ME 311

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
FIGURES

Lectr. Özgür GÜNELSU

ozgurgunelsu@iyte.edu.tr
Strength: of a material or a member at a location.
Determined by composition, structure, treatment of the material.
Stress: induced by the load(s) applied on the member (force, moment, temperature change)
Determined by the load(s) and geometry. Sometimes a result of manufacturing process
(residual stress)

Tension Tests:

Engineering stress: Engineering strain: A0 ??

DUCTILE BRITTLE
pl: Proportional Limit. Elastic Region. Linear Relationship.
Hooke’s Law, Modulus of Elasticity:

el: Elastic Limit. End of Elastic Region. Start of Plastic Region (Permanent Deformation/Set)
Not Linear.

y: Yield point. Stress increases even though load is constant (due to decrease in the area)
The point is not clear. Offset method (strain of 0.002 or some other values).

u: Ultimate Strength. Max in the diagram. Necking for ductiles.

f: Fracture. Occurs immediately after ultimate (necking). No necking for brittles.

Engineering vs. True Strain: A0 ??

If cross-sectional area can be measured instantaneously, TRUE STRESS can be calculated.

True Strain:

True stress is TRUE and always higher than engineering stress.

HOWEVER, Engineering Stress is easy to measure and

good enough for engineering calculations.
Pure Shear Loading:

Torsion test:

Shear stress at any location:

Max. shear at the surface:

Yield strength in shear: Ssy

Modulus of rupture:
Ultimate strength in shear: Torque-Twist diagram would be similar
E => G in the linear region
In ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS, we are interested in

- the results of tension tests, mostly. Most (ductile) materials exhibit similar values for compression
and tension.

- Su or Sut : Ultimate Strength (in tension)

- Suc : Ultimate Strength in compression (used if different than Sut)
- Sy : Yield Strength (in tension)
- Ssu : Ultimate Strength in shear. Modulus of Rupture
- Ssy : Yield Strength in shear

- not Sf or Ssf: Fracture Strength. For brittles, fracture is ultimate. For ductiles, fracture occurs
immediately after necking (ultimate point) and necking also means extreme
deformation and failure.
Strength values (or material properties, generally) will be read from tables.

But are these numbers definite? How are they found?

A TEST RESULT:
1000 specimens of 1020 steel
Ultimate Tensile Strength, Sut

Which value will be written in the table?

- Mean?
- Minimum?
- Maximum?
- A percentile?
- 6-sigma?

A normal distribution with a mean and

standard deviation.

Beware of the values which you read from

tables !!!
Cold work is reshaping materials at low temperatures. As a result, strength of the material can be
increased.

After first loading up to point i, material will no longer follow the original stress-strain curve. New
path will be linear up to a higher strength, without yielding, resulting at a higher yield strength.

This phenomenon is used in production of steel sheet metals and profiles by cold drawing. Cold-
drawn metals have higher strength than hot-drawn/hot-rolled metals made from the initially-same
material.

New strength can be estimated, knowing the original strength and amount of cold-work done. (See
2-3)
At high operating/environmental temperatures, strength
generally decreases.

- Use results of tests conducted at high temperatures

- Estimate the strength at the operating temperature
- Use correction factors

CREEP:
Long-time constant load at high temperatures, may result in
an increase in deformation.

WELDING:
High local temperature affect material properties.
Residual stresses due to heating and clamping.