Applied Maths Notes

1
Faculty of Information Technology
Department: All
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2023-2024
COURSE: APPLIED MATHEMATICS
COURSE CODE: AMATH 122
Prepared by Mr. NDAYAMBAJE Felix
Gishushu, September, 2023
AUCA: Applied Mathematics for 1st semester 2023-2024

2
1. Brief description of Module aims

In this module, students shall have skills on mathematics as a tool that helps them to understand very
well how to construct a flowchart, algorithm and the programming in I.T. Each student shall be trained
to solve himself a variety of exercises.
Examples within the immediate environment of the learner should be given in order to try as much
as possible to avoid abstract approach.
2. Learning outcomes
Knowledge and Understanding
On completion of the module, students will have knowledge and understanding of: the importance
of using a structured mathematical or analytical approach to problem solving
Cognitive/Intellectual skills/Application of Knowledge

Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to: should have confidence and
reasonable calculation skills using mathematical theorems; determine differentiability and calculate
derivatives of functions of one variable; solving the system of linear equation using all concepts of
linear algebra, confidently using the counting techniques for solving problems relating to counting
theory.
Communication/ ICT/ Numeracy/Analytic techniques/ Practical skills

Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to:
 Analyze mathematical problems relating to vector spaces,

 Optimization including Lagrange’s method, derivatives and their manipulation.
 Apply mathematical techniques to solve information systems based challenges
General transferable skills

Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to:
 Develop different process, procedures and techniques in mathematics

 Apply mathematical concepts to solve real world problems
3. Indicative content
Part1. PRELIMINARIES
Chapter1. Fundamentals of logic

1.1. Representation of simple verbal arguments
1.2. Logics operators or statements calculus
1.3. Logic circuits, Boolean algebra
1.4. The use of Quantifiers
1.5. Proof methods

3
Chapter2. Linear algebra
2.1. Vectors notions

2.2. Matrices notions
2.3. Determinants notions
2.4. Some applications
Chapter3. Combinatorial analysis
3.1. Basic notions on the sets
3.2. Arrangements and properties
3.3. Combinations and properties
3.4. Newton’s binomial
Part2. MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
Chapter1. Basic notions on numerical functions
1.1. Functions notions

1.2. Numerical functions of one variable
Chapter 2. Limits, continuity and sequences
2.1. Concepts of Limit and Properties
2.2. Continuity of a function at appoint
2.3. Numerical sequences
Chapter3. Derivatives and Integrals
3.1. Differentiation
3.2. Integrals
4. Learning and teaching strategy

Our module will be taught through the following methodology:
- Lectures which contain discussion elements based on problem examples that are intended to
stimulate students to research topics of interest.
- Organization of practical work in groups with orientation of tutorial assistant;
- Applied exercises.
5. Assessment strategy
Two kinds of assessments will be organized.

4
𝑄𝑢𝑖𝑧𝑧𝑒𝑠: 10 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑠
𝐶𝐴𝑇: {𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑠: 15𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑠 with Middle semester exam: 30%
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑠: 15𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑠
Final exam: 40 Marks
6. Strategy for feedback and student support during module

The examples, exercises and problems classes provide opportunities for feedback for students to
gauge their progress and for staff to monitor progress throughout the duration of the module. The
feedback on formative assessments can help students to be aware of their strengths and errors,
mistakes and misunderstanding and can guide them to achieve the objectives. Students will find help
from their lecturers at convened time.
7. References
1. Linear Algebra with applications; sixth Edition, Steven J.Leon; 2002 by Printice-Hall, Inc.
2. Scientific Computing with MATLAB and Octave; second Edition, Springer-Verlag Italia,
Milano, 2006.
3. Calculus with analytic geometry Howard Anton, second Edition, 1984, by Anton
Textbooks, Inc.
4. Discrete Mathematics for Computer scientists & Mathematicians, Second Edition, Joel
L.Mott, by Prentice- Hall of India Private Limited; 2001.
5. Recueil d’exercices et de probѐmes d’analyse mathematique.
6. S.M. UPPAL,(1996). Mathematics for science, New Age International(P),Limited,
publishers

5
Part 1. PRELIMINAIRIES
Chapter1: FUNDAMENTALS OF LOGIC

Logic is the basis of all mathematical reasoning, and of all automated reasoning. It has practical
applications to the design of computing machines, to the specification of systems, to artificial
intelligence, to computer programming, to programming languages, and to other areas of computer
science, as well as to many other fields of study.
The study of logic as a part of philosophy has been in existence since the earliest days of scientific
thinking. Logic (or mathematical logic, from now logic) was developed in the 19th century by
Gottlob Frege. Logic has become an interdisciplinary language of computer science.
In this chapter we take a close look at what constitutes a valid argument and a more conventional
proof. When a mathematician wishes to provide a proof for a given situation, he or she must use a
system of logic. This is also true when a computer scientist develops the algorithms needed for a
program or system of programs. The logic of mathematics is applied to decide whether one
statement follows from, or is a logical consequence of one or more other statements.
1.1. Representation of simple verbal arguments
Logic is concerned with statements and the relationship between them.
A statements (proposition) is clear affirmation sentence which has only one logic value ‘True’ or
’False’.
The two values of statements are “true” and “false” and are denoted by the symbols T and F
respectively. Occasionally they are also denoted the logic value ‘True’ by 1, if not then is denoted by
0 respectively.In general proposition are denoted and represented by the small letters, p,q,r,s,t,….
There is two logic value and only two: T and F. The set of logics values is {0,1}.
Examples:

6
 The sentence “ Kigali is the capital of Rwanda” is a statement which truth its value is “true”
(T)
 The sentence “Rwanda is an USA country” is astatement whose truth value is “false” (F)
 The equality “ x+y=9” is not a statement because for some values of x and y, the equality is
true, whereas for others it is false.
A diagram can be sometimes be used to view statements .
Example: Use a Venn diagram to express the following statements:
p: A cat has fur
q: A carrot is a vegetable
Animal with Carrot

fur
Cat
Vegetable
Remarks:
 The exists a truth value as:
Consider the propostion p and p is true
Consider the propostion q and q is false
We have: or
p q p q
1 0 T F
 A propostion can not at the same time false and true.
If p is true, then we write: p 1
If q is false, then we write: q 0

7
The symbol is readden as : ‘has logic value’.
P p. £ E
.0
q.
.1
r.
Where P is a set of all propositions, E is a set of all truth value, and ℒ is a relationship between set
of propostions and set of truth values.
Complex proposition
A fundamental complex proposition is a set compounded by the simples propositions which we put
together.
Example: A student of this class say: ‘I need to be promoted; Iwill have a good life in the future.’
It is a complex proposition which is compounded by two simples propositions:
P:’I need to be promoted’
Q:’I will have a good life in the future’
The truth table of complex proposition of 3 simples propositions
p q r
1 1 1
1 1 0
1 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 1
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0

8
1.2. Logics operators or statements calculus
Propositions are combined by means of such connectives as and, or, if. . ., then and if and only if (iff) ;
and they are modified by the word not. These five main types of connectives can be defined in terms
of thr three: and, or and not.
1.2.1. Negation(┐,~)
Example: p:‘John is a student at AUCA’
┐p:’John is not a student at AUCA.’
The truth table of negation
p ~p
1 o
0 1
1.2.2.The conjunction of propositions(^)
Example: p:‘Peter is a boy’
q:’Peter is a student’
p ∧ q: ’Peter is a boy and a student’
The truth tabe of conjunction
p q p∧q
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
Remark: The conjunction is false if one of their components is false.

9
1.2.3.The disjunction :v(or)
Example: p:‘Peter is a boy’
q:’Peter is a student’
p v q: ’Peter is a boy or a student’
The truth tabe of disjunction
p q pvq
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
Remark: The disjunction is false if all of their components are false.
Example of truth table in complex propositions
P q ~q p∧~q ~(p∧~q) ~p ~(p∧~q)v~(~p)

1 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
1.2.4. Logic implication(→)
Example: If you drive, then don’t drink
C onsider E: Set of drives
p(x):’x drive’

10
q(x):’x don’t drink’
We write p(x) →q(x); Here we have 4 cases
1) x drive and x don’t drink: p(x) →q(x) →1,
2) x drive and x drink: p(x) →q(x) →0,
3) x don’t drive and x drink: p(x) →q(x) →1,
4) x don’t drive and x don’t drink: p(x) →q(x) →1.
The truth tabe of implication
p q p→q
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
Remarks:
 The implication is false if the firstproposition is truth and the second is false;
 p→q is reding as if p then q;
 If we have this express p→q, then:
1. q is a necessary for p;
2. p is sufficient for q;
3. q if p;
4. p only if q;
5. p implies q
Example: Write the following statement in symbolic form
If either John takes mathematics or Peter takes algorithm, then Frank will take web design.
Answer: Denote the statements as:
p: John takes mathematics
q: Peter takes algorithm
r: Frank will take web design
This statement can be symbolized as( pvq) →r

11
Compare the truth table of p→q and of ~(𝑝 ⋀ ~𝑞)
p∧~q ~(p∧~q)
P q ~q p→q
1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 1 1
1.2.5. Equivalence(↔) Biconditional

~
↔ means that → and ←
↔ we read if and only if, then we denote iff.
p↔q is truth iff p→q is truth and q→p is also truth.
p Q p→q q→p (p→q)^( q→p) or p↔q
1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
Remark: The equivalente is truth if p and q are truth at the same time and also are false at the same
time .p→q we read p iffq.
1.2.6. Contraposition of implication
The contraposition of p→q is a new propositionwhich is ~q →~p.

12
Verifying that p→q and ~q →~p are equivalelents.Hence, we have:
p Q
p→q ~q ~p ~q →~p (p→q)↔( ~q →~p)
1 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
1.2.7. De Morgan’s law and equivalent Statements
First Law: ~ (p∧q) ↔ ~p v ~q
Second Law: ~ (p v q) ↔ ~p∧~q
1.2.8. Tautology, contradiction and contingency
 Tautology
This is a propositional function whose truth value is true for all possible values of the propositional
function.
Example: Show that  p  q    p  q  is a tautology.
P q pq pq  p  q   p  q
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F F T
Conclusion:  p  q    p  q  is a tautology.
 Contradiction or absurdity
This is a propositional function whose truth value is always false.
P ~p p  (~p)

13
1 0 0
0 1 0
 Contingency
This is a propositional function that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

Logical equivalence
Symbolic form Name

Rules of inference related to the
language of propositions
p ~ ~ p  Double negation
p  q  q  p; p  q  q  p Commutative law
 p  q   r  p  q  r  Associative laws
 p  q   r  p  q  r  Associative laws
~  p  q   ~ p   ~ q  De Morgan’s laws
~  p  q   ~ p   ~ q 
p  q  r    p  q    p  r  Distributive laws
p  q  r    p  q    p  r 
p  p  p; p  p  p Idempotent laws
( p  q)  ~ p  q  Law of implication
( p  q)  ~ q ~ p  Contrapositive
Meaning of double
implication
( p  q)   p  q   q  p 
p  ( p  q)  p Absorption law
Symbolic form Name
 p  q   p  q Modus ponens
 p  q  ~ p ~ p Modus tallens
(indirect
reasoning)
 p  q   p ;  p  q   q simplification
p   p  q addition
 p  q   ~ p   q Disjunctive
syllogism
 p  q   ~ q   p One-or-the-
other

14
 p  q   q  r    p  r  transitivity
1.2.9. Other connectives
a) Exclusive disjunction
Let p and q be two formulas. Then the formula p∇𝑞, in which the connective ∇ is called an exclusive
OR, is true whenever either p or q, but not both, is true.
The truth- table of exclusive OR is given as follows:
p q p∇𝑞
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
b) Connective NAND
The word NAND is a combination of NOT and AND. It is denoted by the symbol ↑. For any
formula p and q: 𝒑 ↑ 𝒒 ⇔⌉(𝒑 ⋀ 𝒒) ≡ ~(𝒑 ⋀ 𝒒)
c) Connective NOR
The word NOR is a combination of NOT and OR. It is denoted by the symbol ↓. For any formula
p and q: 𝒑 ↓ 𝒒 ⇔⌉(𝒑 ⋁ 𝒒) ≡ ~(𝒑 ⋁ 𝒒)
Properties of NAND and NOR
The connectives ↓ and ↑ have been defined in terms of the connectives ∨, ∧, and ∼. Therefore, any
formula containing the connectives ↓ or ↑, one can obtain an equivalent formula containing the
connectives ∨, ∧, and ∼ only.
Note that ↓ and ↑ are duals of each other.
The following equivalences express ∼, ∧, and ∨ in terms of ↑ alone.
1) 𝑝 ↑ 𝑝 ⇔ ~𝑝
2) (𝑝 ↑ 𝑞) ↑ (𝑝 ↑ 𝑞) ⇔ 𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞
3) (𝑝 ↑ 𝑝) ↑ (𝑞 ↑ 𝑞) ⇔ 𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞
In the same manner, the following equivalence express ∼, ∧, and ∨ in terms of ↓ alone

15
1) 𝑝 ↓ 𝑝 ⇔ ~𝑝
2) (𝑝 ↓ 𝑞) ↓ (𝑝 ↓ 𝑞) ⇔ 𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞
3) (𝑝 ↓ 𝑝) ↓ (𝑞 ↓ 𝑞) ⇔ 𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞
Exercises
1) Prove that  p  ~ q   r  p  q  r  is a tautology
2) Construct truth table for the following
a )  p  q   ~ r   q
b)  p  q   ~ p   ~ r 
c )  p  q   ~ p  r  q  r 
d )  p  q   ~~ r    p  r 
3) Prove that the following are tautologies
a ) ~  p  q   ~ p   q  p
b)  p  p   r  s    p  r   q  s
c )  p  r   q  r    p  q   r 
d )  p  q  r   ~ q    p  r 
e)  p  q   r   ~ p   q  r 
4) Prove the following equivalence whose illustrate properties of exclusive disjunction:
a) 𝑝∇𝑞 ⟺ 𝑞∇p commutative
b) (𝑝∇𝑞)∇r ⟺ 𝑝∇(𝑞∇r) associative
c) 𝑝∇(𝑞∇r) ⟺ (𝑝∇𝑞)∇(𝑝∇𝑟) distributive
d) (𝑝∇𝑞) ⟺ (𝑝 ⋀ ~𝑞) ⋁(~𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞)
e) (𝑝∇𝑞) ⟺ ~(𝑝 ⟺ 𝑞)
5) Show the following equivalences:
a) 𝑝 → (𝑞 → 𝑝) ≡ (𝑝 → 𝑞)
b) 𝑝 → (𝑞 ⋁ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 → 𝑞) ⋁(𝑝 → 𝑟)
c) (𝑝 → 𝑞) ⋀(𝑟 → 𝑞) ≡ (𝑝 ⋁ 𝑟) → 𝑞
d) ~(𝑝 ⟺ 𝑞) ≡ (𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞) ⋀ ~(𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞)
e) ~(𝑝 → 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 ⋀ ~𝑞
f) ~(𝑝 ⟺ 𝑞) ≡ (𝑝 ⋀ ~𝑞) ⋁(~𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞)
Corrected exercises
1) Using the truth table values, show that p  q and ~ p  q are equivalent.
Then p  q  p  q
2) Prove:

16
a) ~( p  q )  (~p)  (~q)
~( p  q )  (~p)  (~q) De Morgan Laws
b) p  ~ (~ p) Law of double negation
c)  p  q   ~ q  ~ p  Law of contraposition
d) p  p  p and p  p  p absorption law
e) p  q   p  q   q  p  Equivalence biconditional
3) Do True Table
a)  p  q   q  q modus ponens or direct reasoning
b)  p  q   ~ q   ~ p  modus tallens or indirect reasoning
4) Do True Table.
 p  q   ~ p   q 
a)  disjunction syllogism or one or-the-other
b)  p  q   ~¨q   p 
5) Do True Table.
 p  q   q  r    p  r  transitivity or hypothesis syllogism
Solutions
1)  p  q   ~ p  q 
p ~p q ~ pq
p q pq
T T T
T F T T
T F F
T F F F
F T T
F T T T
F F T
F T F T

17
p ~p q ~ q p  q ~  p  q ~ p   ~ q 
1 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1.3. Logic circuits, Boolean algebra 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

1.3.1. Circuits and Logic representation
0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1.3.1.1. Logic circuits
While we will not develop this next theory deeply, it is worthwhile to consider a short introduction.
The idea is that we can model compound logic statements with electrical switching circuits.
When current is allowed to flow across a switch, the switch is considered “on” when the statement it
represents has truth value T and current can
p ~ Q ~q p  q ~  p  q ~ p   ~ q 
p
flow through the switch, and “off” and not
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 allowing current to flow through when the
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 truth value is F. We can decide if the
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 compound circuit is “on” or “off” based upon
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 whether or not current could flow from one

end to the other, based on whether the
compound statement has truth value T or F. The analysis can be complicated if the switches are not
necessarily independent (p is “on” when ~ p is “off” for instance), but this approach is interesting
nonetheless.
For example, the p ~p Q pq ~ pq statement p ∨ q is represented by a
parallel circuit: 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
For example, the statement p ∨ q is represented by a
0 1 1 1 1
parallel circuit:
0 1 0 1 1
q
In Out

18
If either p or q is on (T), then the current can flow from the “in” side to the “out” side of the circuit.
On the other hand, we can represent p ∧ q by a series circuit:
In p q Out
Of course p ∧ q is only true when both p and q are true, and the circuit reflects this: current can
flow exactly when both “switches” p and q are “on.”It is interesting to see diagrams of some
equivalent compound statements, illustrated as circuits. The distributive-type equivalence
p ∧ (q ∨ r)⇔(p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)can be seen as the equivalence of the two circuits below:
q
In p p Output
p q
In p r Out
In both circuits, we must have p “on,” and also either q or r for current to flow. Note that in the
second circuit, P is represented in two places, so it is either “on” in both places, or “off” in both
places. Situations such as these can complicate analyses of switching circuits but this one is relatively
simple.
We can also represent negations of simple statements. To represent ~ p we simply put “~ p” into
the circuit, where it is “on” if ~ p is true, i.e., if p is false. This allows us to construct circuits for the
implication i.e., that 𝒑 ⇒ 𝒒 ⇔ ~𝒑 ⋁ 𝒒:
In ~P Out
q
We see that the only time the circuit does not flow is when p is true (~ p is false) and q is false, so
this matches what we know of when 𝒑 ⇒ 𝒒 is false. From another perspective, if p is true, then the
top part of the circuit won’t flow so q must be true, for the whole circuit to be “on,” or “true.”
When negating a whole circuit it gets even more complicated. In fact, it is arguably easier to look at
the original circuit and simply note when current will not flow. For instance, we know

19
~ (p ∧ q) ⇔ (~ p) ∨ (~ q), so we can construct p ∧ q:

In P Q Out
and note that it is off exactly when either p is off or q is off. We then note that that is exactly when
the circuit for (~ p) ∨ (~q) is on
~p
In Out output
~q
There are, in fact, electrical/mechanical means by which one can take a circuit and “negate” its truth
value, for instance with relays or reverse-position switch levers, but that subject is more complicated
than we wish to pursue here.
It is interesting to consider p ⇔ q as a circuit. It will be “on” if p and q are both “on” or both “off,”
and the circuit will be “off” if p and q do not match. Such a circuit is actually used commonly, such
as for a room with two light switches for the same light. To construct such
a circuit we note that
p⇔q ≡ (p⇒q) ∧ (q ⇒ p) ⇔ [(~ p) ∨ q] ∧ [(~ q) ∨ p]
We will use the last form to draw our diagram:
~p ~q
In q p Out
The reader is invited to study the above diagram to be convinced it represents p⇔q, perhaps most
easily in the sense that, “you can not have one (p or q) without the other, but you can have neither.”
While the above diagram does represent p⇔q by the more easily diagrammed [(~ p) ∨ q] ∧ [(~ q) ∨
p], it also suggests another equivalence, since the circuits below seems to be functionally equvialent.
In the first, we can add two more wires to replace the “center” wire, and also switch the ~ q and p,
since (~ q) ∨ p is the same as p ∨ (~ q):
~p ~q
In q p Out
~p ~q
In Out
p q

20
This circuit represents [(~ p) ∧ (~ q)] ∨ [p ∧ q], and so we have

p⇔q ⇔ [(~ p) ∧ (~ q)] ∨ [p ∧ q], It is also consistent with a more colloquial way of expressing 𝑝 ⇔
𝒒, such as “neither or both.”
Incidentally, the circuit above is used in applications where we wish to have two switches within a
room which can both change a light (or other device) from on to off or vice versa. When switch p is
“on,” switch q can turn the circuit on or off by matching P or being its negation. Similarly when p is
“off.” Mechanically this is accomplished with “single pole, double throw
(SPDT)” switches.
In p q Out
In the above, the switch p is in the “up” position when p is ‘true, and “down” when p is false.
Similarly with q. Because there are many possible “mechanical” diagrams for switching circuits,
reading and writing such circuits is its own skill. However, for many simpler cases there is a relatively
easy connection to our symbolic logic.
1.3.2. Boolean algebra and switching functions.

The circuits in computers and other electronic devices have inputs, each of which is either a 0 or a 1,
and produce outputs that are also 0s and 1s. Circuits can be constructed using any basic element that
has two different states. Such elements include switches that can be in either the on or the off
position and optical devices that can be either lit or unlit. In 1938 Claude Shannon showed how the
basic rules of logic, first given by George Boole in 1854 in his The Laws of Thought, could be used to
design circuits. These rules form the basis for Boolean algebra. In this section we develop the basic
properties of Boolean algebra. The operation of a circuit is defined by a Boolean function that
specifies the value of an output for each set of inputs. The first step in constructing a circuit is to
represent its Boolean function by an expression built up using the basic operations of Boolean
algebra.
1.3.2.1. Boolean Functions
Introduction
Boolean algebra provides the operations and the rules for working with the set {0, 1}. Electronic
and optical switches can be studied using this set and the rules of Boolean algebra. The three
operations in Boolean algebra that we will use most are complementation, the Boolean sum, and the
Boolean product. The complement of an element, denoted with a bar, is defined by 0̅ = 1 and 1̅ =
0.
The Boolean sum, denoted by + or by OR, has the following values: 1 + 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1, 0 + 1 = 1,
0 + 0 = 0.
The Boolean product, denoted by ・ or by AND, has the following values: 1 ・ 1 = 1, 1 ・ 0 = 0, 0
・ 1 = 0, 0 ・ 0 = 0. When there is no danger of confusion, the symbol ・ can be deleted, just as in
writing algebraic products. Unless parentheses are used, the rules of precedence for Boolean
operators are: first, all complements are computed, followed by all Boolean products, followed by all
Boolean sums

21
Example1: Find the value of 1 ・ 0 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

(0 + 1)
Solution: Using the definitions of complementation, the Boolean sum, and the Boolean product,
it follows that
1 ・ 0 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(0 + 1) = 0 + 1̅ = 0 + 0 = 0.
Example 2: Translate 1 ・ 0 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

(0 + 1) = 0, the equality found in Example 1, into a logical
equivalence.
Solution: We obtain a logical equivalence when we translate each 1 into a T, each 0 into an F, each
Boolean sum into a disjunction, each Boolean product into a conjunction, and each
complementation into a negation. We obtain (T ∧ F)∨￢(T ∨ F) ≡ F.
Boolean Expressions and Boolean Functions

Let B = {0, 1}. Then 𝐵 𝑛 = {(x1, x2, . . . , xn) | xi ∈ B for 1 ≤ i ≤ n} is the set of all possible n tuples
of 0s and 1s. The variable x is called a Boolean variable if it assumes values only from B, that is, if
its only possible values are 0 and 1. A function from 𝐵 𝑛 to B is called a Boolean function of
degree n.
Example: a) Complete the following table:
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥+𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑦)′
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
b) For Boolean Functions complete this truth tables for 𝐹1 and 𝐹2
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝐹1 𝐹2
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
Answer:a) Complete the following table:

𝑥 𝑦 𝑥+𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑦)′
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
b) For Boolean Functions complete this truth tables for 𝐹1 and 𝐹2

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝐹1 𝐹2
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0

22
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0
1.3.2.2. Huntington’s Postulates
1. Closure. There exists a domain B= {0,1} and two binary operators (+) and (*) such that:
a) If x and y are elements, then x+y is an element.
The operation performed by (+) is called logical addition
b) If x and y are elements, then x*y is an element.
The operation performed by (*) is called logical multiplication.
2. Identity elements. Let x be an element in domain B.
a) There exists an element 0 in B, called the identity element with respect to (+), having the
property x+0=x.
b) There exists an element 1 in B, called the identity element with respect to (*), having the
property that x*1=x.
3. Commutative law.
a) Commutative law with respect to addition: x+y=y+x.
b) Commutative law with respect to multiplication: x*y=y*x.
4. Distributive law
a) Multiplication is distributive over addition: x*(y+z)=(x*y)+(x*z).
b) Addition is distributive over multiplication: x+(y*z)=)x+y)*(x+z).
5. Complementation. If x is an element in domain B, then there exist another x’, the
complement of x, satisfying the properties:
a) x+x’=1
b) x*x’=0
The complement x’ performs the complementation operation on x.
1.3.3. Logic gates
Digital systems are said to be constructed by using logic gates. These gates are the AND, OR, NOT,
NAND, NOR, EXOR and EXNOR gates. The basic operations are described below with the aid
of truth tables.
a) AND gate

23
The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs are high. A
dot (.) is used to show the AND operation i.e. A.B. Bear in mind that this dot is sometimes omitted
i.e. AB
b) OR gate
The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or more of its inputs are
high. A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation.
c) NOT gate
The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at its output. It
is also known as an inverter. If the input variable is A, then the inverted output is known as NOT
A. This is also shown as A', or 𝐴̅, as shown at the outputs.
The diagrams below show two ways that the NAND logic gate can be configured to produce a
NOT gate. It can also be done using NOR logic gates in the same way.
d) NAND gate

24
This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of
all NAND gates are high if any of the inputs are low. The symbol is an AND gate with a small circle
on the output. The small circle represents inversion.
NAND is also denoted by the symbol ↑
Example:𝑝 ↑ 𝒒 ⇔ ~(𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) . In our case:𝑨 ↑ 𝑩 ⇔ ~(𝑨 ∧ 𝑩)
e) NOR gate
This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all
NOR gates are low if any of the inputs are high.
The symbol is an OR gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.
NOR is also denoted by↓.
Example: 𝒑 ↓ 𝒒 ⇔ ~(𝒑 ∨ 𝒒). In our case:𝑨 ↓ 𝑩 ⇔ ~(𝑨 ∨ 𝑩)
f) EXOR gate
The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a high output if either, but not both, of its two
inputs are high. An encircled plus sign ( ) is used to show the EXR operation.
g) EXNOR gate

25
The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate circuit does the opposite to the EOR gate. It will give a low output
if either, but not both, of its two inputs are high. The symbol is an EXOR gate with a small circle
on the output. The small circle represents inversion.
The NAND and NOR gates are called universal functions since with either one the AND and OR
functions and NOT can be generated.
Note:
A function in sum of products form can be implemented using NAND gates by replacing all AND and
OR gates by NAND gates.
A function in product of sums form can be implemented using NOR gates by replacing all AND and
OR gates by NOR gates.
1.3.1.2. Logic Representation
There are three common ways in which to represent logic: Truth Tables, Logic Circuit Diagram,
and Boolean Expression
Truth Tables
A truth table is a chart of 1s and 0s arranged to indicate the results (or outputs) of all possible
inputs. The list of all possible inputs are arranged in columns on the left and the resulting outputs are
listed in columns on the right. There are 2 to the power n possible states (or combination of
inputs). For example with three inputs there are 2^3=8 possible combination of inputs.

26
Logic Diagram
A logic diagram uses the pictoral description of logic gates in combination to represent a logic
expression. An example below shows a logic diagram with three inputs (A, B, and C) and one output
(Y). The interpretation of this will become clear in the following sections.
Boolean Expression
Boolean Algebra can be used to write a logic expression in equation form. There are a few symbols
that you’ll recognize but need to redefine.
+ means OR, so A+B is the same as A OR B
 means AND, so AB is the same as A AND B
𝐴̅ means NOT, so 𝐴̅ means NOT A
⊕ means EXOR, so 𝐴 ⊕ 𝐵 means A EXOR B
Logic gate symbols

27
Logic gates representation using the Truth table
Example
A NAND gate can be used as a NOT gate using either of the following wiring configurations.

28
Converting Logic Circuit Diagrams to Boolean Expressions
To convert from a logic circuit diagram to a Boolean expression, we start by listing our inputs at the
correct place and process the inputs through the gates, one gate at a time, writing the result at each
gate’s output. The following is the resulting Boolean expression of each of the gates.

29
And here is an example of the process being carried out. The fact that the result simplifies to the
XOR is merely coincidental.
1.4. The use of Quantifiers
Certain declarative sentences involve words that indicate quantity such as all, some, none or one.
These words help to determine the answer to the question ‘How many?’ Since such words indicate
quantity they are called quantifiers.
There exist three types of quantifiers:
a) Universal quantifier (  )
b) Existential quantifier (  )
c) Existential and uniqueness quantifier (  !)
The quantifier ‘all’ is called the universal quantifier, and we shall denote it by  x, which is an
inverted E followed by the variable x.

30
It represents each of the following phrases, since they all have essentially the same meaning.
For all x, all x are such that…
For every x, every x is such that…
For each x, each x is such that….
The quantifier ‘some’ is the existential quantifier, and we shall denote it by  x, which is a reversed E
followed by x. It represents each of the following phrases:
There exists an x such that…
There is an x such that…
For some x ….
There is at least one x such that…
Some x is such that….
The quantifier ‘there is one’ is the existential and uniqueness quantifier and we shall denote it by  !
(There is a unique x such that) or there is one and only one x such that.
Let us list there eight quantified statements and their abbreviated meaning in the following list:
Sentence Abbreviated meaning

 x, F(x) All truth
 x, F(x) At least one truth
~(  x, F(x)) None truth
 x,[~F(x)] All false
 x, [~F(x)] At least one false
~{  x, [~F(x)] None false
~{  x, F(x)} Not all truth
~{  x,[~F(x)]} Not all false
EXERCISES
1. Determine the truth table of:
a) p ∧~q b) p v ~q c)~ p∧~q d) p v q v ~q e) ~(~p)v~(~q) f) p v q g) ~ (p v q) v [~(q v

p)]
2. Using the truth table Show that p→q is equivalent to ~ (p ∧~q)

31
3. Consider an universal set E= {1,2,3,4} and p,q,r,s 4 propositions define on E;
p (x)= ’x < 2’ , q(x)= ‘2N’ , r (x)= ’x ≠ 3’ , s (x)= ’x+1 = 3’
Fill the gaps place in the following table using one of the elements of set of logic value:
x =1 x =2 x =3 x =4
p
q
r
s
4. Let p= Today is Monday, q = Yesterday was Sunday.
Write each of the following statements in words:
a) p ∧ q b) ~ p v q c) p→~q d) ~ p↔ ~q e) ~ p ∧~ q f) p→(p ∧~ q )
1.5. Proof methods: proofs by contradiction and induction
In Mathematics a proof is a convincing demonstration (within the accepted standards of the field)
that some mathematical statements is necessarily true.
Proofs are obtained from deductive reasoning rather than from inductive or empirical arguments.
That is a proof must demonstrate that a statement is true in all cases without a single exception.
An improved proposition that is believed to be true is known as a conjecture.
The statement that is proved is often called a theorem.
Once a theorem is proved it can be used as the basis to prove further statements.
A theorem may also be referred to as a lemma or a corollary (pseudo theorem)especially if it is
intended for use as a stepping stone in the proof of another theorem.
Proofs employ logic but usually include some amount of natural language which usually admits some
ambiguity.
a) Constructive proof
A constructive proof is the most basic kind of proof there is. It is a proof that starts with a
hypothesis, and a person uses a series of logical steps and a list of axioms to arrive at a conclusion.
Hypothesis: it is the’’ if statement of a theorem’’ Everything before the word ‘’then’’.
If A and B are sets such that A  B and B  A
  
Example: Hypothesis , then 
A B
Conclusion
Conclusion: The part of theorem after the word ‘’then’’.
The proof of a theorem is merely the logical connection between the hypothesis and conclusion.

32
b) Direct proof
In direct proof, the conclusion is established by logically combining the axioms definitions and
earlier theorem.
For example, direct proof can be used to establish that the sum of two even integers is always even.
Let consider two even integers x and y. Since they are even, they can be written as x=2a and y=2b
respectively for integers a and b. Then the sum x+y=2a+2b=2 (a+b).From this, it is clear x+y has 2
as a factor and therefore is even.So the sum of any two even integers is even.
Note: This proof uses definitions of even integers as well as distributive laws
c) Proof by contrapositive and by contradiction
The contrapositive of a statement negates the conclusion as well as the hypothesis.

It is logically equivalent to the original statement asserted. Often it is easier to prove the
contrapositive than the original statement. The idea of contrapositive is proving the statement
‘’There is no x such that P(x) is false’’ as opposed to’’ P(x) is true for every x’’.
This is not to be confused with proof by contradiction.

If we are trying to prove the statement p  q , we can do it constructively by assuming that p is
true and showing that the logical conclusion is that q is also true.
The contrapositive of this statement is ~ q ~ p , so we assume that q is false and show the logical
conclusion is that p is also false.
However in a proof by contradiction, we assume that p is true and q is false and arrive at some sort
of illogical statement such as ‘’1=2’’ (reduction to absurdity, because it ends with a statement that
cannot be true).
A proof by contradiction proceeds by assuming that the opposite of the desired result is true, and
then deducing from this assumption a result that contradicts an already-known truth.
This means that the opposite of the desired result is not true; therefore, the desired result itself must
be true.
Example: 2 is irrational.
Suppose it is rational.
a
2 ,a, b non zero integers with no common factor.
b

33
2 *b a 2b 2  4c 2
2 b2  a2 b 2  2c 2
a 2 even and a even b 2 even and b even
a  2c a and b even  they share a factor
2b 2  2c 
2
2 is not irrationational
d) Properties of the Integers: Mathematical Induction

Some theorem concerning properties of integers, and with application to algorithm analysis, cannot
be proved very easily. One widely method of proving such theorems is the method of proof by
induction.
The principle of mathematical induction
Let P(k) be a statement which , for each integer k, may be either true or false. To prove P(k) is true
for all integers 𝑘 ≥ 1, it suffices to prove:
1) P(1) is true i.e P(n) is true for n=1 (Base step)

2) For all 𝑘 ≥ 1, P(k) implies P(k+1)
Normally we expect to prove P(k) implies P(k+1) directly so there are 3 steps to a proof using the
principle of mathematical induction:
(i) (Basis of induction)Show that P(n0) is true
(ii) (Inductive hypothesis)Assume that P(k) is true for 𝑘 ≥ 𝑛0 .
(iii) (Inductive step) Show that P(k+1) is true on the basis of the inductive hypothesis
Examples: Prove by induction
1. 𝑃(𝑛) = 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛2
𝑛2 (𝑛+1)2
2. 𝑃(𝑛) = 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ + 𝑛3 = 4
Answers:
1. Basis step: 𝑃(1) = 1 = 12 which is true, and 𝑃(2) = 1 + 3 = 22 which is true.
Inductive hypothesis: Suppose that ∀𝑛 > 2, 𝑃(𝑛) is true means that 𝑃(𝑛) = 1 + 3 + 5 +
⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛2
We show that also 𝑃(𝑛 + 1)is true
If 𝑃(𝑛) = 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛2 , then 𝑃(𝑛 + 1) = (𝑛 + 1)2
𝑃(𝑛 + 1) = 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1) + (2𝑛 + 1)
= 𝑃(𝑛) + (2𝑛 + 1) = 𝑛2 + (2𝑛 + 1) = 𝑛2 + 2𝑛 + 1 = (𝑛 + 1)2

34
So, 𝑃(𝑛 + 1) is true

As a conclusion: ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ: 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛2
12 (1+1)2 22 (2+1)2
2. Basis step: 𝑃(1) = 13 = = 1 which is true, and 𝑃(2) = 13 + 23 = =9
4 4
which is true.
Inductive hypothesis: Suppose that ∀𝑛 > 2, 𝑃(𝑛) is true means that 𝑃(𝑛) = 13 + 23 + 33 +
𝑛2 (𝑛+1)2
⋯ + 𝑛3 = 4
We show that also 𝑃(𝑛 + 1)is true

𝑛2 (𝑛+1)2 (𝑛+1)2 (𝑛+2)2
If 𝑃(𝑛) = 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ + 𝑛3 = , then 𝑃(𝑛 + 1) =
4 4
𝑃(𝑛 + 1) = 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ + 𝑛3 + (𝑛 + 1)3
𝑛2 (𝑛 + 1)2
= 𝑃(𝑛) + (𝑛 + 1)3 = + (𝑛 + 1)3
4
(𝑛 + 1)2 (𝑛2 + 4𝑛 + 4) (𝑛 + 1)2 (𝑛 + 2)2
= =
4 4
𝑛2 (𝑛+1)2
So, 𝑃(𝑛 + 1) is true. As a conclusion: ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ: 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ + 𝑛3 = 4
EXERCISES
Prove the following statements by induction
b) 2 + 6 + 10 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 2) = 2𝑛2
c) 1 + 5 + 9 + ⋯ + (4𝑛 − 3) = 𝑛(2𝑛 − 1)
d) 4 + 10 + 16 + ⋯ + (6𝑛 − 2) = 𝑛(3𝑛 + 1)
𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
e) 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + 𝑛2 = 6
f) 1(1!) + 2(2!) + 3(3!) + ⋯ 𝑛(𝑛!) = (𝑛 + 1)! − 1
e) Proof by example: To show that  x , F x  is true, is sufficient to show that F c  is true

for some c  U .
This is the only situation where an example proves anything.
Example: There are some Rwandan young people who are musician.
Example: Miss Jojo is musician.
f) Proof by counterexample: To show that ‘’  x , F x  is false it is sufficient to exhibit a

cU such that F c  is false.
This one value c is called counterexample to disapprove  x , F x  .

35
Chapter 2. LINEAR ALGEBRA
2.1. Vector notions

a) Definition
Let V be a set on which the operations of addition and scalar multiplication are defined. By this we
mean that, with each pair of elements x and y in V, we can associate a unique element x+y that is
also in V, and with each element x in V and each scalar α, we can associate a unique element α x in
V.
The elements of V are called vectors and are usually denoted by letters from the end of the alphabet:
u, v, w, x, y, and z. The term scalar will generally refer to real number, although in some cases it will
be used to refer to complex numbers.
Perhaps the most elementary vector spaces are the Euclidean vector space ℝ𝑛 , 𝑛 = 1,2, ….For
𝑥1 𝛼𝑥1
example in ℝ2 we have a vector 𝑥 = (𝑥 ) and 𝛼𝑥 = (𝛼𝑥 ), ∀𝛼 ∈ ℝ.
2 2
b) Examples
1 4 1+4 5
1) ( 3 ) + (5) = ( 3 + 5 ) = (8)
−5 7 −5 + 7 2
2 −4 2+4 6
2) ( ) − ( ) = ( )=( )
4 0 4−0 4
2 14
3) 7 (−3) = (−21)
0 0
2.2. Matrices notions
a) Definition and examples

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
Let K be an arbitrary field. A rectangular array of the form( ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ )
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 𝑎𝑛3 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛
Where the 𝒂𝒊𝒋 are scalars in K, is called a matrix over K, or simply a matrix if K is implicit. The
above matrix is also denoted by (𝒂𝒊𝒋 ); 𝒊 = 𝟏, ⋯ , 𝒎 and 𝒋 = 𝟏, ⋯ , 𝒏 or simply by (𝒂𝒊𝒋 ).
The m horizontal n-triples (𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 … 𝑎1𝑛 ), (𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 … 𝑎2𝑛 ),
(𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑚3 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛 ) are the the rows of the matrix and the n vertical m-triples
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎2𝑛
𝑎31 , 𝑎32 , … , 𝑎3𝑛 are its columns.
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
(𝑎𝑚1 ) (𝑎𝑚2 ) (𝑎𝑚𝑛 )
36
Note that the element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , called the ij-entry or ij-component, appears in the ith row and jth column.
A matrix with m rows, and n columns is called an m by n matrix or mxn matrix, the pair of numbers
(m,n) is called its size or shape.
𝟏 −𝟑 𝟒
Examples: The following is a 2x3 matrix: ( )
𝟎 𝟓 −𝟐
−𝟑 −𝟒 𝟎 𝟔
𝟏
𝟏 𝟔 𝟒 𝟑
The following is a 5x4 matrix: 𝟑 𝟓 𝟖 𝟗
𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏
(𝟒 𝟕 𝟎 𝟐𝟓 )
Remarks:
-Matrices will usually be denoted by capital letters A, B, C,..., and the elements of field K by lower cas
letters a,b,c....
-A 1xn matrix is called a column matrix or a column vector.
-A mx1 matrix is called a row matrix or a row vector.
-The set of all nx1 matrices of real numbers is called Euclidean n-space and is usually denoted by
ℝ𝒏 .
-The ith row vector of A will be denoted by 𝒂(𝒊, : ) and the jth column vector of A will denoted by
𝒂(: , 𝒋). If A is an mxn matrix, then the row vectors af A are given by 𝒂(𝒊, : ) =
(𝒂𝒊𝟏 𝒂𝒊𝟐 ⋯ 𝒂𝒊𝒏 ), 𝒊 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, ⋯ , 𝒎 and the column vectors of A are given by 𝒂(: , 𝒋) =
𝒂𝟏𝒋
𝒂𝟐𝒋
( ⋮ ) , 𝒋 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … , 𝒏.
𝒂𝒎𝒋
-If m=n of A, means that the numbers of columns are equals to the numbers of rows, then A is
called a square matrix
b) Operations on matrices
10) Equality of matrices
Two mxn matrices A and B are said to be equal if 𝒂𝒊𝒋 = 𝒃𝒊𝒋 for each i and j.
𝒙+𝒚=𝟑 𝒙=𝟐
𝒙 + 𝒚 𝟐𝒛 + 𝒘 𝟑 𝟓 𝒙−𝒚=𝟏
Example: ( )=( ) 𝒊𝒇 { →{ 𝒚=𝟏
𝒙−𝒚 𝒛−𝒘 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐𝒛 + 𝒘 = 𝟓 𝒛=𝟑
𝒛−𝒘=𝟒 𝒘 = −𝟏

37
20) Scalar multiplication
If A is an mxn matrix and α is a scalar, then Αa is the mxn matrix whose (i,j) entry is 𝜶𝒂𝒊𝒋 . For example,
4 8 2 1 2 4 1
if 𝐴 = ( ), then 2 𝐴 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑
6 8 10 3 4 5
12 24 6
3𝐴 = ( ).
18 24 30
30) Matrix addition and subs traction
If 𝐴 ∈ ℝ𝑚×𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ∈ ℝ𝑚×𝑛 , then 𝐴 ± 𝐵 ∈ ℝ𝑚×𝑛 .
i.e.𝑰𝒇 𝑨 = (𝒂𝒊𝒋 ) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 = (𝒃𝒊𝒋 ) → 𝑨 ± 𝑩 = (𝒂𝒊𝒋 ± 𝒃𝒊𝒋 ).
4 8 2 2 4 1 4+2 8+4 2+1 6 12 3

For example: ( )+( )=( ) =( )
6 8 10 3 4 5 6 + 3 8 + 4 10 + 5 9 12 15
40) Matrix multiplication and linear systems
Case I: One equation in several unknowns
Consider first the case of one equation in several unknowns.
Example 1: 3𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 5𝑥3 = 4; For writting this equation in matrix notation we have:
𝑥1
𝐴 = (3 2 𝑥
5) and 𝑥 = ( 2 )
𝑥3
𝑥1
𝐴𝑥 = 3𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 5𝑥3 = (3 2 5) ( 𝑥2)
𝑥3
Case II: m equations in n unknowns
Consider now 𝑚 × 𝑛 linear system of the form:
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥1 = 𝑏1

𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥1
{ 11 1 = 𝑏2 (1)
⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥1 = 𝑏𝑚
We can write (1) in matrix notation as:
𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏 (2)

38
Where 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) is knwon, 𝑥 is an 𝑛 × 1 matrix of unknowns, and 𝑏 is an 𝑚 × 1 matrix

representing the right- hand side of the system. Thus, if we set
𝑥1 𝑏1
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎1𝑛
⋯ 𝑥2 𝑏2
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎2𝑛
𝐴 = ( 𝑥3 , 𝑏 = 𝑏3
⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ), 𝑥 =
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 𝑎𝑛3 ⋮ ⋮
⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛
𝑥
( 𝑛) 𝑏
( 𝑚)
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥1

𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥1
And define the product 𝐴𝑥 by 𝐴𝑥 = ( )
⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥1
𝑥1
2 4 1 2𝑥 + 4𝑥2 + 𝑥3
Example 1: 𝐴 = ( ) ; 𝑥 = (𝑥2 ) → 𝐴𝑥 = ( 1 )
3 4 5 𝑥3 3𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 + 5𝑥3
−3 1 −3 × 2 + 1 × 4 −2
2
Example 2: 𝐴 = ( 2 5) ; 𝑥 = ( ) → 𝐴𝑥 = ( 2 × 2 + 5 × 4 ) = ( 24 )
4
4 2 4×2+2×4 16
50) Matrix multiplication
If 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) is a : 𝑚 × 𝑛 matirx and 𝐵 = (𝑏𝑖𝑗 ) is a 𝑛 × 𝑟 matrix; then the product 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶 =

(𝑐𝑖𝑗 ) is the 𝑚 × 𝑟 matrix whose entries are defined by
𝒏
𝒄𝒊𝒋 = 𝒂(𝒊; : )𝒃𝒋 = ∑ 𝒂𝒊𝒌 𝒃𝒌𝒋

𝒌=𝟏
−3 1 −3 1
1 0 −1 1 0 −1
Example: If 𝐴 = ( 2 5)and 𝐵 = ( ) , then 𝐴𝐵 = ( 2 5) ( )=
1 1 2 1 1 2
4 2 4 2
−3 × 1 + 1 × 1 −3 × 0 + 1 × 1 −3 × −1 + 1 × 2 −2 1 5
( 2×1+5×1 2×0+5×1 2 × −1 + 5 × 2 ) = ( 7 5 8)
4×1+2×1 4×0+2×1 4 × −1 + 2 × 2 6 2 0
−3 1
1 0 −1 −7 −1
𝐵𝐴 = ( ) ( 2 5) = ( )
1 1 2 3 10
4 2
We observe that 𝑨𝑩 ≠ 𝑩𝑨 means that matrix multiplication is not commutative
If 𝑨𝑩 = 𝑩𝑨, then we say that A and B are commutate matrices

39
Theorem 1: i) (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵𝐶) associativite law

ii) 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴C left distribution law
iii) (𝐵 + 𝐶)𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 +C𝐴 right distribution law
iv) 𝛼(𝐴𝐵) = (𝛼𝐴)𝐵 = 𝐴(𝛼𝐵) where 𝛼 is a scalar
v) 0𝐴 = 𝑂, whre O is the zero matrix.
1 1
Example: 𝐴 = ( )
1 1
2 2
𝐴2 = ( )
2 2
4 4
𝐴3 = 𝐴 × 𝐴2 = ( )
4 4
𝑛−1
𝐴𝑛 = (2𝑛−1 2𝑛−1 ) , ∀ 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁 ∗
2 2𝑛−1
The identity or unity matrix
1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑗
The 𝑛 × 𝑛 identity matrix is the matrix 𝐼 = (𝛿𝑖𝑗 ), where 𝛿𝑖𝑗 = {
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
1 0 0
In the case 𝑛 = 3; 𝐼3 = (0 1 0)
0 0 1
1 0
𝑛 = 2; 𝐼2 = ( )
0 1
1 0 0 0
𝑛 = 4; 𝐼4 = (0 1 0 0)
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
In general, if B is any 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix and C is any 𝑛 × 𝑟 matrix, then 𝐵𝐼 = 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐶
60) The transpose of a matrix
The transpose of an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix A is the 𝑛 × 𝑚 matrix Bdefined by 𝑏𝑗𝑖 =

𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑗=1,2,…,𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖=1,2,…,𝑚.
Notation: The transpose of A is denoted as 𝑨𝑻 or 𝑨𝒕

40
Examples:
1 −5
𝟏 −𝟐 𝟒 𝑡
1. If 𝑨 = ( ) , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 = (−2 7 )
−𝟓 𝟕 𝟓
4 5
−3 2 1 −3 4 1
3. If 𝐵 = ( 4 3 2) , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐵 𝑡 = ( 2 3 2)
1 2 5 1 2 5
3 5 3 5
4. If 𝐶 = ( ) , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐶 𝑡 = ( )
5 7 5 7
Algebraic rules for transposes
1. (𝐴𝑡 )𝑡 = 𝐴
2. (𝛼𝐴)𝑡 = 𝛼𝐴𝑡 , 𝛼 ∈ ℝ
3. (𝐴 ± 𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡 ± 𝐵 𝑡
4. (𝐴𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐵 𝑡 𝐴𝑡
A symmetric matrix
An 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix A is to be symmetric if 𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴.
3 5
For example ( ).
5 7
A skew- symmetric matrix
An 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if 𝐴𝑡 = −𝐴.
Theorem: If A is 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix, then we can write any square matrix as a sum of symmetric and
skew-symmetrix matrix.
i.e. 𝐴 = 𝑆 + 𝑇 where S is a symmetric matrix and T is a skew-symmetric matrix.
Proof: (𝐴 = 𝑆 + 𝑇)
(𝐴 = 𝑆 + 𝑇)𝑡 = 𝑆 𝑡 + 𝑇 𝑡 = 𝑆 − 𝑇
𝐴=𝑆+𝑇 𝐴𝑡 +𝐴 𝐴−𝐴𝑡
{ 𝑡 →𝑆= , 𝑇=
𝐴 =𝑆−𝑇 2 2
1 3 8
Example: Decompose 𝐴 = (4 7 8) asa sum of symmetric and a skew-symmetric matrix.
0 0 1

41
7
1 3 8 1 4 0 1 2 4
𝐴𝑡 +𝐴 1
Solution: 𝑆 = 2 = 2 {(4 7 8) + (3 7 0)} = ( 7 7 4)
0 0 1 8 8 1 2
4 4 1
−1
1 3 8 1 4 0 0 4
2
𝐴−𝐴𝑡 1
𝑇= = 2 {(4 7 8) − (3 7 0)} = ( 1
0 4)
2
0 0 1 8 8 1 2
−4 −4 0
7 −1
1 4 0 4
2 2
→𝐴 =𝑆+𝑇 = 7 + 1
7 4 0 4
2 2
(4 4 1) (−4 −4 0)
70) Echelon matrices
A matrix 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) is an echelon matrix, or is said to be in echelon form, if the number of zeros
preceding the first nonzero entry (distinguished elements) of a row increases row by row until only
zero rows remain, that is, if there exist non zero entries.
10 2 3 2 3 2 0 4 5 −6 0 1 2 0 4 5 −6
Examples: ( 0 0 4) , (0 0 7 1 −3 2 0), (0 0 0 1 −3 2 0)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 2 0 0 0 0 1 6 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
In particular, an echelon matrix is called a row reduced echelon matrix if the distinguished elements
are:
i) The only nonzero entries in their respective columns;

ii) Each equal to 1.
The third matrix above is an example of a row reduced echelon matrix, the other two are not.
Triangular Matrices
Upper Triangular Matrix
A matrix in which all the non-zero elements are either on or above the main diagonal. That is, all the
non-zero values are in the upper triangle. Everything below the diagonal is a zero. i.e 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) is an
upper Triangular Matrix iff 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0, ∀ 𝑖 ≥ 𝑗
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
3
Example: 𝐴 = (0 3 0 4 ) 𝑜𝑟 ( 0 4 )
0 0 −1 −10 −1 −10
0 0 0 7 7

42
Lower Triangular Matrix
A matrix in which all the non-zero elements are either on or below the main diagonal.
That is, all the non-zero values are in the lower triangle. Everything above the diagonal is zero.
i.e 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) is an lower Triangular Matrix iff 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0, ∀ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑗
1 0 0 0 1
Example: 𝐴 = (7 3 0 0 ) 𝑜𝑟 (7 3 )
3 0 −1 0 3 0 −1
8 6 0 7 8 6 0 7
Diagonal Matrix
A matrix in which all the non-zero elements are on the main diagonal. Everything off the main
diagonal is a zero i.e 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) is an Diagonal Matrix iff 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0, ∀ 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗.
1 0 0 0 1
Example: 𝐴 = (0 3 0 0 ) 𝑜𝑟 ( 3 )
0 0 −1 0 −1
0 0 0 7 7
1.3. Determinant notions
a) Definition and examples
The Determinant of a Square Matrix
A determinant is a real number associated with every square matrix. I have yet to find a good English
definition for what a determinant is. Everything I can find either defines it in terms of a mathematical
formula or suggests some of the uses of it. There's even a definition of determinant that defines it in
terms of itself. i.e. A determinant of a matrix A is an application: 𝒅𝒆𝒕: ℝ𝒏×𝒏 → ℝ
𝑨 → 𝐝𝐞𝐭 𝑨 = |𝑨|
The determinant of a square matrix A is denoted by "det A" or | A |. Now, that last one looks like
the absolute value of A, but you will have to apply context. If the vertical lines are around a matrix, it
means determinant.
The line below shows the two ways to write a determinant.
The line below shows the two ways to write a determinant.
3 5 3 5
| | = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 ( )
1 0 1 0

43
Determinant of a 2×2 Matrix
The determinant of a 2×2 matrix is found much like a pivot operation. It is the product of the elements
on the main diagonal minus the product of the elements off the main diagonal.
3 5
| | = 3 × 0 − 5 × 1 = −5
1 0
b) Properties of Determinants
 The determinant is a real number, it is not a matrix.

 The determinant can be a negative number.
 It is not associated with absolute value at all except that they both use vertical lines.
 The determinant only exists for square matrices (2×2, 3×3, ... n×n). The determinant of a 1×1
matrix is that single value in the determinant.
 The inverse of a matrix will exist only if the determinant is not zero.
 The determinant of a triangular matrix or a diagonal matrix is the product of the elements on
the main diagonal.
Determinants that are Zero
The determinant of a matrix will be zero if
1. An entire row is zero.

2. Two rows or columns are equal.
3. A row or column is a constant multiple of another row or column.
Remember, that a matrix is invertible, non-singular, if and only if the determinant is not zero. So, if
the determinant is zero, the matrix is singular and does not have an inverse.
Expansion using Minors and Cofactors
The definition of determinant that we have so far is only for a 2×2 matrix. There is a shortcut for a
3×3 matrix, but I firmly believe you should learn the way that will work for all sizes, not just a special
case for a 3×3 matrix.
The method is called expansion using minors and cofactors. Before we can use them, we need to
define them.
Minors
A minor for any element is the determinant that results when the row and column that element are in
are deleted.
The notation Mij is used to stand for the minor of the element in row i and column j. So M21 would
mean the minor for the element in row 2, column 1.

44
Consider the 3×3 determinant shown below. I've included headers so that you can keep the rows and
columns straight, but you wouldn't normally include those. We're going to find some of the minors.
C1 C2 C3
R1 1 3 2
R2 4 1 3
R3 2 5 2
Finding the Minor for R2C1
The minor is the determinant that remains when you delete the row and column of the element you're
trying to find the minor for. That means we should delete row 2 and column 1 and then find the
determinant.
C2 C3
R1 3 2
= 3(2) - 5(2) = 6 - 10 = -4
R3 5 2
As you can see, the minor for row 2 and column 1 is M21 = -4.
Let's try another one.
Finding the Minor for R3C2
This time, we would delete row 3 and column 2.

C1 C3
R1 1 2
= 1(3) - 4(2) = 3 - 8 = -5
R2 4 3
So the minor for row 3, column 2 is M32 = -5.
Matrix of Minors
When you're just trying to find the determinant of a matrix, this is overkill. But there is one extremely
useful application for it and it will give us practice finding minors.
The matrix of minors is the square matrix where each element is the minor for the number in that
position. Here is a generic matrix of minors for a 3×3 determinant.

45
C1 C2 C3
R1 M11 M12 M13
R2 M21 M22 M23
R3 M31 M32 M33
Let's find the matrix of minors for our original determinant. Here is the determinant.
C1 C2 C3
R1 1 3 2
R2 4 1 3
R3 2 5 2
Here is the work to find each minor in the matrix of minors.
C1 C2 C3
1 3 4 3 4 1
5 2 2 2 2 5
R1
= 2 - 15 = -13 = 8 - 6 = 2 = 20 - 2 = 18

46
3 2 1 2 1 3
5 2 2 2 2 5
R2
= 6 - 10 = -4 = 2 - 4 = -2 = 5 - 6 = -1
3 2 1 2 1 3
1 3 4 3 4 1
R3
=9-2=7 = 3 - 8 = -5 = 1 - 12 = -11
Finally, here is the matrix of minors. Again, you don't need to put the labels for the row and columns
on there, but it may help you.
C1 C2 C3
R1 -13 2 18
R2 -4 -2 -1
R3 7 -5 -11
Cofactors
A cofactor for any element is either the minor or the opposite of the minor, depending on where the
element is in the original determinant. If the row and column of the element add up to be an even
number, then the cofactor is the same as the minor. If the row and column of the element add up to
be an odd number, then the cofactor is the opposite of the minor.
Ooh - did you get that? Odd changes signs, even is the same sign.
Sign Chart
Rather than adding up the row and column of the element to see whether it is odd or even, many
people prefer to use a sign chart. A sign chart is either a + or - for each element in the matrix. The
first element (row 1, column 1) is always a + and it alternates from there.
Note: The + does not mean positive and the - negative. The + means the same sign as the minor and
the - means the opposite of the minor. Think of it addition and subtraction rather than positive or
negative. Here is the sign chart for a 2×2 determinant.
C1 C2

47
R1 + -
R2 - +
Here is the sign chart for a 3×3 determinant.
C1 C2 C3
R1 + - +
R2 - + -
R3 + - +
Matrix of Cofactors
Again, if all you're trying to do is find the determinant, you do not need to go through this much work.
The matrix of cofactors is the matrix found by replacing each element of a matrix by its cofactor. This
is the matrix of minors with the signs changed on the elements in the - positions.
C1 C2 C3
R1 -13 -2 18
R2 4 -2 1
R3 7 5 -11
Expanding to Find the Determinant
Here are the steps to go through to find the determinant.
1. Pick any row or column in the matrix. It does not matter which row or which column you use,
the answer will be the same for any row. There are some rows or columns that are easier than
others, but we'll get to that later.
2. Multiply every element in that row or column by its cofactor and add. The result is the determinant.
Let's expand our matrix along the first row.
1 3 2
|4 1 3|
2 5 2

48
From the sign chart, we see that 1 is in a positive position, 3 is in a negative position and 2 is in a
positive position. By putting the + or - in front of the element, it takes care of the sign adjustment
when going from the minor to the cofactor.
1 3 4 3 4 1
+1 | | − 3| | + 2| |
5 2 2 2 2 5
= 1 ( 2 - 15 ) - 3 ( 8 - 6 ) + 2 ( 20 - 2 )
= 1 ( -13 ) - 3 ( 2 ) + 2 (18)
= -13 - 6 + 36
= 17
The determinant of this matrix is 17.
As I said earlier, it doesn't really matter which row or column you use.
Let's try it again, but this time expands on the second columns. As an effort to save time, the minors
for that column (from the matrix of minors) were 2, -2, and -5. The original elements were 3, 1, and
5. The 3 and 5 are in negative positions.
Determinant = - 3 ( 2 ) + 1 ( -2 ) - 5 ( -5 ) = -6 -2 + 25 = 17
Expand on any row or any column, you'll get 17.
However, you can't do diagonals. If we try the main diagonal, you get
+ 1 ( -13 ) + 1 ( -2 ) + 2 ( -11 ) = -13 -2 - 22 = -37
Some rows or columns are better than others
1. Pick the row or column with the most zeros in it.

Since each minor or cofactor is multiplied by the element in the matrix, picking a row or
column with lots of zeros in it means that you will be multiplying by a lot of zeros. Multiplying
by zero doesn't take very long at all. In fact, if the element is zero, you don't need to even find
the minor or cofactor.
2. Pick the row or column with the largest numbers (or variables) in it.
The elements in the row or column that you expand along are not used to find the minors.
The only place that they are multiplied is once, in the expansion. If you pick the row or column
with the smallest numbers, then every minor will be the product of larger numbers.
If you pick a row or column that has variables in it, then you will only have to multiply by the
variables once, during the expansion.
Inverse of a Matrix (revisited)
1 3 2
Let's consider our original determinant as a matrix this time.(4 1 3)
2 5 2

49
−13 2 18
Find the matrix of minors as explained above.( −4 −2 −1 )
7 −5 −11
Turn it into a matrix of cofactors by changing the signs on the appropriate elements based on the
−13 −2 18
sign chart.( 4 −2 1 )
7 5 −11
Find the adjoint by transposing the matrix of cofactors.
To transpose a matrix, you switch the rows and columns. That is, the rows become columns and the
columns become rows. The Transpose of a matrix can be found using the TI-82 or TI-83 calculator
by entering the name of the matrix and then choosing Matrix, Math, and then option 2, a superscripted
−13 4 7
T
T, like [A] .( −2 −2 5 )
18 1 −11
Finally divide the adjoint of the matrix by the determinant of the matrix. In this problem, the
determinant is 17, so we'll divide every element by 17. The resulting matrix is the inverse of the
−13 4 7
1
original matrix.17 × ( −2 −2 5 )
18 1 −11
The inverse of a matrix is found by dividing the adjoint of the matrix by the determinant of the matrix.
Don't try that on your calculator since the calculator won't let you divide a matrix by a scalar. You will
have to multiply by the inverse of the determinant instead.
If you check it with your calculator, you can verify that the inverse actually is the adjoint divided by
the determinant.
Since the inverse is the adjoint divided by the determinant, we can see why the inverse doesn't exist if
the determinant is zero. That would cause division by zero, which is undefined.
Larger Order Determinants
Let's find the determinant of a 4x4 system.
C1 C2 C3 C4
R1 3 2 0 1
R2 4 0 1 2
R3 3 0 2 1

50
R4 9 2 3 1
Pick the row or column with the most zeros in it. In this case, that is the second column.
For each element in the original matrix, its minor will be a 3×3 determinant. We'll have to expand
each of those by using three 2×2 determinants.
This is why we want to expand along the second column. The minors are multiplied by their elements,
so if the element in the original matrix is 0, it doesn't really matter what the minor is and we can save
a lot of time by not having to find it. In the second column, you won't need to find two of the minors
because their corresponding element in the second column is zero.
4 1 2 3 0 1
−2 |3 2 1| + 0|? | − 0|? | + 2 |4 1 2|
9 3 1 3 2 1
We could actually fill in those middle two minors, but since they're multiplied by 0, it doesn't really
matter what they are. In fact, you could just as easily skip them.
Now, there are two 3x3 determinants left to find.
In the first 3x3 determinant, there are no zeros, so pick the row or column with the largest numbers.
That would be column 1, so expand along the first column.
Notice the 4 is in a positive position. The sign charts begin over with each new determinant. The
position of the number in the original matrix does not matter, only its position in the current matrix.
4 1 2
2 1 1 2 1 2
|3 2 1| = +4 | | − 3| | + 9| |
3 1 3 1 2 1
9 3 1
= 4 ( 2 - 3 ) - 3 ( 1 - 6 ) + 9 ( 1 - 4 ) = 4 ( -1 ) - 3 ( -5 ) + 9 ( -3 ) = -4 + 15 - 27 = -16
Consider the other 3×3 matrix. In this one, there is a 0 in the row 1 and column 2. Either one of those
would be a good pick for expansion, but since row 1 has slightly larger numbers, we'll expand along
the first row.
3 0 1
1 2 4 1
|4 1 2| = +3 | | − 0|? | + 1 | |
2 1 3 2
3 2 1
= 3 ( 1 - 4 ) - 0 ( doesn't matter ) + 1 ( 8 - 3 ) = 3 ( -3 ) + 1 ( 5 ) = -9 + 5 = -4
When you go to find the determinant, remember that there were elements from the original 4×4
matrix that were times each of those 3×3 determinants. The first one was -2 and the second one was
+2.

51
Determinant = -2 ( -16 ) + 2 ( -4 ) = 32 - 8 = 24
2.4. System of linear equations
2.4.1. Definitions and examples
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1

𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
-A system of p linear equations with n unknowns is defined by: 1 1
…………………………………
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
{ 1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑝
𝑎
(&)
The real numbers 𝑎𝑗𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑖 are called the coefficients of the system and the variables 𝑥𝑗 are the
unknowns of the system.
5𝑋 + 3𝑌 = 1
Example:{ is a system of 2 linear equations with 2 unknowns X and Y.
𝑋 − 2𝑌 = 8
-A solution of the system of linear equations (&) is the sequence (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ) of n real numbers
which verify the p equations of the system (&).
In the example above the solution is (2 ,- 3) because it verify the two equations of the system.
Remark: Every system of equations can be written matricially. For this we consider the matrices
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏1 𝑥1
2
𝑎1 𝑎2 2 … 𝑎𝑛2 𝑏 𝑥2
A=(𝑎𝑗𝑖 )= ; B=(𝑏𝑗 )=( ⋮2 ) ;X=(𝑥𝑖 ) = ( ⋮ ) ;the system (&) is written
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑃 𝑝 𝑝 𝑏𝑝 𝑥𝑛
(𝑎1 𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛 )
A.X=B(&&).
In (&&) the matrix A is called the matrix of the system.
If B is null, then the system is called a homogeneous system.
5 3 𝑥 1
In our example above we write matricially the system as follow:( ) (𝑦) = ( ) where
1 −2 8
5 3 𝑥 1
A=( ) and X=(𝑦); B=( ) . This system is not homogeneous.
1 −2 8
2.4.2. Resolution of the system by Gauss’s method
𝑎𝑖
The method use 𝐿1 as the pivot of the rows .Then by replacing the rows 𝐿𝑖 , 2≤i≤p; by 𝐿𝑖 − 𝑎11 𝐿1
1
we get an equivalent system in which the first column is 0 at the 2𝑛𝑑 ; 3𝑟𝑑 ; … ; 𝑝𝑡ℎ rows. On the
next steps we take 𝐿2 ; 𝐿3 ; … 𝐿𝑝 as a pivot and we continue until the matrix of the system became

52
triangular matrix. Example: Solve the system bellow by Gauss’s method

−2𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 −4𝑥3 −6𝑥4 = −4
−3𝑥1 + 6𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 −15𝑥4 = −3
{
5𝑥1 −8𝑥2 −𝑥3 + 17𝑥4 = 9
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 11𝑥3 + 7𝑥4 = 7
Solution: In the beginning we simplify every equation for using the simple numbers by replacing
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 +2𝑥3 +3𝑥4 = 2
1 1 −𝑥 + 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 −5𝑥4 = −1
𝐿1 𝑏𝑦 − 2 . 𝐿1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿2 𝑏𝑦 3 . 𝐿2 .The system became { 1 .
5𝑥1 −8𝑥2 −𝑥3 + 17𝑥4 = 9
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 11𝑥3 + 7𝑥4 = 7
We use 𝐿1 as a pivot and we replace 𝐿2 𝑏𝑦 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 ; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿3 𝑏𝑦 5𝐿1 − 𝐿3 ; and 𝐿4 𝑏𝑦 𝐿1

𝑥1 − 𝑥2 +2𝑥3 +3𝑥4 = 2
𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 −2𝑥4 = 1
− 𝐿4 ;we obtain an equivalent system {
3𝑥2 +11𝑥3 − 2𝑥4 = 1
−2𝑥2 − 9𝑥3 − 4𝑥4 = −5
We use 𝐿2 as a pivot and we replace 𝐿3 𝑏𝑦 3𝐿2 − 𝐿3 ; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿4 𝑏𝑦 2𝐿2 + 𝐿4 ;we obtain an

𝑥1 − 𝑥2 +2𝑥3 +3𝑥4 = 2
𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 −2𝑥4 = 1
equivalent system {
−2𝑥3 − 4𝑥4 = 2
−3𝑥3 − 8𝑥4 = −3
We use 𝐿3 as a pivot and we replace 𝐿4 𝑏𝑦 3𝐿3 − 2𝐿4 ; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 we obtain a triangular system
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 +2𝑥3 +3𝑥4 = 2
𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 −2𝑥4 = 1
which is: { .
−2𝑥3 − 4𝑥4 = 2
4𝑥4 = 12
It is easy to find that 𝑥4 = 3 with the fourth line. We deduce by substitution the value of others
variables which are 𝑥3 = −7; 𝑥2 = 28; 𝑥1 = 35 .Then the solution set is
S = {(35 ; 28;-7; 3)}.
2.4.3. Resolution of the system by Cramer’s method
The method is used to solve a system of n equations with n unknowns if the matrix of the system is
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
2 2 2
regular. Let the system of n equations with n variables bellow: 𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
…………………………………
{𝑎1𝑛 𝑥1 + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛
Where A=(𝑎𝑗𝑖 ) is the matrix of the system .

53
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛

2
𝑎22 … 𝑎𝑛2 | ≠ 0 .We deduce the value of 𝑥 ; 𝑥 ; … . ; 𝑥 with the
Suppose that det 𝐴 = | 𝑎1 … 1 2 𝑛
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎1𝑛 𝑎2𝑛 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛
𝑏1 𝑎21 … 𝑎𝑛1
𝑎11 𝑏1 … 𝑎𝑛1 𝑎11 𝑎21 … 𝑏1
|| 𝑏2 𝑎22 … 2
𝑎𝑛 | || 𝑎1
2 𝑏2 … 2
𝑎𝑛 | || 𝑎1
2 𝑎22 … 𝑏2 |
… | … | … |
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑏𝑛 𝑛
𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏𝑛 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑎1𝑛 𝑛
𝑎2 … 𝑏𝑛
formulas: 𝑥1 = ; 𝑥2 = ; …….;𝑥𝑛 =
det 𝐴 det 𝐴 det 𝐴
(In the formulas above when we calculate 𝑥𝑗 ;jϵ{1,2,…..,n} we replace the column j by the column
B=(𝑏𝑗 )
2𝑋 + 3𝑌 + 𝑍 = −1
Example: Solve the following system of equations: { 4𝑋 + 5𝑌 + 2𝑍 = 0
3𝑋 + 2𝑌 − 𝑍 = −4
2 3 1 𝑋 −1
Solution: The system is written matricially as (4 5 2 ) . (𝑌 ) = ( 0 ) ;then the determinant
3 2 −1 𝑍 −4
−1 3 1 2 −1 1 2 3 −1
2 3 1 |0 5 2| |4 0 2| |4 5 0|
3 −4 −1
of the system is |4 5 2 | = 5 .The roots are X= −4 2 −1
;𝑌 = ;Z = 3 2 −4
.
5 5 5
3 2 −1
5 −10 15
After calculation we find X= 5 = 1 ;Y = 5 = −2 ; Z = 5 = 3; and S={(1, −2,3)} .
2.4.4. Resolution of the system by using inverse matrix
We know that the matrix notation of a system of equation is A.x=B. We use this method when the
matrix A is a square matrix and regular .Suppose that 𝐴−1 is its inverse matrix. Then we have
AX = B ⇔ 𝐴−1 AX =𝐴−1 B⇔ 𝐼. 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 B⇔ 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 B
2𝑋 + 3𝑌 + 𝑍 = −1
Example: Use the inverse matrix to solve the following system of equation: { 4𝑋 + 5𝑌 + 2𝑍 = 0
3𝑋 + 2𝑌 − 𝑍 = −4
2 3 1 𝑥 −1
Solution: A=(4 5 2 ) ; X=(𝑦) ; 𝐵 = ( 0 ) and det A=5;then A is regular.
3 2 −1 𝑧 −4
5 2 2 4 4 5
| | | | | |
2 −1 −1 3 3 2 −9 10 −7
1 3 2 1 3 2
Ã= | | | | | | = ( 5 −5 5)
−1 2 3 −1 2 3
3 1 1 2 2 3 1 0 −2
( |5 2| |
2 4
| |
4 5
|)

54
−9 1
−9 5 1 1
5 5
−1 Adj(A)
Adj(A)=𝑡Ã =( 10 −5 0 ) and 𝐴 = |𝐴| = ( 2 −1 0) .
−7 −2
−7 5 −2 1
5 5
−9 1
𝑋 1 −1 1
5 5
−1
Then 𝑋 = (𝑌 ) = 𝐴 𝑏 = ( 2 −1 0 ) . ( 0 ) = (−2).
−7 −2
𝑍 1 −4 3
5 5
2.5. Some applications
Application 1: A simple Model for marital status computations
In a certain town, 30 percent of the married women get divorced each year and 20 percent of the
single women get married each year. They are 8000 married women and 2000 single women.
Assuming that the total population of women remains constant, how many married women and how
many single will there be after 1 year? After 2 years?
Solution: Consider a matrix A such that the entries of the first row of A will be the percent
married and single women, respectively, that are married after 1 year.
The entries of the second row will be the percent of women who are single after 1 year.
0.70 0.20
Then we have: 𝐴 = ( )
0.30 0.80
8000
If we let 𝑥 = ( ), the number of married and single women after 1 year can be computed by
2000
multiplying A by x.
0.70 0.20 8000 6000

𝐴𝑥 = ( )( )=( ).
0.30 0.80 2000 4000
After 1 year there will be 6000married women and 4000 single women. To find the number of married
and single women after 2 years, compute
0.70 0.20 6000 5000

𝐴2 𝑥 = 𝐴(𝐴𝑥) = ( )( )=( ).
0.30 0.80 4000 5000
After 2 years, half of the women will be married and half will be single. In general, the number of
married and single women after n years can be determined by computing𝐴𝑛 𝑥.
Application 2: Networks and graphs

55
Graph theory is one of the important areas of applied mathematics. It is used to model problems in
virtually all the applied sciences Graph theory is particularly useful in applications involving
communication networks.
A graph is defined to be set of points called vertices together with a set unordered pairs of vertices,
which are referred to as edges.
𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑉5 𝑉3
𝑉4
This figure shows us the geometrical representation of a graph.
We can think of the vertices 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 , 𝑉4 , 𝑉5 as corresponding to the nodes in communications

network. The line segment joining the vertices corresponds to the edges:
{𝑉1, 𝑉2 }, {𝑉2, 𝑉5 }, {𝑉3, 𝑉5 }, {𝑉3, 𝑉4 }, {𝑉4, 𝑉5 }
Each edge represents a direct communication link between two nodes of net work.
An actual communications network could involve a large number of vertices and edges. Indeed,
if there are millions of vertices, a graphical picture of the network would be quite confusing. An
alternative is to use a matrix representation for the network. If a graph contains a total of n vertices,
we can define an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix A by
1 𝑖𝑓{𝑉𝑖, 𝑉𝑗 } is an edge of the graph

𝑎𝑖𝑗 = {
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑗
The matrix A is called the adjacency matrix of the graph.
The adjacency matrix of the above figure is given by
0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
𝐴= 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 1
(0 1 1 1 0)

56
Note that the matrix A is symmetric matrix. Indeed, any adjacency matrix must be symmetric, for if
{𝑉𝑖, 𝑉𝑗 } is an edge of the graph, then 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 1 and 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 if there is no edge joining 𝑉𝑖
and 𝑉𝑗 .In either case, 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 .
We can think of a walk in a graph as a sequence of edges linking one vertex to another. For example,
in above figure the edges {𝑉1, 𝑉2 }, {𝑉2, 𝑉5 }, represent a walk from vertex 𝑉1 to vertex𝑉5. The length of
walk is said to be 2 since it consists of two edges. A simple way to describe the walk is to indicate the
movement between vertices using arrows. Thus 𝑉1 → 𝑉2 → 𝑉5 denotes a walk of length 2 from 𝑉1 to
𝑉5. Similarly, 𝑉4 → 𝑉5 → 𝑉2 → 𝑉1 represents a walk of length 3 from 𝑉4 to 𝑉1. It is possible to traverse
the same edge more than once in a walk. For example, 𝑉5 → 𝑉3 → 𝑉5 → 𝑉3 is a walk of length 3 from
𝑉5 to 𝑉3. In general, by taking powers of the adjacency matrix we can determine the number of walks
of any specified length between two vertices.
(𝑘)
Theorem: If A is an 𝑛 × 𝑛 adjacency matrix of a graph and 𝑎𝑖𝑗 represents the ijth entry of𝐴𝑘 ,
(𝑘)
then 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is equal to the number of walks of length k from 𝑉𝑖 to𝑉𝑗 .
Example: To determine the number of walks of length 3 between any two vertices of the graph
In above figure, we need only compute
0 2 1 1 0
2 0 1 1 4
𝐴3 = 1 1 2 3 4
1 1 3 2 4
(0 4 4 4 2)
(3)
Thus the number of walks of length 3 form 𝑉3 to 𝑉5 is 𝑎35 = 4. Note that the matrix 𝐴3 is
symmetric.This reflects the fact that there are the same number of walks of length 3 from 𝑉𝑖 to 𝑉𝑗 .
Application 3: Coded messages
A common way of sending a coded is to assign an integer value to each letter of the alphabet and to
send the message as a string of integers. For example, the message
SEND MONEY
Might be coded as
5, 8, 10, 21, 7, 2, 10, 8, 3

57
Here the S is represented by 5, the E by an 8, and so on. Unfortunately, this type of code is generally
quite easy to break. In a longer message we might be able to guess which letter is represented by a
number based on the relative frequency of occurrence for that number. Thus, for example, if 8 is the
most frequently occurring number in the coded message, then it is likely that it represents the letter
E, the letter that occurs most frequently in the English language.
We can disguise the message further using matrix multiplications. If A is a matrix whose entries are all
integers and whose determinants is ±1, then, since 𝐴−1 = ±𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴, the entries of 𝐴−1 will be integers.
We can use such a matrix to transform the message. The transformed message will be more diffucult
to decipher. To illustrate the technique, let
1 2 1
𝐴 = (2 5 3)
2 3 2
The coded message is put into the columns of matrix of matrix B having three rows.
5 21 10
𝐵=(8 7 8)
10 2 3
The product
1 2 1 5 21 10 31 37 29
𝐴𝐵 = (2 5 3) ( 8 7 8 ) = (80 83 69)
2 3 2 10 2 3 54 67 50
Gives the coded message to be sent:
31, 80, 54, 37, 83, 67, 29, 69, 50
The person receiving the message can decode it by multiplying by 𝐴−1
1 −1 1 31 37 29 5 21 10
(2 0 −1) (80 83 69) = ( 8 7 8)
−4 1 1 54 67 50 10 2 3
To construct a coding matrix A, we can begin with the identity I. The resulting matrix A will have
integer entries, and since
det(𝐴) = ±det(𝐼) = ±1
𝐴−1 Will also have integer entries.

58
EXERCISES
3 1 4 1 0 2
1. If 𝐴 = (−2 0 1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = (−3 1 1), then compute:
1 2 2 2 −4 1
(a) 2𝐴 (b) 𝐴 + 𝐵 (c) 2𝐴 − 3𝐵 (d) (2𝐴)𝑡 − (3𝐵)𝑡 (e) 𝐴𝐵 (f) 𝐵𝐴 (g) 𝐴𝑡 𝐵 𝑡 (h) (𝐵𝐴)𝑡
2.For each of the following pairs of matrices, determine whether it is possible to multiply the first
matrix times the second. If it is possible, perform the multiplication.
2 1 4 −2 1 4 3 3 2
3 5 1
(a) ( ) (1 3) (b) (6 −4) (1 2 3) (c) (0 1 4) (1 1)
−2 0 2
4 1 8 −6 0 0 2 4 5
4 6 3 1 5
(d) ( )( )
2 1 4 1 6
3. For which of the pairs in exercise 2 is ti possible to multiply the second matrix times the first, and
what would the dimension of the product be?
4. Write each of the following systems of equations as a matrix equation.
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 =5 2 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 4
3𝑥 + 3𝑥2 = 1
a) { 1 b){ 2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 6 c) { 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 2
2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 = 5
3𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 7 3𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0
3 4
5.If A= (1 1) , then verify that: a) 5𝐴 = 3𝐴 + 2𝐴 b) 6𝐴 = 3(2𝐴) c) (𝐴𝑡 )𝑡 = 𝐴
2 7
1 −1
2 2
6. Let 𝐴 = (−1 1 ) Compute 𝐴2 and 𝐴3 . What will 𝐴𝑛 turn out to be?
2 2
7. Find the inverse of each of the following matrices.
1 1 1 2 0 5
−1 1 2 5 2 6
a) ( ) b) ( ) c) ( ) d) (0 1 1) e) (0 3 0)
1 0 1 3 3 8
0 0 1 1 0 3
8. For each of the following, compute (i) detA (ii) adj(A) and 𝐴−1
1 3 1 1 1 1
1 2
a) 𝐴 = ( ) b) 𝐴 = ( 2 1 1) c) (0 1 1)
3 −1
−2 2 1 0 0 1
9. Use Cramer’s rule to solve each of the following systems.

59
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 =0
2 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 4 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 =5
𝑥2 + 𝑥3 − 2𝑥4 =1
a) { 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 2 b) { 2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 6 c){
𝑥1 + 2𝑥3 + 𝑥4 =0
3𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0 3𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 7
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥4 =0
1 2 3
10. Given 𝐴 = (2 3 4)
3 4 5
a) Compute the determinant of A. Is A nonsingular?
b) Compute adj A and the product A adj A?
3 4
11. If A= (1 1) , then verify that: a) 5𝐴 = 3𝐴 + 2𝐴 b) 6𝐴 = 3(2𝐴)
2 7
c) (𝐴𝑡 )𝑡 = 𝐴
1 −1
2 2
12. Let 𝐴 = (−1 1 ) Compute 𝐴2 and 𝐴3 . What will 𝐴𝑛 turn out to be?
2 2
13. For each of the following, compute (i) detA (ii) adj(A) and 𝐴−1
1 3 1 1 1 1
1 2
a) 𝐴 = ( ) b) 𝐴 = ( 2 1 1) c) (0 1 1)
3 −1
−2 2 1 0 0 1

60
Chapter3. Combinatorial analysis

3.0. Introduction
This chapter deals with concepts required for the study of probability and statistics. Statistics is a
branch of science that is an outgrowth of the theory of probability. Combinations and
permutations are used in both statistics and probability; and they in turn, involve operations with
factorial notation. Therefore combinations, permutations, and factorial notation are discussed in
this chapter.
This chapter aims at teaching a method of approach to certain problems involving arrangements
and selections.
This chapter helps us to count all elements of finite set; for counting all elements of finite set the
injection, surjection and Cartesian product play important role.
3.1. Basic notions on the sets

3.1.1. Cartesian product
Consider A and B as the finites set.
A Cartesian product between A and B is defined as:
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏)/∀ 𝑎𝜖𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝜖𝐵}
#(𝐴 × 𝐵) = #𝐴. #𝐵
In general 𝐴1 𝑋𝐴2 × 𝐴3 × ⋯ × 𝐴𝑛 = {(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , ⋯ , 𝑎𝑛 ) 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∀ 𝑎𝑖 𝜖𝐴𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2, ⋯ , 𝑛}

#(𝐴1 𝑋𝐴2 × 𝐴3 × ⋯ × 𝐴𝑛 ) = # ∏𝑛𝑖=1 𝐴𝑖
Example1. 𝐴 = {1,2,3} and 𝐵 = {𝑥, 𝑦}
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1, 𝑥), (1, 𝑦), (2, 𝑥), (2, 𝑦), (3, 𝑥), (3, 𝑦)}
#(𝐴 × 𝐵) = #𝐴. #𝐵 = 3 × 2 = 6
Example2: How many words of three alphabet can you form using English the alphabet such that
the first and the last are consonant and the second is vowel.
Answer: Consider C as the set of consonant and Vas the set of vowel.
#𝐶 = 20, #𝑉 = 6
#(𝐶 × 𝑉 × 𝐶) = #𝐶. #𝑉. #𝐶 = 20 × 6 × 20 = 2400
3.1.2. The union of 2 sets
Consider A and B as two finite sets. 𝐴𝑈𝐵 = {𝑥 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

61
#(𝐴𝑈𝐵) = #𝐴 + #𝐵 − #(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
#(𝐴𝑈𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = #𝐴 + #𝐵 + #𝐶 − #(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − #(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) − #(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) + #(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
Applications:
1. If the 40 students of a classroom 26 are boys, 10 students are blonds (according to the eyes color
) the remanding are bruns such that 10 girls are bruns. How many boys who are blonds?
2. Consider A and B are 2 disjoints sets, such that #𝐴 = 100 and #𝐵 = 60, C is a set verify
1
#(𝐴𝑈𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = 160 and #(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = 2 #(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) = 30. Determine#𝐶?
Solutions:
1. Suppose that B as the set of girls and boys who are blonds and A as the set of girls and boys
who are bruns.
𝐴∩𝐵 =∅
40 = #(𝐴𝑈𝐵) = #𝐴 + #𝐵 − #(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = #𝐴 + #𝐵
#𝐵 = 10 → #𝐴 = 40 − 10 = 30 Students who are bruns.
#𝐴 = #𝐺𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑠 + #𝐹𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑠 → #𝐺𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑠 = 30 − 10 = 20
#𝐺 = #𝐺𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 + #𝐺𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑠 ↔ 26 = #𝐺𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 + 20
So, the boys who are blonds are 6.
2. #(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0, #𝐴 = 100, #𝐵 = 60, #(𝐴𝑈𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = 160

1
#(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = 2 #(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) = 30 → #(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) = 60, #𝐶 =?
#(𝐴𝑈𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = #𝐴 + #𝐵 + #𝐶 − #(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − #(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) − #(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) + #(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
↔ 160 = 100 + 60 + #𝐶 − 60 − 30 + 0 ↔ #𝐶 = 90
3.2. Arrangements and properties
3.2.1. P-lists of finite set
a) Definition
Consider non empty finite set E and 𝑝 ∈ 𝑵∗ . We call p-list of element of E all sequence
(𝒆𝟏 , 𝒆𝟐 , 𝒆𝟑 , 𝒆𝟒 , ⋯ , 𝒆𝒑 ) such that 𝒆𝒊 ∈ 𝑬.
A p-list is ordered list of p elements of E means that the order of these elements is very important.

62
b) Example:
 Consider a word March is a 5-list of the letter of alphabet.

 (𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟓, ) and (𝟓, 𝟏, 𝟑, ) are two 3-lists different.
3.2.2. Arrangement with repetition
a) Definition
If we take p elements of E one after another with repetition means that before taking the second
objects in E we must put the first into E, we continue this process until we take p objects is called
arrangement with repetition of n objects taken p by p.
b) Notation
Suppose that #𝐸 = 𝑛,
#(𝐸 𝑝 ) = (#𝐸)𝑝 = 𝑛𝑝 is arrangement with repetition formula.
b) Example: How many can you write the number of 3 digital different to zero?
Solution: Each number form is a 3-list of elements of 𝐸 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} → #𝐸 = 9
We obtain 93 = 729 different numbers.
3.2.3. Arrangement without repetition (permutation)
3.2.2. Arrangement with repetition
a) Factorial notation: The factorial notation is defined as follows 𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 −
3) ⋯ 3.2.1 = ∏𝑛𝑘=1 𝑘, when 𝑛 is integer positive.
Examples: 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 720
0! = 1! = 1
𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)!
Theorem: If n and r are positive integers, with n greater than r, then
𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) ⋯ (𝑟 + 2)(𝑟 + 1)𝑟!
This theorem allows us to simplify an expression as follows:
5! = 5.4!
(𝑛+3)! (𝑛+3)(𝑛+2)(𝑛+1)𝑛!
= = (𝑛 + 3)(𝑛 + 2)(𝑛 + 1)
𝑛! 𝑛!

63
b) Definition
E is a finite non empty set of cardinal n and p is a natural number such that1 ≤ 𝑝 ≤ 𝑛.
We call arrangement of p elements of E all p-list of element of E different 2 by 2.
All arrangement without repetition of n objects p by p can also interpret as an injection of set p
elements in a set of n elements.
c) Notation

64
An arrangement without repetition (permutation) is a particular ordering of a set of unique objects.

The number of permutation of r unique objects, chosen from a group of n, is given by:
𝒏! 𝒏!
𝑷𝒏𝒓 = (𝒏−𝒓)! or 𝒏𝑷𝒓 = (𝒏−𝒓)!
Calculus: 𝑷𝒏𝒓 = 𝒏(𝒏 − 𝟏)(𝒏 − 𝟐) ⋯ (𝒏 − 𝒓 + 𝟏)
d) Examples:
2. how many permutations of six objects taken two a time can be made?

65
𝟔! 𝟔! 𝟔.𝟓.𝟒!
Answer: 𝟔𝑷𝟐 = (𝟔−𝟐)! = 𝟒! = = 𝟔. 𝟓 = 𝟑𝟎
𝟒!
3. How many four-digits can be formed from the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7without repetition?
𝟔! 𝟔!
Answer: 𝟔𝑷𝟒 = (𝟔−𝟐)!
= 𝟐! = 𝟔. 𝟓. 𝟒. 𝟑 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎
3.2.2. Particular case: Permutation (bijection)
Definition: We call permutation of finite set E of#𝐸 = 𝑛, all arrangement at n elements of E.
We denote 𝒏𝑷𝒏 = 𝒏!

66

67
2.2.3. Permutation with repetition
Definition:
The number of arrangement of n items, where there are k groups of like items of size𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , ⋯ , 𝑟𝑘 ,
𝒏! 𝒏!
respectively, is given by: 𝒓 = ∏𝒌
𝟏 .𝒓𝟐 .𝒓𝟑 ⋯𝒓𝒌 𝒊=𝟏(𝒓𝒊 )

68

69

70
Remark: If the number of objects is very small, we can use Tree diagram for determining the
numbers of arrangements without repetition.

71

72

73
3.3. Combinations and properties
a) Definition
Consider E non empty finite set of cardinal n and r is a natural number such that 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛.
We call combination but r-elements of E all part of r elements of E.
Remark: The order of elements does not contribute; the elements are 2 by 2 disjoints
Example: {1, 2, 3} is a combination of 3 elements of 𝐸 = {1, 2, 3, 4}
b) Notation

74

75

76

77
c) Principle of choice

78

79
d) Properties of 𝒏𝑪𝒓
1. ∀𝑛 ∈ 𝑵: 𝑛𝐶0 = 1, 𝑛𝐶(𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛; 𝑛𝐶𝑛 = 1 , 𝑛𝐶1 = 𝑛
2. ∀𝑛, 𝑟 ∈ 𝑵: 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛, 𝑛𝐶𝑟 = 𝑛𝐶(𝑛 − 𝑟)
3. ∀𝑛, 𝑟 ∈ 𝑵: 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛, 𝑛𝐶(𝑟 + 1) = 𝑛𝐶𝑟 + 𝑛𝐶(𝑟 + 1) Pascal formula
Binomial theorem
The binomial theorem describes the algebraic expansion of powers of a binomial.
According to the theorem, it is possible to expand the power (x + y)n into a sum involving terms
of the form axbyc, where the coefficient of each term is a positive integer, and the sum of the exponents
of x and y in each term is n.
The binomial coefficients appear as the entries of Pascal's triangle. The following numbers are called
binomial coefficients:
Pascal's triangle

80
This formula is sometimes referred to as the binomial formula or the binomial identity.
EXERCISES

81
ANSWERS

82
Part2. MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
Chapter1. BASIC NOTIONS ON NUMERICAL FUNCTIONS
1.1. Functions notions
a) Definition
A function is a relationship between an output which is dependant variable of a given input which
is independent variable such that each element of stating set has at most one image in arriving set.
i.e.𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵
𝑥 → 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦
𝑓 is a function iff ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, ∃! 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 ∶ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦
b) Domain of definition and the image of a function
- A domain of definition of a function is all elements of starting set 𝐴 which have the image
in 𝐵.
i.e. 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑓 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∶ ∃! 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)}
- An image of a function is all elements of arriving set 𝐵 which have the correspondence in
starting set 𝐴.
i.e. 𝐼𝑚𝑓 = {𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 ∶ ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)}
1.2 .Numerical functions of one variable
a) Definition and example
A numerical function is a relationship between starting set and arriving set such that each element of
starting set admits at most one image in arriving set and starting set is a subset of a set of real numbers
and arriving set is a set of real numbers.
i.e. 𝑓 is a numerical function iff ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴∁ 𝑅, ∃! 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 ∶ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦

Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 5
b) Some types of numerical functions and their domain of definition

10) Polynomial functions
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 is a polynomial function of degree 𝑛.
Where 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝑹 , ∀ 𝑖 = 0,1,2,3, ⋯ , 𝑛 are coefficients of independent variables’ 𝑥 .
We can denote this function as: 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 .
The domain of definition of a polynomial function is always𝑹.

83
Particular cases:- If 𝑛 = 2, then this function is called a quadratic function i.e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎2 𝑥 2 +
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 where 𝑎2 ≠ 0.
 If 𝑛 = 1, then this function is called a linear function i.e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 where 𝑎1 ≠ 0.

 If 𝑛 = 1 and 𝑎1 = 1 and 𝑎0 = 0 then this function is called a identical function i.e. 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥
 If 𝑛 = 0, then this function is called a constant function i.e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 where 𝑎1 ∈ ℝ.
2 0) Rational functions
ℎ(𝑥)
A rational function is a function of the form: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) ,where 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0.
𝒅𝒐𝒎𝒇 = 𝒅𝒐𝒎𝒇 =∩ 𝒅𝒐𝒎𝒈\{𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎}

sin 𝑥
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
A particular case of a rational functions is a fractional function is a function of the form: 𝑓(𝑥) =
ℎ(𝑥)
,where 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0, and 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ(𝑥) are polynomial functions.
𝑔(𝑥)
𝒅𝒐𝒎𝒇 = ℝ\{𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎}
2𝑥 3 −3𝑥+7
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
3𝑥 4 +4𝑥 2 − 𝑥+8
5
3 0) Irrational functions
𝑛
An irrational function is a function of the form: 𝑓(𝑥) = √ℎ(𝑥) ,∀ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ\{𝟎, 𝟏}.
For finding its domain we have two cases:
1st case: If n is an odd positive integer, then 𝒅𝒐𝒎𝒇 = 𝒅𝒐𝒎𝒉

3
Examples: 1) (𝑥) = √2𝑥 + 1 , 𝒅𝒐𝒎𝒇 = ℝ
3 2𝑥+1
2) (𝑥) = √ 𝑥−7 , Find the 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑓?
Solution: Existence condition (E.C): 𝑥 − 7 ≠ 0 → 𝑥 ≠ 7
So, the 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑓 = ℝ\{𝟕} = ]−∞, 𝟕[ ∪ ]𝟕, +∞[
2nd case: If n is an even positive integer, then 𝒅𝒐𝒎𝒇 = {𝒙 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒉(𝒙) ≥ 𝟎}

84
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = √2𝑥 + 1, Find the𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑓?

−1
Solution: Existence condition (E.C): 2𝑥 + 1 ≥ 0 → 𝑥 ≥ 2
−𝟏
So, the 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑓 = ] 𝟐 , +∞[
Exercises:
Determine the domains of the functions
4 0) Logarithmic functions and exponential functions

a) Logarithmic functions
i) Definition
Consider ∈ ℝ+ \{𝟎, 𝟏} , 𝑓(𝑥) is a logarithmic function with basis 𝑎 ∈ ℝ+ \{𝟎, 𝟏} of the

form: 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 ℎ(𝑥) ↔ ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) where ℎ(𝑥) > 0.
i.e 𝑓: ℝ0+ → ℝ
𝑥 → 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 , ∀𝑎 ∈ ℝ+ \{0,1}
Remarks: If 𝑎=10, then we say that 𝑓(𝑥) is a decimal logarithmic function and is denoted as 𝑓(𝑥) =
log10 ℎ(𝑥) or 𝑓(𝑥) = log ℎ(𝑥)
If 𝑎=e, then we say that 𝑓(𝑥) is a neperian logarithmic function and is denoted as 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑒 ℎ(𝑥)
or 𝑓(𝑥) = ln ℎ(𝑥)
ii) Domain of definition and examples
𝑫𝒐𝒎𝒇 = {𝒉(𝒙) 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒉(𝒙) > 0 }
Examples: Determine the domain of: 1) 𝑓(𝑥) = log(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6)

2𝑥+3
2) 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑥−2 ( 𝑥+4 )

85
Solutions: 1.E.C: 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 > 0 ↔ (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3) > 0
Signs table:
x −∞ -3 -2 +∞
𝑥+3 - - 0 +++
𝑥+2 - - - - - 0 +++++++
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 ++++ 0 - -- - - - 0 + + ++ ++ +++
So, 𝑫𝒐𝒎𝒇 = ]−∞, −𝟑[ ∪ ]−𝟐, +∞[
2𝑥+3
2. E.C: 1) > 0 2) 𝑥 + 4 ≠ 0 → 𝑥 ≠ −4
𝑥+4
3) 𝑥 − 2 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 − 2 ≠ 1 → 𝑥 ∈ ]2,3[ ∪ ]3, +∞[
If we determine the intersection between 2) and 3) condition we observe that is the third one.
For the 1) we can use sign table.
Signs table:
−3
x −∞ −4 +∞
2
𝑥+4 - - 0 +++
2𝑥 + 3 - - - - - 0 +++++++
2𝑥+3
++++ 0- -- --- 0 + + ++ ++ +++
𝑥+4
2𝑥+3 𝟑
So, > 0 ↔ ]−∞, −𝟒[ ∪ ]− 𝟐 , +∞[
𝑥+4
𝟑
Hence, the 𝑫𝒐𝒎𝒇 = (]−∞, −𝟒[ ∪ ]− 𝟐 , +∞[) ∩ ]2,3[ ∪ ]3, +∞[ = ]2,3[ ∪ ]3, +∞[
iii) Properties
0. log 𝑎 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑦 ↔ 𝑥 = 𝑦
1. log 𝑎 (𝑥𝑦) = log 𝑎 𝑥 + log 𝑎 𝑦 , 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 + \{0,1} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅0 +
2. log 𝑎 (∏𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 )) = ∑𝑛𝑖=1(log 𝑎 𝑥𝑖 )

86
𝑥
3. log 𝑎 (𝑦) = log 𝑎 𝑥 − log 𝑎 𝑦 , 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 + \{0,1} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅0 + , 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅0 + \{1}
4. log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑝 = 𝑝 log 𝑎 𝑥, ∀ 𝑝 ∈ 𝑅
log 𝑥
5. log 𝑎 𝑥 = log𝑐 𝑎 (Change of basis formula)
𝑐
6. 𝑥 = 𝑥, ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅0 +
log𝑎 𝑥
iv) Derivative of logarithm functions

1 1
We admit that: ∀ 𝑎 ∈ ℝ+ + ′
0 \{1}; ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ0 : (log 𝑎 𝑥) = 𝑥 log 𝑎 𝑒 = 𝑥 ln 𝑎
In particular:
1 1
∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ0+ : (log 𝑥)′ = log 𝑒 =
𝑥 𝑥 ln 10
1 1
∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ+ ′
0 : (ln 𝑥) = ln 𝑒 =
𝑥 𝑥
𝑢′ (𝑥)
In general, we have: (log 𝑎 𝑢(𝑥))′ = 𝑢(𝑥) ln 𝑎
𝑢′ (𝑥)
(log 𝑢(𝑥))′ =
𝑢(𝑥) ln 10
𝑢′ (𝑥)
(ln 𝑢(𝑥))′ =
𝑢(𝑥)
b) Exponential functions
j) Definition
Consider ∈ ℝ+ \{𝟎, 𝟏} , 𝑓(𝑥) is an exponential function with basis 𝑎 ∈ ℝ+ \{𝟎, 𝟏} of the

form: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎ℎ(𝑥) where ℎ(𝑥) ∈ ℝ.
i.e 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ0+
𝑥 → 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎ℎ(𝑥) , ∀𝑎 ∈ ℝ+ \{0,1}
Remark: If 𝑎=e, then we say that 𝑓(𝑥) is a natural exponential function and is denoted as 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑒 ℎ(𝑥)

87
ii) Domain of definition and examples
𝑫𝒐𝒎𝒇 = {𝒉(𝒙) 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒉(𝒙) ∈ ℝ }

2 +5𝑥+6)
Examples: Determine the domain of: 1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2(𝑥
𝑫𝒐𝒎𝒇 = ℝ
iii) Index lows

88
v) Derivative of logarithm
functions
We admit that: ∀ 𝑎 ∈ ℝ+ + 𝑥 ′ 𝑥
0 \{1}; ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ0 : (𝑎 ) = 𝑎 ln 𝑎
In particular: ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ+ 𝑥 ′
0 : (𝑒 ) = 𝑒
𝑥
′
In general, we have: (𝑎𝑢(𝑥) ) = 𝑢′ (𝑥)𝑎𝑢(𝑥) ln 𝑎
′
(𝑒 𝑢(𝑥) ) = 𝑢′ (𝑥)𝑒 𝑢(𝑥)
Exercises

89
1. Solve for x in the equation 4 + log 3 (7𝑥) = 10
2. Solve for x in the equation ln(2𝑥 − 1) = 3
3. Solve for x in the equation ln(𝑥 + 1)2 = 2
1
4. Solve for x in the equation log 4 𝑥 − log 4 (𝑥 − 1) = 2
5. Solve for x in the equation log 2 (𝑥 + 5) + log 2 (𝑥 + 2) = log 2 (𝑥 + 6)
6. Solve for x in the equation log 8𝑥 − log(1 + √𝑥) = 2
7. Solve for x in the equation

90
Chapter 2. LIMITS, CONTINUITY and SEQUENCES
2.1. Concept of a limit (existence , unicity) and properties
a) Concept of a limit at a point
2𝑥 2 − 2
Let f:ℝ ⟶ ℝ: 𝑥 ⟼ 2𝑥 + 2 and g: ℝ ⟶ ℝ: 𝑥 ⟼ two functions. Find the domain of
𝑥−1
definition and the graph and the limit at 1.
For f(x),dom f= ℝ and the graph is a straight line which passes through (0,2);(-1,0) and (1,4).
For g(x), dom g =ℝ⁄{1} and the graph is straight line which passes through (0,2);(-1,0) but doesn’t
pass through (1,4) because 1 is not element of the domain of g; but when x is a neibourhood of 1
we see that g(x) is 4.We say that 4 is a limit of f and of g at 1 and we denote it lim 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→1
4 = lim 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑥→1
We say that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 ⇔ ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝛿 > 0: 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 ⟹ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑏| < 𝜀.
𝑥→𝑎
Examples: Prove that (1) lim (2𝑥 + 5) = 9 ; (2) lim (2𝑥 3 − 10𝑥) = 4
𝑥→2 𝑥→−2
Solutions:(1) lim(2𝑥 + 5) = 9 ⇔ ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝛿 > 0: 0 < |𝑥 − 2| < 𝛿 ⟹ |𝑓(𝑥) − 9| < 𝜀

𝑥→2
Or |𝑓(𝑥) − 9| = |(2𝑥 + 5) − 9| = |2𝑥 − 4| = 2|𝑥 − 2| < 2 𝛿; then we can get 2 𝛿 ≤

𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
𝜀 ⟹ 𝛿 ≤ . Consequently, we get 𝛿(𝜀) ≤ because if |𝑥 − 2| < 𝛿 with 𝛿 ≤ we are sure
2 2 2
that |(2𝑥 + 5) − 9| < 𝜀.
(2) lim (2𝑥 3 − 10𝑥) = 4 ⇔ ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝛿 > 0: 0 < |𝑥 + 2| < 𝛿 ⟹ |𝑓(𝑥) − 4| < 𝜀
𝑥→−2
Or |𝑓(𝑥) − 4| = |(2𝑥 3 − 10𝑥) − 4| = |2𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 − 4| = 2|𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 − 2|

= 2|(𝑥 + 2)3 − 5𝑥 − 2 − (6𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 8)| = 2|(𝑥 + 2)3 − 6𝑥 2 − 17𝑥 − 10| < 𝜖
= 2|(𝑥 + 2)3 − 6(𝑥 + 2)2 + 7𝑥 + 14| = 2|(𝑥 + 2)3 − 6(𝑥 + 2)2 + 7(𝑥 + 2)|
≤ 2|(𝑥 + 2)3 |+12|(𝑥 + 2)2 |+14|(𝑥 + 2)|
< 2|𝑥 + 2|3 + 12|𝑥 + 2|2 + 14|𝑥 + 2|
< 2𝛿 3 + 12𝛿 2 + 14𝛿 < 28𝛿 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝛿 3 < 𝛿 2 < 𝛿 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝜀
Then we can get 28𝛿 ≤ 𝜀 ⟹ 𝛿 ≤ 28.

91
Limit on the right and limit on the left:
Let a∈ ℝ , the variable x can approach a from the right or from the left side. We distinguish these 2
limits by x⟶ 𝑎+ and x⟶ 𝑎− .Then lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 indicates that b is the limit of f on the right
x⟶𝑎
side at a
And lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 indicates that c is the limit of f on the left side at a
x⟶𝑎
Theorem: If the limit of a function f at a point a ; this limit is unique.
Consequence: if lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim− 𝑓(𝑥) then the limit at a does not exist.
x⟶𝑎 x⟶𝑎
|𝑥−3|
Example: Let f(x)=2𝑥−6 ;find the limit at 3.
𝑥 − 3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 3 𝑥−3 1
|𝑥 − 3| = { ;then lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 2(𝑥−3) = 2 ; and
−𝑥 + 3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 3 x⟶3 x⟶3
−𝑥+3 1
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 2(𝑥−3) = − 2 ; then the limit at 3 does not exist.
x⟶3 x⟶3
Properties of a limit at a point
If the functions f(x) and g(x) admit a limit at the point a then:
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)

(1) lim (𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥) .; (3) lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥→𝑎
.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑔(𝑥)
(2) lim (𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥). lim 𝑔(𝑥) .(4) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) = (lim 𝑓(𝑥))𝑥→𝑎 .
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Examples: Let f(x)=2x+3 and g(x)=𝑥 2 − 5 .We calculate that (1) lim (𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)) = 3.
𝑥→−1
𝑓(𝑥) 9 1
(3) lim(𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)) = −7. (3) lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 4 . (4) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) = 625
𝑥→2 𝑥→3 𝑥→1
Extension of the limit at infinite
The concept of the limitlim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 can be define for a or b which are infinite:
𝑥→𝑎
(1)if a is infinite and b is finite:
∗ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 ⟺ ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝐴 > 0: 𝑥 < −𝐴 ⟹ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑏| < 𝜀

𝑥→−∞
∗ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 ⟺ ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝐴 > 0: 𝑥 > 𝐴 ⟹ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑏| < 𝜀
𝑥→+∞

92
(2)if a is finite and b is infinite:
∗ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ ⟺ ∀𝐵 > 0, ∃𝛿 > 0: |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 ⟹ 𝑓(𝑥) < −𝐵.

𝑥→𝑎
∗ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ ⟺ ∀𝐵 > 0, ∃𝛿 > 0: |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 ⟹ 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝐵 .
𝑥→𝑎
(3)if a is infinite and b is infinite:
∗ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ ⟺ ∀𝐵 > 0, ∃𝐴 > 0: 𝑥 < −𝐴 ⟹ 𝑓(𝑥) < −𝐵.

𝑥→−∞
∗ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ ⟺ ∀𝐵 > 0, ∃𝐴 > 0: 𝑥 < −𝐴 ⟹ 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝐵 .
𝑥→−∞
∗ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ ⟺ ∀𝐵 > 0, ∃𝐴 > 0: 𝑥 > 𝐴 ⟹ 𝑓(𝑥) < −𝐵.

𝑥→+∞
∗ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ ⟺ ∀𝐵 > 0, ∃𝐴 > 0: 𝑥 > 𝐴 ⟹ 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝐵 .

𝑥→+∞
Remark: The symbols 0− and 0+ are called the infinitely smalls .

2𝑥 6 2𝑥 6
Examples: (1) lim− 3−𝑥 = 0+ = +∞ ; (2) lim+ 3−𝑥 = 0− = − ∞ ;
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
lim 2𝑥. (3 − 𝑥) = (+∞). (−∞) = − ∞

𝑥→+∞
∞ 𝟎
Indeterminate forms (0. ∞ ; ∞ − ∞;∞ ;𝟎 ;𝟏∞ , 𝟎𝟎 , ∞𝟎 , 𝟎∞ ).
∞ 0
The symbols 0. ∞ ; ∞ − ∞;∞ ;0 ;1∞ ; 00 ; ∞0 ; 0∞ don’t have a signification quantity, and are
called indeterminate forms in calculation of limits. To give a precision to the forms above we use
some theorems in this operation.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
Theorem1: lim = 1.
𝑥→0 𝑥
Theorem2: If f(x) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 and if g(x)= 𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑥 𝑚−1 +

⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏0 , then (1) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ;and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑚
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 < 𝑚.
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛
(2) lim = {𝑏 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 = 𝑚 .
𝑥→∞ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑚
∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 > 𝑚.
1
Theorem3: Let e=2.71828…. , the number of Neper; then lim(1 + 𝑥 )𝑥 = 𝑒 .
𝑥→0
1 𝑥
lim (1 + 𝑥) = 𝑒.
𝑥→∞

93
Suppose that we need to find the limit of a quantity y   f ( x)

g ( x)
, where the limits of f and g as
x  a are such that one of the indeterminate forms:
00 ,  0 or 1 is produced.
We have the following four steps for finding the limit of  f ( x)
g ( x)
as x  a :
i. Let y   f ( x)
g ( x)
ii. Simplify ln y  g ( x) ln f ( x)
iv. Conclude that lim  f ( x) 

lim ln y
 e x a
g ( x)
ii. Evaluate lim ln y
x a xa

Indeterminate form of type

 an
n
b ,n  m
 ak x k
 n
lim k 0
 0, n  m
x  m

i 0
bi x i  , n  m


0
Indeterminate form of type .
0
x2 1  0  ( x  1)( x  1)
a) lim     lim lim( x  1)  2
x 1 x  1  0  x1 x 1 x 1
sin 4 x sin 4 x
4x lim
sin 4 x  0  4 x  lim 4 x  x 0 4 x  2
b) lim     lim
x  0 sin 2 x
0 x  0
2x
sin 2 x x 0 2 x
lim
sin 2 x
2x x  0 2x
Exercises
1.Prove the 3 theorems above.
2𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 −3𝑥 2 +𝑥 𝑥−2 𝑥+6 3𝑥

2.Calculate:( 1) lim ;(2) lim (−𝑥 2 −𝑥+2) (3) lim 3 . (4) lim (𝑥+2) ;
𝑥→0 𝑥−𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→2 √3𝑥+2− 2 𝑥→∞
−𝑥 2 +𝑥
(5) lim (−𝑥 2 −𝑥+2)
𝑥→1
Solutions
0
of 2:( 1) is an indeterminate form . Then :
0

94
𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥
2𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 𝑥(2+ ) 2+4lim
𝑥→0 4𝑥
lim =lim 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 =−3
𝑥→0 𝑥−𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥(1− ) 1−3lim
𝑥 𝑥→0 3𝑥
∞ −3𝑥 2 +𝑥
( 2) is an indeterminate form . Then we apply theorem 2 and lim (−𝑥 2 −𝑥+2) = 3
∞ 𝑥→∞
3
0 𝑥−2 (𝑥−2)( √(3𝑥+2)2 + 2 3√3𝑥+2+4) 12
(3)is an indeterminate form . lim 3 = lim 3 3 = −6 = −2
0 𝑥→2 √3𝑥+2− 2 𝑥→2 ( √3𝑥+2− 2)( √(3𝑥+2)2 + 2 3√3𝑥+2+4)
3𝑥
∞ 𝑥+6 3𝑥 1 𝑥+2
(4) is an indeterminate form 1 ;or lim (𝑥+2) = lim (1 + 𝑥+2 ) .if t= the limit become
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 4
4
1 12𝑡−6
lim (1 + 𝑡 ) = 𝑒 12
𝑡→∞
0 𝑥(1−𝑥) 1
(5) is an indeterminate form .Then(5)= lim ((1−𝑥)(𝑥+2)) = 2
0 𝑥→1
Indeterminate form of type 1

x
 2
a) lim 1    1 
x 
 x
x
Put x  2t . Then t  and if x    t  
2
2
 2
x
 1
2t
  1 
t
lim 1    lim 1     lim 1     e 2

x 
 x  t   t  t   t  
x
 k
lim 1    1  .Put x  kt . Then t  and if x    t  
x
b)
x 
 x k
k
 k
x
 1
kt
  1 
t
lim 1    lim 1     lim 1     e k

x 
 x  t   t   t   t  
 x2  x2
x x x
x2  3 
 1  ;
3
c) lim    1 ; lim    lim 1  
x 
 x 1  x 1 x  1 x  x  1  x  x  1 
1
Put t  ( x  1)  x  3t  1. If x    t  
3
3
 3 
x
 1
3t 1
  1 
t
 1
3t 1
lim 1    tlim 1   =  lim 1     lim 1    e3 1  e3

x 
 x 1  
 t  t   t   t   t 

95
2.2. Continuity of a function at a point.
Definitions and examples
A function f is continuous at the point a ⟺ 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 following conditions are verified:
(i)f(a) exists (ie a ϵ domf ).
(ii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists (ie lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) ).
𝑥⟶𝑎 𝑥⟶𝑎 𝑥⟶𝑎 𝑥⟶𝑎
(iii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥⟶𝑎
If one of the 3 conditions is not satisfied, we say that the function f is discontinuous at the point a.
The definition above is equivalent to the following definition:
A function f is continuous at the point aϵ domf ⟺ ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝛿 > 0; ∀𝑥: |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 ⟹

|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)| < 𝜀.
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0
Examples: (1) f(x)={ 𝑥 is continuous at the point x= 0.
2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
(2)f(x)={ 10 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0 discontinuous at the point x=0
−2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
𝑥+2
(3)f(x)=(𝑥+1)(𝑥−2) is discontinuous at the point x=2 and at the point x= 1.
𝑥 2 −1
(4)f(x)= 𝑥−1 is discontinuous at the point x=1.
Exercise: Study the continuity of the functions above and verify the conclusion given.
Classification of the discontinuity points of a function.
A) Eliminable or apparent discontinuity.
If f(x) is not defined at a, but lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 we say that is a point of an apparent or eliminable
𝑥⟶𝑎
discontinuity.
𝑥 2 −1
For example f(x)= 𝑥−1 has an apparent discontinuity at x=1.But if we take f(1)=2 the function is
𝑥 2 −1
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 1
prolonged by continuity and in this case f(x)={ 𝑥−1 is continuous at the point x=1.
2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 1

96
B) Simple discontinuity or discontinuity of the first type.
If lim− 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) exist but are not equal ,we say that f(x) presents a simple
𝑥⟶𝑎 𝑥⟶𝑎
discontinuity at x=a(or a is a point of discontinuity of the first type).
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
For example f(x)={ 10 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0 has at x=o a point of discontinuity of the first type.
−2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
C) Discontinuity of the second type.
We say that that a function f has a discontinuity of second type at a if one at least of its limits on the
left and on the right does not or is infinite.
𝑥 2 +1
For example f(x)= has a discontinuity of the second type at x=1 because lim− 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−1 𝑥⟶1
−∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ .
𝑥⟶1
Continuity of function on an interval.
A function f is continuous on an interval I of if it is continuous at each point of I.

1
For example f(x)= 𝑥 is continuous on I=[1,3] but is discontinuous on I=[ 1,2]
Properties:
(1)The functions y=sinx, y=cosx, y=𝑒 𝑥 ,polynomial functions are continuous on ℝ.

𝑓(𝑥)
(2)If f(x) and g(x) are continuous on then the function 𝑔(𝑥) is continuous on ℝ ∕ {𝑥: 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0}
(3)Theorem of Bolzano – Cauchy:
(Bolzano(1781 – 1848) is a Tcheque mathematician; Cauchy(1789 – 1857) is a French

mathematician.)
If the function f(x) is continuous on the interval [a , b] and if f(a) and f(b) take the values of different
signs ,then it exists at least a point c ∈ ]𝑎, 𝑏[ such that f(c)=0.
Application: Let f(x)=𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3;verify if the graph of f passes through x-axis in the
interval [1,2].

97
Verification: As a polynomial function the function f(x) is continuous on and in a very subset of
including [1,2].secondly f(1)= - 3 and f(2)= 5 and have different signs. Consequently there is c ∈
]1,2[ such that f(c)=0.Then c is a zero of f(x) and the graph of f passes through x-axis at (c,0).
EXERCISES
1. Prove the statement using the 𝜖 and 𝛿 definition of limit

𝑥 3 𝑥 9
a) lim 5 = 5 b) lim (4 + 3) = 2 c) lim(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 4) = 8
𝑥→3 𝑥→6 𝑥→3
2. In the following exercises we told that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙 find a number 𝛿 such that |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑙| < 𝜖
𝑥→𝑎
whenever 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿:
𝑥 2 −1
a) lim(5𝑥 − 2) = 13 , 𝜖 = 0.01 b) lim = −2 , 𝜖 = 0.05
𝑥→3 𝑥→6 𝑥+1
3. Find the equation of the tangent line and normal line at 𝑥0 .

1
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥; 𝑥0 = −1 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 1; 𝑥0 = 0 c) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥; 𝑥0 = 4
4. Calculate the following limits:
𝑥−8 √𝑥+ℎ−√𝑥 sin 5𝑥 cos 𝑥−cos 𝑎 𝜋

a) lim ( 3 ) b) lim c) lim sin 2𝑥 d) lim e) lim (𝑛 sin 𝑛)
𝑥→8 √𝑥−2 ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥→0 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑛→∞
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥−1
5.Find the following limits: a) lim− (𝑥−2) b) lim+ (𝑥−2) c) lim− (|𝑥−1|)
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→1
cosh 𝑥 −1
d) lim ( )
𝑥→0 𝑥2
1
𝑥2 1+𝑥 3 𝜋
6. Study the continuity of: a) 𝑦 = 𝑥−2 b) 𝑦 = 1+𝑥
c) 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 d) 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥+1
2.3. Numerical sequences (progression)
a) Definitions
Let S ϲ 𝑁, we call sequence of real numbers any application from S in ℝ .
We denote the range of a natural number n by 𝑢𝑛 .
Then we get the terms of the sequence which are: 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ,⋯, 𝑢𝑛 , ⋯and we denote them briefly by
bracket notation as (𝑢𝑛 )𝑛𝜖𝑁 or {𝑢𝑛 }+∞
𝑛=1 .
The number 𝑢1 , is the first term of the sequence and 𝑢𝑛 is the general term of the sequence(𝑢𝑛 )𝑛𝜖𝑁 .

98
Example: In the sequence 1 , ½ , 1/3 ,1/4 , …,1/n ,…..the first term is 1,the second term is ½ and
1/n is the general term.
In the sequence 1, 4, 9, 16,…,𝑛2 ,…the first term is 1;the second term is 4,the general term is
𝑛2 .
We say that a sequence (𝑢𝑛 )𝑛𝜖𝑁 is increasing⇔ ∀𝑛𝜖𝑁: 𝑢𝑛 ≤ 𝑢𝑛+1 ;
and (𝑢𝑛 )𝑛𝜖𝑁 𝑖𝑠 strictly increasing⇔ ∀𝑛𝜖𝑁: 𝑢𝑛 < 𝑢𝑛+1.
We say that a sequence (𝑢𝑛 )𝑛𝜖𝑁 is decreasing⇔ ∀𝑛𝜖𝑁: 𝑢𝑛 ≥ 𝑢𝑛+1 ;
and (𝑢𝑛 )𝑛𝜖𝑁 𝑖𝑠 strictly decreasing⇔ ∀𝑛𝜖𝑁: 𝑢𝑛 > 𝑢𝑛+1.
We say that a sequence (𝑢𝑛 )𝑛𝜖𝑁 is stationary (constant)⇔ ∀𝑛𝜖𝑁: 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢𝑛+1;
A sequence which is increasing (or decreasing) only is monotonous.
We say that the sequence (𝑢𝑛 )𝑛𝜖𝑁 is bounded if there exist two real numbers m and M such that
for any; we have m ≤ 𝑢𝑛 ≤ M. The real m is the lower bound of the sequence and M is the upper
bound.
1
Exercise1:We define a sequence (𝑢𝑛 )𝑛𝜖𝑁 by 𝑢𝑛 = 2 + 𝑛 .Find the terms of the sequence and show
if it is monotonous or bounded.
Solution:
; ;. ; ;…….. =2+
is strictly decreasing because = =

;then it is monotonous strictly. The lower bound is 2
and the upper bound is 3; then the sequence is bounded.
Example: Do the same exercise for (i) and
(ii) For ;and
b) Convergent and divergent sequences
We say that the sequence tends to or has a limit l if for all ε , there is an integer p
such that n>p .
We shall denote =l; and we say that converges to l.

99
Remark: If the sequence has a limit; this limit is unique.
A sequence which does not converge is divergent. If is divergent then
Theorem: Suppose that the sequences and converge to limits and , respectively, and
c is constant. Then:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e) (if )
Examples: Calculate the limit of the following sequences:
(1) ; (2) ; (3) ;
(4)
Solutions: (1) = =2
The numerator is the sum S of an arithmetic progression: the reason is 2 and the number p of term
is such that 4n+1=(p – 1 )2 +3,then p=2n. S=
The numerator is the sum S of n terms of a geometric progression: the reason is ½.
So
S= =(1 – ) ;The denominator is the sum T of n+1 terms of a geometric
progression: the reason is 1/3 .So T=1. =3/2(1- ).
Finally = =2/3

100
We put at the same denominator and we follow the method used at (1); finally we find 1/3.
Example: The sequence which has he general term is divergent.
We say that the sequence is an alternate sequence if have

opposite signs
Example: A sequence which has the general term is an alternate sequence.
c) Geometric and arithmetic progressions
1. Arithmetic progressions
is an arithmetic progression if
The real number r is called the reason of the progression.
If r>0 then the progression is strictly increasing.
If r<0 then the progression is strictly decreasing.
If r=0 then the progression is constant.
Property: Let an arithmetic progression with reason r and with the first term
If is the term; and the sum of n first terms (partial sum); then
(1) =
(2) = =
Example: Given an arithmetic progression { } = (8, 6, 4, 2,………).Find
Solution: The reason is -2 and the first term is = 8; then = 8 + 19. (- 2 )= - 30
and .
2. Geometric progressions
is an Geometric progression if
The real number q is called the reason of the progression.
If q>0 then the term of the progression have the sign of
If q<0 then the progression is an alternate sequence.

101
If q=1 then the progression is constant.
Property: Let a geometric progression with reason q and with the first term
If is the term; and the sum of n first terms (partial sum); then
(1) =
(2) = =
Example: Given an arithmetic progression { } =(2,10,50,250,………).Find
Solution: The reason is 5 and the first term is = 2; then = 2. = 6250
and .

102

103
Exercises
1. Express the following sequences in bracket notation:
a) b) c) d) e)
2. Show that the sequence is strictly monotone:
a) b) c) d)
3. Show that the sequence is monotone and determine whether it converges:
a) b) c) d) e) f)
4. Consider as an arithmetic progression such that and .

Calculate the common difference, write as un function of ?
5. Three numbers are in arithmetic progression. Find the numbers if their sum is 30 and the of their
squares is 332?
6. If , and 54 are three consecutive terms of a geometric sequence, find the possible
values of a, and the numerical value of the next term for each value of a found?
7. Calculate the following limits:
(a) (c)
8. If , and 54 are three consecutive terms of a geometric sequence, find the possible
values of a, and the numerical value of the next term for each value of a found?

104
9. Calculate
Chapter3. DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRALS
3.1. DIFFERENTIATION
3.1.1. Definitions
Increment:If a variable x is given an increment x from x  x , an arbitrary but fixed value of x in its
range, a function y  f ( x) will be given in turn an increment, y  f ( x)  f ( x  x)  f ( x) .
f ( x)
The average rate of change of a function f ( x) with respect to x is given by .
x
The derivative: The derivative of a function f ( x) with respect to x is denoted by f ( x) and defined
de f
f ( x) f ( x  x)  f ( x)
as f ( x)  lim  lim , provided the limit exists.
x 0 x x 0 x
Example: If f(x)=𝑥 2 + 𝑥 , calculate f’(2) by the definition.
𝑓(2+ℎ)− 𝑓(2) (2+ℎ)2 +(2+ℎ)−(4+2) ℎ(5+ℎ)

The formula give f’( 2)= lim = lim = lim =5.
ℎ⟶0 ℎ ℎ⟶0 ℎ ℎ⟶0 ℎ
Remark: It should be understood that the existence of a derivative is a local property of a function,
that is, it is a property for a given value of x and not for the entire function. The process of finding
f ( x)
the derivative f  is called differentiation of f . f ( x)  lim  tan  ; where  : angle
x 0 x
between X  axis and the tangent line of y  f ( x) at point x . f ( x) is the slope of tangent line of
y  f ( x) at  x, f ( x) 
Geometrical interpretation

105
When h approaches zero, the point Q approaches point P. At this time, the secant line
begins to resemble the tangent to the function f(x) at Point P, and thus the angle α tends to
be β.
The gradient or slope of the tangent to the curve at a point is equal to the derivative of the
function at that point.
𝑚𝑡 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)
Examples: Given the parabola f(x) = x2, find the points where the tangent line is parallel to
the bisector of the first quadrant.
The bisector of the first quadrant has the equation y = x, so its slope is m = 1.
Since the two lines are parallel they have the same slope, so: 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 1.
Since the slope of the tangent to the curve equals the derivative at x = a.

106
We prove that f’( a) is the slope of the tangent T of the representative curve of f(x) at the point a
.Then 𝑇 ≡ 𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) and if N is the normal of f(x) at the point a then the equation
1
of N is N≡ 𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑎) = − 𝑓′ (𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑎) .
For example if f(x)= 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 then the tangent T and the normal N of f(x) at x=2 ,are
1
𝑇 ≡ 𝑦 − 6 = 5(𝑥 − 2) and N≡ 𝑦 − 6 = − 5 (𝑥 − 2).
The equation of the tangent line is: y  f x0   f x0 x  x0 
The right and the left derivative:

𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)− 𝑓(𝑎)
-We call derivative on the right of a function f(x) at a point x=a,the limit lim+ and
ℎ⟶0 ℎ
𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)− 𝑓(𝑎)
denoted𝑓+ ′(𝑎) ;and the derivative on the left of f(x) at x=a is 𝑓−′ (𝑎) = lim−
ℎ⟶0 ℎ
Example: Verfy if f(x)=|2𝑥 − 6| is derivable at x=3.
2𝑥 − 6 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 3
We define|2𝑥 − 6| = { then 𝑓−′ (3) = −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓+′ (3) = 2. Then the two
−2𝑥 + 6 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 3
derivative are not equal ,so the function is not derivable at x=3.
If a function f ( x) is differentiable at point a , then it is continuous at that point.
3.1.2. Rules for differentiation
1. c  0, where c is a constant 2.  f ( x)  g ( x)   f ( x)  g ( x)
3.  cf ( x)   cf ( x) 4.  f ( x) g ( x)   f ( x) g ( x)  f ( x).g ( x)

107
 f ( x)  f ( x) g ( x)  f ( x) g ( x)
5.   
 g ( x)  g 2 ( x)
6. The chain rule (differentiation of a function of function)  f  u ( x)    f   u ( x)  .u ( x)
1
7. The differentiation of the inverse function yx 
xy
3.1.3. Some standard derivatives
1.  x n   nx n 1 2.  sin x   cos x 3.  cos x    sin x
4.  tan x   sec2 x 5.  cot x    cos ec 2 x
1
6.  arcsin x   7.  arccos x  
1
1  x2 1  x2
1
8.  arctan x   9.  arc cot x  
1
1  x2 1  x2
10.  ln x   11.  log a x  

1 1
x x ln a
12.  e x   e x 13.  a x   a x ln a
14.  shx   chx 15.  chx   shx
3.1.4. Successive differentiation. Higher derivatives
If f ( x) is a differentiable function of x, then f ( x) is called the first derivative of f ( x)
If f ( x), which is also a function of x is differentiable, then its derivative is called the second
derivative of f ( x) and is denoted by f  this f ( x)   f ( x)  the third and higher derivatives of f ( x)
are defined similarly.
Then nth derivative of f ( x) is denoted by f ( n ) ( x).
(n) ( n 1)
 Note that for f ( x) to exist, f ( x) must be differentiable

108
(0)
 f ( x) is considered as f ( x)
 f ( x), f ( x), f ( x),..., f ( n ) ( x) are called successive derivatives of f ( x)
Example: i) let f ( x)  x 6 . Find f (6)
Solution:
f ( x)  6 x 5 ; f ( x)  30 x 4 ; f ( x)  120 x 2 ; f (4) ( x)  240 x;

f (5) ( x)  240; f (6)  0
3.1.5. Differentials
Let f ( x) be a differentiable function the differential of the function f ( x) is denoted by df ( x) and

defined as df ( x)  f ( x)x
where x is the increment of the independent variable x . If f ( x)  x, then df ( x)  dx  xx . Thus

dx  x and df ( x)  f ( x)dx
The differential of the independent variable x is equal to the increment of the variable, but the
differential of the function is not equal to the increment of the function.
df ( x)
From the relation df ( x)  f ( x)dx we can write: f ( x)  .
dx
df
The derivative of a function f ( x) with respect to x is equal to quotient of the differentials.
dx
Properties
1. dc  0 2. d  f ( x)  g ( x)   df ( x)  dg ( x)
 f ( x)  g ( x)df ( x)  f ( x)dg ( x)
3. d  f ( x) g ( x)   g ( x)df ( x)  f ( x )  dg ( x) 4. d  
 g ( x)  g 2 ( x)
Higher differentials
Higher differentials are defined is similarly ways as higher derivatives. Thus

d 2 f ( x)  d (df ); d 3 f ( x)  d  d 2 f ( x)  , etc
d2 f d3 f d n f ( x)
We can also write: f ( x)  ; f ( x )  ;...; f (n)
( x ) 
dx 2 dx3 dx n

109
Remark:
If the function is written as implicit function with together y and x; we differentiate with respect to x
the two sides of the equation and we deduce 𝑦′𝑥 .
2𝑥−3
For example if 𝑦 6 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 + 3𝑥 = 0 then y’=6𝑦 5 −1
𝑥 = ℎ(𝑡)
Remark: If the function is written at a parametric form:{ where tϵR;
𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡)
𝑑𝑦 𝑔′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
Then the derivative function is 𝑑𝑥 = ℎ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡.
𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡)3 𝑑𝑦
For example if f is defined by{ 3 then 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑡.
𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡)
EXERCISES
3
1. Calculate the increment of 𝑦 = √𝑥, if:
a) 𝑥 = 0, ∆𝑥 = 0.001 b) 𝑥 = 8, ∆𝑥 = −9 c) 𝑥 = 𝑎, ∆𝑥 = ℎ
𝑥2
2. Calculate the derivative of: a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 7 𝑒 𝑥 b) 𝑦 = ln 3𝑥 c) 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin−1 𝑥
1 − 𝑥, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ 0
3. Calculate 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = { −𝑥
𝑒 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 0
4. Calculate 𝑓 ′ (0), if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 3𝑥
5. Calculate 𝑓+ ′(0) and 𝑓− ′(0) for the following functions:
𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑥
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = √sin(𝑥 2 ) b) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin−1 (𝑎2 +𝑥 2 ) c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 , 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑓(0) = 0
1+𝑒 𝑥
1 1
d) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 , 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑓(0) = 0 e) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 sin 𝑥 , 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑓(0) = 0
6. Given the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 , calculate the expression: 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 ′ (0)
7. Calculate the following derivative:
𝑥 = 2𝑡 − 1 𝑥 = √𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 3 𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑡
a) { b) { c) { d) {
𝑦 = 𝑡3 3
𝑦 = √𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑏 sin3 𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑡
𝑥2
8. Calculate the second derivative of: a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 7 𝑒 𝑥 b) 𝑦 = ln 3𝑥 c) 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin−1 𝑥

110
3.1.6. Applications of differential calculus
3.1. 6.1.Application of derivatives in limits calculation (Hospital’s rule)
0 
Indeterminate form or
0 
L’Hospital’s Rule
Let f(x) and g(x) be two functions defined on [𝑎 , 𝑏] such that f and g are continuous on [a , b] and
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
derivable on ]𝑎, 𝑏[ .If f(𝑥0 )=g(𝑥0 )=0 and if lim exists then lim = lim .
𝑥⟶𝑥0 𝑔′ (𝑥) 𝑥⟶𝑥0 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥⟶𝑥0 𝑔′ (𝑥)
Example :Find the following limits by using the Hospital’s rule :

𝑙𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥
(1) lim ; (2) lim
𝑥⟶1 1−𝑥 2 𝑥⟶𝜋 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
𝑙𝑛𝑥 1/𝑥 1
Solution :(1)The indeterminate form is 0/0.The Hospital’s rule give lim = lim = −2 .
𝑥⟶1 1−𝑥 2 𝑥⟶1 −2𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 3𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥
(2)The indeterminate form is 0/0.We have lim = lim =±∞(+at the right;- at the
𝑥⟶𝜋 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 𝑥⟶𝜋 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
left).
Limits and asymptotes
A straight line (d) is said to be an asymptote of an infinite branch of a curve  if, as a variable point
P recedes to infinity along the branch, the perpendicular distance of the P from the line (d) tends to
zero.
Vertical asymptote (V.A)
The line V  x  a is a vertical asymptote of a curve   y  f ( x) if either lim_ f ( x)   or

x a
lim f ( x)   or both.
x a
We can also write lim f ( x)  .

x a
Horizontal asymptote (H.A)
The line H  y  b is a horizontal asymptote of the curve   y  f ( x) if either lim f ( x)  b or

x 
lim f ( x)  b
x 
Example3.6. V  x  0 and H  y  0 are vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the

111
1
curve   y 
x
Oblique asymptote (O.A)
Not all asymptotes are horizontal or vertical the non vertical line O  y  kx  n oblique asymptote if
either lim  f ( x)   kx  m    0 or both m and k are determined by k  lim

f ( x)
and
x  x  x
m  lim  f ( x)  kx 
x 
3.1.6.2. Increasing and decreasing functions. Extreme values
The rate of change of a function f ( x) with respect to x, is given by f ( x) .
If f ( x)  0, x  a, b , then f is an increasing function  a, b   f 
If f ( x)  0, x  a, b then f is a decreasing function  a, b   f  .
Critical values for function f ( x) are values of x for which the function is defined and for which
f ( x)  0 or becomes infinity.
A function f ( x) has a relative maximum value for x  x0 if f ( x0 ) is greater than immediately

preceding and succeeding values of the function.
In each case, f ( x) changes from an increasing to a decreasing function and f ( x) changes sign from
positive to negative as x increases trough the corresponding critical value.
A function f ( x) has a relative minimum value for x  x0 if f ( x0 ) is smaller than immediately

preceding and succeeding values of the function.
In each case, f ( x) changes from a decreasing to an increasing function and f ( x) changes sign from
negative to positive as x increases through the corresponding critical.
. If x is a point of interval I , then f ( x0 ) is called the absolute maximum value of f ( x) on I if

f  x0   f ( x), x  I
. If x0 is a point of the interval I then f  x0  is called the absolute minimum value of f  x  on I if

f  x0   f  x  , x  I
Tests for Extreme values of the function
a) First Derivative Method

112
i) Find f   x  and the critical values ii. For a critical value x  x0
f  x  has a maximum value   f  x0   if f   x  changes from positive to negative
f  x  has a minimum value   f  x0   if f   x  changes from negative to positive
f  x  has neither a maximum nor minimum if f   x  does not change the sign
Finding the extreme Values of a continuous function 𝒇 on a closed interval [𝒂, 𝒃]
Step1: Find the critical points of 𝑓 in (𝑎, 𝑏)
Step2: Evaluate 𝑓 at the critical points and the endpoints 𝑎 and 𝑏
Step 3: The largest of the values in Step2 is the maximum and the smallest is the minimum
Example: Find the maximum and minimum values of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 + 36𝑥 on
the interval [1,5], and determine where they occur.
Solution: Since polynomials are differentiable everywhere, 𝑓 is differentiable everywhere on the

interval (1, 5). Thus, if the extreme value occurs on the open interval (1, 5), it must occur at a point
where the derivative is zero.
Step 1: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 + 36𝑥, then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥 2 − 30𝑥 + 36
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 → 6𝑥 2 − 30𝑥 + 36 = 0 ↔ 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 → 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3
The critical points of 𝑓 in (1, 5) are 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3
Step 2: Evaluating 𝑓 at these critical points and the endpoints 1 and 5
𝑓(1) = 23, 𝑓(2) = 28, 𝑓(3) = 27, 𝑓(5) = 55
Step 3: Thus, the minimum value is 23 and the maximum value is 55. The minimum occurs at 𝑥 =
1 and the maximum occurs at 𝑥 = 5.
b) Second Derivative Method
i. Find f   x  and critical values ;ii. Find f   x 
iii. For a critical value x  x0 ,
f  x  has a maximum value   f ( x0 )  if f   x0   0

113
f  x  has a minimum value   f ( x0 )  if f   x0   0
The test fails if f   x   0 or becomes infinite
Second derivative, Concavity and point of inflection
.An are of a curve   y  f  x  is concave up ward or bending up ward if, at each it is points, the
arc lies above tangent.
As x increases, f   x  either is of the same sign and increasing or change sign from negative to
positive. Is either case, the slope f   x  of curve is increasing and f  is positive
. An arc of a curve   y  f  x  is concave down ward or bending down ward if, at each of its
points, the arc lies below the tangent
As x increases, f   x  either is of the same sign and decreasing or changes sign from positive to
negative. In either case, the slope f   x  of the curve is decreasing and f  is negative. A point of
inflection (P.I) is a point at which a curve is changing from concave up ward to concave down
ward, or vice verse a.
Test for concavity and inflection point:
Let f  x   c 2  I 
.If f   x   0, then f is concave up ward. We have f : 
. If f   x   0, then f is concave down ward. We have f : 
.The point x0  I is an inflection point of f  x  if:
i) f  x0  is defined; ii) f   x0   0, or does not exist
ii) f   x0   0, on one side of x0 and f   x   0 on the other side.
Rolle’s theorem: If the function f(x) is continuous on the segment[a,b] ,derivable at any point inside the
segment (𝑎, 𝑏) and if f(a)=f(b);then there is at least one point 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0.
Example: Show that the 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 satisfies the Rolle’s theorem everywhere?
Solution: 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 is both continuous and differentiable everywhere, so that 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 is
continuous on [0, 2𝜋] and differentiable on (0,2𝜋).

114
𝑓(0) = sin 0 = 0 and 𝑓(2𝜋) = sin 2𝜋 = 0
So that 𝑓 satisfies the hypotheses of Rolle’s Theorem on the interval [0, 2𝜋].
Thus, we are guaranteed that there is at least one point 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0.
𝜋 3𝜋
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 ↔ cos 𝑐 = 0 → 𝑐 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 =
2 2
Remark: Sometimes, however, the function 𝑓 is sufficiently complicated that it is difficult or impossible to find values
for 𝑐.
3.1.6.3. Mean-value theorem: If the function f(x) is continuous on the segment[a,b] ,differentiable at any point
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
inside the segment (𝑎, 𝑏) then ∃𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑐).
𝑏−𝑎
Example: Show that the 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 1 satisfies the Mean-value theorem on the interval [1, 2] and
find all values of 𝑐 in this interval whose existence is guaranteed by the theorem?
Solution:
Because polynomials are differentiable everywhere, 𝑓 is differentiable everywhere on the interval

(1, 2) and continuous on [1, 2].
If we take 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑏 = 2
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(1) = 2, 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(2) = 9
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 , 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 3𝑐 2
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) 9 − 2
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = → = 3𝑐 2 ↔ 3𝑐 2 = 7 → 𝑐 = √7⁄3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = −√7⁄3
𝑏−𝑎 2−1
As we are on [1, 2], the accepted value of 𝑐 is √7⁄3
EXERCISES
1. Find the maximum and the minimum values of 𝑓 on the given closed interval and state where
these values occur

115
𝑥
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1; [0, 1] b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 8𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ; [0, 6] c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +2 ; [−1, 4]
c) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 ; [0, 𝜋] d) 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + |9 − 𝑥 2 |; [−5, 1]
2. Find the dimensions of a rectangle with perimeter 100m whose area is as large as possible?
3. Find two numbers whose sum is 20 and whose product is: a) maximum b) minimum
4. Verify that the hypotheses of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied on the given interval and find all values
of 𝑐 that satisfy the conclusion of the theorem:
𝑥 2 −1
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 3 ; [−1, 0] b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 8; [2, 4] c) 𝑓(𝑥) = ; [−1, 1]
𝑥−2
5. Verify that the hypotheses of Mean value theorem are satisfied on the given interval and find all
values of 𝑐 that satisfy the conclusion of the theorem:
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥; [−4, 6] b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 6; [−1, 24] c) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 1; [0, 3]
6.Calculate the following limits:

𝜋𝑥
1 1 sin2 𝑥 (1−cos 𝑥) cos 𝑥
a) lim (sin2 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) b) lim ( ) c) lim d)lim(1 − 𝑥)cos 2
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 𝑥→1
3.2. INTEGRATION
3.2.1. Indefinite integrals.
1. Definitions and properties
-Let f(x) a continuous function on an interval [𝑎, 𝑏] ; and F(x) a derivable function on an interval
]𝑎, 𝑏[.
F(x) is an anti-derivative of f(x) on an interval ]𝑎, 𝑏[ ,if F ‘(x)=f(x) for all x∈ ]𝑎, 𝑏[ .
Examples: g(x)=3x+4 is an anti-derivative of f(x)=3 ;h(x)=𝑥 2 + 6 is an antiderivative of f(x)=2x.
Theorem:
If F(x) is an anti-derivative of a function f(x) on ]𝑎, 𝑏[ ; any other antiderivative of f(x) can be put in
the form F(x)+c ,where c is an arbitrary constant on this interval.
-If a function F(x) is an anti-derivative of a function f(x) on an interval ]𝑎, 𝑏[ , the set of the
functions F(x)+c, where c∈ ℝ is called an indefinite integral of f(x) on]𝑎, 𝑏[ and we write
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐
-The symbol is the sign of integration or sign sum.

116
-The function f(x) is called integrating or a function under the sign sum or a function to be
integrated.
X is the variable of integration and f(x)dx is called the expression under the sign sum.
Examples: ∫(3𝑥 2 + 5)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 + 𝑐 because (𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 + 𝑐)′ =3𝑥 2 + 5.
Properties:
(1)(∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥)′ = 𝑓(𝑥) ; and ∫ 𝐹′(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐
(2) ∫ 𝑘. 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ; 𝑘 ∈ ℝ.
(3)∫[𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 .
2. The common anti-derivatives.
The differentiation of function give the tabular integrals or elementary integrals which are useful:
𝑥𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+1
(1) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐;if n≠-1.
𝑛 𝑛+1
1
(2) ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑥|+c
(3) ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 +c
𝑎𝑥
(4) ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛𝑎+c
(5) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+c
(6) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐
(7) ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫[1 + (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥)2 ]𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥+c
(8) ∫(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫[1 + (𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥)2 ]𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥+c
(9) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐
(10) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥
(11) ∫ √1− 2 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥
𝑑𝑥
(12) ∫ 1+𝑥 2 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥
(13) ∫ = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1
𝑢′ (𝑥)
(14) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑢(𝑥)| + 𝑐
𝑢(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
(15) ∫ 𝑥 2 +𝑎2 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑎 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
(16) ∫ √𝑎2 2= 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 + 𝑐
−𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1 |𝑥−𝑎|
(17) ∫ 𝑥 2 −𝑎2 = 2𝑎 𝑙𝑛 |𝑥+𝑎| + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
(18) ∫ = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑎 + 𝑐
𝑥√𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑎
(19) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥| + 𝑐

117
(20) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥| + 𝑐

(21) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥| + 𝑐
(22) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥| + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥
(23) ∫ √𝑥 2 2 = ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) + 𝑐
+𝑎
𝑑𝑥
(24) ∫ √𝑥 2 2 = ln|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝑐
−𝑎
(25) ∫ 𝑙𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐
Remark: The formulas ( 14) to ( 25) can be deduced by using a method of integration.
2𝑥
Example: Find (1) ∫(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥; (2) ∫ 1+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Solutions:( 1)=tanx – x + c ; (2)=ln(1+𝑥 2 ) + 𝑐
3. Main methods of integration.
a) Direct integration
The method apply directly the table of elementary integrals and the properties of indefinite integrals
;like the following examples:
1 4
(1)∫ (5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 2 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 +1) 𝑑𝑥 = 5𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑙𝑛|𝑥| − 4𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
10 24 𝑥 |𝑥−4|
(2) ∫ (−3(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥)2 + 25+𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 −16) 𝑑𝑥 = −3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 5 − 3𝑙𝑛 |𝑥+4| + 𝑐
b) Integration by change of variable
With we introduce a new variable which permits to transform a given integral in a tabular integral
like the theorem bellow:
Theorem:
Let u=g(x) be a definite and derivable function on the interval [a, b]and let B its set of the values; finally let f(u)
defined on B. If f(u)admits an anti-derivative on B then∫ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)). 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 on [a, b].
Examples: Calculate
6(𝑥 2 + 1)𝑑𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑥

(1)𝐴 = ∫ √𝑥 3 +3𝑥
; (2)B=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
Solution:
1
1
3 2 2𝑑𝑢 − 𝑢2
(1)Let u=𝑥 + 3𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 3(𝑥 + 1)dx⇒ 𝐴 = ∫ = 2∫𝑢 2 du=2. 1 + 𝑐 = 4√𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 +c.
√𝑢
2

118
𝑑𝑥 𝑢2 (𝑙𝑛𝑥)2
(2)Let u=lnx⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = ⇒ 𝐵 = ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = +𝑐 = +𝑐
𝑥 2 2
𝑑𝑥
Remark: It is easy to find the integral𝐼 = ∫ 𝑎𝑥2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 because the transformation of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 give a sum
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏2 −∆
or a difference of two squares which are 𝑎(𝑢2 ± 𝑘 2 ) where 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 2𝑎 and ±𝑘 2 = 𝑎 − 4𝑎2 = 4𝑎2
1 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢
𝑎
∫ 𝑢2 +𝑘 2 = 𝑎𝑘 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑘 + 𝑐 𝑖𝑓∆< 0 .
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑢 1
Then∫ 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑢2
∫ = − 𝑎𝑢 + 𝑐 𝑖𝑓∆= 0 .
1 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢−𝑘
{𝑎 ∫ 𝑢2 − 𝑘 2 = 𝑎2𝑘 𝑙𝑛 |𝑢+𝑘| + 𝑐 𝑖𝑓∆> 0 .
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥+8−√57
Exercise: verify that (1)A=∫ 3𝑥 2 +48𝑥+21 = 6√57 𝑙𝑛 |𝑥+8+√57| + 𝑐 ;
𝑑𝑥 2 4𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥 1
(2)B=∫ 2𝑥 2 −𝑥+6 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 + 𝑐 ;(3) D=∫ 3𝑥 2 +6𝑥+3 = − 3(𝑥+1) + 𝑐.
√47 √47
c) Integration by parts.
The method is based on the differentiation formula of a product of two functions:d(uv)=udv+vdu.

Then ∫ d(uv) = ∫ udv + ∫ vdu ⟹ ∫ 𝐮𝐝𝐯 = 𝐮𝐯 − ∫ 𝐯𝐝𝐮
Example 1: Find A=∫(𝑥 + 1)𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥𝑑𝑥.

𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
Solution: Let u=x+1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = .
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 1
Then A= (x + 1) − 2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = (x + 1) + 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝑐 .
2 2
Example2: Find B=∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
𝑒 3𝑥
Solution:Let u=𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = ;
3
𝑒 3𝑥 2
then B=𝑥 2 − 3 ∫ 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥. For the second time suppose u=x and 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3
𝑒 3𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑒 3𝑥 2 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 1 𝑥 2 𝑒 3𝑥 2𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 2𝑒 3𝑥
⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = ;and B= − [ − ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥]𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝐵 = − + +
3 3 3 3 3 3 9 27
𝑐.
Example3: Find D=∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥𝑑𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥
Solution: Let u=𝑒 2𝑥 and dv= 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = ;then D=𝑒 2𝑥 −
4 4
1
2
∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥𝑑𝑥

119
𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥
Let again u=𝑒 2𝑥 and dv= 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = − .We find
4
𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 1 𝐷 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥

D= + − 4 ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝐷 + 4 = + +𝑐;
4 8 4 8
𝑒 2𝑥
finally we find after calculation D= 10 (2𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥) + 𝑐 .
d) Integration of rational functions.

𝑁(𝑥)
-All function which is on the form f(x) = 𝐷(𝑥) where N and D are polynomial functions is called a
rational functions.
(*) if the degree of the numerator is higher or equal than that of the denominator (deg N ≥ 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝐷):
𝑁(𝑥) 𝑟(𝑥)
We divide directly and we find f(x) = 𝐷(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥) + where r(x) is the remainder of the
𝐷(𝑥)
fraction and q(x) is called the quotient of the fraction.
𝑁(𝑥) 𝑟(𝑥)
Then ∫ 𝐷(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑞(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝐷(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 4 −2𝑥 2 +5𝑥+2
Example: Calculate 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 +4
Solution:
𝑥 4 −2𝑥 2 +5𝑥+2 5𝑥+24 𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

The division give = 𝑥2 − 6 + ; then A=∫(𝑥 2 − 6)𝑑𝑥 + 5 ∫ 𝑥 2 +4 + 24 ∫ 𝑥 2 +4
𝑥 2 +4 𝑥 2 +4
𝑥3 5 𝑥
and after calculation we have A= 3 − 6𝑥 + 2 ln(𝑥 2 + 4) + 12𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 + 𝑐.
𝑥 4 −2𝑥 2 +5𝑥+2 𝑥3 5 |𝑥−2|

Exercise: Verify if ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = + 2𝑥 + 2 ln(𝑥 2 − 4) + 2𝑙𝑛 |𝑥+2| + 𝑐
𝑥 2 −4 3
(**) if the degree of the numerator is lower than the degree of the denominator ( deg N ≤ 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝐷):
We do the decomposition into partial fractions and we find the integral of the result .
The decomposition depends of the form of the factors which are at the denominator .The table
bellow is a summary of different cases:
N° denominator factor Form Partial fraction corresponding to each factor
(1) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝐴
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏

120
(2) (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 ; n∈ Ν 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛

+ 2
+ …+
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛
(3) 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ; (Δ < 0) 𝐴𝑥+𝐵
; (Δ < 0)
𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐
(4) (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 )𝑛 ; (Δ < 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝐴𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑛

+ + …+
0) 2 2
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) 2 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛
2𝑥 2 +3𝑥+6
Example1: Calculate I=∫ 𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 −2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
We have 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) .Each factor is linear then we have to find 3 reals
2𝑥 2 +3𝑥+6 2𝑥 2 +3𝑥+6 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐴(𝑥+2)(𝑥−1)+𝐵𝑥(𝑥−1)+𝐶𝑥(𝑥−2)
A,B,C that = = + + = .
𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 −2𝑥 𝑥(𝑥+2)(𝑥−1) 𝑥 𝑥+2 𝑥−1 𝑥(𝑥+2)(𝑥−1)
Then 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 6 = (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)𝑥 2 + (𝐴 − 𝐵 + 2𝐶)𝑥 − 2𝐴 .The identification of the

𝐴+𝐵+𝐶 = 2
4
coefficients give the system {𝐴 − 𝐵 + 2𝐶 = 3 and after resolution we find: 𝐴 = −3; 𝐵 = 3 ; 𝐶 =
−2𝐴 = 6
11
.
3
𝑑𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 11 𝑑𝑥 4 11
I=−3 ∫ + 3 ∫ 𝑥+2 + ∫ 𝑥−1 =−3ln|𝑥| + 3 ln|𝑥 + 2| + ln|𝑥 − 1| + 𝑐.
𝑥 3 3
𝑥 2 +8𝑥+19
Example2: Calculate J=∫ (𝑥+6)(𝑥−1)2 𝑑𝑥.
Solution
𝑥 2 +8𝑥+19 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= 𝑥+6 + 𝑥−1 + (𝑥−1)2 ;after calculation we find A=1/7;B=6/7;C=4. If we replace the
(𝑥+6)(𝑥−1)2
1 𝑑𝑥 6 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1
values in the partial fractions we have J=7 ∫ 𝑥+6 + 7 ∫ 𝑥−1 + 4 ∫ (𝑥−1)2 =7 ln|𝑥 + 6| +
6 4
ln|𝑥 − 1| − 𝑥−1 + 𝑐.
7
𝑥+8 𝑥2 1 𝑥
Exercises: Verify that M=∫ 4𝑥+𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 2 +4 + 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 + 𝑐 ;
2
𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 +2 1 1 𝑥 1
And that N=∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ln(𝑥 2 + 2) + 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 + 𝑥 2 +2 + 𝑐
(𝑥 2 +2)2 √2 √2
e)Integration of some form of trigonometric functions.
Form1:∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚 𝑥 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(*) If m or n is odd:

121
If m is odd we suppose u=cosx and we arrive after simple transformation on a an elementary

integrals;
if n is odd we suppose u=sinx and we arrived at an elementary integrals.
(**)If m and n are together even:

1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
We use the formulas of Carnot 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = ; and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = and we return at the first
2 2
case.
Examples: Calculate (1) A=∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 ;
(2) B=∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥.
Solutions:
(1) A=∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 ;suppose u=sinx⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 ;then

𝑢3 𝑢5 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥
A=∫ 𝑢2 . (1 − 𝑢2 )𝑑𝑢 = − + 𝑐 and A= − + 𝑐.
3 5 3 5
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
(2) We suppose 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = ;then
2 2
1 1 1 1
.𝐵 = 8 ∫(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 2𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 8 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 8 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥𝑑𝑥 − 8 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 −
1 1 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥
8
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 Or ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 2 (𝑥 + 4
) and ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 =
1 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 2𝑥 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑥
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝑥)𝑑(𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥) = 2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − 3
).⟹ 𝐵 = 8 + 16
− 16
𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 2𝑥
− − + +𝑐
64 16 48
𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 2𝑥
𝐵= 16 − + +c
64 48
Form2:∫ 𝑅(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥.

2𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 = 1+𝑡 2
2𝑡
𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 1+𝑡 2
To this case we take 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 ⇒ 1−𝑡 2
; after the introduction of t , the function R
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 =
1+𝑡 2
2𝑡
{𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 = 1−𝑡 2
becomes a rational function of t ;and after its integration we return to the variable x.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Examples: Calculate (1) 𝐴 = ∫ 1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 and (2)𝐵 = ∫ 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥+5
2
𝑥 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 2
(1) 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 ;then 𝐴 = ∫ 1+𝑡 2𝑡 = 2 ∫ (1+𝑡)2 = − 1+𝑡 + 𝑐 = − 𝑥 + 𝑐.
1+ 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛
1+𝑡2 2

122
𝑥 1
(2) 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝑤𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = − 𝑥 + 𝑐.
2+𝑡𝑎𝑛
2
EXERCISES
1. Evaluate the following integrals:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 𝑚 −𝑥 𝑛 )2
a) ∫(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 3 ) 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ 𝑥 2 −10 c) ∫ 3𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 d) ∫ √8−𝑥 2 e) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥

𝑥
2𝑥+3 𝑑𝑥 tan−1 ( ) 3𝑥+1 𝑥3
a) ∫ (2𝑥+1) 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ 3𝑥 2 +5 c) ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 d) ∫ √5𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 e) ∫ 𝑥 8 +5 𝑑𝑥
4+𝑥 2 +1
𝑒𝑥 𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 √𝑥 2 +1
a) ∫ (√𝑒 2𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ √𝑥 4 c) ∫ 1+cos2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 d) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 e) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
−2 +1 √5𝑥−2 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 √𝑥+1
a) ∫ (𝑥 2 +2𝑥+5) b) ∫ c) ∫ √𝑒 2𝑥 d) ∫ (𝑥+𝑎)(𝑥+𝑏) e) ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 +𝑝𝑥+𝑞 +𝑒 𝑥 +1 𝑥+1 √

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1+tan 𝑥
a) ∫ sin 3𝑥 cos 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ sin3 𝑥 c) ∫ cos3 𝑥 d) ∫ sin 𝜔𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) 𝑑𝑡 e) ∫ 1−tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥 cos 2𝑥
a) ∫ sinh3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ sinh 𝑥 cosh2 𝑥 c) ∫ cos4 𝑥+sin4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 d) ∫ √3 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 e) ∫|𝑥| 𝑑𝑥
3.2.2. Definite integral.
1.Definition and Newton-Leibniz’s formula.
Let y=f(x) a positive and continuous function on the interval [a ,b]. Let us subdivide this interval in
n arbitrary parts using the points a=𝑥0 < 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 < ⋯ … < 𝑥𝑛−1 < 𝑥𝑛 =b (§).
If we take in each partial interval [𝑥𝑖−1 , 𝑥𝑖 ] a point 𝑐𝑖 and if the length of the interval is Δx𝑖 ;the
quantity 𝜎 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓(𝑐𝑖 ) Δx𝑖 (&) is called the sum of the function f on the segment [a ,b]attached to
the subdivision (§) .Geometrically 𝜎 is the area of rectangles of basis Δx𝑖 and heights 𝑓(𝑐𝑖 ).

123
The finite limits if it exists of the sum(&) when 𝑛 ⟶ ∞ is called the definite integral of f(x) on [a,b]
𝑏 𝑏
and is denoted I=∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥. Then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓(𝑐𝑖 ) Δx𝑖 .
𝑛⟶∞
The real a and b are called respectively the lower and the upper bounds of integration. f(x) is the
integrand and x is the variable.
Theorem:
If f(x) is the continuous function on the interval l[a ,b].If F(x) is the anti-derivative function of f(x) on the interval [a
𝑏
,b].Then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎).
This formula is called the Newton – Leibniz’s formula. The number 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) doesn’t
depend on the choice of the anti-derivative F. It is denoted by 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) = [𝐹(𝑥)]𝑏𝑎
𝜋
1
Example: Calculate I=∫−1(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2)𝑑𝑥.;and J=∫𝜋4 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
12
1
𝑥3 𝑥2 14
Solution: I=[ 3 + + 2𝑥] =(1/3+1/2+2) – (-1/3 +1/2-2 )= 3 .
2 −1
𝜋 𝜋
1+𝐶𝑂𝑆2𝑥 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 4 1 𝜋 1 𝜋 1 1 𝜋 1
J=∫ (𝜋
4
) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 . [𝑥 + ] 𝜋 =2 [( 4 + 2) − ( 12 + 4)] = 2 ( 6 + 4)
2 2
12 12
2. Fundamental properties of the definite integral

𝑎
1) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0.
𝑏 𝑎
2) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
3) ∫𝑎 [𝑟𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑠𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = 𝑟 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑠 ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
4) ∀𝑐 [a , b]; ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 (𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑠 ′ 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒).
5) Let f(x) a continuous function on

𝑎
∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0 ; if f(x)is an odd function
ℝ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 { 𝑎 𝑎
∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ; if f(x)is an even function
𝑏 𝑏
6) ∀𝑥 ∈[a , b]; 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≤ ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
7) If m and M are respectively the smallest and the largest values of f(x) on [a,b] then
𝑏
𝑚(𝑏 − 𝑎) ≤ ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≤ 𝑀(𝑏 − 𝑎).

124
Theorem (the mean value theorem)

𝑏
If f(x) is a continuous function on the segment [ a , b ]; then ∃𝑐 ∈ ]𝑎, 𝑏[: ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = (𝑏 − 𝑎)𝑓(𝑐).
1 𝑏
The number 𝜇 = 𝑏−𝑎 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is called the mean value of the function f(x) on the interval [a,b].
2
Example1: Calculate: (1) 𝐼 = ∫0 (|𝑥 − 1| + 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2
(2) 𝐽 = ∫−1(|𝑥 2 − 𝑥|−𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 1 1 2
(1) |𝑥 − 1|={ ; then 𝐼 = ∫0 1𝑑𝑥 + ∫1 (2𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥]10 + [𝑥 2 − 𝑥]12 = 1 + 2 =
−𝑥 + 1 𝑖𝑓𝑥 < 1
3.
(2)The sign table of 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 is
x −∞ 0 1 +∞
𝑥2 − 𝑥 ++++++0− − − −0++++++++
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 > 1 0 1 2

.|𝑥 2 − 𝑥| = { 2 ⇒ 𝐽 = ∫−1 −𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 (−2𝑥 2 + 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫1 −𝑥𝑑𝑥
−𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
1 2 1 1 1 2 1 3 13 7
.𝐽 = − [𝑥 2 ]0−1 − [𝑥 3 ]10 + [𝑥 2 ]10 − [𝑥 2 ]12 = − + − = 1 − =− .
2 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 6 6
𝜋 𝜋
Example2: Calculate the mean value of f(x)= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 at the interval[12 , 4 ].
𝜋
1 𝜋 1
Solution:We know that ∫𝜋4 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =. 2 ( 6 + 4) (see example on 9.3.1)
12
1 1 𝜋 1 (2𝜋+3)
then 𝜇 = 𝜋 𝜋 ( 6 + 4) =
− 2 4𝜋
4 12
3. Methods of integrations
a) Integration with change of the variable
When we change the variable we have to find the new bound of integration adapted at the new
variable like the following exercise:
1 (2𝑥+3)𝑑𝑥
Example: Calculate A=∫0 (𝑥 2 +3𝑥+1)2
Solution:

125
𝑥=1⟹𝑢=5
Let u=𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1 then du=(2x+3)dx .We change the bound:{ ; then we find
𝑥=0⟹𝑢=1
5 𝑑𝑢 1 5 1 4
A=∫1 = − [𝑢 ] = 1 − 5 = 5 .
𝑢2 1
b) Integration by parts
We know that ∫ 𝐮𝐝𝐯 = 𝐮𝐯 − ∫ 𝐯𝐝𝐮 ;then if u(x) and v(x) are two continuous functions at [a,b] we
have
𝑏 𝑏
.∫𝑎 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = [𝑢. 𝑣]𝑏𝑎 − ∫𝑎 𝑣. 𝑑𝑢
1
Example: Find ∫0 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
1
𝑢 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
} ⇒ 𝐵 = [𝑥. 𝑒 𝑥 ]10 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 − [𝑒 𝑥 ]10 = 𝑒 − 𝑒 + 1 = 1
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 0
4. Applications
a) Calculation of surface areas
i) Surface areas between the graph and the x –axis .
We know that if f(x) is a continuous function on an interval [a , b ];then the surface areas between
the x – axis and the representative curve of f(x) is given by:
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) > 0; ∀𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]
{ 𝑏
|∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 | 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) < 0; ∀𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]
Example: Find the surface areas between the x– axis and the graph of the function y=𝑥 2 − 2𝑥; on
the interval [ 1,2].
Solution:
The parabola𝒫 ≡ y=𝑥 2 − 2𝑥pass through the x-axis at the points (0,0) and (2,0).It has a minimum
at (1,-1).then f(x)<0 if 0<x<2 and f(x)>0 if x<0 and x>2.
0 2
0 2 𝑥3 𝑥3 8
S=∫−1(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + |∫0 (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥)𝑑𝑥|=[ 3 − 𝑥 2 ] + |[ 3 − 𝑥 2 ] | = 3 a.u
−1 0
ii) Surface areas between two graphs of two functions.

126
Let f(x) and g(x) two continuous functions on the interval [a,b]. The Surface areas between the
graphs of the functions f(x) and g(x) is given by:
𝑏
∫𝑎 [(𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑔(𝑥) > 𝑓(𝑥); ∀𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] ∗
.{ 𝑏
|∫𝑎 [(𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 | 𝑖𝑓 𝑔(𝑥) < 𝑓(𝑥); ∀𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] ∗∗
 Means that the graph of f is under the graph of g.

 ∗∗ Means that the graph of g is under the graph of f.
Example: Calculate the area of surface S ranging between the parabola P≡ 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1 and the
line D≡ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 3 on the interval[0,2].
𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 1
Solution: The intersection points of D and P are given by the solution of the system{
𝑥+𝑦 =3
which are (-2,5) and (1,2).The graph of P and D show that the curve of P is under the line on [-2,1]
and the line D is under the parabola for x<-2 and x>1.
1 2
Let f(x)= 𝑥 2 + 1 and g(x)=3 – x; then S=∫0 (𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥))𝑑𝑥 + |∫1 (𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥))𝑑𝑥| .Or
1 2
𝑥3 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥2
𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2. S=[− − + 2𝑥] + |[− − + 2𝑥] |=(-1/3-
3 2 0 3 2 1
8
1/2+2)+|(− 3 − 2 + 4) − (−1/3 − 1/2 + 2)|=-5/6+2+11/6=3au.

Applied Maths Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Applied Maths Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

Faculty of Information Technology

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2023-2024

COURSE: APPLIED MATHEMATICS

COURSE CODE: AMATH 122

Prepared by Mr. NDAYAMBAJE Felix

Gishushu, September, 2023

AUCA: Applied Mathematics for 1st semester 2023-2024

1. Brief description of Module aims

Cognitive/Intellectual skills/Application of Knowledge

Communication/ ICT/ Numeracy/Analytic techniques/ Practical skills

 Analyze mathematical problems relating to vector spaces,

General transferable skills

 Develop different process, procedures and techniques in mathematics

Chapter1. Fundamentals of logic

AUCA: Applied Mathematics for 1st semester 2023-2024

Chapter2. Linear algebra

2.1. Vectors notions

Chapter3. Combinatorial analysis

3.1. Basic notions on the sets

3.2. Arrangements and properties

3.3. Combinations and properties

3.4. Newton’s binomial

Part2. MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS

Chapter1. Basic notions on numerical functions

1.1. Functions notions

Chapter 2. Limits, continuity and sequences

2.1. Concepts of Limit and Properties

2.2. Continuity of a function at appoint

2.3. Numerical sequences

Chapter3. Derivatives and Integrals

4. Learning and teaching strategy

AUCA: Applied Mathematics for 1st semester 2023-2024

6. Strategy for feedback and student support during module

AUCA: Applied Mathematics for 1st semester 2023-2024

Chapter1: FUNDAMENTALS OF LOGIC

Logic is concerned with statements and the relationship between them.

AUCA: Applied Mathematics for 1st semester 2023-2024

A diagram can be sometimes be used to view statements .

Example: Use a Venn diagram to express the following statements:

p: A cat has fur

Animal with Carrot

 The exists a truth value as:

Consider the propostion p and p is true

Consider the propostion q and q is false

 A propostion can not at the same time false and true.

If p is true, then we write: p 1

If q is false, then we write: q 0

AUCA: Applied Mathematics for 1st semester 2023-2024

The symbol is readden as : ‘has logic value’.

It is a complex proposition which is compounded by two simples propositions:

P:’I need to be promoted’

Q:’I will have a good life in the future’

The truth table of complex proposition of 3 simples propositions

AUCA: Applied Mathematics for 1st semester 2023-2024

1.2. Logics operators or statements calculus

Example: p:‘John is a student at AUCA’

┐p:’John is not a student at AUCA.’

The truth table of negation

1.2.2.The conjunction of propositions(^)

Example: p:‘Peter is a boy’

p ∧ q: ’Peter is a boy and a student’

The truth tabe of conjunction