2.baseband Pulse Transmission I - M

Vietnam National University – University of Engineering and
Technology
Baseband Pulse Transmission I

‘
m[k] pulse- u[k] y[k]

receive
sharp channel equalizer
filter
filter kT+ϵ
Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Trường Đại học Công nghệ, ĐHQGHN Truyền thông số và mã hóa
Content
1. Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) and Nyquist’s Criterion
2. Ideal Root and Raised Cosine Spectrum
3. Matched Filter
4. Error Rate Due to Noise

Trường Đại học Công nghệ, ĐHQGHN 2 Truyền thông số và mã hóa
Baseband and Pulse
Pulse signal: A pulse

in signal processing is a
rapid, transient change
in amplitude of a signal
from a baseline value to
a higher or lower value,
followed by a rapid
return to baseline value.

Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
 Spectrum of a digital waveform is infinite (Due to the waveform or
symbol signal is limited in the time domain),
 Meanwhile bandwidth of channel is usually finite (limited)
 After going through the channel, the signal remains finite

spectrum that means it is un-limited in the time domain
 The overlap between waveform sequences occurs when passing

through the band limited channel. This phenomenon is called
Inter-Symbol Interference, or ISI

Overall System
Pulse shaping: Matched filter:
❖ Process of shaping pulses to be ❖ To the pulse shape to maximize the
transmitted based on the symbols signal to noise ratio before symbol
generated via modulation. detection.
❖ Make the signal suitable to be transmitted ❖ Characteristic of the matched filter at
through communication channel mainly the receiver should be complex
by limiting its effective bandwidth. conjugate of the one at the transmitter
❖ Rectangular pulse, sinc, raised-cosine in order to fulfill Nyquist criteria.
shape.
Pulse {ak} Transmit s(t) x0(t) x(t) Receiver y(t) y(ti)

Channel, Decision
amplitude filter Ʃ filter
h(t) Sample at device
modulator g(t) c(t)
time ti = iTb
Input White
binary Clock Gaussian Threshold λ
data pulses nolse w(t)
Say 1 if y(ti) > λ
{bk}
Transmitter Channel Receiver Say 0 if y(ti) < λ
Baseband binary data transmission system

Overall System
Pulse shaping:
❖ In electronics and telecommunications, pulse shaping is the process of changing
the waveform of transmitted pulses. ➔ Make the transmitted signal better
suited to its purpose or the communication channel, typically by limiting the
effective bandwidth of the transmission. ➔ The intersymbol interference caused
by the channel can be kept in control.
❖ Rectangular pulse, sinc, raised-cosine shape.

Channel, Decision
modulator g(t) c(t)
time ti = iTb
Input White
Say 1 if y(ti) > λ
{bk}

Overall System
Matched filter:
❖ In general, matched filters are 'matched' to basis functions and not to the actual
transmitted signal.
❖ Using filters matched to all the basis functions of a signal-space, any of the (infinite)
signals in that signal-space can be detected.

Channel, Decision
modulator g(t) c(t)
time ti = iTb
Input White
Say 1 if y(ti) > λ
{bk}

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông 8

Digital Communications and Coding
Band-unlimited
v(t) channel
1.0
Band-unlimited
channel
-1/2 0 1/2 t
V(f)
Band-limited channel Band-limited channel
1.0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 f


❖ Three strategies for eliminating ISI:
 Use a line code that is absolutely bandlimited.
• Would require Sinc pulse shape.
• Can’t actually do this (but can approximate).
❑ Use a line code that is zero during adjacent sample
instants.
• It’s okay for pulses to overlap somewhat, as long as there
is no overlap at the sample instants.
• Can come up with pulse shapes that don’t overlap during
adjacent sample instants.
Raised-Cosine Rolloff pulse shaping
❑ Use a filter at the receiver to “undo” the distortion
introduced by the channel.
• Equalizer.

Nyquist’s Idea
 Each pulse is zero at the sampling time of other
pulses

Develop the idea

Nyquist’s Criterion for Baseband Transmission
 For overcoming ISI, we need to re-shape the receive impulse to be 𝑝(𝑡)
before sampling. 𝑝(𝑡) much satisfy:
1, 𝑖=𝑘
𝑝 𝑖𝑇𝑏 − 𝑘𝑇𝑏 = ቊ
0, 𝑖≠𝑘
 Spectrum of sampled signal of 𝑝(𝑡)
∞
is
𝑃𝛿 𝑓 = 1/𝑇𝑏 ෍ 𝑃 𝑓 − 𝑛𝑅𝑏
𝑛=−∞
 On the other hand, this spectrum can directly calculate:
Let 𝑚 = 𝑖 − 𝑘, and p(0)=1
∞
∞
𝑃𝛿 𝑓 = න ෍ 𝑝 𝑚𝑇𝑏 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑚𝑇𝑏 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑗2𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ 𝑚=−∞
∞
Or: 𝑃𝛿 𝑓 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑝 0 𝛿
𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑗2𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑝 0 = 1
 Finally we get Nyquist’s criterion
σ∞𝑛=−∞ 𝑃 𝑓 − 𝑛𝑅𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏 (*)

Nyquist’s Criterion for distortionless baseband
transmission in the absence of noise
“The frequency function 𝑃 𝑓 eliminates inter-symbol

interference for samples taken at intervals 𝑇𝑏 provided that it
satisfies Equation (*).”
σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑃 𝑓 − 𝑛𝑅𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏 (*)
Here, 𝑃 𝑓 refers to the overall system, incorporating the

transmit filter, the channel, and the receive filter
Shortly say: The pulse 𝑝(𝑡) satisfies Nyquist’s criterion if the

superposition of the shift versions of it’s spectrum
𝑷 𝒇 equal constant (*).

Nyquist’s criterion illustration
The pulse 𝑝(𝑡) satisfies Nyquist’s criterion if the superposition of the shift versions of it’s
spectrum 𝑷 𝒇 equal constant (*).
Overall System
 𝑃 𝑓 refers to overall system
𝝁𝑷 𝒇 = 𝑮 𝒇 𝑯 𝒇 𝑪 𝒇 (**)
❑ When ISI is equal to zero ➔ distortion-less channel.

❑ Condition (Nyquist criterion) for distortionless channel both in the time
and frequency domain in the absence of noise as

Channel, Decision
modulator g(t) c(t)
time ti = iTb
Input White
Say 1 if y(ti) > λ
{bk}

Ideal Nyquist channel
 It is very unlikely in real life that a channel itself will exhibit Nyquist
transfer response and the condition for distortion-less transmission is
incorporated in the design of the filters used.
 This is also known as Nyquist channel filtering and Nyquist channel
reponse.
 Often the Nyquist filtering response needed for zero ISI is split between
Tx and Rx using a root raised cosine filter pair.
How to design filter G and C to form
an Ideal Nyquist channel with H?

Channel, Decision
modulator g(t) c(t)
time ti = iTb
Input White
Say 1 if y(ti) > λ
{bk}
Ideal Nyquist channel
Pulse shaping: Matched

Rectangular pulse, filter,
Sinc pulse, Root raised
Root raised cosin cosin filter,
pulse, …
…
Channel, Decision
modulator g(t) c(t)
time ti = iTb
Input White
Say 1 if y(ti) > λ
{bk}

Ideal Nyquist Root
 We have to design a filter to meet the condition for recovering pulses free
from ISI
 One possible function for frequency function P(f): Rectangular function

 First Root
1
, −𝑊 < 𝑓 < 𝑊 1 𝑓
𝑃 𝑓 = ൞2𝑊 = 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡
2𝑊 2𝑊
0, 𝑓 >𝑊
sin 2𝜋𝑊𝑡 𝑅𝑏 1
𝑝 𝑡 = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 2𝑊𝑡 𝑊= =
2𝜋𝑊𝑡 2 2𝑇𝑏

ISI Zero
A series of sinc pulses corresponding to the sequence 1011010

Waveform of Ideal Root
p(t)
1 1 𝑅𝑏
W= =
2𝑇𝑏 2
0.5
(b) Ideal magnitude response

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 X-Axis
❑ This root has two disadvantages

❖ It requires 𝑃 𝑓 be flat from −𝑊 to W.
Sampling instants
𝑝 𝑡 decrease as 1Τ 𝑡 that mean in a slow rate
of decay. Especially for large t.
Tb
❖ This root is not used in real because clock
Signaling intervals sampling is not ideal.
(a) Ideal basic pulse shape

• The main drawback of the
sinc pulse is that it decays too
slowly at the rate of 1/|𝑡| as
𝑡 → ∞. ➔ The samples that
are far apart can cause inter-
symbol interference in the
event of modest clock
synchronization errors.
• A sinc pulse is of infinite
duration and for practical
implementations, it has to be
truncated to finite length
𝑘𝑇sym for some integer 𝑘.
This leads to problems.
➔ A practical solution is the raised cosine filter. How?

• Figure shows the one-sided frequency
response of the sinc pulse that is
truncated to various lengths.
• It is evident that the truncation of sinc
pulse in time domain to ±𝑘𝑇sym
leads to sidelobes in frequency
domain and sidelobes become wider
for decreasing values of 𝑘.
• Also, the sinc pulse is very sensitive
to the timing jitters at the receiver.
These problems can be addressed
when the transition band in the
frequency domain is made less
abrupt.
➔ A practical solution is the raised cosine filter. How?

Raised Cosine Spectrum
1
𝑃 𝑓 = , −𝑊 < 𝑓 < 𝑊
2𝑊
In frequency domain, we extend the min value of W = Rb/2 to an

adjustable value between W and 2W or Rb/2 to Rb ➔ Speed up the decay
in time domain.

 The raised cosine root is used in real because it decreases as 𝟏Τ𝐭 𝟐
1
, 0 ≤ 𝑓 ≤ 𝑓1
2𝑊
𝑃 𝑓 = 1 𝜋 𝑓 −𝑊
1 − sin , 𝑓1 ≤ 𝑓 ≤ 2𝑊 − 𝑓1
4𝑊 2𝑊 − 2𝑓1
0, 𝑓 ≥ 2𝑊 − 𝑓1
𝑓1 𝐵𝑇 = 2𝑊 − 𝑓1 = 𝑊 1 + 𝛼
𝛼 = 1 − ⇒ 2𝑊 − 2𝑓1 = 2𝛼𝑊
𝑊 >𝑊
Rolloff factor (0 to 1), indicates the excess bandwidth over ideal W
cos 2𝜋𝛼𝑊𝑡
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 2𝑊𝑡
1 − 16𝛼 2 𝑊 2 𝑡 2


This time response exhibits two interesting properties:
❑ At 𝑡 = ±𝑇𝑏 /2 = ±1/4 W we have 𝑝(𝑡) = 0.5; that is, the pulse width
measured at half amplitude is exactly equal to the bit duration 𝑇𝑏 .
❑ There are zero crossings at 𝑡 = ±3𝑇𝑏 /2, ±5𝑇𝑏 /2, … in addition to the usual
crossings at the sampling times 𝑡 = ±𝑇𝑏 , ±2𝑇𝑏 ,
❑ These two properties are

extremely useful in extracting a
timing signal from the received
signal for the purpose of
synchronization. However, the
price paid for this desirable
property is the use of a channel
bandwidth double that required
for the ideal Nyquist channel
corresponding to 𝛼 = 0.

Example: Bandwidth Requirement
 Example:
What is the minimum bandwidth for transmitting data at a rate of
33.6 kbps without ISI?
 The minimum bandwidth is equal to the Nyquist bandwidth.

33.6
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑊 = = 16.8KHz
2
 Note: If a 100% roll off characteristic 𝐵𝑊 = 𝑊(1 + 𝛼) = 33.6
KHz

Example: Bandwidth Requirement
❑ The T1- channel in North American consists of 24 PCM
channels. Calculate bandwidth of T1-channel if using raised
cosine spectrum with cutoff 𝑎 = 1Τ3
❑ Solution:
▪ Primary PCM=64kbit/s
▪ 24 × 64k = 1536 kbitΤs = 𝑅𝑏
▪ Nyquist’s Bandwidth: W = 𝑅𝑏 Τ2 = 768𝑘𝐻𝑧
▪ Bandwidth of T1 is B = W 1 + 𝑎 = 1024𝑘𝐻𝑧

Revision
 What does mean the ISI ?
 What are causes the ISI ?
 What damage is caused by the ISI in communications ?
 How to overcome the ISI ?
▪ Nyquist’s criterion
▪ Ideal root
▪ Raise cosine root
▪ Matched filter…

Matched Filter
 A matched filter is used for maximizing the Signal to Noise Ratio
--> It is the minimizing of noise’s impact to signal
Linear time-invariant
x(t) y(t) y(T)
Signal ∑ filter of impulse
g(t) response h(t)
Simple at
time t=T
Pulse {ak} Transmit s(t) x𝑔

0(t)𝑡 x(t) Receiver y(t) y(ti)
Channel, Decision
modulator g(t) ℎc(t)
𝑡
time ti = iTb
Input White
Say 1 if y(ti) > λ
{bk}
❑ Before matched filter x 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑡 + w 𝑡 , 0≤𝑡≤𝑇

(Pulse signal) (AWGN)
❑ After matched filter ℎ 𝑡 : y 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑡 ∗ ℎ 𝑡 + w 𝑡 ∗ ℎ(𝑡) = 𝒈𝟎 𝒕 + 𝐧 𝒕
SNR of Matched filter
𝑔0 𝑇 2 Noise power
 Signal to Noise Ratio 𝜂 = spectrum SW(f)
𝐸 𝑛2 𝑡
 Using inverse Fourier transform N0
2
f
Signal
IFT
g 0 (t ) = g (t ) * h(t ) G0 ( f ) = H ( f )G ( f )
∞ 2
𝑔0 𝑇 2 = න 𝐻 𝑓 𝐺 𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑇 𝑑𝑓
−∞
Noise
IFT N0
n(t ) = w(t ) * h(t ) S N ( f ) = SW ( f ) S H ( f ) = | H ( f ) |2
2
AWGN Matched filter
∞
𝑁0 ∞
𝐸 𝑛2 𝑡 = න 𝑆𝑁 𝑓 𝑑𝑓 = න 𝐻 𝑓 2 𝑑𝑓
−∞ 2 −∞

SNR of Matched filter
 Signal to Noise Ratio

∞ 2
‫׬‬−∞ 𝐻 𝑓 𝐺 𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑇 𝑑𝑓
𝜂=
𝑁0 ∞ 2 𝑑𝑓
‫׬‬ 𝐻 𝑓
2 −∞
➔ Find h(t) that maximizes pulse peak SNR 𝜂

Condition for Match Filter
 Based on Schwarz’s inequality
∞ 2 ∞ ∞
න 𝜙1 𝑥 𝜙2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ≤න 𝜙1 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 න 𝜙2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
−∞ −∞ −∞
∞ 2 ∞ ∞
2 2
න 𝐻 𝑓 𝐺 𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑇 𝑑𝑓 ≤න 𝐻 𝑓 𝑑𝑓 න 𝐺 𝑓 𝑑𝑓
−∞ −∞ −∞
2 ∞ 2 𝑑𝑓
𝟐 ∞ 𝟐 𝒅𝒇
𝜂≤ න 𝐺 𝑓 𝜼𝒎𝒂𝒙 = න 𝑮 𝒇
𝑁0 −∞ 𝑵𝟎 −∞
𝑯𝒐𝒑𝒕 𝒇 = 𝒌𝑮∗ 𝒇 𝒆𝒋𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑻

Impulse response of matched filter
 Due to g 𝑡 is a real signal 𝐺 ∗ 𝑓 = 𝐺 −𝑓
∞
ℎ𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑘 න 𝐺 ∗ 𝑓 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓 𝑇−𝑡
𝑑𝑓
−∞
 Impulse response of MF is
∞
𝒉𝒐𝒑𝒕 𝒕
= 𝑘 න 𝐺 −𝑓 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓 𝑇−𝑡
𝑑𝑓
−∞ ∞
= 𝑘 න 𝐺 𝑓 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓 𝑇−𝑡 𝑑𝑓 g t
−∞
= 𝒌𝒈 𝑻 − 𝒕

Properties of Matched Filter
 After matched filter
𝐺0 𝑓 = 𝐻𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝑓 𝐺 𝑓 = 𝑘𝐺 ∗ 𝑓 𝐺 𝑓 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑇
=𝑘𝐺 𝑓 2 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑇
∞ ∞
𝑔0 𝑇 = න 𝐺0 𝑓 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑇 𝑑𝑓 = 𝒌 න 𝑮 𝒇 𝟐 𝒅𝒇
−∞ −∞

❑ By energy theorem
∞ ∞
𝐸 = න 𝑔2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝐺 𝑓 2 𝑑𝑓 𝑔0 𝑇 = 𝑘𝐸
−∞ −∞
∞ 2𝑁 ∞
𝑘 0
𝐸 𝑛2 𝑡 = න 𝑔2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝐺 𝑓 2 𝑑𝑓 = 𝑘 2 𝑁0 𝐸 Τ2
−∞ 2 −∞
𝒌𝑬 𝟐 𝟐𝑬
𝜼𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟐 =
Τ
𝒌 𝑵𝟎 𝑬 𝟐 𝑵𝟎
➔ Does not depend on pulse shape g(t)

Proportional to signal energy (energy per bit) Eb
Inversely proportional to power spectral density of noise

❑ The Fourier transform of a matched filter output with the matched signal
as input is, except for a time delay factor, proportional to the ESD of the
input signal.
𝐻(𝑓) = 𝑘|𝐺(𝑓)|2 exp( − 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑇)
❑ The output signal of a matched filter is proportional to a shifted version
of the autocorrelation function of the input signal to which the filter is
matched.
❑ The output SNR of a matched filter depends only on the ratio of the signal
energy to the PSD of the white noise at the filter input.
S Es
max  =
 N T N 0 / 2
❑ Two matching conditions in the matched-filtering operation:
❑ spectral phase matching that gives the desired output peak at time T.
❑ spectral amplitude matching that gives optimum SNR to peak value.

Correlator Implementation of the Matched-Filter Receiver
 Mathematical operation of
matched filter is convolution:
∞
𝑦𝑗 𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ𝑗 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝑥 𝜏 𝑦𝑗 𝑇
−∞
 If set ℎ𝑗 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑗 𝑡 − 𝜏
(Matched filter)
 Sampling this output at time
𝑡 = 𝑇:
∞
𝑦𝑗 𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝜏 𝑠𝑗 𝑇 − 𝑡 + 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
 The result is same the 𝑥 𝜏 𝑦𝑗 𝑇
correlation output of
correlator:
∞
𝑦𝑗 𝑇 = න 𝑥 𝜏 𝑠𝑗 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
Implementation of matched filter receiver
Bank of M matched filters
𝑣1 (𝑇)
s (T − t )
*
1
𝑣1 Matched filter output:
𝑦(𝑡)
⋮ = 𝒗 𝒗 Observation
vector
𝑣𝑀
sM (T − t )
*
𝑣𝑀 (𝑇)
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑦(𝑡) ∗ 𝑠 ∗ 𝑖 (𝑇 − 𝑡) i = 1,..., M
𝒗 = 𝑣1 𝑇 , 𝑣2 𝑇 , . . . , 𝑣𝑀 𝑇 = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , . . . , 𝑣𝑀 => Find max value.

Example: Matched filter for rectangular pulse
g(t)
Energy = A2T
t
❑ The process of convolving 0 T
two signals reverses one Matched filter
of them in time. output g0(t)
2
kA T
❑ Convolution in the MF
with a time-reversed 0 T t
function results in a Output of

second time-reversal Intergrate-end-dump
circuit
AT
0 T t
(a) Rectangular pulse. (b) Matched filter output. (c) Intergrator output.

Example

Example
Matched filter
for a sinusoidal
wave

Digital 2-PAM System
ak{-A,A}
Channel, Decision
modulator g(t) c(t)
time ti = iTb
Input White
Say 1 if y(ti) > λ
{bk}
N0 p 
opt = ln  0 
4 ATb  p1 
❑ Transmitted signal s(t ) =  ak g (t − k Tb )
k
p0 is the
❑ Requires synchronization of clocks
between transmitter and receiver probability
bit ‘0’ sent
Unipolar Bipolar

 Symbol amplitudes of +A and -A
 Rectangular pulse shape with amplitude 1
 Bit duration (Tb) of 1 second
 Matched filtering with gain of one
Integrate received signal over n-th bit period and sample
n +1 The PDF of noise is:
rn =  r (t ) dt 2
1 𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑏
𝑁0 𝑁0
n 𝜎𝑌 = 2 න න 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑡𝑑𝑢 =
n +1 𝑇𝑏 0 0 2 2𝑇𝑏
= A+  w(t ) dt
1 𝑦2
exp
n
𝑓𝑌 𝑦 = − 2
=  A + vn 2𝜋𝜎𝑌 2𝜎𝑌
+𝐴 + 𝑤 𝑡 , 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 1 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑦 𝑡 =ቊ
−𝐴 + 𝑤 𝑡 , 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 0 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡

Error Rate Due to Noise
 Error probability
A A A
1
!
1
0
Transmission
1
0 -A 0 -A -A
Sent “0”, decide “0” Sent “1”, decide “1”
Sent “1”, decide “0” Sent “0”, decide “1”

𝑦−𝐴 2 1 𝑦+𝐴 2
𝑓𝑌 𝑦|1 =
1
exp − 𝑓𝑌 𝑦|0 = exp −
𝜋𝑁0 Τ𝑇𝑏 𝑁0 Τ𝑇𝑏 𝜋𝑁0 Τ𝑇𝑏 𝑁0 Τ𝑇𝑏
Error probability
𝑝10 = 𝑃 𝑦 > 𝜆|𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 0 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡
∞ ∞ 2
1 𝑦+𝐴
= න 𝑓𝑌 𝑦|0 𝑑𝑦 = න exp − 𝑑𝑦
𝜆 𝜋 𝑁0 Τ𝑇𝑏 𝜆 𝑁0 Τ𝑇𝑏
𝑦+𝐴 1 ∞ 1 𝐴+𝜆
Với 𝑧 = =>𝑝10 = ‫׬‬ exp(−𝑧 2 )𝑑𝑧 = erfc
𝑁0 Τ𝑇𝑏 𝜋 𝐴+𝜆 Τ 𝑁0 Τ𝑇𝑏 2 𝑁0 Τ𝑇𝑏
2 ∞ exp(−𝑢2 )
 Definition erfc 𝑢 = ‫׬‬ exp(−𝑧 2 )𝑑𝑧 < ;
𝜋 𝑢 𝜋𝑢
erfc 𝑢 = 2𝑄( 2 𝑧)
1 ∞ 1 𝐴−𝜆
 Similarly, 𝑝01 = න exp(−𝑧 )𝑑𝑧 = erfc
2
𝜋 𝐴−𝜆 Τ 𝑁0 Τ𝑇𝑏 2 𝑁0 Τ𝑇𝑏
1 1 𝐴+𝜆 1 𝐴−𝜆
➔ 𝑝𝑒 = (𝑝10 + 𝑝01 ) = erfc + erfc
2 4 𝑁0 Τ𝑇𝑏 4 𝑁0 Τ𝑇𝑏

 When threshold 𝜆 = 0 ➔ 𝑝𝑒 = 𝑝10 = 𝑝01

1 𝐴
 Def.: Energy/bit 𝑃𝑒 =
2
erfc
𝑁0 Τ𝑇𝑏
𝐸𝑏 = 𝐴2 𝑇𝑏
1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒 = erfc
2 𝑁0
exp −𝐸𝑏 Τ𝑁0

𝑃𝑒 <
2 𝜋 𝐸𝑏 Τ𝑁0
 Approximation
exp −𝑧 𝐴2 𝑇 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒 ≅ ,𝑧 ≫ 1 𝑧= =
2 𝜋𝑧 𝑁0 𝑁0

M-PAM

PAM Symbol Error Probability
 Set symbol time (Tsym) to 1 second
 Average transmitted signal power 3d

1
= E{a }   | GT (w ) |2 dw = E{an2 }
2
PSignal
2 d d
n
−
GT(w) square root raised cosine spectrum -d −d
 M - level PAM symbol amplitudes
M M −3 d
li = d (2i − 1), i=− + 1, . . . , 0, . . . ,
2 2 2-PAM 4-PAM
 With each symbol equally likely
M M
Constellation points
1 2
2 2
(d (2i − 1) ) = ( M − 1) d2 with receiver
= M M = 
2 2 2
PSignal l i
M i = − +1 i =1 3 decision boundaries
2

 Noise power and SNR  Consider M-2 inner
w sym / 2 levels in constellation
Error only if | vn | d
1 N0 N0
PNoise =
2 w
−
 2
dw =
2
3d
where  2 = N 0 / 2
sym /2
d
two-sided power spectral Probability of error is
density of AWGN
d  −d
PSignal 2( M − 1) d
2 2 P (| vn | d ) = 2 Q 
SNR = =    −3 d
PNoise 3 N0  Consider two outer
 Assume ideal channel, levels in constellation 4-PAM
i.e. one without ISI d 
P ( vn  d ) = Q  
rn = an + vn
 
channel noise after matched

filtering and sampling
 Assuming that each symbol is equally likely, symbol error

probability for M-level PAM
M −2 d  2  d  2( M − 1)  d 
Pe =  2 Q   + Q  = Q 
M    M    M  
M-2 interior points 2 exterior points
 Symbol error probability in terms of SNR

 1

M −1   3
Pe = 2 Q  2
2 
SNR   since SNR =
PSignal
=
PNoise 3
d2
(M 2
− 1)
  M −1  
2
M
 

Visualizing ISI

Visualizing ISI
 Eye diagram is empirical measure of signal quality

 

 + g (nTsym − kTsym ) 
x ( n) =  ak g (n Tsym − k Tsym ) = g (0)  an +  ak 
k = −  k = − g ( 0) 
 k n 
 Intersymbol interference (ISI):
 g (nTsym − kTsym )  g (kTsym )
D  ( M − 1) d 
k = − , k  n g (0)
= ( M − 1) d 
k = − , k  n g (0)
Raised cosine filter has zero

ISI when correctly sampled

Eye Diagram for 2-PAM
 Useful for PAM transmitter and receiver analysis and

troubleshooting
Sampling instant
M=2
Margin over noise
Distortion over
Slope indicates zero crossing
sensitivity to
timing error
Interval over which it can be sampled
t – Tsym/2 t t + Tsym/2
 The more open the eye, the better the reception
Eye Diagram for 4-PAM
Due to
startup
3d transients.
Fix is to
d discard first
few symbols
equal to
-d number of
symbol
-3d periods in
pulse shape.

Review
 What is pulse shaping used for?
 ISI mitigation?
 What is the matched filter?
 How to build matched filter?
 How to estimate the bit error probability when go pass noise channel?


2.baseband Pulse Transmission I - M

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2.baseband Pulse Transmission I - M

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Vietnam National University – University of Engineering and

Baseband Pulse Transmission I

m[k] pulse- u[k] y[k]

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

1. Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) and Nyquist’s Criterion

2. Ideal Root and Raised Cosine Spectrum

4. Error Rate Due to Noise

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Pulse signal: A pulse

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

 Meanwhile bandwidth of channel is usually finite (limited)

 After going through the channel, the signal remains finite

 The overlap between waveform sequences occurs when passing

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Pulse {ak} Transmit s(t) x0(t) x(t) Receiver y(t) y(ti)

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Pulse {ak} Transmit s(t) x0(t) x(t) Receiver y(t) y(ti)

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Pulse {ak} Transmit s(t) x0(t) x(t) Receiver y(t) y(ti)

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông 8

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông 9

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông 10

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông 11

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

“The frequency function 𝑃 𝑓 eliminates inter-symbol

Here, 𝑃 𝑓 refers to the overall system, incorporating the

Shortly say: The pulse 𝑝(𝑡) satisfies Nyquist’s criterion if the

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

❑ When ISI is equal to zero ➔ distortion-less channel.

Pulse {ak} Transmit s(t) x0(t) x(t) Receiver y(t) y(ti)

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Pulse {ak} Transmit s(t) x0(t) x(t) Receiver y(t) y(ti)

Pulse shaping: Matched

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

 One possible function for frequency function P(f): Rectangular function

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

A series of sinc pulses corresponding to the sequence 1011010

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

(b) Ideal magnitude response

❑ This root has two disadvantages

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

➔ A practical solution is the raised cosine filter. How?

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

In frequency domain, we extend the min value of W = Rb/2 to an

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

❑ These two properties are

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

 The minimum bandwidth is equal to the Nyquist bandwidth.

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Pulse {ak} Transmit s(t) x𝑔

❑ Before matched filter x 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑡 + w 𝑡 , 0≤𝑡≤𝑇

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

 Signal to Noise Ratio

➔ Find h(t) that maximizes pulse peak SNR 𝜂

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

𝑯𝒐𝒑𝒕 𝒇 = 𝒌𝑮∗ 𝒇 𝒆𝒋𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑻