GENERAL BIOLOGY

ORGANISMS’ BODY ORGANIZATION

 An organism’s body is organized into different tissues and organ
systems that interact in a coordinated manner to maintain
homeostasis (steady state).
 Example: Hypothalamus- regulates body temperature, sleep. Mood,
heart rate, sex drive. Fever
 Biomolecules - essential on our body
Carbohydrates (Sugar)
Lipids (Fats)
Amino Acids (Protein)
Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA)
LESSON 1.1: ANIMALS’ SPECIALIZED STRUCTURE
TISSUES
 Formed as a result of cell differentiation
 Group of similar cells that performs a common function
HISTOLOGY
 Study of animal and plant issues
 Involves the preparation of thin tissue sections, differentially stained
and examined under the microscope
ANIMAL TISSUES
 Group of cells that are similar in structure and coordinate to perform
a specific function.
CATEGORIES OF ANIMAL TISSUES
I. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
- Covers the outer surface of all the organs of the body and lines
the cavities of all the hollow organs
- Classifications on the basis of arrangement of cells:
1. Simple Epithelium – cells are in a single layer attached
to the basement membrane
2. Stratified Epithelium – cells are in two or more layers
stacked atop each other
3. Pseudostratified Epithelium – appear to be more than
one cell thick as the nuclei are at different positions, but in
fact is a single layer of cells, in contact with basement
membrane.
- Classifications on the basis of shape:
1. Squamous Epithelium – flat, thin, scale-like cells
2. Cuboidal Epithelium – have a basic cube shape (height
& width are equal)
3. Columnar Epithelium – tall, rectangular or column
shaped cells (cells have longer length than width)
- Classifications on the shape and number of cell layers:
1. Simple Squamous Epithelium
- single layer of flattened cells with central nuclei
- allows passage of materials by diffusion
- Location: Air sacs of lungs, Lining of heart and blood
vessels
2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
- single layer of cube-like cells with large spherical,
central nuclei
- Secretion and Absorption
- Location: Kidney Tubules, Ovaries
3. Simple Columnar Epithelium
- single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei
spherical; layer may contain mucus-secreting unicellular
glands (goblet celss)
- Absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes and other
substances
- Location: Digestive tract (stomach to anus), Gall bladder
o Microvilli
 - special structures, extensions of the cell
membrane to increase their surface area for
absorption.
o Goblet cells
- specialized columnar cells found in the lining of
the stomach and small intestines responsible for
mucus secretion.
o Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium
- found in small bronchioles of the respiratory tract
for the mucus movement, and in the fallopian
tubes of the female reproductive tract
4. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
- single layer of cells with different heights; nuclei seen at
different levels; may contain mucus-secreting goblet cells
and bear cilia
- secretion of mucus, movement of particles
- Location; Trachea, Nasal Cavities, Bronchi
5. Stratified Squamous Epithelium
- several cell layers; cells are flattened
- protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion
- Location: Skin, Mouth/Esophagus, Anus, Vagina
6. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
- two layers of cube-like cells
- protection
Location: ducts of sweat glands, mammary glands and
salivary glands
7. Stratified Columnar Epithelium
- several cells layers; cells are elongated and columnar
- protection
- Location: Male urethra

II. CONNECTIVE TISSUE

- is present in between different tissue and organs; found in and
around the body organs
- Composition: non-living extracellular matrix that separates the
cells of the tissue
- Ground Substance: maybe liquid, solid or semi-solid
- CLASSIFICATIONS:
1) CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
Loose Connective Tissues – cells in the matrix
are widely distributed and the fibers are loosely
woven.
a) Areolar Connective Tissue
- Location: found in layers beneath skin,
space between many organs and in between
muscles
- Function: Blind tissues together, Produce
antibodies and engulf bacteria and
damaged and dead cells
b) Adipose Connective Tissue
- Structure: large spherical or oval shaped
cells, with large fat droplets; consist of fat
cells (adipocytes)
- Location: found beneath skin in dermis,
mesenteries, around kidney and heart
- Function: Source of energy, Prevent heat
loss by forming insulating layer
c) Reticular Connective Tissue
- Structure: large number of stellate shape
reticular cells floating in fluid matrix;
secretes reticular fibers
- Location: found in lymph glands, spleen,
liver, bone marrow and tonsils
- Function: defense mechanism of the body
Dense Connective Tissues – fibers dominate over
the cells and the matrix in quantity
a) Tendon
- Structure: contain fibroblast cells and
dense network of collagen fibers and very
few amount of matrix
- Function: white fibrous tissue that joints
skeletal muscles to bones
b) Ligament
 - Structure: contains numerous and closely
packed yellow elastic fibers (long &
flexible)
- Function: yellow elastic fibers that join
two bones together
2) SUPPORTIVE TISSUE PROPER
a) Cartilage
- tough, hard but flexible
- consists of semi-solid matrix (chondrin) in which
cartilage cells (chondrocytes) and fibers are
embedded
- Chondrocytes are dispersed in the matrix and
occur in fluid filled space called lacunae
 Hyaline cartilage
- Structure: covered by perichondium,
compressible and elastic, Matrix is blush
white and transparent
- Function: Bone growth, flexibility &
support, shock absorber
- Location: Ends of long bones, Ends of
Ribs, Nose tip, Larynx, Bronchi
 Elastic Cartilage
- Structure: surrounded by perichondium,
contains elastic fibers, Matrix is yellowish
- Function: Support and maintain shape of
body
- Location: Ear, Larynx, Trachea
 Fibrous Cartilage
- Structure: Not surrounded by
perichondium, abundant collagen fibers,
Matrix is whitish
- Function: support an intervertebral disks;
support fusion of different organs
- Location: Public Symphysis,
Intervertebral disks
b) Bone
- Structure: Hardest tissue in the body
Osteon (structural units)
Matrix is solid and calcified (ossein)
 Matrix is arranged in concentric
circles called lamellae (it contains
osteoblasts/osteocytes present in lacuna);
Haversian canal
3) FLUID TISSUE
a) Blood
- Fluid connective tissue composed of plasma, red
blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells
(leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes)
- red blood cells (erythrocytes) – carry oxygen
- white blood cells (leukocytes) – immune
system
- platelets (thrombocytes) – blood clotting
- Plasma regulates water balance and transport
substances
b) Lymph
- contain a variety of substances (proteins, salts,
glucose, fats, water, & white blood cells)
- transport oxygen, food materials, hormones to
the body cells and brings carbon dioxide and
wastes from the body cells to the blood

III. MUSCLE TISSUE

- Can be found attach to a bone or in other organs
- Movement of organs and locomotion of organism (animal)
- Structure: consist of muscle cells called muscle fibers
(elongated); Myofibrils; repetitive functional units called
Sarcomeres; responsible for Muscle Contraction
- Sarcomeres contain myofilaments: Thick Filaments (Myosin) &
Thin Filaments (Actin)
- CLASSIFICATIONS:
a. SKELETAL (STRAITED) MUSCLE TISSUE
- Muscle Fibers (cells) are: long, cylindrical and
unbranched, striated, and multi-nucleated
- contains a number of myofibrils within sarcoplasm
covered by sarcolemma
- Location: attached to bones
- Function; Voluntary movement together with bones
b. SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE
 - Muscle Fibers (cells) are: tapering, non-striated, and uni-
nucleated
- each muscle fiber contains myofibrils arranged
longitudinally
- Location: Digestive tract, Reproductive tract. Blood
vessels, Bronchi of lungs
- Function: Involuntary movements (digestion, breathing,
blood flow, movement of urine, egg cells or sperm cells)
c. CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE
- Muscle Fibers (cells) are: short, cylindrical and
branched, striated (not prominent), uni-nucleated
- each muscle fibers are attached by intercalated disks
forming a network
- Location: Walls of the Heart
- Function: Involuntary Movements (pumping of the
blood by the heart)

IV. NERVOUS TISSUE

- Composed of nerve cells or neurons and supportive cells called
neuroglia
- Neurons are the basis unit of communication, react to stimuli,
and transmit the impulses (information) from one reion of the
body to another
- Glia Cells form myelin and provide support and protection for
neurons
- 3 PARTS
a) CELL BODY – consist of nucleus and the cytoplasm
b) AXON – carry messages away from the cell body (long
fiber-like part)
c) DENDRITES – carry messages towards from the cell
body
- Structure:
Synapse
- site of transmission of electric nerve impulses between to
nerve cells (neuron) or muscle cell
- one neuron passes the information to another through
neurotransmitters
- Location: found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerve
- Function: communication within the body and help of an animal
to give response to external stimulus.
Tissues From Organs and Organ Sytems
- a group of different tissues united to perform a common function forms an organ
- the human body is made up of 11 organ systems
1. Integumentary System
Major Structures:
 Skin
 Nails
 Hair
Functions:
- protect against injury, infection, and fluid loss
- provides structures and support
2. Muscular System
Major Structures:
 Skeletal Tissues
 Smooth Tissues
 Muscular Tissues
Functions:
- moves limbs and trunk
- moves substance through the body
- provides structure and support, movement, maintains posture and produces heat
- interacts with skeletal muscles
3. Circulatory Sytem
Major Structures:
 Heart
 Blood/Blood Vessels
 Lymph nodes and vessels
 Lymph
Functions:
- transports nutrients, gases, ions, hormones, and wastes through the body
4. Nervous System
Major Structures:
 Brain
 Spinal cord
 Nerves and sense organs
Functions:
- regulates behavior
- maintains homeostasis
- regulates other organ systems
- controls sensory and motor functions
- relays signals through the body that direct behavior and movement, and controls
physiological processes
5. Digestive System
Major Structures:
 Mouth
 Esophagus
 Stomach
 Liver
 Pancreas
 Small/Large Intestines
Functions:
- Extracts and absorbs nutrients from food
- Removes wastes/maintains water and chemical balances
- Breaks down food and absosrbs nutrients
6. Respiratory System
Major Structures:
 Mouth
 Nose
 Lungs
 Trachea
Functions:
- Moves air into and out of lungs
- Controls gas exchange between blood and lungs
- Provides gas exchange between and the blood and the environment
7. Excretory System
Major Structures:
 Kidneys
 Urinary Bladder
 Ureters
 Urethra
Functions:
 - Removes wastes from the blood
8. Endocrine System
Major Structures:
 Hypothalamus
 Pituitary
 Thyroid
 Pineal Body
 Adrenal Glands
 Pancreas
 Testes/Ovaries
Functions:
- Regulates body temp, metabolism, development and reproduction
- Maintains homeostasis
- Regulates other organ systems; relays chemical messages through the body that
control physiological processes
9. Reproductive System
Major Structures:
 Testes and penis
 Ovaries and uterus
Functions:
-produces gametes and offspring
-produces sex cells and sex hormones that allow reproduction
10. Immune System
Major Structures:
 White Blood cells
 Lymph nodes and vessels
 Skin
Functions:
- Defend against pathogens and diseases
- Destroys and removes invading microbes and viruses from the body
10. Skeletal System
Major Structures:
 Bones
 Joints
Functions:
- Provides support for the body
- Protects delicate internal organs, provides attachment sites for the organs
- Protects and supports the body and organs
PLANTS HAVE ORGANS TOO
Plant Tissues
 Organs that allow the plant to live and grow are called vegetative organs. These includes
the:
1. Root
- Anchors the plant to the soil for support and absorbs water and minerals from the soil.
2. Stem
- Main axis of the plant together with its branches.
3. Leaves
- Responsible for the manufacture of food by photosynthesis.
4. Flowers, fruits, and seeds
- Organs involved in reproduction
2 Main Types of Tissues in Vascular Plants
 PERMANENT TISSUES
- Divided into surface
- Fundamental
- Vascular
 MERISTEMATIC TISSUES
 Meristems
- Apical
- Lateral
 Cambium
- Vascular
- Cork
Surface Tissues Protect
 Cover and protect the surface of plant organs
Example:
1. Epidermis of the Leaf
- Outer cell wall is covered with a layer of cuticle that is made up of a substance called
cutin.
2. Epidermis of stems, roots, flowers and seeds
Surface or dermal tissues
  Guard Cells
- Epidermal cells found on the leaves that function to open or close the stomata.
3. Cork
- Covers the outer surface of the bark of woody stems and roots.
Fundamental or Ground Tissues
 Form the main bulk of plants
 3 types of cells
1. Parenchyma Cells
- Found in the leaves, stems, roots, flowers, and fruits.
- Usually contain plastids
- Capable of cell division and could give rise to more specialized cells
2. Collenchyma Cells
- Found in stem as part of the vascular bundles beneath the epidermis.
- Found in areas that are growing rapidly and needed to be strengthened
- Leaf stalk or petiole
3. Sclerenchyma Cells
- Have thick secondary cell wall in addition to the primary cell wall.
- Most are nonliving and function as a support to the mature parts of the plant
2 Types of Sclerenchyma Cells
1. Fibers
- Long and slender
2. Sclereids
- Tough seed coats and nutshells
Vascular Tissues Transport
- Conducting tissues that extend from the roots to the leaves of plants
2 Types of Vascular Tissues
1. Xylem
- Transports water and minerals from the roots to leaves via the stem.
2. Phloem
- Transports organic nutrients in both directions along the length of the plant.
2 Types of Conducting Cells Found in the XYLEM
1. Tracheids
- Elongated, hollow, and nonliving cells with tapered ends.
2. Vessel elements
- Hollow and nonliving but are larger and without end walls.
- Form a continuous pipeline of water and minerals from the roots to the leaves.
Organ System of Flowering Plants
 1. Root System
- Found underground
2. Shoot System
- Composed of the stem, leaves, and flowers
 Leaves
- Used for photosynthesis and asexual reproduction
- Leaves of Venus flytrap
- Spines of Cactus
Leaves
- Plants in differ in terms of the ability of the leaves to change color
Deciduous plants
- Change the color of leaves with changing of the season or lose them with the onset of
the winter.
Evergreen
- Remain green all the time
- Vary greatly in size
Anahaw
- Fan shaped leaves with pointed edges
Pine Trees
- Have needle-shaped leaves
 Stems
- Above ground structure that supports the leaves, transports water and important
nutrients between roots and leaves, and produces new tissue for growth
Parts of a Stem
- terminal or apical bud
- nodes
- internodes
- axil
- petiole
- pedicel
- flowers
- leaves
- lateral or axillary bud
Herbaceous
- has no relation to cambium growth, they are soft
Woody Stems
- rigid as seen in trees
 Roots
 - Enable a plant to anchor itself in the soil while absorbing water and minerals.
Root caps
- Protects the plants from rock injury that may damage the root as it grows
Roots
- Diverse as the stems in terms of modifications:
 Grasses
- Have fibrous roots that can attach to the soil
 Carrot’s Taproot
- Stores the products of photosynthesis
 Adventitious Roots
- Arise from an organ other than the roots, such as the stem or a leaf.
 Prop Roots
- Modified for aerial support