PATHOLOGY-STRESS CASES

MASTER'S DEGREE IN AQUACULTURE /AQUA-HEALTH

2023-2024
Please bear in mind that this exercise is not about doing a summary on a general topic,
but about solving a practical realistic case. Therefore, the resolution of cases must be
presented (and thus will be assessed) in a concise and coherent way, in a similar way as,
for example, a technical report prepared at request of a company or a customer.

I'M NOT AT ALL INTERESTED IN YOU DOING A LITERATURE REVIEW OR CAMOUFLAGED

COPY AND PASTE SUMMARISING. THE BIOLOGY OF THE AQUATIC SPECIES, THE DISEASE
OR ANYTHING SIMILAR.

These are cases based on realistic cases. I am aware that they are challenging and
demanding for knowledge at this master, so for the resolution it will be necessary to seek
support from resources beyond the pure academic content of classroom classes.

The evaluation of the case will be carried out according to the quality of the response
(if the answer is scientifically and technically sound), giving priority above all to the
ability to search for information, the reasoning of the proposals and the existence of a
justified criterion. I can easily detect and recognize tricks like "copy and paste" even use
of AI. Plagiarism will be evaluated very negatively in the final score of the case.

To support the resolution of the case, it is highly recommended that in the event that it
is necessary, please contact the professor responsible for the case (F. Padrós) to ask for
case tutoring to comment on those points of the case that are not clear, that there are
doubts or that need extra support.

In the same way, once the resolution of the case has been presented (document), the
teacher in charge considers it appropriate, the student may be required to explain and
summarize the conclusions (face-to-face)

It is not obligatory to indicate bibliography, although if it is considered necessary to

improve the quality and coherence of the work, its inclusion will be positively valued.

Delivery times are indicated by the module coordination.

If you have any questions or comments about the cases, please contact Dr. Francesc
Padrós.
 PATHOLOGY CASES
PATHOLOGY CASE-1
Vibrio harveyi / European seabass /prevention
A European sea bass production farm with 18 floating cages located 2 nautical miles
from the coast, with a production of 4,500 tons per year, has been for the last two
years with recurrent mortalities due to Vibrio harveyi that, as a consequence, produce
a total annual cumulative mortality of 7%, especially in fish in the weigh range
between 300 and 600 g.
Please, propose your prophylaxis/prevention (NOT TREATMENT) plan to reduce the
impact of the disease and describe in detail the procedures to implement the different
actions in this prevention plan.

PATHOLOGY CASE-2
Gilthead Sea Bream / Nursery
You are assigned responsibility for the management of of the quality fry supply in a sea
bream grown out facility that produces 5,000 tons per year. One of the tasks assigned
to you is the management of the health, welfare and productive quality (aspect,
performance) of these juveniles. To this end, the company annually purchases several
batches of sea bass fingerlings between 2 and 15 grams from various suppliers, with a
total purchase of approximately 11,000,000 fingerlings/year.
Please propose in a simple and reasoned scheme what are the control criteria
(sampling, analysis, etc.) would be advisable to guarantee an adequate quality of these
fry.

PATHOLOGY CASE-3
Oysters
A oyster and clam farm in Galicia is operating oyster Cassostrea gigas (now Magallana
gigas) grow out facility using floating baskets as well as a 2 Km extensive shellfish
beach park with grooved carpet shell (Ruditapes decussatus). In some rafts of baskets,
in the month of August, a noticeable (10%) mortality is observed in juvenile oysters (2
g). This mortality only appears in one part of the rafts, while in the other sections of
the farms, where there are also baskets with juvenile oysters, the situation is
apparently normal although some oysters start to present some mortality. One month
after, some mortality is also detected in carpet shells (dead animals or shells in the
sand surface in low tide). Briefly indicate what would be the diagnostic strategy that
would be proposed to evaluate the cause of death of these animals.

PATHOLOGY CASE-4
Streptococcosis
In a Tilapia production in Colombia operating in ponds with biofloc system, several
outbreaks of mortality are simultaneously detected in 20% of the ponds. After
microbiological examination, Streptococcus agalactiae has been isolated in pure
culture in almost all tanks. The situation is extremely alarming since the daily
cumulative mortality in these tanks has been 2% per day for the past two days. The
fish were all vaccinated against Streptococcosis using an autologous vaccine obtained
from strains isolated in a neighboring farm two years ago. In view of this problem,
briefly indicate the potential problems you are facing, what tests you would propose to
assess whether the vaccine is really efficient for protection and what prophylaxis
regimens and alternative treatments you would propose to address this problem and
avoid mass mortality.

PATHOLOGY CASE-5
Nodavirus
A sea bass grow-out facility faces a severe episode of nodavirus mortality. Daily
mortalities are between 20,000 and 50,000 fish (all sizes) and you are asked as
aquahealth specialist recommend a short-term action plan to manage this mortality
episode and the reason for these decisions. Indicate what should be done in that
facility to manage these mortalities and what should be done to minimize (if possible)
the impact of the infection.

PATHOLOGY CASE -6
Health Risks in Pangasius
You are hired by an international company that is responsible for the marketing of
10,000 tons of Panga for Europe and the USA. You are responsible for the health
management of a network of 140 small producers who are the region's suppliers for
your company. Your company's commercial director is very concerned about the
growing problems that Pangasius exports to these countries are suffering from and
needs you to prepare a contingency plan to minimize these problems. Demonstrate
and evaluate the main problems that have been identified in the production and
export of Pangasius and propose an action plan to improve the management and
quality of the production entrusted to you.

PATHOLOGY CASE - 7
Implementation of detection and monitoring measures for Tilapia Lake Virus.
Your post-master's work leads you to work in a company that is developing
aquaculture production in Mozambique. Your responsibility is to carry out the health
control of seven centers in a semi-intensive system. He has received reports that
significant outbreaks of mortality associated with the presence of Tilapia-like viruses
are being detected in Tanzania. Indicate what monitoring and controls program you
would suggest to the company's management based on the risk it might pose, the
actual measures you would suggest for monitoring and control, and a brief analysis of
the costs they might entail for the company.

PATHOLOGY CASE -8
AHPND management in Singapore.
One of the biggest shrimp farm companies in Singapore is facing heavy and recurrent
losses due EMS / AHPND in the last three years. This company has more than 25 farms
around the country, with production densities around 100-150 shrimps per square
meter in semi-intensive farming conditions. This is a new company, that recently
bought the farms of two other competitors. Please propose your own strategy for
prevention and disease control EMS /AHPND to try to reduce the mortalities.

PATHOLOGY CASE-9
Cryptocaryon infection
You are the health manager in a orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides) in
nursery in Philippines, producing 5 million juveniles every year. Your facility operates in
a flow-through system, pumping water from the sea. After a period of rough seas, a
severe mortality starts in the farm, with massive losses due to Cryptocaryon irritans
infection. You are asked to:
a) Develop a monitoring system to assess the status and impact of the infection of
the farm.
b) Develop a plant to control the mortalities and other effects of the disease.
c) Suggest the changes that should be implemented in the farm to avoid future
new outbreaks of the parasite.

STRESS CASES
CASE STRESS 1. Effect and suitability of immunostimulants

A fish farm manager decides to try an strategy of immunostimulation with te objective to

reinforce the immunocopetence of the fish and eventually prevent opportunistic diseases that
could occur during the ongrowing period. The species is sea bass confined in sea cages, of 30-
45 g body weight at the beginning of the trial and receiving a commercial standard pellet. The
manager asks for advice on the following items:

- Is it worth to undertake such trial or the effect will be moderate? Even if it is moderate it
will protect the fish? Is it economically efficient in such a case?
- Do I need to give immunostimulant for long time? How many weeks they should receive
it as a supplement.
- How long the protection will last?
- Do I buy immunostimulant and I prepare the pellet plus the immunostimulant at the
farm, i.e. coating it? Or I better buy another pellet already made with immunostimulant?
- Which tpe of immunostimulant should I select? At what dose?
- When we will see significant effects in the immune competence. How can we measure
it?

Ngo Van Hai (2015). The use of medicinal plants as immunostimulants in aquaculture: A review.
Aquaculture, 446: 88-96.

Barros, M. M., D. R.Falcon, R.de Oliveira Orsi,L. E. Pezzato, Ademir Calvo Fernandes Jr., I. G.
Guimarães, A. Fernandes Jr. , C. R. Padovani, M. M. Pereira Sartori. (2014). Non-specific
immune parameters and physiological response of Nile tilapia fed b-glucan and vitamin C for
different periods and submitted to stress and bacterial challenge
Fish & Shellfish Immunology 39 188-195

Sakai, Masahiro (1999). Current research status of fish immunostimulants. Aquaculture 172:
63–92

Merrifield D. L. Dimitroglou A ., Foey A., Davies S. J., Baker, R. T.M., Bøgwald, J. Castex , M.
and Ringø, E. (2010). The current status and future focus of probiotic and prebiotic applications
for salmonids. Aquaculture 302 1–18
Vallejos-Vidal, Eva, Felipe Reyes-López, Mariana Teles, Simon MacKenzie (2016). The
response of fish to immunostimulant diets. Fish & Shellfish Immunology, 56, 34-69,

CASE STRESS 2. Vaccination and stress in juveniles of 120g weight

It is necessary to vaccinate the fish due to an initial evidence of a pathogen outbreak. As the
fish are juveniles of 120g body weight and they are currently maintained at a density of 25
kg/m3, the farmer wants to know whether the vaccination should be performed at this density or
they should vaccinate at a lower density (i.e., 3-5 kg/m3) to prevent unwanted consequences.

- What would you expect as consequences at each density in terms of stress parameters
and health consequences
- What variables would you measure to detect alterations in fish
- When will you measure these variables and how?
- Will you use anesthetics? Why and which.
- Which would be your recommendations to the fish farmer?

Di Marco, P., Priori, A., Finoia, M.G., Massari, A., Mandich, A., Marino, G. 2008. Physiological
responses of European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax to different stocking densities and acute
stress challenge. Aquaculture, 275 (1), p.319-328

Haukenes H. and Barton B. A. 2004. Characterization of the cortisol response following an

acute challenge with lipopolysaccharide in yellow perch and the influence of rearing density.
Journal of Fish Biology 64, 851–862.

Parra,D., Reyes-Lopez F. E., and Tort. L. 2015. Mucosal Immunity and B Cells in Teleosts:
Effect of Vaccination and Stress. Front Immunol.; 6: 354.

MH Iversen, RA Eliassen 2014. The effect of allostatic load on hypothalamic–pituitary–

interrenal (HPI) axis before and after secondary vaccination in Atlantic salmon postsmolts
(Salmo salarL.) Fish Physiology and Biochemistry 40-2, 527–538

Huo, H., S Yin, R Jia, B Huang, J Lei, B Liu 2017. Effect of crowding stress on the immune
response in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) vaccinated with attenuated Edwardsiella tarda.
Fish & Shellfish Immunology, 67, 353-358

CASE STRESS 3. Global warming: Effect of the increase of temperature on the stress
resistance of shrimps

Contrarily to higher vertebrates, fish and invertebrates are poiquilotherms and therefore
physiological processes are closely related to temperature. Stress reaction intensity may also
be modified depending on water temperature. Your company has recently experienced that for
the last two years the temperature of the pond has increased 1-2ºC during 2months. You have
to test what is the effect of the increase of temperature on the stress resistance of your shrimps.

- How would you measure the effect of the temperature on the stress reaction of
shrimps?
- What indicators will you suggest to check for stress in shrimps?
- Could you suggest indicators for an immune response to stress?
- Will you suggest any recommendations in order to compensate for the effects of the
temperature increase?
- Will you suggest any recommendations regarding the adaptation of the farm to the
increase of temperature?
REFERENCES

Yafei Duan Jiasong Zhang, Hongbiao Dong, YunWang Qingsong LiuHua Li Oxidative stress
response of the black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon to Vibrio parahaemolyticus challenge
Author links open overlay Fish & Shellfish Immunology. Volume 46, 2015, Pages 354-365

Amandine D. Marie, Steve Smith, Andy J. Green, Ciro Rico & Christophe Lejeusne. Scientific
Transcriptomic response to thermal and salinity stress in introduced and native
sympatric Palaemon caridean shrimps. Reports 7, Article number: 13980(2017).
doi:10.1038/s41598-017-13631-6

Diana Madeira, Vanessa Mendonça, Catarina Vinagre,Mário S. Diniz. Is the stress response
affected by season? Clues from an in situ study with a key intertidal shrimp. Marine Biology.
February 2016, 163:41

Shekhar S. Mudagandur, Gopikrishna Gopalapillay and Koyadan K. Vijayan Effect of Salinity

Stress on Gene Expression in Black Tiger Shrimp Penaeus monodon. In Agricultural and
Biological Sciences » "Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future
Perspectives", edited by Arun K. Shanker and Chitra Shanker, ISBN 978-953-51-2250-0,

Xuying Jia,Fang Wang,Yunliang Lu,Dan Zhang &Shuanglin Dong. Immune responses

of Litopenaeus vannamei to thermal stress: a comparative study of shrimp in freshwater and
seawater conditions. Journal Marine and Freshwater Behaviour and Physiology
Volume 47, 2014 - Issue 2

CASE STRESS 4. Combined stress: Consequences of two stressors applied in a short

period of time

Many domesticated fish species that are currently used in aquaculture are able to cope with low
level stressors related to aquaculture husbandry. However, less is known about combined
stressors, i.e., applying different stressors for a short time, and therefore the ability of fish to
cope with this situation.

As your fish farm is of medium size, not highly technologically equiped and you have to handle
the fish from time to time, you should test which are the consequences of combined stressors
applied in a short period of time.

Due to a farm cleaning, you have to transfer the fish from one pond to another for a short time.
This handling procedure will take 3 to 6 hours and it will involve the increase of the fish density
from 5 kg/m3 to 45 kg/m3, because the second pond is smaller. The fish, however, are of a
similar size. You have to assess whether and how fish are affected by this handling procedure.

- What are the consequences in fish performance that you will expect after the transfer
- What variables would you measure to detect alterations in fish and how will you
measure them?
- When will you measure these variables and how? Which time-course will you select for
your test?
- What kind of protocol would you design to check for this combined effect of two
stressors?
- Will you use anesthetics? Why and which.
- When are you expecting to overcome the effects of the transfer procedure
- What is the recommendation that would you suggest when two stressors have to be
applied in a short time?
Barton B.A., Schreck C.B. & Sigismondi L.A. (1986) Multiple acute disturbances evoke
cumulative physiological stress responses in juvenile chinook salmon. Transactions of the
American Fisheries Society 115, 245-251.

Di Marco, P., Priori, A., Finoia, M.G., Massari, A., Mandich, A., Marino, G. 2008. Physiological
responses of European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax to different stocking densities and acute
stress challenge. Aquaculture, 275 (1), p.319-328

Mormede, P., Andanson, S., Auperin, B., Beerda, B., Guemene, D., Malmkvist, J., Manteca, X.,
Manteuffel, G., Prunet,P., G. van Reenen, C. Richard, S., and Veissier, I. 2007. Exploration of
the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function as a tool to evaluate animal welfare. Physiology &
Behavior, 92 (3), p.317-339.

Papoutsoglou, S.E., Miliou, H., Chadio, S., Karakatsouli, N., Zarkada, A. , . 1999. Studies on
stress responses and recovery from removal in gilthead sea bream Sparus aurata (L.) using
recirculated seawater system. Aquacultural Engineering, 21 (1), p.19-32

Paspatis, M., Boujard, T., Maragoudaki, D., Blanchard, G., Kentouri, M. , 2003. Do stocking
density and feed reward level affect growth and feeding of self-fed juvenile European sea bass?
Aquaculture, 216 (1), p.103-113.

CASE STRESS 5: Measurements of stress and welfare in cage farmed fish

For different reasons, all sectors involved in aquaculture are interested in obtaining the best
records of performance (growth, reproduction), health (lack of diseases, immunocompetence),
and welfare (lack of stress, good appearance, lack of injuries, pleasant life style). Thus, good
welfare and lack stress will involve better performance and good health, which is a great asset
for fish farmers, consumers, health authorities and friendly and organic farming.

One association of fish farmers in the Mediterranean countries are interested in measuring the
welfare in their facilities of off-shore cages. Therefore they are asking how could they measure
welfare regularly in the cages.

-What kind of measurements could be done (physiological, behavioral, environmental, health-

related)?
-What kind of sampling should be done
-What resources or devices would they need
-For each indicator or measurement, how many samples or repetitions should they make?
-How can they relate the individual measurements or laboratory measurements with these on-
farm measurements?
-How can they (the producers and the association) present the results to the public?

REFERENCES

Pettersen, Jostein M., Bracke, Marc B.M., Midtlyng, Paul J., Folkedal, Ole Stien, Lars H.
Steffenak, Håvard, Kristiansen, Tore 2014. Salmon welfare index model 2.0: an extended model
for overall welfare assessment of caged Atlantic salmon, based on a review of selected welfare
indicators and intended for fish health professionals. Reviews in Aquaculture 6, 1753-5131.

E Fanouraki, N Papandroulakis, M Pavlidis 2009. Non-invasive stress indicators in

Mediterraneanmariculture: effect of fish size on water cortisol release rate. 9th Symposium on
Oceanography & Fisheries, - Proceedings, Volume ΙΙ

Aerts J, Metz JR, Ampe B, Decostere A, Flik G, De Saeger S (2015) Scales Tell a Story on the
Stress History of Fish. PLoS ONE10(4): e0123411.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0123411
CASE STRESS 6. Euthanasia in two fish species

A laboratory that works on different species of fish is not sure about the best way to practice
euthanasia in two of the species they have to work in the next experimental period: zebrafish
and seabass (500 g). The technicians ask if they have to practice euthanasia in exactly the
same way for both species or differently.

Euthanasia is necessary to get tissues (liver, muscle and head kidney) other than blood, so fish
has to be killed first.

-Do they need anesthesia? If so, which one? The same for the two species.
-Technicians ask if they can use cold shock for the zebrafish, as some anesthetics take longer
for this fish resulting in worse fish condition
-How do you ensure them that the fish is dead?
-What kind of welfare regulations you have to tell to the technicians that they have to follow?

References

Davis, Daniel J et al., (2015). Effects of Clove Oil as a Euthanasia Agent on Blood Collection
Efficiency and Serum Cortisol Levels in Danio rerio. Journal of the American Association for
Laboratory Animal Science.

Monte Matthews, Zoltán M. Varga (2012). Anesthesia and Euthanasia in Zebrafish ILAR
Journal, Volume 53, Issue 2, June 2012, Pages 192–204,

Readman, G.D., Owen, S.F., Knowles, T.G. et al. (2017). Species specific anaesthetics for fish
anaesthesia and euthanasia. Sci Rep 7, 7102, doi:10.1038/s41598-017-06917-2

Tim Young, Seumas P. Walker, Andrea C. Alfaro, Lauren M. Fletcher, J. Sam Murray, Ronald
Lulijwa, Jane Symonds. (2019). Impact of acute handling stress, anaesthesia, and euthanasia
on fish plasma biochemistry: implications for veterinary screening and metabolomic sampling.
Fish Physiology and Biochemistry, 45, Issue 4, pp 1485–1494

Lysa Pam Posner, Craig A. Harms, Stephen A. Smith (2019). Sedation, Anesthesia, and
Analgesia. In: Fish diseases and medicine. Ed: S.A.Smith. Chapter 17, Pages22. Taylor and
Francis

CASE STRESS 7. Stress responses at mucosal surfaces of fish. Differences between

surfaces

There is a great interest into look for new indicators that can be as less invasive as possible,
therefore avoiding the additional stress procedure due to handling and sampling. Thus, one of
the promising methodologies can be the assessment of metabolic, physiologic or immune
changes in the mucus of the external surfaces of the fish: skin, gills or intestine. Therefore,
several indicators that have been used to assess changes for each particular type of response
in blood samples could be assessed in mucus, particularly in fish.

A laboratory of applied fish research wants to assess stress responses in fish mucosa and they
ask the following questions:

-Which external surfaces could provide enough mucus sample?

-Is there any difference in the response of one surface from another?
-What would be the differences between data obtained in the mucus or in the blood?
-Do the fishes experience less stress after mucus sampling compared to blood sampling?
-How can we relate the response in tne mucus surfaces with systemic responses?
-How would be the best way (less invasive) to take mucus samples and for which surface?
-What recommendations would you suggest for this lab in terms of switching from blood to
mucus samples to assess physiological, metabolic and immune changes after stress in fish?

REFERENCES

Parra,D., Reyes-Lopez F. E., and Tort. L. (2015). Mucosal Immunity and B Cells in Teleosts:
Effect of Vaccination and Stress. Front Immunol.; 6: 354.

Guardiola Francisco A., Cuesta Alberto, Esteban, M. Ángeles (2016). Using skin mucus to
evaluate stress in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.).Fish & Shellfish Immunology 59, 323-
330

Roosta, Zahra; Hoseinifar, Seyed Hossein (2014). The effects of crowding stress on some
epidermal mucus immune parameters, growth performance and survival rate of tiger barb
(Pentius tetrazona).Aquaculture Research, 47,1365-2109.

Guardiola, F., Cuesta A., Abellán E., Meseguer J., Esteban M. A. (2014). Comparative analysis
of the humoral immunity of skin mucus from several marine teleost fish
Fish & Shellfish Immunology 40, 24-31.

CASE STRESS 8. Suitability of selecting proactive and reactive fish to improve

production

Studies on fish behavior have proven that fish, similar than other vertebrates show bold and shy
behaviours, that have been associated to proactive and reactive coping strategies. Since
proactive fish often show higher growth rate, a farm company wants to assess whether it could
be profitable to select fish for boldness, to increase production. They ask the following:

-Is it true that bold fish grow better?

-This higher growth is maintained at long term along the production cycle?
-Are there disadvantages in other performance indicators when selecting for boldness
-What would be the methodology to select for this character?
-What would be the recommendation of the expert regarding this selection possibility taking into
account all circumstances?

Ken H. Andersen, Lise Marty, and Robert Arlinghaus (2018). Evolution of boldness and life
history in response to selective harvesting. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic
Sciences. volume 75 • Number 2 • Pages: 271 - 281

L. Fredrik Sundström, Erik Petersson, Johan Höjesjö, Jörgen I. Johnsson, Torbjörn Järvi,
(2014). Hatchery selection promotes boldness in newly hatched brown trout (Salmo trutta):
implications for dominance Behavioral Ecology, Volume 15, Issue 2, Pages 192–
198, https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arg089

James R. White, Mark G. Meekan,Mark I. McCormick,Maud C. O. Ferrari (2013). A Comparison

of Measures of Boldness and Their Relationships to Survival in Young Fish. Plos One, July
2013 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0068900

Jolle W. Jolles, Helen D. Briggs, Yimen G. Araya-Ajoy, Neeltje J. Boogert. (2019). Personality,
plasticity and predictability in sticklebacks: bold fish are less plastic and more predictable than
shy fish. Animal Behaviour, 154, 193-202, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2019.06.022.
CASE STRESS 9: Less invasive methods to detect stressed fish in RAS systems

An increasing number of companies are using RAS technology to grow fish and even species
that have been raised in open sea cages traditionally, now are being cultured under RAS
systems. A company that wants to stablish a tilapia aquaculture facility inland wish to include
stress and welfare measurements in that new facility, both to avoid decrease of production rates
because of stress, and because they want to provide welfare indicators for consumers,
regulatory authorities and to counteract animalist organizations. So, they ask the following:

-What are the most relevant stress indicators in fish under RAS systems?
-What are the most appropriated ones for tilapia in RAS?
-What are the less invasive methods, since we are interested in showing good welfare?
-What sensors or equipment do we need? Are they affordable?
-What measurements do we need to do, and how often?
-How can we show our welfare commitment to the public?

REFERENCES

Emerging indicators of fish welfare in aquaculture

Michelle Orietta Barreto, Sonia Rey Planellas, Yifei Yang, Clive Phillips, Kris Descovich
First published: 04 August 2021 https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12601

Carbajal, A.; Soler, P.; Tallo-Parra, O.; Isasa, M.; Echevarria, C.; Lopez-Bejar, M.; Vinyoles, D.
Towards Non-Invasive Methods in Measuring Fish Welfare: The Measurement of Cortisol
Concentrations in Fish Skin Mucus as a Biomarker of Habitat Quality. Animals 2019, 9, 939.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9110939

Lynne U. Sneddon, David C.C. Wolfenden, Jack S. Thomson, (2016). Stress Management and
Welfare. Fish Physiology, Academic Press, Volume 35. Editor(s): Carl B. Schreck, Lluis Tort,
Anthony P. Farrell, Colin J. Brauner. Pp 463-539,
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802728-8.00012-6.

M. Oliveira, A. Tvarijonaviciute, T. Trindade, A.M.V.M. Soares, L. Tort, M. Teles, (2018). Can

non-invasive methods be used to assess effects of nanoparticles in fish? Ecological Indicators,
Volume 95, Pages 1118-1127, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.06.023