile product from plastic wastes and egg
shell and ceramic tiles.
1.5 Research questions

1. What are the physical properties of eggshell powder and plastics?
2. What is the water absorption of the floor tiles for different mix ratios of egg shell
powder and plastics?
3. What is the flexural strength of floor tiles made from different mix ratios?
4. What is the unit cost of a square metre of tiles made from plastics and eggshell powder?
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1.6 Justification
Uganda’s construction industry is growing at a faster rate and there has been an increased
demand for sustainable building materials that are readily available and obtained at a relatively
low cost. Most materials, especially floor tiles used in Uganda, are largely imported from Italy,
Spain, China, Brazil, Indonesia and Turkey and this has led to a higher rate of production cost
making their purchasing cost relatively high for finishing.
More to the above, the existence of plastic wastes around Kinawataka and eggshell wastes that
have not been put to good use has justified this my research through utilizing these wastes in
the production of floor tiles.
1.7 Significance
Most floors in Uganda are constructed with ceramic or porcelain floor tiles which are relatively
expensive, the construction industry needs awareness of the production of cost-effective tile
from waste materials like plastic wastes and eggshell. This study is aimed at using plastic
wastes and eggshell wastes in the manufacture of floor tiles which will lead to the production
of cheap flooring tiles and reduce the plastic waste that has been poorly disposed of all around
the city. The research will also help in achieving the United Nations sustainable development
goals (SDG), goal 12 of responsible consumption and production. The study will also be a basis
for further research in the academic cycles.
1.8 Scope
1.8.1 Geographical scope
The study was conducted in Kyambogo with the areas of Banda and Kinawataka where the
required raw materials of plastic and eggshell wastes were collected.
1.8.2 Contextual scope

The content scope explains the extent of the work that the proposed research covered. This
research involved establishing the physical and mechanical properties of tiles made with
eggshell and plastic wastes, this was achieved by testing the flexural strength, impact
resistance, density and water absorption of the sample tiles.
Also, the sieve analysis test of sand, bulk density, specific gravity of both eggshell and plastic
waste material were determined
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1.8.3 Time Scope

The research was carried out for a period of five months; from December 2019 to March 2020
and October 2020 to December 2020 with the break caused by the outbreak of the Global
Pandemic of Corona Virus (COVID-19).
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1.9 Conceptual Frame work
Dependent variables
Physical properties
Independent Variables
Water absorption
Eggshell powder
Density
Plastic waste (PP)
Mechanical properties
Sand material
Flexural strength
Impact resistance
Moderating Variables
Mix ratio
Heating Temperature
Size of sand particles
Rate of pressing the

sample.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction.
This chapter evaluates the available information from many kinds of research carried on tile
production and usage of plastic and egg shell wastes in the construction industry. This chapter
looks firstly at building finishing materials in general, then the properties of both plastics and
eggshell wastes and their respective strengths in construction industry usage.
2.2 Building materials

Finishing can be defined as the final layer which protects and fixes the surface of the building
elements. This layer plays an important role in the visual and psychological definition of
interior space and it is necessary to coat walls, floors, and ceilings to create a suitable
appearance and to protect the structure from effects of water, moisture, heat, abrasion (Koca,
2016).
2.2.1 Wall finishes

Koca (2016) states that the major function of a wall is to separate spaces within the building
from each other vertically and may also carry loads depending on the building structural
system. Walls also have to protect the space from the consequences of water, moisture, heat,
noise, light, fire
2.2.2 Ceiling finishes

Ceiling is the lower part of the floor. If it does not have installations or any equipment, it is
usually straight and can be finished easily. But if the ceiling has heating, air conditioning
system, lighting or sprinkler system equipment on it, a suspended ceiling type has to be formed
in order to hide these systems. Suspended ceilings are most times comprised of a hanging
system and a finishing material. The installation is in a way that the hanging system composed
of metal wire is installed first and the finishing material which can be gypsum, metal, glass,
wood or ceramic is installed on to the system. (Koca, 2016)
2.2.3 Floor finishes.

Floor is the horizontal structural element of the building. The prior function of floor is to bear
the load. Depending on the floor location in the building, it must be resistant to heat, water,
moisture noise and other effects.
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Floor and ceiling coatings are finishing layers and have to produce a visually and efficiently
favorable impact. Floor coating is defined as the upper layer of the floor which has to protect
the layers below and has to be appropriate with the function of the space. Therefore, while
choosing floor coating, the function of the space and user needs have to be determined and the
selection made by considering these factors (Koca, 2016).
2.3 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PLASTIC WASTE AND

EGGSHELL WASTES
2.3.1 Egg shell waste powder
Eggshell has 95% Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) and the remaining 5% includes Magnesium,
Aluminum, Phosphorous, Sodium, Potassium, Zinc, Iron, Copper, Ironic acid and Silica acid
(Parkash & Singh, 2017). Freire and Holanda (2006) in their research carried out the
investigation on egg shell waste and found out its use in a ceramic wall tile paste. Based on the
presence of Calcium Carbonate in egg shell, it was used as an alternative raw material in the
production of wall tile materials. Kumar et al. 2015 investigated the composition of eggshell
and found that it contains Calcium Oxide (60%-67%), Silicon Oxide (17%-25%), Aluminium
Oxide (3%-8%), Iron oxide (0.5%-0.6%), Magnesium Oxide (0.1%-4.0%), Potassium Oxide
and Sodium Oxide (0.4%-1.3%), Sulphurtrioxide (1.3%-3%).
Table 1: Physical properties of egg shell (Maddah, 2016)
Name Physical Properties

Specific gravity 0.85
Moisture content 1.18
Bulk Density (g/m3) 0.8
Particle Density (g/m3) 1.012
Porosity (%) 22.4 BET
Surface area m2/g 21.2
Advantages of egg shell

1. It has a considerable reduction in alkali-silica and sulfate expansions.
2. Egg shells meet the most stringent environmental regulations nationwide.
3. Egg shell powder is good for painting in occupied spaces.
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4. Egg shell powder gives an excellent durability and washable finish.

5. Resist mold and mildew on the paint film.
6. Saves money; less material required when used
7. Egg shells also meet strict performance and aesthetic requirements.
2.3.2 Polypropylene
Plastics in form of polypropylene are tough and elastic, does not readily react with acids and
alkalis, it retains its shape after torsion and bending, have a high resistance to electricity, has a
good impact resistance and is very resistant to moisture absorption (Creative Mechanisms Staff,
2016).
Table 2: Properties of polypropylene plastic material (Karthick J et al. 2014)
Advantages of polypropylene (Rogers, 2014)
 It is a relatively inexpensive material

 It possesses high flexural strength because of its semi-crystalline nature
 It has a low coefficient of friction
 It is very resistant to moisture
 It has good chemical resistance over a wide range of bases and acids
 It possesses good fatigue resistance
 It has good impact strength
 It has a good resistance to electricity and is thus a good electrical insulator
 It is more easily repaired from damage
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PERFOMANCE CRETERION REQUIRED FOR INTERIOR FINISHING

MATERIALS
The most significant criterion for a finishing material is to have a suitable appearance visually
with the function of the space and proper texture and color with the user’s requirements.
Finishing materials are usually affected by the mechanical factors because of the direct contact
with the user (Butterworth & Heinemann, 1991). Floors and walls can be damaged by the
furniture or objects. Therefore, the finishing materials to be used have to be resistant to any
mechanical effects of abrasion and impact with a higher compressive strength and the selection
has to be done according to the material's strength properties. Finishing materials also have to
be dimensionally stable, resistant to chemicals and sunlight, easy cleanable and durable.
2.4 STRENGTH OF WASTE MATERIALS IN CONSTRUCTION

2.4.1 Plastic wastes
2.4.1.1 Types of plastics

The world is full of plastics. Whether you realize it or not, practically everything you see and
use on a daily basis is entirely or partly plastic material. According to A & C Plastics INC.,
(2019) the following are types of plastics and how they are used;
Acrylic or Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA)
This is well-known for its use in optical devices and products, acrylic is a transparent
thermoplastic used as a lightweight, shatter-resistant alternative to glass. Acrylic is typically
used in sheet form create products such as acrylic mirrors and acrylic plexi-glass. The
transparent plastic can be made colored and fluorescent, abrasion-resistant, bullet-resistant,
UV-tolerant, non-glare, anti-static and many more. In addition to being than glass and
polycarbonate sheeting, acrylic is seventeen times more impact resistant than glass, easier to
handle and process, and has endless applications.
Polyethylene (PE)
This is the most common plastic; polyethylene is manufactured in varying densities. Each
different density of polyethylene gives the final plastic unique physical properties. As a result,
polyethylene is in a wide variety of products. There are four common polyethylene densities:
10
Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
This density of polyethylene is ductile and used to make products like shopping bags, plastic
bags, clear food containers, disposable packaging, etc.
Medium-Density Polyethylene (MDPE)
Possessing more polymer chains and, thus, greater density, MDPE is typically in gas pipes,
shrink film, carrier bags, screw closures, and more.
High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
More rigid than both LDPE and MDPE, HDPE plastic sheeting is in products such as plastic
bottles, piping for water and sewer, snowboards, boats, and folding chairs.
Polypropylene (PP)
This plastic material is a thermoplastic polymer and the world’s second-most widely produced
synthetic plastic. Its widespread use and popularity are undoubted because polypropylene is
one of the most flexible thermoplastics on the planet. Although PP is stronger than PE, it still
retains flexibility. It will not crack under repeated stress. Durable, flexible, heat resistant, acid
resistance, and cheap, polypropylene sheets are used to make laboratory equipment, automotive
parts, medical devices, and food containers. Just to name a few.
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
This is the most common thermoplastic resin of the polyester family. Polyethylene
Terephthalate is easily recyclable and chemically resistance to water and organic materials. It
is practically shatterproof and possesses an impressive high strength to weight ratio. This
plastic material is in fibers for clothing, containers for foods and liquid, glass fiber for
engineering resins, carbon nanotubes, and many other products that we use on a daily basis.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
This is the third-most produced synthetic plastic polymer. It possesses rigid or flexible
properties and is well-known for its ability to blend with other materials. For example,
expanded PVC sheets are a foamed polyvinyl chloride material that is ideal products like
kiosks, store displays, and exhibits. The rigid form of PVC is commonly in construction
materials, doors, windows, bottles and non-food packaging. With the addition of plasticizers
11
such as phthalates, the softer and more flexible form of PVC is in plumbing products, electrical
cable insulation, clothing, medical tubing, and other similar products.
2.4.1.2 Strength of Plastic wastes in use
Alao et al., (2017) compared the analytical and behaviour of recycled waste plastic tiles and a
conventional alumina ceramic tile. In his research, he adopted a melting point of 60˚C for all
waste plastic material with a controlled cooling temperature method. A universal testing
machine was used to conduct the flexural strength and compression strength of the various
plastic type used and the laboratory results were then used to simulate the recycled plastic tiles
which were compared with those of alumina ceramic tile. A recycled plastic waste tile of size
300mm x 300mm x 10mm from different plastic was analyzed with a central load for all
recycled plastic waste types and were compared with those of alumina ceramic tile.
The maximum used temperature of these recycled waste plastic tiles was found to be 300˚C
compared to that of alumina ceramic tile which is 1250˚C and the suitable melting point for all
the waste plastics studied in this research was found to be 60˚C. Also, from the computer
analysis that was carried out, the alumina ceramic tile showed less deformations compared to
recycled plastic product. The stresses in a recycled plastic product were found to be less
compared to that of alumina ceramic tile when the load was applied at the centre of the plate.
Furthermore, the equivalent strain for all recycled plastic types were equal but less than that of
alumina ceramic tile and also the strain energy of alumina ceramic tile hits a value higher than
strain energy of all the recycled plastic types.
Momin et al., (2014) evaluated the different physical and mechanical properties of floor tiles
manufactured from waste plastics in different proportions with sand without using cement and
comparing it with the normal cement tile. Test like water absorption test, transverse resistance,
resistance to impact and abrasion tests were carried accordance with the IS specification sand
the results obtained showed better results with that of a normal cement tile. Sand and plastic
wastes were added in proportions of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 60% and it was discovered
that proportions of 10% and 20% were insufficient to prepare the tile since after removal of the
mould, the tile failed. Test results for 50% of waste plastic by weight of sand is found to have
transverse nearer to that of cement tile (20.80N/mm2 compared to 22.75N/mm2) and the other
properties like impact and abrasion resistance were on the higher side that is impact resistance
at a height of 39 cm compared to 30 for cement tiles and abrasion resistance (average loss in
thickness in cm) 0.72 compared to 0.79 for a cement tile.
12
Anand and Singh (2017) in their research to study the behaviour of concrete containing egg
shell powder as cement replacing material where eggshell powder was varied up to 24% (0%,
6%,12%, 18%, and 24 %) found out that optimum Compressive strength and flexural strength
were obtained at 12 % replacement of egg shell powder in concrete samples. As the percentage
of egg shell powder increased beyond 6 % in concrete, the split tensile strength is found to be
decreased compared to control concrete mix. It was observed that the workability of concrete
is decreased by increasing the amount of Egg shell powder.
2.4.2 Egg shell powder waste
Mohamed Ansari et al studied the replacement of cement using eggshell Powder. The paper
describes the effect and experimental result of replacement of eggshell powder in cement. The
compressive test was carried out for concrete replaced with 10%, 15% and 20% of eggshell
powder in Portland Pozzolona cement. The compressive strengths were tested for concrete
cubes of dimension 150 x 150 x 150 mm. The test was carried in compressive test machine of
capacity 100KN. In compressive strength test the loading rate was 50KN/s. The compressive
test was conducted on 150mm cube specimens at 7th day and also to be done on 28th day. The
results which came after carrying out all tests found successful which indicates that eggshell
powder can be used as a replacement material for cement. From the results it is proved that
replacement of eggshell powder if about 10 % to 15 % is effective and when we increasing
further the percentage of eggshell powder decrease the compressive strength.
2.4.3 Other wastes in tile production

Ceramic wastes at ceramic industries have been recycled and used in manufacture of floor tiles
El-Fadaly et al., (2010). Cyclone dust, sludge, and filter dust were added to the base body in
proportions ranging from 2.5 to 10 % weight content. The mixed powders were pressed at 225
bar and then fired in an industrial kiln at 1190 ºC for 35 minutes’ cycle. The results showed
that on addition of cyclone dust, the physico- mechanical properties of the base body improved,
while sludge additions weakened these properties. However, filter dust had nearly no effect on
properties. The best properties of water absorption, bulk density, apparent porosity and linear
shrinkage were achieved at 7.5 % wt content of each waste.
According to a research done by Marghussian and Maghsoodipoor (1998) in fabrication of

unglazed floor tiles containing Iranian copper slags, addition of 20-80 % wt copper slag to a
standard floor tile composition increased the firing shrinkage and bend strength values and
13
decreased the water absorption, up to a firing temperature of 1025 ˚C, for all specimens. It was
further found out that an optimum slag content, which in the present investigation was 40 wt%,
gave the best combination of properties and the most promising specimens had a high
resistance to mineral acids and may be used as acid resistant tiles.
Dana and Das (2003) in manufacture of high strength ceramic floor tile containing Indian
metallurgical slags, where samples of 60 x 60 x6mm produced from two kinds of metallurgical
slags from Indian steel plants at a compaction pressure of 30Mpa. Samples were dried to a
moisture level less than 0.5% and finally subjected to single stage firing at a temperature range
1060-1180 ˚C in an electrically heated laboratory furnace for a soaking period of 30min.
samples fired at different temperatures were tested for bulk density, linear shrinkage, flexural
strength, and water absorption using standard techniques. Standard powder of a commercial
floor tile composition containing clay, feldspar and sand was collected from one of the Indian
tile manufacturers and tested under similar conditions to compare with the present experimental
compositions. Both samples showed a high shrinkage at 1060 ˚C. However, the flexural
strength of all the specimens was higher that of a commercial composition at 1160˚C and
1180˚C and it decreased with an increase in the firing temperature. It was thus concluded that
waste metallurgical slags can be used which can partly replace costly feldspar mineral and
results in a high strength ceramic floor tile composition with limited and controlled porosity
compatible with the firing shrinkage values.
Thus the wastes of plastic, egg shell that have physical properties and are under-utilized can be
used in the manufacture of floor tiles with plastics working as a main binder and egg shell
powder and an additional binder for additional strength.
14
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Introduction
“Research methodology is a specific procedure or technique used to identify select, process

and analyze information about a topic” (University of Witwatersrand, 2000). It includes the
design of the research, the data collection procedures, the sampling methods, the instruments
used, the data sources and the variables of the study and data analysis techniques. This section
allows the reader following to critically evaluate the overall validity and reliability of the study.
It also helps the researcher to achieve the set objectives. The objectives of this study were
achieved by determining the physical properties of plastic wastes, egg shell powder and sand
and then floor tiles by different mix ratios of these materials are to be produced. The physical
properties that are water absorption and mechanical properties (flexural strength and impact
resistance) of these tiles were also determined using samples of different mix ratios and
dimensions
3.2 Material preparation

3.2.1 Plastic wastes (PW).
Plastics (Polypropylene) used as a binder was obtained from Banda and Kinawataka pits and
drainage lines. These plastics included plastic packaging bags for shopping and food staffs,
basins, plates cups, jerry cans, and plastic screw top lids.
3.2.2 Egg shell wastes

These were used as an additional binder for strength and were collected from chapatti sellers
and hotels within Banda.
3.2.3 Sand
Sand that satisfies the American Standards (ASTM C33-78) and passing through 600 microns
IS sieve grading requirements for fine aggregates was used in this study to increase the bulk of
the tile material.
3.3 Tests on physical properties of materials

The physical properties tested on materials included; sieve analysis test on sand, specific
gravity and bulk density of plastics, eggshell, and sand.
15
3.3.1 Determining of specific gravity of sand, plastics and egg shell
The specific gravity of a material is the ratio of the weight of given volume of a material to the
weight of an equal volume of water. This was carried out per the ASTM D 854-00 standard
test for the specific gravity of solids by water pycnometer and IS-2720-Part-3-1980.
Apparatus
a) Pycnometer of about 1 litre capacity

b) Weighing balance, with an accuracy of 1g
c) Glass rod
d) Vacuum pump
e) Oven
Procedure
1. The Pycnometer was dried, its cap tightly screwed and its mass M1 to taken
2. The cap was unscrewed and a sample of the material to be tested was added in the
pycnometer. The cap was screwed and mass M2 determined.
3. The cap was unscrewed and a sufficient amount of de-aired water was added to the to
the Pycnometer to cover the material. The cap was again screwed tightly.
4. The contents in the pycnometer were shaken carefully to remove the entrapped air
5. The Pyknometer was filled with water completely up to the mark. The outside of the
pycnometer was dried and its mass (M3) taken.
6. The pycnometer was then emptied, cleaned and wiped dry.
7. The Pycnometer was the filled with water only. Its cap screwed up to the mark, wiped
dry and mass (M4) was taken.
16
Figure 1: Arrangement for testing the specific gravity using pycnometer
The specific gravity of sand is determined using the equation below

𝑀2−𝑀1
G = (𝑀2−𝑀1)−(𝑀3−𝑀4)
Where G – Specific gravity of sample material

M1 – the mass of empty pycnometer
M2 – the mass of pycnometer + dry material
M3 – the mass of pycnometer + material + water
M4 – the mass of pycnometer filled only with water
3.3.3 Determining of bulk density of Plastics
Bulk density is defined as the weight per unit volume of material. Bulk density is primarily
used for powders or pellets. The test can provide a gross measure of particle size and dispersion
which can affect material flow consistency and reflect packaging quantity. This was done as
per ASTM D1895B: standard test methods for apparent density, bulk factor.
Specimen size
Powder or pellets
Equipment used
a) Graduated cylinder
b) Meter balance
c) Funnel
Procedure
1. A funnel was suspended above a measuring cylinder.
17
2. The funnel was filled with the sample and allowed to freely flow into the measuring
cylinder.
3. The excess material on top of the measuring cylinder was scraped off with a straight
edge.
4. The sample and the cylinder are then weighed and the weight/volume was determined
5. Bulk density of both compacted and uncompacted material was calculated from
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Bulk Density = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
3.3.4 Sieve analysis test

This test was done according to standard test method for sieve analysis for fine aggregate and
coarse aggregate as shown in the BS882 and ASTM C136-06. This was done to determine the
particle size distribution of the sand by sieving. The following sieve sizes were used; 10.0,
4.75, 2.36, 1.18, 0.6, 0.3, 0.15 mm. The test samples were oven dried at 105o C. The sieve was
first weighed and recorded, then fitted according to the sieve size and the samples poured from
the surface, and then thoroughly shaken. The material retained on each sieve was again
weighed and then divided by the total weight of the sand sieved to give a percentage retained
on each sieve. The total percentage of sand that was retained on each sieve was added to the
amount in the previous sieves to determine the cumulative percentage of the sand retained. The
results attained were recorded and graph of sieve size against the cumulative percentage
passing was drawn.
3.4 SAMPLE PREPARATION
Wastes collection
The plastic wastes (polypropylene) was collected from Kinawataka and Banda drainage
systems and dumping areas. This was because of their (plastics) availability within the area.
Plastics were then mechanically shredded in small pieces of about 700 mm for easy melting.
shredded plastic pieces were then washed thoroughly to remove glue remaining paper labels,
dirt and any remnants of the product they once contained. After washing, plastics were then
sun-dried to get rid of any water on the cut plastic pieces ready for melting.
Collection and preparation of eggshells
The egg shells were obtained from chapatti sellers and hotels within Banda. They were then
subjected to thorough cleaning involving soaking in water for 24 hours allowing easy removal
18
of dirt and membranes during cleaning. The egg shells are resistant to water penetration making
its combination with plastics suitable for their use.
Egg shells were first boiling water for 5-10 minutes to remove the membrane, sun-dried for 3-
4 days and then pounded using a motor and pestle and then milled to flour from Banda Using
a milling machine. The pounded egg shells were sieved through a 1.18mm sieve. Egg shells
were used as an additional binder and filler to the tile body.
Mixing of materials
Dried plastic pieces were melted in a container placed on a has cylinder place to a melting point
of (150 ˚C – 170 ˚C) after plastic has fully melted, well-sieved sand and eggshell powder were
added in the same container during heating and the mixture stirred continuously and these (sand
and egg shell powder) were added little by little in quantity and the mixture stirred well until a
homogeneous mix was obtained. Maximum care was taken and continuous stirring done for
the mixture not to catch fire,
Ratio of mixing materials

Materials were mixed in varying ratios by mass to attain the best for the tile production.
Table 3: Sample mixing ratios
Materials Mix 1 (M1) Mix 2 (M2) Mix 3 (M3)

Plastic Waste 50% 55% 60%
Egg shell powder 0% 10% 20%
Sand 50% 35% 20%
27 number tiles of size 250mm x 250 mm x 8 mm will be cast.
19
Picture 1: Tiles samples after the production

3.5 TESTS ON SAMPLE TILES
Tests were done on all the mixes and the one that gave the strength properties compared to that
of the control was taken as a suitable mix for tile production
3.5.1 Physical properties
Water absorption of the samples

The capacity of ceramic material to absorb water is related to its porosity. The strength of any
building material will be drastically reduced if allowed to absorb excessive moisture. The water
absorption value will have a direct bearing on other performance characteristics such as
mechanical resistance, resistance to sudden temperature changes and frost resistance. It also
gives us an idea of the degree of internal cohesion and compaction of the fired product. The
open porosity of a wall or floor tile firstly depends on the composition of the ceramic body.
Other determining factors include the compaction of an unfired piece or piece-forming (which
in turn depends on such other factors as grain size, distribution of the spray-dried powder,
moisture, etc.) and, finally, the firing process. Water absorption is also used as a criterion for
classifying ceramic wall and floor tiles in ISO 13006: 1998. The glazed layer has zero water
absorption since it is fully vitrified. The water absorption test on the sample tiles was carried
out according to ASTM C 373standard test methods for determining water absorption and BS
EN ISO 10545-3:1997 and associated properties by vacuum method.
Apparatus
1. Balance, of adequate capacity, suitable to weigh accurately to 0.01 g
2. Wire Loop, Halter, or Basket, capable of supporting specimens underwater for making
suspended mass measurements
20
3. Container of such size and shape that the sample, when suspended from the balance by
the wire loop, is completely immersed in water with the sample and the wire loop being
completely free of contact with any part of the container.
4. Distilled Water
Procedure according ASTM C373
1. Three samples from each mix ratio were tested

2. The dry samples were weighed and recorded as M1(dry mass)
3. The samples were then immersed in distilled water for 24 hours for saturation.
4. After this procedure, the excess moisture on the sample surfaces was removed with a
damp cloth
5. Their masses were measured accurately and noted as M2.
Then the formula below was used to obtain the results
(𝑀2−𝑀1)
Percentage of water absorption WA = x 100%
𝑀1
Where: WA is the water absorption, M1= the mass of the dry tile (g), M2 = the mass of the wet
tile (g).
The average absorption of water of the sample was determined by the arithmetic average of the
individual results.
Density of the sample tiles
This is the mass of the material per unit of its volume. It is an important factor influencing all
strength properties of the material. Determination of density of a regular shaped material such
as a tile involved weighing the sample accurately and then its volume was computed from its
measured dimension
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Average density for each mix ratio was then determined.
3.5.2 Mechanical properties
3.5.2.1 Flexural strength or breaking strength

Procedure
The test was performed on at least three samples tiles. This test was done according to ASTM
C 1505-01 standard test method for determining of breaking strength of tile by three-point
loading
21
Testing apparatus
 Testing machine capable of loading at a uniform rate of 1± 0.2 N/mm2

 2 cylindrical support loads
 Central cylindrical rod
Procedure
1. Cylindrical support rods were positioned on the rod support plate with an appropriate
span L of 150mm
2. The specimen tiles were placed overhang on each support rod by length l
3. The central cylindrical rod was positioned on the face of the specimen at the mid-point
between the support rods.
4. The specimen was loaded with the central rod at a uniform rate sufficient to increase
the stress in the specimen at a rate of 1± 0.2 N/mm2.
5. The load at which the specimen broke into two or more pieces was recorded.
The breaking strength of the sample is calculated from B = PL/b
The modulus of rapture/ flexural strength was also further calculated from the formula below
α =3PL/2bd2
B = breaking strength in N
P = load at which the specimen broke in KN
L = the span between the cylindrical support rods in mm and
b = width of the specimen in mm
d = thickness of the specimen in mm
22
Picture 2: An arrangement of a sample in the UTM machine

3.5.2.2 Impact resistance
The test on impact resistance was conducted as addressed in the American standard ASTM
648-84 through measuring what is known as the restitution coefficient (e). A spherical steel
bearing weighing approximately 438g was dropped from a height of one meter with the help
of a tape above the surface of the tile samples and the degree of shuttering or indention was
recorded.
3.6 Unit Cost

This was achieved by calculating costs incurred in the production of a single tile piece that is
the costs of materials including transport, labour and equipment that was used. After these costs
were calculated, a profit of 15 % was added to come up with the unit cost of the sample tile.
After coming up with these costs, the unit cost of a square metre of tiles was calculated.
Procedure
1. The cost of plastics to be used in the production including collection and transportation
costs was calculated and the cost of the specific plastic wastes used for a single tile was
determined in shillings
2. The costs of egg shell collected and their transportation was also calculated and the cost
of those used in a single tile will then be determined
3. The cost of the quantity of sand used for a single tile was calculated.
4. The cost of labour for number tiles production was calculated and the cost per tile was
computed
5. Approximate costs of equipment used in the production was calculated
23
The total cost incurred = Material costs (Plastics, Egg shell and sand) + Labour
costs + Equipment costs
6. After calculation of the costs incurred, a manufacturer’ s profit and overhead of 15%
was added to come up with a unit cost of one square metre of the tiles
24
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.0 Introduction
The results are analyzed and discussed to give the insight of the research in terms of engineering
properties of plastic floor tiles in relation to the use as a finishing material. Tests on flexural
strength, impact resistance, abrasion resistance were carried out on the tile samples.
Investigation on the water absorption of the sample tiles was also conducted to
4.1 Physical properties on materials
The particle size distribution of fine aggregates (sand) was done according to BS 882: 1992
and the results showed that it was well graded as regards to the percentage passing
specifications. The particle size distribution of sand was performed using a sieve analysis on a
sample of 2518.6 g the results are as summarized below (Table 4).
Table 4: Sieve analysis of fine aggregates (sand)
Standard
Mass %age of Cum. %age Cum. limits of %age
Sieve size passing
retained mass of mass %age Remarks
(mm)
(g) retained retained passing Lower Upper
limit limit
10 0 0.00 0.00 100 100 100 Pass
4.75 0 0.00 0.00 100 89 100 Pass
2.36 0.7 0.03 0.03 100 60 100 Pass
1.18 49.1 1.95 1.98 98 30 100 Pass
0.6 590.9 23.46 25.44 75 15 100 Pass
0.3 989.9 39.30 64.74 35 5 70 Pass
0.15 605 24.02 88.76 11 0 15 Pass
The percentage passing and retained on each sieve size was determined as showed above.
Cummulative percentage passing was used to draw the gradation curve explaining the particle
size distribution sand.
25
Grading Curve and Zoning for the fine aggregates (sand)

BS 882: 1992
120
Cummulative percentage passing
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.15 0.3 0.6 1.18 2.36 4.75 10
Sieve Size (mm)
Upper limit Sand Lower limit
Figure 2: Sieve analysis curve for sand

The bulk density of sand in this study was found to be 1700Kg/m3 which was slightly higher
than that that of egg shell was 1280 Kg/m3 whereas that of plastics was found to be 370Kg/m3
which is slightly lower than that recorded from the previous research done by Karthick et al.,
(2014)
The specific gravity of sand was found to be 2.64 and if falls in the range (2.4-3.0) specified
by the ASTM C33, that of egg shell powder was found as 2.54 which is slightly higher than
3.37 that was recorded by Yerramala (2015) and plastics PP had 0.93 way higher than the
standard 0.9 given by the ASTM D792.
Table 5: Determined physical properties of sand, egg shell powder and plastic PP
Physical properties Determined laboratory values

Bulk density of plastics 1700 Kg/m3
Bulk density of sand 1280 Kg/m3
Bulk density of egg shell 370 Kg/m3
Specific gravity of sand 2.64
Specific gravity of egg shell 2.54
Specific gravity of plastics 0.93
26
4.2 Water absorption results of tiles

Test on water absorption was done on three (3) mix ratios, tile samples size 250 x 250 x 8mm
by soaking them in water and tests were done and recorded at 24 hours. It was done mainly to
determine the rate of permeability of the tile samples after a period of 24 hours. According to
Aishwarya et al., (2020), high rate of water absorption is undesirable for tiles since it may lead
to cracking especially when they are used in areas prone to rainfall and freezing. Increasing
water absorption was observed on addition of more plastic PP and egg shell powder. The water
absorption rate increased from 0.15% to 0.20% as shown in Table 6 and Figure 3
Table 6: Shows average water absorption (%) of tile samples
Average Water absorption at 24 hrs

Samples (PP: EP: Sand)
(%)
50:00:50 0.20
55:10:35 0.18
60:20:20 0.15
0.25
0.20
absorption (%)
Average water
0.20
0.15 0.18
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
50:0:50 55:10:35 60:20:20
Plastics: Eggshell powder: Sand
Figure 3: Water absorption of tiles

4.2.1 Effect of plastic PP, egg shell powder and sand on the water absorption of tiles
The results in Figure 4 show that as more plastic PP was being added, the water absorption of
the tile sample reduced from 0.20 % at 50% addition to 0.18 at 55% and further to 0.15% at 60
% addition. The reduction in the percentage of water absorption could be attributed to the
addition of plastic PP and egg shell powder that are both highly water resistant (Freire and
Holanda, 2006). Similarly, Momin Et al., (2014) found out that the water absorption of his tiles
was 3.8 % at 30 % addition of plastics and 1.01 % at 60% addition of plastic. Also in the
27
research done by Julius, (2014), he found out that the respective water absorptions of the tested
cubes ranged from 16.9 % to 33.4 % for the various mix ratios.
In a research done by Temitope et al., 2015, where plastic sachets/bags were used with saw
dust, he found out that the tile samples did not absorb any single water after 24 hours of
immersion. A conventional ceramic tile according to the ASTM test method C37, EN99 must
have an average water absorption that is below 0.05% and since all the results in this study are
below the standard meaning that these tiles can best be used in flooring.
Figure 4: The average water absorption with varying plastic PP percentages
0.21
0.20
Average water absorption (%)
0.19
0.18
0.17
0.16
0.15 R² = 0.0086
0.14
48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62
Plastic PP (%)
Figure 5: Effect of plastic PP (%) on water absorption of sample tiles

The water absorption of tiles reduced with an addition of eggshell powder and increased with
reduced eggshell powder (Figure 6). When no egg shell powder was added to the mix, the rate
28
of water absorption was 0.2% and it reduced to 0.18% at 10 % of egg shell powder and finally
to 0.15% at 20 % addition of egg shell powder. It is observed in Figure 7 that there is a negative
strong relationship between eggshell addition and water absorption of the tile samples up to
97.4 %. The findings in this study are in contrary with the previous research done by Julius,
(2014) where eggshell powder had an insignificant relationship on the cubes’ water absorption.
The reduction in the water absorption is attributed to the Eggshell powder as a filler that
reduced on the permeability of the tile body limiting any water seepages through tiny voids
created by sand particles.
0.15
0.20 1 At 0 % of EP
2 At 10 % of EP
3 At 20 % of EP
0.18
Figure 6: The water absorption of the tiles with varying percentage additions of egg
shell
0.21
0.20
Water absorption %
0.19
0.18
0.17
0.16
0.15 R² = 0.9736
0.14
0 5 10 15 20 25
Egg shell powder %
Figure 7: Effect of egg shell powder variation on water absorption of tiles

Tiles’ water absorption increased with an increase in the quantity of sand. This is evidenced by
the negative regression (Figure 8) where the coefficient of determination of regression is 31%
29
this is consistent with the findings of Momin et al. 2014 where as more of sand other than
Plastics was used, the rate of water absorption was seen to increase. The increase in water
absorption could be attributed by the porous space within the tile material that eased the
penetration process of water to the tile body.
Average Water absoption (%)

0.21
0.20
water absorption %
0.19
0.18
R² = 0.311
0.17
0.16
0.15
0.14
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Sand %
Figure 8: Effect of various sand quantities on the water absorption of tiles
4.3 Density results of the tiles

Density of a material depend on the specific gravity of the mix compositions and the
compactness of the tile. Tiles with more sand content had high density values whereas those
with high quantities of plastics had low density values as shown in Table 4.2. Tiles made from
Plastics (PP): EP: Sand ratio 55:10:35 had the lowest density of 1,832 kg/m3 whereas those
made from PP: EP: Sand mix ratio 60:20:20 had the highest density of 1,570 Kg/m3. These
findings were also reported previously by Julius et al. (2014) in his research where he
incorporated cement with other mix wastes to determine the effect on the physical and
mechanical properties of floor tiles. The increase in density could be attributed to the direct
consequences of adding denser material (sand) other than a light weight material (PP). The
increase in density could also be due to the fine particles of sand and egg shell powder that
were used in the production. Sand passing through 0.6mm was used in tile production and this
ensured fine packing within the tile body’s Therefore, 55% Plastics, 10% eggshell and 35%
sand can be used in our tile production since it gave the best density results close to the standard
ceramic tile of 2200kg/m3 as determined by Revel (2007) and that of the control mix 1813
Kg/m3
30
Table 7: The average density of sample tiles
Samples (PP: EP: Sand) Average Density (Kg/m3)
50:00:50
1,696
55:10:35
1,832
60:20:20
1,570
1,900
Average density (Kg/m3)
1,850
1,800
1,750
1,700
1,650
1,832
1,600
1,550 1,696
1,500
1,570
1,450
1,400
50:00:50 55:10:35 60:20:20
Plastics: Eggshell powder: Sand
Figure 9: The variation in density with percentage additions in PP, EP and sand
From Figure 9 above, it can be seen that as plastics PP increased, the density of the sample
initially increased from 1,696 Kg/m3 at 50 % addition of plastics to 1832 Kg/m3 at 55% addition
to 1570kg/m3 at 60 % addition of plastics PP. The initial increase in the density could be
attributed to the addition of egg shell powder whose density is higher than plastic PP and its
combination with sand made them more compatible. However, the density rapidly reduced on
addition of more plastics (1,570 kg/m3 at 60%)
31
4.4 Flexural strength of sample tiles
Flexural strength of clay also known a modulus of rupture or bend strength is a material
property defined as the stress in a material just before it yields in a flexure test (Santhoshkumar
et al., 2020). It was observed that the flexural strength of the tile samples increased with an
increase in plastic PP and egg shell powder. The flexural strength of tiles increased from 9.375
kN/mm2 to 11.719 kN/mm2 as shown in Table 8 and Figure 10 below.
Table 8: The flexural strength of the floor tile samples

Average flexural strength
Plastics PP
(kN/mm2)
50 9.375
55 11.250
60 11.719
Control Sample 3.906
14.000
Average flexural strength (KN/m2
12.000
11.719
10.000 11.250
8.000 9.375
6.000
4.000
2.000
0.000
50:0:50 55:10:35 60:20:20
Plastic PP: EP:Sand
Figure 10: The variation in flexural strength due to plastic, egg shell and sand additions
The flexural resistance or modulus of rapture increased from 9.375 kN/mm2 at 50% addition
of Plastic PP to 11.719 kN/mm2 when plastic PP is added up to 60% of the tile sample and
there after the Flexural strength increased more to 11.719 kN/mm2 at 60% usage of plastic
PP. These findings confirm with those of the previous research by momin et al. (2014) where
on addition of more plastics, the flexural strength of his sample tiles increased. The increase
32
in the strength could be attributed to the stiffness properties of polypropylene and this makes
the floor tiles best suitable in high stress areas.
12.000
11.719
FLEXURAL STRENGTH (KN/MM2)
11.500
11.250
11.000
10.500
10.000
9.500
9.375
9.000
50 55 60
EGG SHELL POWDER (%)
Figure 11: The effect of plastic PP on the flexural strength/modulus of rapture of tiles
On the other hand, the flexural strength of the tiles increased with an increase in egg shell
percentage addition. The flexural strength increased from 9.375 KN/m2 to 11.250 KN/m2 when
the 10% of egg shell powder was added and then increased to 11.719 KN/m2 at 20% addition.
It is however observed that the difference in the strength reduced as more egg shell powder
was added compared to the plastic PP. Egg shell powder acting as a filler could have provided
additional stiffness to the tile body and reducing the effect of the loading on the tile. Previous
findings recorded by Santhoshkumar et al., (2020) however, found that there is a slight decrease
in the flexural strength on addition of egg shell powder in his roof tiles from 7.56 N/m2 at 10%
replacement to 7.13 N/m2 at 20 % replacement. From the above findings, egg shell should
therefore be added to a limited quantity so as to keep within the required strength limit.
33
12.000
11.719
FLEXURAL STRENGTH (KN/MM2)

11.500
11.250
11.000
10.500
10.000
9.500
9.375
9.000
0 10 20
EGG SHELL POWDER (%)
Figure 12: The effect of egg shell powder on the breaking strength of tiles
4.5 Impact resistance

The spherical steel ball weighing 350 grams was dropped on the tiles made from plastic PP,
eggshell powder and sand of various mix ratios and also onto the control ceramic tile. It was
observed that the rate of shuttering varied with varying mix ratio designs. From the figure
below, tile comprising of 50% plastic PP, 0% EP and 50% of sand shuttered into very many
parts on dropping the steel ball at a height of one meter and this could be due to the increase in
the tile brittleness caused by the addition of more sand. Damage and shutters caused by the
steel ball on tiles made from 60% plastic PP, 20% EP and 20% of sand and those having 55%
plastic PP, 10% EP and 35% of sand were slightly similar with the latter showing resistance
from excessive shuttering. This could be attributed to the addition of more plastics PP and egg
shell powder that reduced on the tile brittleness. When the spherical steel ball was dropped
onto ceramic tiles, the tiles shuttered completely and smaller pieces of the tile body were
observed. This implied that ceramic tiles are brittle in nature.
However, the coefficient of restitution (e) could not be determined because the steel ball did
not rebound to a measurable height after the first impact on the tiles. The aforementioned
observations therefore. addition of plastics and eggshell powder and an additional binder and
filler increases on the impact resistance of the tiles.
34
60%:20%:20%
55%:10%:35% PP: EP: Sand
PP: EP: Sand
50%:0%:50% Control tile

PP: EP: Sand
Figure 13: The extent of damage caused by the steel ball on the tiles
35
Unit cost of tiles

An analysis of a square metre of sample tiles was calculated and compared with the cost of a
standard square metre of conventional ceramic tiles
Table 9: The cost of materials per kg
PLASTICS (POLYPROPYLENE)
Item description Rate (Ug shs) Kgs Cost per kg
Collection 1,000 1 1,000

Crushing, cleaning and
drying 2,000 1 2,000
Total 3,000
EGG SHELL POWDER
Collection, washing and

pounding 500 1 500
costs of milling 1,000 1 1,000
Total 1,500
SAND
Buying 100 1 100
Transport 70 1 70
Total 170
Considering the mix ratio of 55:10:35 for the sample tiles.

Quantity of Plastic PP required
Density of Plastic PP = 910kg/m3
55
Mass of Plastic PP/tile = x 0.0005 x 910 x 1.05 (waste)
100
= 0.263 kg
Plastic PP required per m2 = 16*0.263

= 4.208 kg
36
Quantity of Egg Shell Powder (EP) required

Density of Egg shell powder = 1280kg/m3
10
Mass of EP/tile = x 0.0005 x 1280 x 1.05 (waste)
100
= 0.067 kg
Egg shell Powder required per m2 = 16*0.067

= 1.072 kg
Quantity of Sand required

Density of Sand = 1700 kg/m3
35
Mass of Sand/tile = x 0.0005 x 1700 x 1.05 (waste)
100
= 0.312 kg
Sand required per m2 = 16*0.312

= 4.998 kg
Table 10: Total cost per square metre of sample tiles
Materials used per Rate (Ug Amount

Quantity Cost per kg
square metre shs) (Ug shs)
Plastic PP kg 4.208 3,000 12,624
Sand kg 4.998 170 850
Egg shell Powder kg 1.072 1,500 1,608
Sub- Total 1 15,082
Add, Equipment, labour, transport and Margin (25%) 3,770.42
Grand Total 18,852

From Table 10 above, it is evident that the cost of one square metre of the tiles from this study
is 18,852/= where as that of a conventional ceramic tile is 28000/= thus these tiles can be used
in medium housing units as external tiles and where high loading is expected.
37
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
This study examined production of floor tiles from plastic Polypropylene, egg shell powder
and sand. The tiles were prepared at mix ratios of plastic PP, EP and sand and tests such as
bulk density, specific gravity and particle size on materials were carried. Also, various tests
were done on tile samples and these included tile density, water absorption, impact resistance
and flexural strength. From this study, the following conclusions can be made;
1.
The bulk density of sand was found to be 1700Kg/m3 which is was slightly higher than
the normal density of 1680Kg/m3
2. The water absorption of the tiles was affected by two materials, that is Plastic PP and
egg shell powder. With reference to the literature and the research findings, egg shell
powder can act as a filler since it reduced on the pore distribution within the tile body
evidenced by the water reduction rate.
3. The density of the sample tiles reduced on addition of more plastics However, addition
of more sand increased the overall density of the sample tiles increases
4. From the findings in this study, mix ratio 55:10:35 (Plastic: Egg shell Powder: Sand)
can be concluded as the best suitable mix design that can be used in the mass production
of tiles
5. Flexural strength determination showed that increasing plastic PP and Eggshell powder
increases the loading applied on the tile and increases its stiffness to breaking. The
flexural strength of the sample tiles was between (9-12kN/mm2) and that of a control
ceramic tile was 3.906 kN/mm2 which shows that the sample tiles are 200% stronger
than a commercially produced ceramic tile.
6. Tiles made from this study can be used as external tiles and also in areas where extra
loading is expected, the tiles can as well be utilized in areas where
38
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the study findings, the researcher recommends the following;
1. Further studies should be done on the usage of various plastic types in tile production
and their respective strength property in the production of floor tiles
2. Further studies and tests should be made on the chemical properties of the tiles made in
this study to ascertain their suitability in areas prone to chemicals like laboratories,
kitchen and washrooms.
3. Tiles made in this study are not recommended for usage in areas where high aesthetic
properties are a necessity. Further studies should be made on how to improve the colour,
patterns and design to the top surface of these tiles.
4. Research should be also made on how the gases from the production of the tiles can as
well be utilized to produce fuel.
5. The government of Uganda in collaboration with the higher institutions of learning
should encourage and support student’s research projects that are focused on protecting
the environment especially those utilizing and recycling wastes.
39
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42
APPENDICES
Summarized raw data
Figure 14: Water absorption of the tiles
Dry mass of tile Mass of wet tile (M2) Water absorption Average Water absorption
Samples Mix ratio
samples (M1) in kg in kg (%) (%)
Plastics PP : EP : Sand
(FTO1) 0.955 0.956 0.105
50 : 0 : 50 (FTO2) 0.744 0.746 0.269 0.20
(FTO3) 0.845 0.847 0.237
(FTO4) 1.009 1.011 0.198

55 : 10 : 35 (FTO5) 0.883 0.884 0.113 0.18
(FT06) 0.856 0.858 0.234
(FTO7) 0.865 0.866 0.116

60 : 20 : 20 (FTO8) 0.645 0.646 0.155 0.15
(FTO9) 0.846 0.847 0.177
Control Ceramic tile CT03 1.277 1.351 5.795 5.86

CT04 1.282 1.358 5.928
Figure 15: Flexural strength of the tiles

Breaking Average Modulus of Modulus of
Load at which
strength Breaking rapture rapture
Samples Mix ratio the specimen
(B=PL/b) in strength (3PL/2bd^2) (3PL/2bd^2)
broke (P) in Kn
kN/m2 (kN/mm2) (kN/mm2) (kN/mm2)
(FT013) 0.6 0.360 8.438
50 : 0 : 50 (FTO14) 0.7 0.420 0.400 9.844 9.375
(FTO15) 0.7 0.420 9.844
(FTO16) 0.9 0.540 12.656

55 : 10 : 35 (FTO17) 0.7 0.420 0.480 9.844 11.250
(FT018) 0.8 0.480 11.250
(FTO19) 0.8 0.480 11.250

60 : 20 : 20 (FTO20) 0.9 0.540 0.500 12.656 11.719
(FTO21) 0.8 0.480 11.250
Control (Ceramic tile) CT01 0.2 0.133 3.125 3.906

CT02 0.3 0.200 4.688
43
Figure 16: Density of the tiles
Average
Mass of tile Density in
Mix ratio Samples Density
samples in kg kg/m3
(kg/m3)
(FTO1) 0.955 1,910
50 : 0 : 50 (FTO2) 0.744 1,488 1,696
(FTO3) 0.845 1,690
(FTO4) 1.009 2,018

55 : 10 : 35 (FTO5) 0.883 1,766 1,832
(FT06) 0.856 1,712
(FTO7) 0.865 1,730

60 : 20 : 20 (FTO8) 0.645 1,290 1,570
(FTO9) 0.846 1,691
Control ceramic tile CT05 1.277 1,774 1,777

CT06 1.282 1,781
44
Experimental Pictures
Weighing of plastics
Gas Cylinder
Plastic PP Egg shell powder
Mould smeared with oil
Picture 3: Materials preparation for the production of samples
45
Picture 4: Sample production process
Picture 5: Weighing the samples for the water absorption test
46
Pycnometer
SG apparatus
Picture 6: Preparation of materials for specific gravity test
47

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Twinemukama Joseph (16/U/165/EBD/GV)

DEPARTMENT OF LANDS AND ARCHITECTURAL STUDIES

AN ASSESSMENT OF PLASTIC TILES MANUFACTURED FROM PLASTIC

SUPERVISOR: MR. AINOMUGISHA SAFIKI

FINAL YEAR RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT

Signature: ……………………………. Date: ………………………….

MR. AINOMUGISHA SAFIKI

DEDICATION ......................................................................................................................... iii

Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... vi

List of figures ............................................................................................................................ ix

List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. x

LIST OF PICTURES ................................................................................................................ xi

List of Acronyms .....................................................................................................................xii

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... xiii

CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Background ...................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem statement ............................................................................................................ 3

1.3 Main objectives ................................................................................................................ 3

1.4 Specific objectives............................................................................................................ 3

1.5 Research questions ........................................................................................................... 3

1.6 Justification ...................................................................................................................... 4

1.7 Significance ...................................................................................................................... 4

1.8 Scope ................................................................................................................................ 4

1.8.1 Geographical scope.................................................................................................... 4

1.8.2 Contextual scope........................................................................................................ 4

1.8.3 Time Scope ................................................................................................................ 5

1.9 Conceptual Frame work ................................................................................................... 6

CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................... 7

LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................... 7

2.1 Introduction. ..................................................................................................................... 7

2.2 Building materials ............................................................................................................ 7

2.2.1 Wall finishes .............................................................................................................. 7

2.2.2 Ceiling finishes .......................................................................................................... 7

2.2.3 Floor finishes. ............................................................................................................ 7

2.3 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PLASTIC WASTE AND

2.3.1 Egg shell waste powder ............................................................................................. 8

2.3.2 Polypropylene ............................................................................................................ 9

2.4 STRENGTH OF WASTE MATERIALS IN CONSTRUCTION ................................. 10

2.4.1 Plastic wastes ........................................................................................................... 10

2.4.2 Egg shell powder waste ........................................................................................... 13

2.4.3 Other wastes in tile production ................................................................................ 13

CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................. 15

MATERIALS AND METHODS ............................................................................................. 15

3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 15

3.2 Material preparation ....................................................................................................... 15

3.2.1 Plastic wastes (PW). ................................................................................................ 15

3.2.2 Egg shell wastes....................................................................................................... 15

3.2.3 Sand ......................................................................................................................... 15

3.3 Tests on physical properties of materials ....................................................................... 15

3.3.3 Determining of bulk density of Plastics .................................................................. 17

3.3.4 Sieve analysis test .................................................................................................... 18

3.4 SAMPLE PREPARATION ........................................................................................... 18

3.5 TESTS ON SAMPLE TILES ......................................................................................... 20

3.5.1 Physical properties ................................................................................................... 20

3.5.2 Mechanical properties.............................................................................................. 21

3.6 Unit Cost ........................................................................................................................ 23

CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 25

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .............................................................................................. 25

4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 25