Introduction to Mobile Computing
Mobile computing refers to the use of portable In GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) and
computing devices, such as smartphones, tablets,
laptops, and wearable technology, to access and
transmit data wirelessly.
This technology has transformed the way people
communicate, work, and interact with information,
enabling unprecedented levels of connectivity and
flexibility.
Issues in Mobile Computing
1. Security Concerns: Mobile devices are susceptible to
various security threats, including malware, phishing
attacks, and data breaches.
2. Privacy Risks: The extensive collection of personal
data by mobile apps and services raises concerns
about user privacy.
3. Device Fragmentation: Developers must ensure
compatibility across multiple platforms, which can be
time-consuming and resource-intensive.
4. Battery Life: Battery life remains a significant
constraint for mobile devices, limiting their usability
and functionality.
5. Network Connectivity: Mobile users rely on wireless
networks, such as Wi-Fi, cellular, and Bluetooth, for
internet access and data transmission.
6. Limited Resources: Compared to traditional desktop
computers, mobile devices have limited processing
power, memory, and storage capacity.
7. User Experience: Designing intuitive and responsive
user interfaces for mobile applications is crucial for
ensuring a positive user experience.
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)
GSM, or Global System for Mobile Communications, is
a widely used digital cellular technology for mobile
phones that operates on the 900 MHz and 1800 MHz
frequency bands in most parts of the world.
Its air interface and channel structure define how
information is transmitted between mobile devices
and base stations in the GSM network.
1. Air Interface:
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): GSM uses
FDMA as the basic multiple access technique. The
available frequency band is divided into multiple
channels, each with a bandwidth of 200 kHz.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): Within each
FDMA channel, TDMA is employed to divide the
channel into time slots. GSM uses an 8-slot TDMA
frame structure, with each frame lasting for 4.615
milliseconds..
Digital Modulation: GSM employs Gaussian Minimum
Shift Keying (GMSK) modulation for transmitting digital
data over the air interface.
2. Channel Structure:
Traffic Channels (TCH): These channels are used for
carrying user voice or data traffic. There are two types
of traffic channels:
Full-rate TCH (TCH/F): Each full-rate TCH supports
a single voice connection with a data rate of 13
kbps.
Half-rate TCH (TCH/H): Half-rate TCHs are used to
accommodate two voice connections within the
same channel, each operating at a data rate of 6.5
kbps.
Control Channels:
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH): This channel
carries system information broadcasted by the
base station, including cell identity, location area
identity, and neighboring cell information.
Common Control Channel (CCCH): CCCH includes
channels for paging, access grant, and random
access procedures.
Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH): DCCH is used
for signaling between the mobile device and the
network during call setup, handover, and other
control functions.
Associated Control Channel (ACCH): ACCH is used
for exchanging control information related to
ongoing voice or data connections, such as power
control and handover commands.
Synchronization Channels:
Synchronization Channel (SCH): SCH is used for
initial synchronization of mobile devices with the
network.
Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH): FCCH is
transmitted periodically to assist mobile devices in
frequency synchronization.
Random Access Channel (RACH): RACH allows mobile
devices to request access to the network for initiating
calls or sending short data messages.
Location Management: HLR-VLR
Wireless networking refers to the technology and
other cellular networks, Location Management is the
process of tracking the current location of mobile
subscribers as they move within the network's coverage
area.
1. Home Location Register (HLR):
The HLR is a central database that stores permanent
subscriber information for each registered mobile
device within the network's coverage area.
It serves as the main repository for subscriber profiles,
including subscriber identity, service subscription
details, and current location information.
2. Visitor Location Register (VLR):
The VLR is a temporary database associated with each
Mobile Switching Center (MSC) or Base Station
Controller (BSC) in the cellular network.
It stores information about mobile subscribers
currently located within the coverage area of the
corresponding MSC or BSC.
Channel Allocation in Cellular Systems: CDMA and GPRS
Channel allocation in cellular systems is the process of
assigning communication channels to users within the
network to facilitate voice calls, data transmission, and
other communication services.
Two prominent cellular technologies, CDMA (Code
Division Multiple Access) and GPRS (General Packet
Radio Service), employ different methods of channel
allocation.
1. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access):
CDMA is a digital cellular technology that allows multiple
users to share the same frequency band simultaneously by
using unique spreading codes to differentiate between
users.
Soft Handoff: CDMA supports soft handoff, where a
mobile device is simultaneously connected to multiple
base stations (cells) during handover.
Dynamic Channel Assignment: CDMA networks
dynamically allocate channels based on demand and
network conditions.
Power Control: CDMA employs power control
mechanisms to regulate the transmit power of mobile
devices.
2. GPRS (General Packet Radio Service):
GPRS is a packet-switched technology that enables
mobile data communication over GSM networks.
GPRS introduces packet-switching capabilities to GSM,
allowing users to transmit data in small, discrete
packets rather than dedicated circuit-switched
connections.
1. Packet-Switched Architecture: GPRS networks allocate
radio channels dynamically on a per-packet basis.
Instead of reserving a dedicated channel for each user,
GPRS utilizes available channels as needed to transmit
data packets. This dynamic allocation enables efficient
use of network resources and supports bursty data
traffic.
2. Logical Channels: GPRS introduces several logical
channels for data transmission, including the Packet
Data Channel (PDCH) for carrying user data packets
and the Packet Control Channel (PCCH) for signaling
and control messages.
3. Dynamic Allocation of Timeslots: GPRS employs
dynamic allocation of timeslots within the TDMA (Time
Division Multiple Access) frame structure used in GSM.
4. Quality of Service (QoS) Control: GPRS supports
different QoS levels to accommodate various types of
applications and servicessuch as data throughput,
delay, and reliability, can be negotiated between the
network and the mobile device to ensure satisfactory
performance for different types of data traffic.
Overview of Wireless Telephony: Cellular Concept
The cellular concept is a fundamental principle in
wireless telephony that revolutionized communication
by enabling widespread mobile connectivity.
It involves dividing a geographical area into smaller
regions called cells, each served by a low-power
transceiver station known as a cell site or base station.
Cellular Concepts:
Cell: A geographic area covered by a cellular network,
served by a base station.
Base Station (Cell Site): A fixed radio transceiver that
provides wireless connectivity to mobile devices within
its coverage area.
Mobile Switching Center (MSC): A central component
in the cellular network that connects calls, manages
handoffs, and controls signaling.
Wireless Networking
infrastructure that enables communication between
devices without the need for physical wired
connections.
It has become an integral part of modern
communication systems, facilitating connectivity
between devices such as smartphones, laptops,
tablets, IoT (Internet of Things) devices, and more.
Applications of Wireless Networking:
Internet Access: Wireless networks provide ubiquitous
internet access, allowing users to connect to the
internet from various locations such as homes, offices,
coffee shops, and public spaces.
Mobile Communication: Cellular networks enable
mobile communication services such as voice calls,
text messaging, and mobile internet access for
smartphones and other mobile devices.
IoT Connectivity: Wireless networking is essential for
connecting and controlling IoT devices, such as smart
thermostats, security cameras, wearable devices, and
industrial sensors.
Wireless LANs (WLANs): Wireless LANs provide local
area network connectivity without the need for wired
connections, enabling flexible and mobile access to
network resources within homes, offices, and public
Wi-Fi hotspots.
Emerging Technologies: Wireless networking continues
to evolve with emerging technologies such as 5G, Wi-Fi
6 (802.11ax), and LPWANs (Low-Power Wide-Area
Networks), which promise faster speeds, lower latency,
and increased connectivity for future applications.
Wireless LAN Overview: MAC Issues
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) utilize various
technologies and protocols to enable wireless
communication between devices within a limited
geographical area, such as a home, office, or campus.
The Medium Access Control (MAC) layer of the IEEE
802.11 standard governs access to the shared wireless
medium, addressing several key issues in wireless
LANs:
1. Collision Avoidance:
In wireless LANs, multiple devices contend for access to
the shared wireless medium. To avoid collisions and
ensure efficient data transmission, WLANs employ various
mechanisms:
2. Hidden Node Problem:
The hidden node problem occurs when two or more
devices cannot detect each other's transmissions due to
obstructions or distance. This can lead to collisions when
multiple devices transmit simultaneously. Techniques to
mitigate the hidden node problem include:
3. Quality of Service (QoS) Management:
Ensuring QoS in wireless LANs is essential for applications
requiring timely and reliable data transmission. The MAC
layer addresses QoS issues through mechanisms such as:
4. Power Management:
Wireless devices often implement power-saving
mechanisms to conserve battery life when idle.
IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi)
IEEE 802.11, commonly known as Wi-Fi, is a set of
standards for wireless local area networking (WLAN)
technology.
It defines protocols and specifications for
implementing wireless communication between
devices within a local area network.
802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax: These are different variants of the
IEEE 802.11 standard, each offering varying data rates,
frequency bands, and features.
2.4 GHz and 5 GHz Bands: Wi-Fi operates in both the 2.4
GHz and 5 GHz frequency bands, providing flexibility
and compatibility with different devices and
environments.
Applications:
Internet Access: Wi-Fi is widely used for providing
wireless internet access in homes, offices, public
spaces, and other locations.
Wireless LANs (WLANs): Wi-Fi enables the creation of
wireless local area networks, allowing devices to
communicate with each other and access network
resources without wired connections.
Mobile Connectivity: Wi-Fi connectivity is integrated
into smartphones, tablets, laptops, and other mobile
devices, enabling seamless connectivity to Wi-Fi
networks for internet access and data transmission.
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a wireless communication technology
used for short-range data transmission between
devices.
It is commonly used for connecting peripherals such
as headphones, speakers, keyboards, and
smartwatches to smartphones, tablets, and computers.
1.Pairing and Security:
Pairing: Devices establish a secure connection by
pairing with each other using a PIN or passkey. Once
paired, devices exchange encryption keys to secure
data transmissions.
Security Features: Bluetooth specifications include
security features such as authentication, encryption,
and frequency hopping to protect against
eavesdropping and unauthorized access.
2.Applications:
Wireless Audio Streaming: Bluetooth is commonly used
for streaming audio from smartphones, tablets, and
computers to headphones, speakers, and car stereos.
Peripheral Connectivity: Bluetooth enables wireless
connections between smartphones and peripherals
such as keyboards, mice, game controllers, and
printers.
IoT Connectivity: Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) is a
variant of Bluetooth designed for low-power IoT
devices, allowing them to communicate with
smartphones and other BLE-enabled devices for data
exchange and control.
Wireless Multiple Access Protocols
Wireless multiple access protocols are used to manage
access to the shared wireless medium in wireless
communication networks, allowing multiple users to
transmit and receive data simultaneously.
1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):
In FDMA, the available frequency spectrum is
divided into multiple non-overlapping frequency
bands.
FDMA is used in analog cellular systems and some
satellite communication systems.
2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):
TDMA divides the available time slots within a
predefined time frame into multiple time slots.
TDMA is used in GSM (2G) and some digital trunking
systems.
3. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):
CDMA allows multiple users to share the same
frequency band simultaneously by assigning unique
spreading codes to each user.
CDMA is used in 3G (CDMA2000) and 4G (LTE)
cellular networks.
TCP over Wireless
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a reliable,
connection-oriented protocol used for transmitting
data over IP networks.
When TCP is used over wireless networks, several
challenges arise due to the characteristics of wireless
communication, such as packet loss, variable link
quality, and high bit error rates.
1. Packet Loss and Retransmission:
Wireless networks are prone to packet loss due to
factors like signal attenuation, interference, and
fading.
2. Link Layer Retransmissions:
Some wireless technologies, such as Wi-Fi, employ
automatic retransmission mechanisms at the link
layer (e.g., ARQ in IEEE 802.11).
3. Window Size Adaptation:
TCP's congestion control algorithm relies on
feedback from packet acknowledgments (ACKs) to
adjust the sender's window size dynamically.
4. Buffer Management:
Wireless networks may have smaller buffer sizes
and lower capacity compared to wired networks,
leading to increased queuing delays and potential
buffer overflows.
5. Cross-Layer Optimization:
Cross-layer optimization techniques that leverage
information from lower layers (e.g., link quality
indicators) to inform TCP's congestion control
decisions can improve performance over wireless
networks.
Data Broadcasting
Data broadcasting refers to the transmission of data to
multiple recipients simultaneously over a broadcast
network.
In the context of wireless communication, data
broadcasting is used to deliver information, content, or
updates to a large number of mobile devices
efficiently.
1. Broadcast Protocols: Various protocols and standards
are used for data broadcasting over wireless networks,
including DVB (Digital Video Broadcasting), ATSC
(Advanced Television Systems Committee), DAB
(Digital Audio Broadcasting), and LTE Multimedia
Broadcast Multicast Service (MBMS).
2. Content Delivery: Data broadcasting can deliver
various types of content, including audio, video, text,
software updates, live events, news, weather forecasts,
and advertisements.
3. Hybrid Broadcasting: Hybrid broadcasting solutions
combine traditional broadcast networks with internet-
based delivery mechanisms, enabling seamless
integration of broadcast content with interactive
services, on-demand content, and personalized
recommendations.
4. Content Protection: Data broadcasting systems
incorporate content protection mechanisms, such as
encryption and digital rights management (DRM), to
secure transmitted content and prevent unauthorized
access, piracy, or content manipulation.
Mobile IP
Mobile IP (Internet Protocol) is a protocol suite that
enables mobile devices to maintain continuous network
connectivity and transparently roam between different
networks while preserving their IP addresses.
1. IP Address Mobility: Mobile IP allows mobile devices to
retain their IP addresses even when moving between
different networks or changing their point of
attachment to the internet.
2. Home Agent and Foreign Agent: Mobile IP employs a
Home Agent (HA) and Foreign Agent (FA) to manage
mobility and routing functions.
3. Registration Process: When a mobile device moves to a
new network, it initiates a registration process with the
Home Agent through the Foreign Agent.
4. Route Optimization: Mobile IP supports route
optimization techniques, such as triangular routing and
bi-directional tunneling, to minimize latency and
optimize data routing between the mobile device and
its correspondent nodes, bypassing unnecessary
detours through the Home Agent.
5. Security Considerations: Mobile IP implementations
incorporate security mechanisms, such as IPsec (IP
Security) and Authentication, Authorization, and
Accounting (AAA) protocols, to protect against attacks,
eavesdropping, and unauthorized access to mobile
communications.
Wireless Applications
Wireless technology has facilitated the development of
various applications across numerous domains, enabling
mobility, connectivity, and convenience.
Voice over Wireless: Providing voice communication
over wireless networks, often through technologies like
VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol).
Video Streaming: Transmitting video content
wirelessly, commonly used in applications like video
conferencing and online streaming.
Location-Based Services: Utilizing wireless
technologies for applications like GPS navigation and
location-based advertising.
Mobile Communication: Wireless networks provide
voice calling, text messaging, and multimedia
messaging services to mobile devices.
Internet Access: Wireless technology enables wireless
internet access via Wi-Fi hotspots, cellular networks
(e.g., 4G LTE, 5G), and satellite internet services,
providing connectivity to users .
Mobile Apps:
Mobile Payments:
Emergency Services: allowing individuals to call for
help, report emergencies, and receive alerts via mobile
devices.
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)
WAP is an open international standard for delivering
internet content and services to mobile devices.
1. Architecture:
WAP Gateway: It translates WAP content requests into
standard internet protocols (e.g., HTTP) and vice versa,
allowing mobile devices to access web content.
Wireless Application Environment (WAE): WAE defines
the programming model and runtime environment for
developing WAP applications.
Wireless Session Protocol (WSP): WSP is a lightweight
protocol used for communication between the mobile
device and the WAP gateway.
Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP): WTP provides
reliable data transport over unreliable wireless
networks by managing packet sequencing,
retransmissions, and error detection.
Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS): WTLS is a
security protocol that provides data encryption,
authentication, and integrity protection for WAP
communications.
Protocol Stack:
The WAP protocol stack comprises multiple layers, each
responsible for specific functions:
Application Layer: This layer includes the Wireless
Application Environment (WAE), which provides APIs
and tools for developing WAP applications.
Session Layer: The Session layer handles session
management and coordination between the mobile
device and the WAP gateway.
Transaction Layer: The Transaction layer, consisting of
the Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP), manages
reliable data transport over the wireless network,
ensuring packet sequencing, retransmissions, and error
detection.
Security Layer: The Security layer, implemented by the
Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS) protocol,
provides data encryption, authentication, and integrity
protection for WAP communications.
Application Environment:
The WAP application environment provides a platform for
developing and deploying interactive and dynamic mobile
applications.
Programming Model: WAE defines a programming
model for building WAP applications using markup
languages (e.g., WML), scripting languages (e.g.,
WMLScript), and server-side technologies (e.g.,
WMLScript libraries).
Development Tools: WAP developers use specialized
tools, such as WAP development kits and emulators, to
create, test, and debug WAP applications across
different mobile devices and platforms.
Content Delivery: WAP applications deliver content in
a format optimized for mobile devices, enabling users
to access web-based services, information, and
multimedia content on their phones and tablets.
Applications:
WAP applications span various domains and use cases,
including:
Mobile Web Browsing: WAP-enabled mobile browsers
allow users to browse the internet, access websites,
and search for information using their mobile devices.
Mobile Commerce: WAP supports mobile commerce
applications, such as mobile banking, mobile payments,
and mobile shopping, enabling users to conduct
financial transactions and purchase goods and services
on their phones.
Messaging Services: WAP-based messaging
applications, including SMS (Short Message Service)
and MMS (Multimedia Messaging Service), allow users
to send and receive text messages, images, and
multimedia content on their mobile devices.
Mobile Entertainment: WAP enables mobile
entertainment applications, such as mobile games,
streaming media, and music downloads, offering users
access to on-the-go entertainment options on their
phones and tablets.