UNIVERSITY OF MALAWI

THE POLYTECHNIC

FACULTY OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF LAND ECONOMY AND PHYSICAL PLANNING

PROGRAM: QUANTITY SURVEYING

PROGRAM CODE: BQS-2

SUBMITTED TO: MR A DZIWE

SUBMITTED BY: SONILE JERE

REG NUMBER: BQS/19/SS/005

COURSE: CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS II

ASSIGNMENT TITLE: STEEL AS A REINFORCEMENT MATERIAL REPORT

COURSE CODE: BQS-CMM-222

DUE DATE: 9TH JULY 2021

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………..1

2. STEEL REINFORCEMENT FOR CONCRETE CLASSIFICATION…………1

2.1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………1

2.2. Advantage of use of steel for concrete reinforcement………………………….1

2.3. Types of steel for reinforcement…………………………………………………1

2.3.1 Structural steel……………………………………………………………...1

2.3.2 Cold formed steel…………………………………………………………...2

2.3.3 Reinforcing steel……………………………………………………………2

2.3.4 Prestressing steel…………………………………………………………...3

3. MANUFACTURING OF STEEL…………………………………………………..3

3.1. Procedure…………………………………………………………………………3

3.1.1 Smelting and reduction of iron ore………………………………………..4

3.2 Steel manufacturing process…………………………………………………….4

3.2.1 Basic Oxygen Process…………………………………………………...4
3.2.2 Electric Arc Process…………………………………………………….5
3.2.3 Comparison of Electric Arc process to the Basic Oxygen Process…..6
3.2.4 Casting into reinforcement bars…………………………………………6

4. STEEL REINFORCEMENT APPLICATION……………………………………..6

5. STORAGE OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT………………………………………6

6. TRANSPORTATION OF STEEL……………………………………………………7

7. HANDLING OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT……………………………………...7

8. TEST PROCEDURES OF STEEL……………………………………………………7

8.1 Tensile Test………………………………………………………………………….7

8.2 Hardness Test……………………………………………………………………….8
 8.3 bend test……………………………………………………………………………..9

9. STEEL USAGE IN MALAWI…………………………………………………………9

10. CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………….9

11. LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………10

12. REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………11
1 . INTRODUCTION
Steel is an alloy of iron and 2% of carbon with a small percentage of other metals such as
Nickel, Chromium, Aluminium and Cobalt (Huyett 2000). Kultermann and Spence 2016
reveal that steel as was introduced in the 19 th century to compensate for the limitations in
physical and mechanical properties that iron had in construction.
This report will advise on the importance of steel in the construction of the proposed 12
storey building by describing the steel reinforcement for concrete classifications, explaining
the manufacturing processes, stating the applications of steel, discussing the storage,
transport, handling of steel, the testing methods of steel and the usage of steel in Malawi as a
construction material.
2. STEEL REINFORCEMENT FOR CONCRETE CLASSIFICATIONS
2.1 Introduction
Concrete is very strong in compression but its greatest weakness is in its tensile strength,
Lyons 2014 states that the tensile strength of concrete is only 10% of its compressive
strength. Concrete is not a good structural material on its own, therefore reinforcement is
applied to increase its strength (Duggal 2013). Concrete bonded with reinforcement forms a
composite material, with the concrete giving compressive strength and the reinforcement
supplying tensile strength (Duggal 2013).
2.2 Advantage of use steel for concrete reinforcement
Steel is suitable as a reinforcing material because it is strong under tension, can establish
mechanical and chemical connections with concrete and has a similar thermal expansion to
concrete, resulting in fewer cracks during heating and cooling of concrete (Lyons 2014).
2.3 Types of steel for concrete reinforcement
There are several types of steel used to reinforce concrete that would be used in the proposed
building, as stated by Mehta, Scarborough and Armpriest 2013 these are;
- Structural steel
- Cold formed steel
- Reinforcing steel
- Prestressing steel

2.3.1 Structural steel

Structural steel is commonly known as hot rolled sections produced by applying heat to steel
made billets and rolling them to the desired shape (Mehta, Scarborough & Armpriest 2013).
The common sectional shapes that are produced are W, HP, M, SC, MC and L, these are
mainly used to form the structural frame of the building such as beams, columns and trusses
(Mamlock & Zaniewski 2017). Figure 2.1 illustrates the shapes.

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 Figure 2.1 The sectional shapes (Mamlouk & Zaniewski 2017)

2.3.2 Cold formed steel

Steel members are made at room temperature by bending sheets (Mehta, Scarborough &
Armpriest 2013). Cold formed steel has a reduced ductility compared to structural steel
(Duggal 2013). Furthermore, this is used for the structural framing of floors, walls and
interior partitions (Mamlouk & Zaniewski 2017).
2.3.3 Reinforcing steel
Reinforcing steel is made from bars that are hot rolled steel rods commonly known as rebars
that are either plain or deformed (Kultemann & Spence 2016). According to Fanella 2011, the
ribs are deformations on steel rods that improve the connection between the concrete and the
bar (figure 2.2).

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 Figure 2.2 The deformed bar (Darwin, Dolan & Nilson 2016)
This strong bond is required for the reinforced concrete element to operate as intended and
before the concrete is poured around the rods, the rods are systematically arranged in forms.
Although rebars in concrete lower the cost of maintenance, the cost of forms for casting
concrete is quite expensive (Wight & MacGregor 2012).
2.3.4 Prestressing steel
According to Mehta, Scarborough and Armpriest 2013 this steel can be used as a substitute
for reinforcing steel. Prestressing steel has a tensile strength of 1000 – 1900 mPa as a result is
beneficial to plain concrete because this steel improves the load bearing capacity of concrete
under tension (Mickleborough & Gilbert 2004).
Prestressing concrete entails placing the steel bars in tension state by stretching the bars
between and anchor and a jack before the concrete is poured, when the concrete is poured,
cured and set the steel bars release tension this places the concrete encircling the bar in
compression hence increasing its ability to resist tensile forces (Askeland & Wright 2014)
3. MANUFACTURING OF STEEL
3.1 Procedures
There are the three critical steps in the manufacturing of steel. These are, according to
Kultermann and Spence (2016):
1. Reduction and smelting of iron ore
2. Converting pig iron to steel
3. Forming steel into product

3.1.1 Smelting and reduction of iron ore

Lyons 2014, describes pig iron as a raw material utilized in the production of steel; this raw
material is composed of coke, iron ore, and limestone. Iron ore, commonly known as
hematite, is reduced in a blast furnace. Coke releases carbon that is added to reduce the iron
oxide in iron ore, and limestone is used as a flux to eliminate impurities (Mamlouk &
Zaniewski 2017).
In the blast furnace the iron ore is smelted by applying heat that removes impurities bonded
to the ore and reduced this the iron separates from the oxygen (Kultermann & Spence 2016).
The oxygen generated then binds to carbon to make carbon monoxide, and the molten iron
sinks to the bottom of the furnace, and a flux is added to eliminate impurities, and the slag
sits on top of the molten iron (Mamlouk & Zaniewski 2017). According to Mehta,
Scarborough and Armpriest 2010, molten pig iron is recovered by draining the molten iron
below the slag.

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 Figure 3.1 The blast furnace (Kultermann & Spence 2016)
3.2. Steel manufacturing processes
There are two techniques for processing pig iron into steel (Lyons 2014):
- Basic oxygen process
- Electric arc process
-
3.2.1 Basic oxygen process
According to Kultermann and Spence (2016), in this process, molten pig iron, metal scarp,
and fluxes form a charge that is fed into a pearl-shaped furnace of approximately 4000
tonnes, oxygen is projected into the furnace through a water-cooled lance, and the heat
generated causes a chemical reaction between oxygen, carbon, and some impurities. The

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oxidation process generates heat, which liquefies the charge. The slag and molten steel are
then drained away in order to collect the steel

Figure 3.2 Basic oxygen furnace (Lyons, 2014)

3.2.2 Electric arc process
In the electric are process a high voltage electrical current passes through cylindrical
electrodes cast forward into the furnace, resulting in the formation of an arc between the
electrodes that releases sufficient heat to melt the charge, and molten steel is derived from the
furnace when the furnace is tilted (Mehta, Scarborough & Armpriest 2013).

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 Figure 3.3 the electric arc furnace (Mehta, Scarborough & Armpriest 2013)
3.2.3 Comparison of Electric arc furnace to Basic oxygen process
This procedure has more advantages compared to the Basic oxygen process;
- Chemical conditions may be changed at any time to promote the removal of various
contaminants present in the charge, such as sulphur, which is nearly difficult to remove
in the Basic oxygen process but whose quantity can be successfully lowered to an
incredibly low limit (Higgins 2010)

- Steel is manufactured from steel-based scrap from machinery, transportation, and cars,
rather than iron ore, which is taken from a finite source, making this a more sustainable
steel-producing process (Mehta Scarborough & Armpriest 2013)

3.2.4 Casting into steel reinforcement

Molten steel is immediately poured and moulded into slabs which can be sliced to lengths
that are suitable for further processing and steel reinforcement, this is more energy efficient
compared to casting in ingots which was commonly done and there is an added advantage of
producing steel that has a superior surface quality (Lyons 2014).
4.1 APPLICATION OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT
Steel of various kinds is broadly applied in construction spanning from nails to massive
beams and columns (Kultermann & Spence 2016).
4.1.1 Concrete Slabs
Steel reinforcement can be formed into welded mesh reinforcement for concrete slabs this
woven arrangement enables concrete slabs to withstand temperature changes and shrinkage
(Mamlouk & Zaniewski 2017). This reinforcement provides strength against cracking of
slabs that is costly to repair (Kultermann & spence 2016).
4.1.2 Concrete beams
Reinforcing bars are used to reinforce concrete beams in order to combat the internal tensile
stress with the cross section of the beam (Ochshorn 2010).
4.1.3 Concrete columns
Concrete can be poured into moulds that the steel reinforcement form for columns, this
reinforcement is placed with the forms to hold the concrete in place (Ochshorn 2010)

5. STORAGE OF STEEL
Suryakanta 2016 explains that steel bars should be;
- coated with cement wash to protect the steel reinforcement from rusting.

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- stored 150mm above the ground during prolonged storage.
- applied with a coat of primer in areas of high humidity.
-stored according to their class, size and length for easy identification.
6. HANDLING OF STEEL
Kumar et al 2015 acknowledges that safety is key when handling steel to protect the steel
from damage protect the labourers that handle the steel. HSE 2014 explain that steel is
handled during loading, delivery, offloading, processing and manufacturing. According to the
contractor n.d steel for reinforcement should be handled with care using suitable handling
tools, the steel rebars should not be dragged when being lifted from one location to another
and rather straps should be used to life the rebars.
7. TRANSPORTING OF STEEL
There are different modes of transporting steel for one place to another, Copper and Spark
2014 suggest that when steel is transport as cargo over long distances the steel should be
secured with in ship in order to prevent the steel members from scattering, for larger steel
members these are secured using coils. To easily transport the steel member through trucks
due to the malleability of steel the members can be either sliced or bent into shape (ARC
2008).
8. TESTING PROCEDURES
8.1 Tensile test
Marotta 2005 stresses the importance of the tensile test on structural steel. This test is carried
out to discover the mechanical properties of steel when steel is exposed to pulling forces
(Kultermann & Spence 2016). During the test a 0.500 diameter steel cylinder is firmly
secured into the test machine that elongates the cylinder gradually, increasing rate until the
specimen shatters simultaneously the force is displayed on the test machine.

Figure 8.1 standard tensile specimen (Callister & Rethwisch, 2014)

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 Fig 8.1 The Tensile Test (Askeland & Wright, 2014)

8.2 Hardness test

The main principle of this test is to assess the how steel reacts to penetration also known as
indentation (Kultemann & Spence 2016).
In the Brinell hardness test a penetrator which is a hard steel sphere of 10% is forced into the
surface, the dent that the sphere leaves is usually measured to check for the hardness of the
material calculated by the following formula:
Brinell’s hardness test = Test Force F (unit in kilo pounds)
Surface area of indentation A (unit in square millimetres)

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 Figure 8.2 shape of indenter (Callister & Rethwisch, 2014)
8.3 Bend test
This test is carried out to assess the ductility of steel and capability of steel to withstand
cracking during bending since reinforcing steel is bent into different shapes (Mamlouk &
Zaniewski 2017). During this test the steel specimen is bent to a predetermined angle and
radius of the curvature in the specimen in situations where the specimen does not crack the
number and the size of the cracks that are found after bending as the benchmark for failure of
forces in the specimen (Mamlouk & Zaniewski 2017)
9. STEEL USUAGE IN MALAWI
In Malawi, steel is the best building material because steel is cheaper in the long run than
timber to a certain extent because of the offcuts that timber has, steel formwork that is also
known as shattering is reusable it is useful in large building dues to its properties and use of
steel is more sustainable as this can be reused (Duggal 2013)

10. CONCLUSION

Steel should be used in construction of the 12-storey building as this metal alloy caters for the
development of high-rise building, as the material is lightweight, has physical properties such
as toughness and ability to resist tensile forces however the steel corrodes over time and it is
expensive to repair buildings made from steel structures this should also be taken into
consideration (Zhang 2011).

Word count: 1997

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LIST OF FIGURES

1. Figure 2.1 The sectional shapes ( Mamlouk & Zaniewski 2017)……………….2

2. Figure 2.2 The deformed bar ( Darwin, Dolan & Nilson 2016)………………...2

3. Figure 3.1 The blast furnace ( Kultermann and Spence 2016)…………………..4

4. Figure 3.2 Basic Oxygen furnace (Lyons 2014)…………………………………5

5. Figure 3.3 The Electric furnace (Mehta, Scarborough & Armpriest 2013)……...6

6. Figure 8.1 Standard tensile specimen (Callister & Rethwisch 2014)…………….7

7. Figure 8.1 The Tensile test (Askeland & Wright 2014)………………………….8

8. Figure 8.2 Shape of the Indenter (Callister & Rethwiscg 2014)…………………8

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REFERENCES

ARC 2008, Reinforcement handbook; Your guide to steel reinforcement, John Wiley and
Sons, New Jersey, USA.

Askeland, R, D & Wight, J, W 2014, The science and engineering of materials, 7th edn,
Cengage learning, Boston, USA.

Callister, D, W & Rethwisch, G, D 2014, Material Science and Engineering; an introduction,

John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, USA.

Darwin, D, Dolan, W, C & Nilson, A, H 2016, The design of concrete structures, McGraw
Hill Education, New York, USA,

Duggal, S, K 2013, Building materials, 3rd edn, New age international publishers, New Delhi,
India.

Fanell, A, D 2011, Reinforced concrete structures: analysis and design, Pearson Education,
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Huyett, G, L 2000, Engineering handbook: Technical information, Industrial Press, New

York, USA.

Higgins, R, A 2010, Materials for engineers and technicians, 5th edn, Elsevier, Oxford, UK,

HSE 2014, Safety in storage and handling of steel and other metal stock, HSE books, Surrey
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Kumar, C, N, A, Sathivel, M, Elongovan, R, K & Arularasu, M 2015, Analysis of material

handling if steel safely in construction site and countermeasures for effective enhancement,
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Kultermann, E & Spence, W 2016, Construction materials, methods and techniques;

building for a sustainable future, Cengage learning, Boston, USA.

Lyons, A 2014, Materials for architects and builders, 5th edn, Routledge, New York, USA.

Mehta, M, Scarborough, W & Armpriest, D 2013, Building construction, principles,

materials and systems , 2nd edn, Pearson Education, New Jersey , USA,

Mamlouk, M, S & Zaniewski, J, P 2017, Materials for civil and construction engineers, 4th
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Marotta, W, T 2005, Basic construction materials, 7th edn, New jersey, USA.

Mickleborough, N, C & Gilbert, R, I 2004, Design of prestressed concrete, Spon press, New
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Ochshorn, J 2010, Structural elements for architect and builders; Design of columns, beams
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Sparks, A & Coppers, F 2014, Steel carriage by sea, 5th edn, Routledge, New York USA.

Suryankanta, P 2016, How to store construction materials on site, viewed on 6 July 2021,
https://civilblog.org/2016/09/20/how-to-store-common-construction-materials-site/

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store-reinforcing-bars/65391/

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