UNIT 2

Gender and the Family

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 LESSON 2.1
Gender Socialization in the Family

Lesson Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you should have:

1. analyzed how the process of gender socialization impact the
development of a person in his or her lifespan;
2. cited how the family acts as the most important agent of gender
socialization for children and adolescents; and
3. provided ways on how to diminish gender stereotyping at home.

Activate
Before you proceed with the lesson on gender socialization in the
family, I would like you first to write about the traits, behaviors or
characteristics of your own father and mother or any father and mother figure you
have whom you believed were earned from them. Write your answers around the
figures as if it will look like a web diagram. You may have your answers in a bulleted
or sentence format.

Father’s Traits Mother’s Traits

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 Did you write more of positive traits than negative? More of physical traits
than personality traits? Each of us, deny or not, has characteristics or features that
we admire and least desired of from our mother and father figures. Obviously it is
inevitable among us not to cite their contributions on our own holistic formation as
person or as a man and a woman.

Introduction

Who you are and what you are, much of it, is said to be a product of your
own childhood and formation at home. How you act and mingle with people is said
to be patterned also by your own day to day interaction and observation from your
own parents and members in the household. Although labelled as the smallest unit
of our society, the family is considered to be the most significant and influential
among social institutions. This unit will give you the idea on how critical the family
is, as this is where we first learn our sex and gender roles.

Acquire

Gender Socialization
Before you go in depth with the definition of gender socialization, it is ideal
for you to first have a background of what socialization is. Merriam- Webster
dictionary simply defined socialization as social interaction with others; and the
process beginning childhood by which individuals acquire the values, habits, and
attitudes of a society.

In sociology, socialization is the process of internalizing the norms and

ideologies of society. Socialization encompasses both learning and teaching and
is thus "the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained” (Clausen,
1968). Socialization essentially represents the whole process of learning
throughout the life course and is a central influence on the behavior, beliefs, and
actions of adults as well as of children (Cromdal, 2006).

Looking at the definition of socialization, you will notice the concepts like
interaction and life course. We all know as to when our life course starts and that
is from our birth down to our death and our interaction also starts with our parents

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and with other social institutions. This is where gender socialization will come in.
Our society expects different attitudes and behaviors from boys and girls. The way
we are, how we behave and think, is the final product of socialization. Since the
moment we are born, we are being moulded into a being which the society wants
us to be. Through socialization we also learn what is appropriate and improper for
both genders (Crespi, 2004).

So what exactly is gender socialization?

Gender socialization is the process through which children learn about the
social expectations, attitudes and behaviors typically associated with boys and
girls.

Gender Socialization is the tendency for boys and girls to be socialized

differently. Boys are raised to conform to the male gender role, and girls are raised
to conform to the female gender or role (Crespi, 2004).

As you remember gender role is a set of behaviors, attitudes, and personality

characteristics expected and encouraged of a person based on his or her sex.

Sociologists and other social scientists generally attribute many of the

behavioral differences between men and women to socialization. In regards to
gender socialization, the most common groups people join are the gender
categories of male and female. Even the categorical options of gender an individual
may choose is socialized; social norms act against selecting a gender that is neither
male nor female. Thus, gender socialization is the process of educating and
instructing potential men and women how to behave as members of that particular
group.

Even if you are not familiar with the concept of “gender socialization,” it is
most likely that you have been influenced by it and shared it to others. Gender
socialization begins at birth, intensifies during adolescence and contributes to
gender inequalities in education, employment, income, empowerment, and other
significant outcomes of well-being during adolescence and later in life, argues a
recently published discussion paper by the UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti
and the International Centre for Research on Women (Balvin, 2017).

Socialization before Birth

Preparations for gender socialization begin even before the birth of the child.
One of the first questions people ask of expectant parents is whether the baby will
be a boy or girl. This is the beginning of a social categorization process that
continues throughout life. Preparations for the birth of the child often take the
expected sex into consideration, such as painting the infant’s room pink or blue.

Early Life Socialization

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 One illustration of early life gender socialization can be seen in preschool
classrooms. Children in preschool classrooms where teachers were told to
emphasize gender differences saw an increase in stereotyped views of what
activities are appropriate for boys or girls, while children with teachers who did not
emphasize gender showed no increase in stereotyped views. This clearly
demonstrates the influence of socialization on the development of gender roles;
subtle cues that surround us in our everyday lives strongly influence gender
socialization.

Adolescent Socialization
The process of gender socialization continues as adolescents enter the
workforce. Research has found that adolescents encounter stereotypes of
gendered performance in the workforce in their first jobs. First jobs are significantly
segregated by sex. Girls work fewer hours and earn less per hour than boys. Hourly
wages are higher in job types dominated by boys while girls are more frequently
assigned housework and childcare duties. The impact of these first experiences in
the professional world will shape adolescents’ perspectives on how men and
women behave differently in the workforce.

Gender Influence on Family

When parents have a new baby, the first question they typically ask is
whether they have a girl or a boy. Children’s gender assignment becomes a
powerful social identity that shapes children’s lives. During early childhood, girls
and boys spend much of their time in the home with their families and look to
parents and older siblings for guidance. Parents provide children with their first
lessons about gender. Possible ways that parents might influence children’s gender
development include role modeling and encouraging different behaviors and
activities in sons and daughters (Bussey K., Bandura A., 1999).

Every culture has different guidelines about what is appropriate for males
and females, and family members may socialize babies in gendered ways without
consciously following that path. For example, in American society and most other
parts of the world, the color pink is associated with girls and the color blue with
boys. Even as tiny babies, boys and girls are dressed differently, according to what
is considered “appropriate” for their respective sexes. Even parents who strive to
achieve a less “gendered” parenting style unconsciously reinforce gender roles.

Example: The toys and games parents select for children are often
unconsciously intended to socialize them into the appropriate gender roles. Girls
receive dolls in an attempt to socialize them into future roles as mothers. Since
women are expected to be more nurturing than men, giving a girl a doll teaches her
to care for it and fosters the value of caring for others. When boys receive dolls,

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they are likely to be action figures designed to bring out the alleged aggressive
tendencies in boys.

Gender Messages in the Family

Gender role theory posits that boys and girls learn the appropriate behavior
and attitudes from the family and overall culture in which they grow up, and that
non-physical gender differences are a product of socialization. Social role theory
proposes that social structure is the underlying force behind gender differences,
and that the division of labor between two sexes within a society motivates the
differences in their respective behavior. Division of labor creates gender roles,
which in turn, lead to gender-specific social behavior.

Family is the most important agent of socialization because it serves as the

center of a child’s life. Socialization theory tells us that primary socialization – the
process that occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values and actions expected
of individuals within a particular culture – is the most important phase of social
development, and lays the groundwork for all future socialization. Therefore, the
family plays a pivotal role in the child’s development, influencing both the attitudes
the child will adopt and the values the child will hold. Socialization can be intentional
or unintentional; the family may not be conscious of the messages it transmits, but
these messages nonetheless contribute to the child’s socialization. Children learn
continuously from the environment that adults create, including gender norms.

For example, a child who grows up in a two-parent household with a mother

who acts as a homemaker and a father who acts as the breadwinner may
internalize these gender roles, regardless of whether or not the family is directly
teaching them. Likewise, if parents buy dolls for their daughters and toy trucks for
their sons, the children will learn to value different things.

In a paper published by Dr. Campbell Leaper, entitled Parents’ Socialization

of Gender in Children he evaluated the influence of parents on children’s gender
development by raising four questions:

 Do parents tend to have gender-stereotypical expectations for their

children?
 Do parents tend to model traditional gender-role behaviors to their
children?
 Do parents tend to encourage gender-stereotyped behaviors and to
discourage cross-gender stereotyped behaviors in their children?
 Do gender-related variations in parents’ expectations and behaviour
have causal influences on children’s gender development?

So what were the findings of his research? They are in the boxes below.

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Parents’ gender-stereotypical expectations.
Gender-typed expectations may occur regarding personality traits (e.g., “boys are
aggressive”), abilities (e.g., “girls are good at reading”), activities, and roles (e.g., “men are
scientists”). As gender equality has increased in many cultures during the last several decades,
there has been a corresponding increase in adults’ endorsement of gender-egalitarian attitudes.
There is now more variation among parents with some holding traditional expectations and some
expressing egalitarian expectations for their daughters and sons. Also, some parents may support
egalitarian views about some domains (e.g., occupations) but remain more traditional about other
domains (e.g., family roles). Finally, parents (especially fathers) tend to be more rigid in their
expectations for sons than daughters.

Parents’ gender-role modeling.

One of the dramatic social changes in much of the industrialized world in the last 50 years
has been in the entrance of women into the labor force. In contemporary industrialized societies,
most women with children work outside of the home. Men’s average involvement in childcare and
housework has also increased, although domestic responsibilities continue to be handled mostly by
women in most dual-career families. Research finds that fathers’ childcare involvement is negatively
related to children’s gender stereotyping. Through active involvement in childcare, fathers
demonstrate that the adult male role may include nurturing as well as instrumental activities.

The potential influence of parental gender-role modeling has also been implicated in studies
of children raised by lesbian or gay parents. Compared to children raised in two-parent heterosexual
families, children raised by same-gender parents tend be less likely than to endorse certain gender
stereotypes. However, when same gender parents divided labor with one parent as primary
caregiver and the other parent as the primary breadwinner, their children were more likely to express
stereotyped views about adult roles and occupations.

Parents’ differential treatment of daughters and sons.

In many parts of the world, parents with limited financial resources have a strong preference
for sons. As a result, priority for resource opportunities ranging from health care to education may
be given to sons over daughters. This stark contrast in the differential treatment of sons and
daughters is generally not seen in wealthier countries. Nonetheless, there are common ways that
parents in these societies may socialize girls and boys differently.

According to one comprehensive review of studies conducted in western countries, the

most consistent manner by which parents treat girls and boys differently is through the
encouragement of gender-stereotyped activities. This includes the types of toys that parents might
purchase or the kinds of activities that they promote. For example, parents are more likely to provide
toy vehicles, action figures, and sports equipment for their sons; and they are more likely to give
dolls, kitchen sets, and dress-up toys to their daughters. Once children begin to request particular
toys (usually by around 3 years of age), it is unclear how much parents are shaping their children’s
play activity preferences as opposed to acceding to their children’s stated preferences.

There are also subtle ways that parents may reinforce gender stereotypes even when they
are not overtly encouraging them. This is commonly seen in parents’ use of essentialist statements
about gender. Examples would be “Girls like dolls” or “Boys like football.” In these instances, the
parent is expressing what is known as a descriptive stereotype (i.e., describing general patterns or
“essences” about each gender) rather than prescriptive stereotype (i.e.,stating what should occur).
Research suggests that even middle-class mothers who held gender-egalitarian attitudes often

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used essentialist statements with their preschool-age children. Also, they rarely challenged gender
stereotypes (e.g., “It’s ok if a girl wants to play basketball”).

On the average, parents in many industrialized cultures are more flexible about the play
activities they consider acceptable for daughters than sons. (Relatively little research has examined
parental attitudes toward girls’ and boys’ play in non-western or non-industrialized countries.) Also,
fathers tend to be more rigid than mothers in encouraging gender-typed play (especially in sons).
For example, many American parents encourage athletic participation (a masculine-stereotyped
activity) in their daughters. In contrast, few parents encourage doll play (a feminine-stereotyped
activity) in their sons. Indeed, many parents are alarmed in such cases. However, evidence
suggests that some parents are more tolerant of cross-gender-typed behaviors in sons than seen
in earlier decades.

Conclusion
Dr. Leaper also provided his own conclusion on how dramatic
transformations in women’s and men’s roles inside and outside of the family have
occurred and changed brought about by industrialization. The traditional image of
the two-parent heterosexual family with the father serving as the provider and the
mother as the homemaker is no longer the norm in many industrialized countries.
Instead, most mothers pursue jobs outside of the home and many fathers are
involved in childcare. In addition, many children are raised by single parents and
by lesbian/gay parents. Despite these role changes, there remain relatively few
truly egalitarian parenting arrangements. Also, his studies suggested that parents
with gender-egalitarian attitudes may nonetheless act differently with daughters
and sons. Longitudinal studies suggest that parents’ treatment of sons and
daughters may have an influence on some aspects of their gender development.

Implications for Parents

Parents may wish to foster more flexible gender roles in children to help
them develop a broader repertoire of socio- emotional and cognitive skills. Although
parents can have an influence on children’s gender development, their impact can
sometimes be overestimated. Because gender is a social category that organizes
virtually every segment of society, there are multiple sources of socialization in
children’s gender development. Besides parents, these potentially include other
family members, peer groups, friends, the media, and teachers. As children get
older and become more autonomous, the influences of peers and the media often
become especially powerful.

Parents can try to encourage their children to play with a combination of

feminine- and masculine-stereotyped toys and play activities during early
childhood; however, they may find their efforts run counter to children’s attitudes
once they are exposed to peers and the media. In addition, parents can be mindful
of the kinds of peers with whom their children affiliate. They may be able to foster
greater gender-role flexibility through encouragement of organized mixed-gender
activities in which girls and boys learn to work together as equals.
Finally, parents can make a concerted effort to discuss and challenge gender
stereotypes with their children.

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 Apply

LESSON 2.2
Gender Issues in the Family

Lesson Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you should have:

1. cited the different forms of abuses happening and existing in the
household;
2. analyzed the different forms of abuses that are commonly existing
in the household; and
3. expressed solutions on the different forms of domestic and
household abuses through a written pledge.

Activate

Before we go into the different forms of gender issues in the family, let us
have your own analysis on the excerpt of the song by Christina Aguilera entitled,
Oh, Mother.

She was so young with such innocent eyes
She always dreamt of a fairy-tale life
And all the things your money can't buy
She thought that he was a wonderful guy
Then, suddenly, things seemed to change
It was the moment she took on his name
He took his anger out on her face
She kept all of her pain locked away
Oh mother, we're stronger
From all of the tears you have shed
Oh mother, don't look back
'Cause he'll never hurt us again
So, mother, I thank you
For all you've done and still do
You got me, I got you
Together we always pull through
We always pull through
We always pull through
Oh mother, oh mother, oh mother
It was the day that he turned on his kids
That she knew she just had to leave him
So many voices inside of her head
Saying over and over and over
'You deserve much more than this.'

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 bruises)
She was so sick of believing the lies and trying So tired of defending her life; she could have
to hide died
Covering the cuts and bruises (cuts and Fighting for the lives of her children

1. What is the main theme of the song?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. What are some things that are puzzling to you about this song? Did you solve
any of the puzzles? Which ones and how?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Introduction

From the previous lesson, you were informed of how crucial the family is in
the development of a person. This lesson will widen your idea on how the home
itself serves as the first witness to the different forms of abuses, stereotyping,
inequalities and issues that later radiate to the bigger society. In this lesson, we
will be learning gender related issues happening within the household and the
selected laws that protect members of the family.

Acquire

Families are arenas for sharing and caring, but they are also arenas of
power relations. Both love and exploitation can occur in families. The balance of
these dynamics depends considerably on socio-economic dimensions that give
rise to differential access to resources on the basis of gender and age. It also
depends on the extent to which people can enter and exit from relationships. The
potential for exploitation is much higher if some members control decisions about
the formation or dissolution of the family, and if there is limited alternative support
for those who remove themselves from their family setting (Beujot, et.al. 2017).

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 Gender inequality permeates society at all levels and in the context of most
social institutions. One institution in which gender inequality remains resistant to
change is the family. Over time, various theories have examined the causes of
gender inequality generally, including biology, sex roles, and “doing gender,” each
of which has also been applied to gender inequality in the family (Adams, 2018).

We have different common forms of abuses or issues existing in the

household. Much of it are experienced by women and their children. One common
example is on gender pay gap. Social expectations that women manage childcare
contribute to the gender pay gap and other limitations in professional life for
women. Because women are expected to handle childcare, they choose jobs with
greater flexibility and lower pay.

The gender pay gap has been attributed to differences in personal and
workplace characteristics between women and men (education, hours worked,
occupation etc.), as well as direct and indirect discrimination in the labor market
(gender stereotypes, customer and employer bias etc.).

Health care for children and a flexible schedule that enables women to take
care of their children for which they are still overwhelmingly responsible may take
priority over pay. Moreover, many women are disinclined to take jobs that require
travel or are hazardous. On average, women take more time off and work fewer
hours, often due to the unequal distribution of childcare and domestic labor. Family
obligations tend to pull down on women’s earnings as they proceed through the
life course and have more children. The earning gap tends to widen considerably
when men and women are in their early to mid-thirties, or when people start to
have children, and reaches its widest point when men and women are in their
fifties.

With the many gender issues existing within the household, this lesson will
isolate the scope to domestic forms of abuses and violence. When most people
think of domestic violence, they imagine a situation where the abusive partner
physically hurts the victim. However, physical harm is only one form of abuse and
there are various types of domestic violence as it can be physical,
emotional/psychological, sexual, or economic.

Violence may take different forms at the individual, community, and the
societal level. The most common forms of violence include that of rape, domestic
violence, stalking, sexual harassment, human trafficking, forced prostitution, state
violence, and female genital mutilation.

Physical Violence
Physical violence involves the use of physical force against another.
Examples include hitting, shoving, grabbing, biting, restraining, shaking, choking,

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burning, forcing drug/alcohol use, and assault with a weapon, etc. Physical
violence may or may not result in an injury that requires medical attention.

Sexual Violence
Sexual violence involves the violation of an individual’s bodily integrity
(sexual assault), including coercing sexual contact, rape, and prostitution, as well
as any unwelcome sexual behavior (sexual harassment), and including treating
someone in a sexually demeaning manner or any other conduct of a sexual nature,
whether physical, verbal, or non-verbal. Sexual abuse also includes behavior
which limits reproductive rights, such as preventing use of contractive methods
and forcing abortion.

Psychological/ Emotional Abuse

Psychological abuse is often characterized as intimidation, threats of harm,
and isolation. Examples include instilling fear in an intimate partner through
threatening behavior, such as damaging property or abusing pets, constant
supervision, or controlling what the victim does and who they talk to. Spiritual
abuse may be included as a type of psychological abuse. It involves the misuse of
spiritual or religious beliefs to manipulate or exert power and control over an
intimate partner (i.e., using scripture to justify abuse or rearing the children in a
faith or religious practice the partner has not agreed to).

Emotional abuse involves undermining an individual’s sense of self-worth.

Examples of emotional abuse include constant criticism, name-calling,
embarrassing, mocking, humiliating, and treating like a servant.

Economic Abuse
Economic abuse involves making or attempting to make the victim
financially dependent on the abuser. Examples of economic abuse include
preventing or forbidding an intimate partner from working or gaining and education,
controlling the financial resources, and withholding access to economic resources.

Impacts of Violence on Children

Violence against women affects the whole family.

Many children exposed to violence in the home are also victims of physical
abuse (Modi, M.N., et. al, 2014). Children who witness domestic violence or are
victims of abuse themselves are at serious risk for long-term physical and mental
health problems (Gilbert, L.K, et. al, 2015). Children who witness violence between
parents may also be at greater risk of being violent in their future relationships. If
you are a parent who is experiencing abuse, it can be difficult to know how to
protect your child.

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 So what are some of the short-term effects of domestic violence or abuse
on children?

Children in homes where one parent is abused may feel fearful and anxious.
They may always be on guard, wondering when the next violent event will happen.
(Domestic Violence Roundtable, n.d.). This can cause them to react in different
ways, depending on their age:

A. Children in preschool. Young children who witness intimate

partner violence may start doing things they used to do when they
were younger, such as bed-wetting, thumb-sucking, increased
crying, and whining. They may also develop difficulty falling or
staying asleep; show signs of terror, such as stuttering or hiding;
and show signs of severe separation anxiety.

B. School-aged children. Children in this age range may feel guilty

about the abuse and blame themselves for it. Domestic violence
and abuse hurts children’s self-esteem. They may not participate
in school activities or get good grades, have fewer friends than
others, and get into trouble more often. They also may have a lot
of headaches and stomachaches.

C. Teens. Teens who witness abuse may act out in negative ways,
such as fighting with family members or skipping school. They
may also engage in risky behaviors, such as having unprotected
sex and using alcohol or drugs. They may have low self-esteem
and have trouble making friends. They may start fights or bully
others and are more likely to get in trouble with the law. This type
of behavior is more common in teen boys who are abused in
childhood than in teen girls. Girls are more likely than boys to be
withdrawn and to experience depression (Child Welfare
Information Gateway, 2014).

What are the long-term effects of domestic violence or abuse on children?

Children are at greater risk for repeating the cycle as adults by entering into
abusive relationships or becoming abusers themselves. For example, a boy who
sees his mother being abused is 10 times more likely to abuse his female partner
as an adult. A girl who grows up in a home where her father abuses her mother is
more than six times as likely to be sexually abused as a girl who grows up in a
non-abusive home (Vargas, L., J., Dickson, S., 2005).
Children who witness or are victims of emotional, physical, or sexual abuse
are at higher risk for health problems as adults. These can include mental health
conditions, such as depression and anxiety. They may also include diabetes,

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obesity, heart disease, poor self-esteem, and other problems (Monnat, S.M.,
Chandler, R.F., 2015).

Knowing and watching for signs of possible exposure to violence

No single behavior proves that a child has been exposed to violence, but
you can watch for physical signs such as bruises, unexplained changes in behavior
and motional signs such as depression, mood swings, and fearful or anxious
behavior. Depending on the age of the child, you can observe if a young child is
crying more than usual, is difficult to calm, startles easily, or screams and panics
during sleep.

School-age children may become more aggressive and fight a lot, return to
old fears or develop new ones, become apprehensive about going home, express
a wish that the teacher were the parent, or become overly active.

Teenagers may use violence to get what they want, rebel in school, stop
being concerned about their appearance, or refuse to follow rules

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 Apply

LESSON 2.3
Laws and Issuances: RA 9262 and RA 8972

Lesson Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you should have:

1. analyzed and critiqued the implementation of the selected laws;
and

2. effectively suggest means to increase awareness of the people

on VAWC campaigns.

Activate

Before you look at the content of the two laws, I would like you first to
provide your honest response to the story of Alex:

“My partner has been physically and emotionally abusing me for about
twelve months. It started with pushing and shoving and taking my keys when I
wanted to leave. He was very insecure about past relationships and jealous of
people he thought were a threat.
We would have evenings where he’d been drinking and start accusing me
of being a ‘whore’ amongst other names. It would go on for hours until he would
fall asleep. The next day it was always the same, he was sorry and he didn’t know
why he said it and did the things he did.
I believed him at first but after the third time I knew it was a mistake and I
had to get out.

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 The final straw was the worst behavior, hours of verbal abuse and name
calling and then he became violent when I tried to call someone. That night it
dawned on me things will never change. I had to put myself first and do what was
right for me.
How could I let myself be hurt this way?”

1. If you are the best friend of Alex, how are you going to react to her own
confession?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

2. How are you going to answer her question “How could I let myself be hurt
this way?”
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Introduction

In the preceding lessons under this unit, you became familiar with the
different forms of gender issues happening in the family. This lesson will help
enlighten you on how to protect two of the marginalized groups in the country, the
women and their children and the solo parents.

Acquire

Wife beaters has something to beware of and the solo parents has
something to be thankful of, thanks to RA 9262 and RA 8972.

The Anti-Violence against Women and their Children Act of 2004 (RA 9262)
is a law spearheaded by female political figures and signed at the day when we
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commemorated the International Women’s Day in 2004. Under the law, men who
abuse their female partners or their children can get up to 16 years in jail. In
contrast, the common crime of inflicting injury on another person is punishable by
only six years in jail.

The passage of the law was a response to the need to address the violence
women and children experience due to unequal power relations. Republic Act 9262
was signed on May 8, 2004 by then President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, with full
support from women’s rights and feminist groups. The law charges tougher
penalties for abusive husbands and men and marks the declaration of the State’s
valuation to “the dignity of women and children and guarantees full respect for
human rights” (Sec. 2).

Senator Loi Ejercito was the principal author of Senate Bill 2723 or the Anti-
VAWC bill in the Senate while Rep. Bellaflor Angara-Castillo was the principal
author of House Bill 5516 at the House of Representatives. Obviously, we have a
lot of provisions found in the law. It is now time for you to look at some of the
common questions about the law.

In the case of the Solo Parent Act, it was promulgated on November 7, 2000
at the time of Pres. Joseph Estrada. Solo parents are those who are left alone with
the responsibility of rearing their children regardless of marital status. Based on
National Statistics Office (NSO) data, there are about 14 million solo parents in the
Philippines. The increasing number of solo parents has led the national
government to pass Republic Act 8972, or the Solo Parents’ Welfare Act of 2000.
While being a solo parent can be difficult, the passage of RA 8972 has somehow
made it rewarding (Patajo- Kapunan, L., 2015).

RA 9262 OR THE ANTI- VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND THEIR CHILDREN

ACT

What is Republic Act 9262?

RA 9262 is the Anti-Violence Against Women and their Children Act of
2004. It seeks to address the prevalence of violence against women and children
(VAWC), abuses on women and their children by their intimate partners like:
„ Husband or ex-husband „ Live-in partner or ex-live in partner
„ Boyfriend/girlfriend or ex-boyfriend/ex-girlfriend
„ Dating partner or ex-dating partner

The Act classifies violence against women and children (VAWC) as a public
crime.

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What is VAWC under the law?
It refers to “any act or a series of acts committed by any person against a
woman who is his wife, former wife, or against a woman with whom the person has
or had a sexual or dating relationship, or with whom he has a common child, or
against her child whether legitimate or illegitimate, within or without the family
abode, which result in or is likely to result in physical, sexual, psychological harm
or suffering, or economic abuse including threats of such acts, battery, assault,
coercion, harassment or arbitrary deprivation of liberty.

It includes, but is not limited to, the following acts:

 “Physical violence” refers to acts that include bodily or physical harm;

 “Sexual violence” refers to an act which is sexual in nature, committed
against a woman or her child. It includes, but is not limited to:

a. rape, sexual harassment, acts of lasciviousness, treating a

woman or her child as a sex object, making demeaning and
sexually suggestive remarks, physically attacking the sexual
parts of the victim’s body, forcing her/him to watch obscene
publications and indecent shows or forcing the woman or her
child to do indecent acts and/or make films thereof, forcing the
wife and mistress/lover to live in the conjugal home or sleep
together in the same room with the abuser;

b. acts causing or attempting to cause the victim to engage in any

sexual activity by force, threat of force, physical or other harm or
threat of physical or other harm or coercion;

c. prostituting the woman or her child.

 “Psychological violence” refers to acts or omissions causing or likely to

cause mental or emotional suffering of the victim such as but not limited to
intimidation, harassment, stalking, damage to property, public ridicule or
humiliation, repeated verbal abuse and marital infidelity. It includes causing or
allowing the victim to witness the physical, sexual or psychological abuse of a
member of the family to which the victim belongs, or to witness pornography in
any form or to witness abusive injury to pets or to unlawful or unwanted
deprivation of the right to custody and/or visitation of common children.

 “Economic violence” refers to acts that make or attempt to make a woman

financially dependent. This includes but is not limited to the following:

a) withdrawal of financial support or preventing the victim from

engaging in any legitimate profession, occupation, business or
activity, except in cases wherein the other spouse/partner objects

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 on valid, serious and moral grounds as defined in Article 73 of the
Family Code;

b) deprivation or threat of deprivation of financial resources and the

right to the use and enjoyment of the conjugal, community or
property owned in common;

c) destroying household property;

d) controlling the victim’s own money or properties or solely

controlling the conjugal money or properties.

Children - those below 18 years of age or older but are incapable of taking care of
themselves (as stated in Republic Act 7610). It includes the biological children of the victim
and other children under her care.

Dating relationship - one which has a romantic involvement. It means that a relationship
existed between a woman and a partner who is abusive or has previously abused her,
whether or not the relationship was formal.

Sexual relations - refer to a single sexual act which may or may not result to a bearing of a
child.

Who gets protected under the law?

The law recognizes the unequal relations of a man and a woman in an
abusive relationship where it is usually the woman who is the disadvantaged. Thus,
the law protects the woman and her children.

The victim, the child who is a minor (legitimate and illegitimate), and a
person aged 18 years and beyond who doesn’t have the ability to decide for
herself/himself because of an emotional, physical and mental illness can make full
use of the law.

Any child under the care of a woman is also protected under the law.

Is VAWC committed by men alone?

Women can also be liable under the law. These are the lesbian partners/
girlfriends or former partners of the victim with whom she has or had a sexual or
dating relationship (Source: Barangay Protection Order RA 9262 A Primer.
Department of Interior and Local Government, National Barangay Operations
Office. 2004).

What if the female victim commits violence against her partner?

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 The law acknowledges that women who have retaliated against their
partners or who commit violence as a form of self-defence may have suffered from
battered women syndrome (BWS).

BWS is a “scientifically defined pattern of psychological and behavioral

symptoms found in women living in battering relationships as a result of cumulative
abuse” (Salient Features. A Guide to Anti-Violence Against Women and their
Children [RA 9262]. Philippine Information Agency and National Commission on
the Role of Filipino Women. 2004)

Any victim who suffers from BWS should be diagnosed by a psychiatric

expert or a clinical psychologist. This will also help the victim in obtaining a just
decision in her case. The law does not allow the offender to have custody of minor
children. Their care is still entrusted to the woman even if she is found to have
BWS.

What is the male spouse/ partner complains about abuses committed by his
wife/ partner?

He may file a complaint or case under the Revised Penal Code.

What are the penalties for committing VAWC?

If the courts have proven that the offender is guilty of the crime, he may be
imprisoned and will be obliged to pay P100,000 to P300,000 in damages. The
length of imprisonment depends on the gravity of the crime.

The offender is also obliged to undergo psychological counselling or

psychiatric treatment.

Being drunk or under the influence of prohibited drugs cannot be taken as

an excuse for committing VAW.

What can women and children do under the law?

The law allows women and their children to secure barangay protection
order and/or temporary or permanent protection order from the courts. They can
also file an independent civil action for damages and criminal action for the
violation of anti-VAWC Act.

What is a protection order?

It is an order prescribed in the Anti-VAWC Act to prevent further abuse of
or violence against a woman and her child. It also provides them relief from said
abuse or violence.

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Who may file the protection order?
Anyone of the following may also file the protection order in behalf of the
victim/s:

a. parent or guardian h. counselors

b. grandparents i. therapists
c. children and grandchildren j. health care providers (nurses,
d. relatives (aunts, uncles, doctors, barangay health
cousins, in-laws) workers)
e. local officials and DSWD social k. any two people who have
workers personal knowledge of the
f. police crime
g. lawyers

Time Out 1
Apply

Of the four types of violence (physical, sexual, psychological, and

economic), which do you think happens frequently in the home? Why do you think
so?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

RA 9072: THE SOLO PARENT’S WELFARE ACT

What is the Solo Parent’s Welfare Act?

RA 8972 or the Solo Parent’s Welfare Act provides for benefits and
privileges to solo parents and their children. It aims to develop a comprehensive
package of social development and welfare services for solo parents and their
children to be carried out by the Department of Social Welfare and Development
(DSWD), as the lead agency, various government agencies including NSO and
other related NGOs.

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Who are considered solo parents?
A solo parent is any individual who falls under any of the following
categories:

1. A woman who gives birth as a result of rape and other crimes against
chastity even without a final conviction of the offender, provided that
mother keeps and raises the child.

2. Parent left solo or alone with the responsibility of parenthood due to the
following circumstances:
a. Due to death of spouse.
b. Spouse is detained or is serving sentence for a criminal conviction
for at least one (1) year.
c. Physical and/or mental incapacity of spouse as certified by a
public medical practitioner.
d. Legal separation or de facto separation from spouse for at least
one (1) year, as long as he/she is entrusted with the custody of
the children.
e. Declaration of nullity or annulment of marriage as decreed by a
court or by a church as long as he/she is entrusted with the
custody of the children.

3. Unmarried mother/father who has preferred to keep and rear her/his

child/children instead of having others care for them or give them up to a
welfare institution.

4. Any other person who solely provides parental care and support to a child
or children.

5. Any family member who assumes the responsibility of head of family as

a result of the death, abandonment, disappearance or prolonged
absence of the parents or solo parent.

Who are considered as “children?”

“Children” refer to those living with and dependent upon the solo parent for
support who are unmarried, unemployed and not more than eighteen (18) years of
age, or even over eighteen (18) years but are incapable of self-support because
of mental and/or physical defect/disability.

What are the conditions for the termination of the privileges of a solo parent?

A change in the status or circumstances of the parent claiming benefits

under this Act, such that he/she is no longer left alone with the responsibility of
parenthood, shall terminate his/her eligibility for benefits such as change in the

60
status with marriage, the concerned parent is no longer left alone with the
responsibility of parenthood, etc.

Does the Solo Parent Act apply to those whose spouse is abroad?
The law did not consider this as one of the categories of solo parent since
the other spouse still exercises duties over his/her family. However, if the other
parent is abroad and has lost contact with his/her family for a year or more, the
other parent who is left with the custody of the family, may be considered as solo
parent, provided proofs are presented to qualify as such.

What are the employment-related benefits available to solo parents?

Flexible work schedule. This refers to the right of a solo parent employee
to vary his/her arrival and departure time without affecting the core work hours as
defined by the employer. The employer shall provide for a flexible working
schedule for solo parents, as long as it shall not affect individual and company
productivity. In case of certain meritorious grounds, the employer may request
exemption from DOLE.

No work discrimination. Employer are prohibited from discriminating

against any solo parent employee with respect to terms and conditions of
employment on account of his/her status.

Parental leave. “Parental leave” means leave benefits granted to a solo

parent to enable him/her to perform parental duties and responsibilities where
physical presence is required. In addition to leave privileges under existing laws,
parental leave of not more than seven (7) working days every year shall be granted
to any solo parent employee who has rendered service of at least one (1) year.

What other benefits are available to solo parents?

Subject to income thresholds (“poverty threshold”) set by the National
Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) and subject to the assessment of
the DSWD worker in the area, “solo parents” shall be entitled to the following:

Educational benefits, including scholarship programs for qualified solo

parents and their children in institutions of basic, tertiary and technical/skills
education, and non-formal education programs appropriate for solo parents and
their children.

Housing benefits, including allocation in government low-cost housing

projects, with liberal terms of payment.

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 Medical assistance, with comprehensive health care programs for solo
parents and their children to be implemented by the DOH through their retained
hospitals and medical centers and the local government units (LGUs) through their
provincial/district/city/municipal hospitals and rural health units (RHUs).

62
 References

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Balvin, Nicola (2017). What is Gender Socialization and Why does it Matter?
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Beaujot, R. Liu, J, Ravane, Z., (2017). Gender Inequality in the Family Setting.
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Bussey K., Bandura A. (1999) Social Cognitive Theory of Gender Development

and Differentiation. Psychological Review; 106: 676-713.

Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2014). Domestic Violence and the Child
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Clausen, John A. (ed.) (1968) Socialization and Society, Boston: Little Brown and
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Crespi, Isabella (2004). Socialization and Gender Roles within the Family: a
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CSC Memorandum. CSC Memorandum Circular No. 8, s. 2004 - “Guidelines on

the Grant of Parental Leave to Solo Parent.” March 24, 2004

Domestic Violence Roundtable. (n.d.). The Effects of Domestic Violence on

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Gilbert, L.K., Breiding, M.J., Merrick, M.T., Parks, S.E., Thompson, W.W.,
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American Journal of Preventive Medicine; 48(3): 345-349.

Leaper, Campbell (2014). Parents’ Socialization of Gender in Children.

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 Encyclopaedia on Early Childhood Development. http://www.child-
encyclopedia.com/sites/default/files/textes-experts/en/2492/parents-
socialization-of-gender-in-children.pdf

Modi, M.N., Palmer, S., Armstrong, A. (2014). The Role of Violence against
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Issue. Journal of Women’s Health; 23(3): 253-259.

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of Adverse Childhood Experiences. The Sociologist Quarterly; 56(4): 723-
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Patajo- Kapunan, Lorna. (2015). Solo Parents’ Welfare Act and Work Benefits to
Solo-Parent Employees. Business Mirror.

Republic Act No. 8972 - “An Act Providing for Benefits and Privileges to Solo
Parents and their Children, Appropriating Funds Thereof and For Other
Purposes.” November 2000

Websites:
https://www.dvrcv.org.au/stories/true-stories/stories-women/alexs-story

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/gender-
socialization/#:~:text=Therefore%2C%20the%20gender%20roles%20learned,to
%20gender%2Dspecific%20social%20behavior.

https://www.sparknotes.com/sociology/soci

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cochise-sociology-os/chapter/family-and-
gender-issues/

stopvaw.org/forms_of_domestic_violence

https://pcw.gov.ph/law/republic-act-8972

https://pia.gov.ph/news/articles/1016556

http://www.sei.dost.gov.ph/images/projects/GAD_RA9262.pdf

https://businessmirror.com.ph/2015/09/13/solo-parents-welfare-act-and-work-
benefits-to-solo-parent-
employees/#:~:text=RA%208972%20was%20enacted%20to,as%20a%20result
%20of%20rape.

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