Form 1 Geography Notes New Curr Online Print-1

GEOGRAPHY FORM 1 NOTES 2021
ZJC SYLLABUS 4022
TOPICS
# Introduction……….………..…………………………………1-3
1: Weather and Climate…………………………………...........4-18
2: Landforms and Landscape processes……………………....19-32
3: Ecosystems………………………………………………......33-7
4: Natural Resources…………………………………………...38-9
5: Energy and Power…………………………………………...40-3
6: Map work and GIS………………………………………....44-60
7: Minerals and Mining………………………………………...61-5
8: Environmental Management………………………………...66-9
9: Agriculture and Land Reform……………………………….70-5
10: Industry…………………………………………………….76-8
11: Settlement and Population………………………………...79-83
12: Transport and Trade………………………………………84-93
pdhliwayo2016@gmail.com 0775777982 1 | P a g e
Introduction to Geography
Definition of Geography
 It is a study of the Earth and the interaction between the human race and nature.
Environment
 The surroundings
 All external conditions surrounding an organism which has influence over its behaviour.
Environment can be divided into two:

1. The Physical Environment
 Natural physical conditions of weather, climate, vegetation, animals, soil, landforms and
drainage.
2. The Human Environment
 Human activities such as farming, forestry, mining, tourism, settlement, transportation, trade and
industry.
Why Geography matters?
1. Facilitates good relationship among nations by studying geography of other regions of the world.
2. It’s a career subject in that it enables one to go for advanced studies in specialised fields e.g. geography
teachers, meteorology, surveying etc.
3. Enables us to appreciate other people’s way of life by learning economic activities of different
communities within our country and other parts of the world.
4. Enables us to conserve our environment when we learn negative and positive effects of human
activities on the environment.
5. Enables us to conserve our resources when we learn wise use of resources in conservation and
management of resources e.g. wildlife, forests, energy, etc.
6. Inculcates in us virtues of cooperation and patience as we work in groups.
7. Makes us to appreciate manual work as we are involved in practical geography which may lead to
self-employment.
8. Promotion of industry such as tourism by guiding tourists to places of interest by using maps,
calculations of distances etc.
Branches of Geography
1. Physical Geography
 Deals with the study of natural physical environment of human kind.
The areas covered include:

a) Geology-study of the origin, structure and composition of the earth. It includes study of rocks.
b) Geomorphology- the study of internal and external land forming processes and landforms.
c) Climatology- the study of climate and weather
d) Pedology- the study of soils
e) Biogeography - the study of soils, vegetation and animals.
f) Hydrology- the study of water bodies
g) Spatial geography-study of space
2. Human and Economic Geography

 Study of people and their activities on the earth’s surface.
The areas covered include:
a) Mining
b) Forestry
c) Agriculture
d) Fishing
e) Wildlife and tourism
f) Industry
g) Energy etc.
3. Practical Geography
 A smaller branch which equips the learner with practical skills that enhance their understanding
and interpretation of human and physical geographical information.
The areas are:
a) Statistical methods
b) Map work
c) Field work
d) Photograph work
TOPIC 1
WEATHER AND CLIMATE STUDIES
Weather
 Weather is the current condition of the atmosphere of a place at a given time.

 It is described as hot, cold, warm, wet, dry, humid, overcast etc.
Climate
 Refers to the average weather conditions recorded over a long time period of 30-35years
 For example the climate of Zimbabwe is describe as cool dry winter with hot wet summer
The difference between the terms weather and climate

Differences in climate weather
Definition Is the average weather conditions Daily/ present state of the
taken over a long time period ( 30 to atmosphere at a given place
35years) and time
Time measure 35 to 40 years, measured over long At that very time, measures for
period short term
Study of it is called Climatology Metrology
Forecast Is done by taking aggregates of Simply by collecting present
weather statistics over long periods of atmospheric conditions of
30 to 35 years temperature, pressure,
humidity, solar radiation etc.
Basic elements of weather, instruments and their units of measurement
Weather element Instrument used Units of measurement

Temperature Six’s Thermometer/ Max and Min Degrees Celsius (℃ )
thermometer
Humidity Hygrometer/Wet and dry bulb Percentages (%)

thermometer
Rainfall Rain Gauge Millimeters(mm)

Pressure Mercury barometer Millibars(mb)
Aneroid barometer
Fortin barometer
Wind direction Wind vane Cardinal points /Compass points
Wind speed Cup anemometer Killometres per hour (km/hr.)
Nautical miles / Knots
Sunshine Sunshine recorder Hours and mins

Cloud cover Eye observation / estimation Oktas
Measuring and recording temperature
Temperature: - Is the degree of hotness or coldness of the atmosphere.

The maximum thermometer
 This thermometer records the highest temperature during the day. The thermometer is filled with
mercury and the metal index (indicator) is above the mercury.
 Mercury is used because it has a very high boiling point of about 250 ℃ and is also clear.
 Temperature rises causing mercury to expand.
 Mercury pushes the index up.
 When temperature falls mercury contracts.
 The maximum temperature is read from the scale at the lower end of the index.
 Thermometer is reset by shaking it to force mercury back into the bulb.
 The metal index may be reset by using a magnet or by tilting the thermometer.
The minimum thermometer
 This thermometer records the minimum temperatures.

 This thermometer contains alcohol and the metal index lies inside the liquid.
 Alcohol is used because it has a very low freezing point of -70℃ or -115 ℃ and it does not stick
to the sides of the glass tube.
 Temperature falls causing alcohol to contract.
 Alcohol pulls the index down.
 When temperature rises alcohol expands and rises in the tube.
 The index remains where it was pulled.
 Minimum temperature reading is obtained from the scale at the lower end of the index.
 Just like the maximum thermometer, the index is reset by a magnet or by tilting the thermometer
so that the indicator slides back to rest against meniscus.
The Six’s thermometer
 This is a piece of equipment which combines the maximum and minimum thermometers used to
measure maximum and minimum temperatures.
 It was developed by a man called Six, hence the name.
 The instrument contains two liquids, mercury and alcohol.
The six’s thermometer
 Mercury is used because it has a very high boiling point of about 250℃ and is also clear.
 Alcohol is used because it has a very low freezing point of -70 or ℃-115 ℃ and it does not stick
to the sides of the glass tube.
How it works
 Records max. & min. temps over a 24hr period.
 Maximum thermometer contains mercury the minimum contains alcohol.
 As temperature rises mercury expands & pushes up a metal index when it cools & mercury
contracts the index is left in place at highest temp.
 As temperature falls alcohol contracts & pulls metal index with it, but as the alcohol expands it
flows passed the index leaving it in place at the lowest temp.
 Both indexes are read once every 24hrs from the bottom of the index.
Problems in using the instrument

 Failing to identify mercury or alcohol.
 Failure to identify max and min thermometer.
 Reading erroneously, that is, taking the measurement of the max thermometer above the metal
index and that of the min thermometer below the index.
Factors influencing the temperature of locations are:-

 Latitude or distance from the equator
 Altitude - The atmosphere is mainly heated by long wave radiation (heat energy) from the earth's
surface (land or sea surfaces). Thus, the higher the altitude, the cooler the air temperature.
 Distance from the sea (continentally) - Land heats up and cools faster than water or the sea.
 Cloud cover - Blanket effect of cloud produces small diurnal and annual ranges of temperature.
Measuring and recording humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere.

Label the parts A-B for the hygrometer below:
 It is measured using a hygrometer/ psychrometer
 Weather satellite can also be used to measure humidity
 A hygrometer measures the humidity using two sets of thermometers: the dry and wet bulb
thermometers
 The wet bulb is wrapped in a thin muslin cloth dipped in container with pure/distilled water to
keep it wet
 If the air is dry, water evaporates from the muslin cloth and cools the wet bulb such that mercury
contracts to give lower temperature.
 The dry bulb is not affected and so mercury in it expand to give atmospheric temperature readings
 Thus the wet bulb gives a lower reading while the dry bulb gives higher reading
 Depression of wet bulb/ Difference between the dry and wet bulb is calculated by subtracting
wet bulb reading from dry bulb reading
 The humidity is then found by reading humidity tables
 If there is no difference between the dry bulb and the wet bulb it means the air is saturated
 Relative humidity is given in percentage.
Types of humidity
Absolute humidity- the total mass of water vapour in a given volume of air
Relative humidity- the amount of water vapour in a given volume of air at a given temperature
Specific humidity- the ratio of the mass of water vapour compared to the mass vapour of the parcel of
air
Pressure
 Is the force/weight exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere on the earth.
 It is measured in millibars using an instrument called barometer.
 There are two different types of barometers namely the mercury barometer and the aneroid
barometer
 When air is warm it normally rises and creates an area of low pressure, when it is cool it sinks
and creates an area high pressure.
 The standard units of pressure are millibars.
 Areas of the same pressure are joined together on a map using isobar.
Simple Mercury barometer  The mercury barometer is made of a glass
tube of about 1m high
 Its open end is dipped in a bowel filled with
mercury
 When atmospheric pressure rises, it exerts
force on mercury in the bowel compressing
it,
 This forces mercury to push up the glass
tube, at sea level the mercury would rise to
about 760mm
 When pressure decreases, the mercury
contracts and moves down the bowel.
Advantages of a mercury barometer
 It gives accurate readings  Glass tube must be at least a meter long

 It is simple to construct and maintain  It breaks easily hence it is too delicate
 Cannot produce continuous readings so have
Disadvantages to be taken regularly
 It is too large and cumbersome  Mercury is poisonous hence dangerous to
work with.
Aneroid barometer
Barometers are normally kept inside Stevenson screens to keep them safe. A barometer has a movable
needle (pointer). The pointer can be moved to the current reading so that you can then make a comparison
with the reading from the following day.
Aneroid barometer
of levers and a pointer that gives readings on
a scale
 If pressure increases the box is squashed
inwards
 If pressure decrease, the box expands
outwards
 During these inward and outward
movements, the levers attached to the box
are also moved.
 The lever movement cause the pointer to
move and indicate amount of pressure
exerted on the scale
 The lever amplifies the expansion and
 Aneroid barometer is a small portable air- contraction of the box in accordance to
tight partial vacuum box fitted with a system atmospheric pressure .
Advantages of aneroid barometer

 It is small and portable
 It can be safely used in the home or at school since it does not rely on poisonous mercury
 It is easier to read since it comes with a calibrated scale
 Can make continuous readings
 Can be attached to a computer to make automated continuous readings.
Disadvantages
 It is less accurate
 It requires great skill and expertise to make some readings.
Wind speed and wind direction
 Wind is the movement of air across the earth’s surface due to difference in pressure between two
areas.
 Air moves from high pressure region to low pressure region.
 The difference in pressure can be caused by differential heating of the earth’s surface by the sun.
 Two aspects of wind are measured at a weather station, namely wind speed and wind direction.
Wind vane and wind sock to measure wind direction
 Wind vanes are used to check wind direction

 It is made up of fixed compas showing cardinal points which gives direction on top of which
there is a rotating pointer
 The pointer has has a narrow end with an arrow that pionts wind direction and broad flat tail that
is moved by the wind
 The pointer points the direction from which wind is coming from
 Wind vanes are often placed on top of buildings or on open spaces so that they are freely moved
by wind.
 Wind direction refers to the direction that the wind is blowing from
 Wind direction shown by the wind vane above is south
 A windsock is a kite made from a tube of nylon cloth
 One end of the tube is held open by a ring
 Windsocks point in the direction opposite of wind
 For example, if a windsock is pointing west, the wind is coming from the east i.e. it goes were
the wind is going
 The faster the wind blows the straighter and more horizontally the windsock extends.
The compass
 The four points N,S,E and W are referred to as

the cardinal points
 The additional four points SW,SE,NE, and NW
are called the inter-cardinal or intermediate
points
 The SSW,SSE, NNE and NNW are called
secondary inter-cardinal points
 Wind direction is given using the cardinal points
or the ordinal points.
Cup Anemometer
 Anemometers measure wind speed and its units are knots/km/hr/ nautical miles.
 Anemometers are normally placed on top of buildings so that they can freely measure wind speed.
 Anemometer is an apparatus for measuring the

speed of wind.
 The commonest kind of anemometer is a kind
of horizontal three-armed windmill, with a
hollow hemispherical cup on the end of each
arm
 The pressure on the inside of a cup when it
blocks wind forces it to revolve
 . The mill moves a pointer round a graduated
dial that indicate the speed of the wind.
Sunshine recorder
 Sunshine recorder consists of a glass sphere surrounded by a metal frame that support/hold a
sensitive card.
 The glass sphere focuses the sun’s rays onto the card
 As the sun moves across the sky, it burns a trace on the card
 At the end of each day the card is taken out and the length of the burnt section is measured in hours
and minutes.
Rain Gauge to measure the rainfall
1. Rain gauges are used to measure ……….. .

2. Precautions that must be taken when using Rain gauges are:-
should be placed on
 Short grass areas, because if they are placed on concrete………………………
 It should be placed in an open area away from trees and buildings to avoid
……………………………………………………..
 Rain gauges should also be checked regularly to avoid ………………..
 Rain gauges should be placed on slabs that are ………………………m high to avoid
…………………………………………………………………………..
 Rain gauges should made of ………………. or ……………………………. to prevent
………………………………………………………………………
 The rainwater that is collected must be emptied after every ……… hours
into a …………… to find out the amount received.
3. Draw the diagram of the rain gauge below into your book and label A-D
4. The height H or D is ……………………….
5. The standard with of A shown as x is ……………………….
Weather station
A weather station is a facility, either on land or sea with instruments and equipment for measuring
atmospheric conditions to provide for weather forecast and to study weather and climate.
Important points about weather station
 Most instruments used in measuring weather elements are found in a weather station
 A weather station is a place where weather events are recorded.
Important factors to consider when selecting a site for the school weather station
 Should be in an open area, away from buildings that may block wind movement.
 Should be away from tall trees that may cover the instruments with their shade and may also
intercept rainfall.
 Should be on short grass that allow water to soak or flow without splashing into instruments.
 Should not be on hard ground/ concrete surfaces because the hard surfaces will cause water to
splash into rain gauge and may also radiate heat to instruments .
 The station should be in a fenced and gated place so as to protect the instruments from theft,
vandalism and destruction by people and animal.
State two advantages of the modern digital weather station compared to the traditional weather station
 Modern digital weather station is small and compact such that it does not require large area as done by
the traditional weather station.
 Modern digital weather station records data automatically which eliminates human errors experienced
when using traditional weather station
 Modern digital weather station can be installed in remote places and recordings are sent automatically
to faraway places by means of GIS and satellites.
The Stevenson screen
Is used to house instruments such as Maximum thermometer, Minimum thermometer, Six’s thermometer
and hygrometer-wet bulb and dry bulb thermometer.
Importance
(i) Provide shade conditions for accurate temperature recording.
(ii) Ensure safety of thermometers because they are delicate.
Describe the characteristics of the Stevenson screen
(iii)
Features of a Stevenson screen
 It is made up of wood: i.e. to prevent absorption and conduction of heat.

 Panted white or silver grey; - in order to reflect sunshine.
 Stands are 1,2 metre high: - to avoid the influence of ground conditions.
 The sides and floor are made of louvers or slats to allow free circulation of air and to keep off direct
sun rays.
 It has an insulated roof to create a bad conductor of heat. This is done by creating an air space
between the layers of the roof.
 The roof is slanting to avoid the accumulation and stagnation of rain water.
 It stands on grass covered ground.
 It is fixed or placed far from buildings or obstacles to avoid any interference.
 The ideal location is one where it is away from trees and buildings. This means that the trees or
buildings will not act as a shield, making the measurements unrepresentative
 The stand of the Stevenson screen should be set in the ground so that the bulbs of the thermometers
are at approximately 1, 2.m above the ground. The ground on which the Stevenson screen is placed
should not be concrete or bare rock because these surfaces may absorb heat and reflect it onto
instruments.
 In the southern hemisphere, the door of the screen should face north so that when it opens, the sun
does not shine directly on instruments
Home work
1. Distinguish between weather and climate (3)
2. List any four elements of weather (4)
3. Describe in using diagrams any 2 instruments used to measure weather elements (4)
4. Describe the characteristics of the Stevenson screen (4)
Weather symbols and synoptic charts
- A synoptic chart is any map that

summaries atmospheric
conditions or a chart that makes
use of shorthand showing
weather conditions of a place at
a given time
Rainfall types and patterns
 Precipitation occurs when warm moist air rises.

 Water vapour cools and condenses to form clouds.
 Condensation produces small droplets which join together and grow to fall of their own weight.
 Types include relief, cyclonic and convectional rainfall.
Forms include sleet, hail, frost, fog, snow and others.
a. Sleet – a mixture of snow and rain formed by snow melting as it falls.

b. Hail – a solid form of precipitation comprising chunks of ice falling from the sky.
c. Dew – is snow droplets of water that appear on grass in the morning and evening due to condensation.
This result when temperature of a surface cools down to a point below the dew point of air next to it.
d. Frost – is the deposit of ice that may form in humid air during the night or in winter especially in
mountainous areas.
e. Fog – is a visible mass of cloud water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the air near the earth`s
surface.
f. Rime – is a white ice due to water droplets in fog freezes to the outer surfaces of objects such as trees.
g. Snow – flakes of ice particles that fall from the clouds and does not occur in Zimbabwe but UK in
winter.
h. Drizzle – very fine rain falling from stratus clouds.
Types of rainfall
Relief or orographic
 Results when warm moist air
rises over a barrier e.g.
mountain.
 SE trade winds are forced over
a barrier and rises, cools and
condense and rain occurs on
the windward side e.g.
Chimanimani or Inyanga.
 Leeward side or rain shadow
area is dry with little or no
rainfall e.g the Save valley and
Marange area.
Convectional  Ground surface is overheated
and air gets hot to generate
convectional currents.
 Air is heated by conduction,
absorbing more moisture,
expands and rises.
 The ascending air remains
warmer and hence become
unstable.
 It cools and produces
cumulonimbus clouds.
 Due to heat released by latent
heat at condensation and
freezing, thunderstorms are
generated.
 Rainfall in West and Central Africa is convectional.
Hazards due convectional rainfall
 Lightning, fires, death, flooding, strong winds, landslides, destruction of homes, crops, and property.
Measures
 Lighting conductors, early warning systems, education, cloud dissipation, afforestation/reforestation,

resettlement, evacuation, settling on high ground and storm drains.
Frontal or cyclonic
 Two or more winds with different temperatures

meet for example in Southern Africa.
 The two air masses don’t mix but form a front.
 The cold air mass is heavier than warmer air
mass therefore, the light rises over the denser
one.
 Warm air cools,
 Condensation and clouds form.
 Rain occurs along the front.
Weather Focasting  First appearance of sparrows; flock of
swallows preceding dark clouds
 Is a prediction of weather phenomena, trend indicates rain is at hand and farmers
and events. should prepare for above normal rains.
 Migration of butterflies also indicates it
 Is made through data collection on
will rain.
temperature, rainfall and humidity and use
 Croaking of frogs during dry season
of complicated modelling and simulations to indicate it’s going to rain.
predict future weather.  The singing, nesting and chirping of
Importance of weather forecasting certain birds appears to be a useful
indicator for the onset of the rains.
 Helps us to be aware of natural calamities  Appearance of cicadas (nyenze), day
related to weather before they occur so as to flying chafers (mandere), dragon flies
take precautionary measures. (mikonikoni) signifies imminent
 Guiding tourists on when to visit national rainfall.
parks.  Frequent appearance of tortoises
 Helps farmers to plan their activities such as indicates good rain season.
planting, harvesting, etc.  Appearance of certain insects e.g.
 Ensures air and water transport is carried out millipedes, spiders Indicates coming of
safely. heavy rains.
 Helps sporting people to plan their training  If the goat intestines are empty at
and competition schedules. slaughter it indicates drought or famine
 Helps people to plan many other activities ahead, and vice versa.
such as mining, electricity generation,  Changes in the intensity of sunshine
holiday events, etc. indicate it’s going to rain.
 Helps fishing communities to plan their
 Moon crescent facing upwards indicates
activities. upholding water and when facing
downwards is releasing water in the next
Methods of weather forecasting few days.
 Mist-covered mountains is a signal of
Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) good rains.
 Are those forms of knowledge that the  Appearance of fog/haze in the morning
people survived on before the advent of is an indicator for no rain.
modern technology.  Frequent appearance of wind swirls is a
 Prediction of weather based on traditional sign of good rains.
beliefs and facts.
 Plants shedding leaves or dropping off Modern methods
of young avocado fruits indicates period
of drought.
 Prediction of weather using modern
 Flowering of certain plants e.g the peach instruments and new technology of
tree and budding of acacia species collecting, transmitting, processing and
indicates the onset of rainfall. analysing weather data.
 Abundance of wild fruits such as hacha,
gan’acha and mashuku during the Instruments used
months of December to February signify
an imminent challenging farming 1. Satellites-electronic devices which orbit the
season, earth which collect and transmit weather data
 Heavy flowering of the mango trees which is interpreted by computers.
indicate a potential drought season. 2. Radar-an instrument used to see cloud
 Safari ants (termites) indicate it will formation.
rain.
3. Sensors/radiosodes-instrument fixed on a 4. Computers-electronic device used to store,
balloon used to measure atmospheric pressure, analyse and display weather information.
temperature and humidity.
Weather focasting zones in Zimbabwe
 Midlands
 Mazoe
 Eastern Highlands
 Gwaai
 Gwanda
Factors hindering weather forecasting
a) Lack of skilled man power due to limited training facilities.

b) Lack of modern equipment leading to wrong forecasts.
c) Natural calamities such as storms and earthquakes.
d) Extreme weather conditions which may damage or displace instruments.
e) Use of faulty instruments.
f) Human error.
g) Poor sitting of instruments.
Weather report
 Is a systematic statement of the existing and predicted meteorological conditions over a particular
area e.g. Kutsaga.
TOPIC 2
LANDFORMS AND LANDSCAPE PROCESSES
Landforms
 These are natural features found on the earth`s surface.
 Landforms form a specific terrain and their physical arrangement result in the landscape form known
as topography.
 These landforms include mountains, hills, plateaus, canyons, valleys, buttes and basins.
Difference between landforms and landscape

Landforms Landscapes
Is a natural geographic feature that appears Are made up of several landforms such as
on the earth`s surface hills and valleys.
Created by natural forces such as tectonic Are made by a variety of landforms.
movement and erosion
Major landforms of world and Africa
 Worldwide, there are wonderful landforms such as rift valleys, lakes, river basins, mountains, valleys,
tors/ cattle kopjes, plateaus, glaciers, hills, deserts, waterfalls and rivers.
1) Basins
 Africa`s rivers contain many waterfalls, rapids and gorges. These features affect navigation. The Congo
River has the largest waterways in the continent but some waterfall make the river impassable.
 Meandering channels also affect navigation for example River Niger.
 To be covered in form 4 syllabus.
2. Landforms from folding
Folding
 Is the transformation of the earth`s structure into folded landforms as a result of compressional forces.
 When forces move horizontally towards each other they are compressional forces.
 Rocks are subjected to this force in a process called folding.
 Rocks either fold or fault due to their brittleness or flexibility.
 In folding, some rock layers buckle and form folds.
Landforms
 Anticlines, Nappe folds, Overthrust, Overfold, Recumbent, Fold mountains.
Anticline and Syncline

1. Anticline
 Is a fold that is arched upwards to form a ridge of mountain.
 It can be defined as a highland area or ridge formed due to compressional forces.
 It is convex shaped and is formed out of rock units that are folded in the same pattern.
 It results from a simple fold and each side of a fold is called a limb.
 The topmost point is called a crest / axial line.
 The crest acts as a line of symmetry between two limbs.
2. Syncline
 Is a fold that arches downwards to form a fold.
 Are made up of rocks units that are folded in the same pattern. Usually concave shaped.
 Usually occur in conjunction with anticlines which is like the letter n.
3. Over thrust
 If compression forces continue to act on the rock layers, a simple fold is formed; progresses into an
asymmetrical fold, then an over fold and lastly into an over thrust which is actually a fault.
4. Over – fold
 Occurs when one fold is pushed over the adjoining limb due to increasing compressional forces.
 Also known as overturned fold.
5. Recumbent
 Occurs when the limbs are nearly parallel to each other and the axis of the fold is horizontal.
6. Fold mountains  Fold Mountains are usually formed from
sedimentary rocks and are usually found
along the edges continents.
 This is because the thickest deposits of
sedimentary rock generally accumulate along
the edges of continents.
 When plates and the continents riding on
them collide, the accumulated layers of rock
crumple and fold like a table cloth that is
 Result due to folding in the upper layers of pushed across a table.
the earth`s surface.  The process of mountain formation is
 Is a result of compressional forces when orogenesis.
tectonic plates move against each other acting  Many fold mountains are formed in narrow
on flexible rock but not brittle. elongated seas called geocynclines.
 The movement of the two plates forces  Fold Mountains have a short width but are
sedimentary rocks upwards into a series of long extending to thousand killometres e.g.
folds. Rockies and Himalayas, Urals Mountains (in
USA), the Cape Range and Mt Everest in
Nepal
Human activity in fold mountains - The Alps - Roads and other communications links have
- This region is based on the exploitation of the to snake their way up wherever they can, and
coniferous forest. often these roads are not big enough to
- Pasturing dairy cattle. adequately service a large community.
- Tourism. - The climate is very cold and wet, meaning
- The combination of tectonic and glacial that most industrial and agricultural activity
processes makes the area ideally suited for HEP is difficult. For farmers they have a very short
schemes. HEP schemes often involve many growing season, and it is difficult to use
different watersheds. machinery on the steep slopes.
- Avalanches are a constant threat, as was seen
Problems to devastating effect in Ranrahirca, Peru, in
- Difficult to build in due to the steep sided 1962. Huge amounts of money are spent each
valleys. year to try and combat the avalanche threat,
especially with the large amount of tourists
using the mountains.
Hot springs and Geysers

- Usually found near or on dormant volcanoes.
Hot spring and geysers
 The water then flows out as a spring naturally as

a fountain e.g. Nyanyadzi and Rupisi near
Mutare in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe.
Geyser
 Is a hot spring that throws jets of hot water and
steam into the air due to heating in the pipe of
the geyser.
 The temperature of water rises resulting in
pockets of steam trapped in the twisted portions
of pipe.
 Eventually steam builds enough pressure and
forces the water in the upper part of the pipe to
 A spring is a point on the earth`s surface where
be spouted and sprayed violently into the air.
water flows naturally from the ground.
 E.g. is found in Yellowstone National Park in the
 A hot spring is a stream of hot water flowing out
USA.
of the ground.
 The water is heated when it comes into contact
with molten hot rocks below the earth`s surface.
3. Landforms from faulting

Faulting
 Refers to the fracturing of breaking of the earth`s crust due to both compression and tension forces as a
result of tectonic movements.
 Lateral earth movements often produce very great stresses due to compressional forces and tensional
forces.
 These forces can cause fractures or breaks in the earth`s crust forming joints.
 If the rocks are displaced on both side of the crack it is called a fault.
 Faulting normally displaces the crustal blocks along lines and eventually rocks are pushed above or
dropped below the general level of land.
Rift valleys, Lakes and Block mountains

Rift valleys
 Most are found in East Africa.
 Formed as a result of continental plates pulled apart forming huge cracks in the earth and the land
sank to form rift valleys such as Great East African Rift Valley.
 Lake Tanganyika is the longest freshwater lake in the world.
 Lake Victoria is the largest lake in Africa and the second being Lake Mutirikwi in Zimbabwe.
Rift valley and Block Mountains
 Alluvial deposits from which can be found

precious minerals such as gold.
 Fishing provides livelihood to people for
example Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika.
 Recreation activities and tourism.
Disadvantages of rift valleys
Advantages of rift valleys  Hot weather can be stiffing and enervating on

valley floors.
 Source of water for domestic and industrial  Diseases such as malaria, bilharzia and
use. typhoid abound in within.
 Pastures for animals can be found in most  Dangerous animals can be found in forests.
valleys e.g. East Africa Rift Valley.  Flood occurrence.
 Fertile soils.
Advantages of block mountains

 Associated with relief rainfall. Disadvantages of block mountains
 They have cooler environments which
discourage diseases.  High erosion rates.
 Have pastures for animals.  Associated with dangerous wild animals.
 Firewood and fruits.  Rock falls can be fatal to humans and damage
 Offered fortification during tribal wars. infrastructure
 Minerals such as gold and diamonds found  Prone to volcanic activities and can lead to
within their vicinity. loss of life.
 Water can be obtained from springs.  Transport networks are difficult and
expensive to construct.
4. Volcanic landforms
Vulcunicity
Qn: What is intrusive and extrusive Vulcunicity? (4)
 Refers to various ways by which molten rock
A Volcano
and gases are forced into the earth and onto its
surface.  Is an opening in the earth`s surface through
 Includes volcanic eruption forming volcanoes, which magma is injected into the earth or ejected
lava plateaus and geysers. as lava onto the earth`s surface.
 Also involves intrusive and extrusive features  Rocks below the earth`s crust have a very high
e.g. batholith and sills. temperature but the great pressure exerted on
 When magma (molten rock) reaches the surface them by the earth`s crust keeps them in a semi –
is known as lava. solid state.
 Vulcunicity occurs most at plate boundaries.  Friction at plate boundaries raises their
 Vulcunicity is divided into intrusive and temperature and fuelling great pressure due to
extrusive Vulcunicity. faulting and folding hence rocks become molten
and semi- fluid.
 It is this magma that flows up into cracks in the  Volcanoes erupt violently or quietly.
earth`s surface forming landforms like dykes,
batholiths, sills and lapolith.
Calderas
 Are large craters that form at the top of a volcano
usually two or more killometres in diameter.
 They are deep and can extend downwards for
some hundred meter with lakes as in active
volcanoes e.g. Lake Bosumtwi in Ghana.
Formation
Violent eruption
 A composite volcano may explode violently that
its top is blown off and disintegrates into rock
masses and ashes. Thereby forming a crater at
the top of the volcano.
Subsidence
 It may form due to block subsidence or
downward displacement of the central block.
 After an eruption, the supply of magma is
depleted causing a huge chasm to form beneath
the volcano.
 The weight of the cone sometimes develops
faults which may cause the cone to collapse into
the chasm beneath e.g. Longonot in Kenya.
Meteor theory
 This suggests that solid objects from space fall
by gravity and on impact with the volcanic cone.
Mountain collapse
 A mountain may collapse if it has a large mass
floating on a wetter surface resulting in a
caldera.
Extrusive volcanic landforms  Magma sometimes reaches the earth`s surface
through a vent, fissures and cracks (called lava).
 Are those landforms resulting as a result of
 If the lava emerges from through the vent form
magma solidifying on reaching the earth`s
a cone shaped mound called volcano.
surface e.g. cinder cone, acid cones, composite
 If it emerges out of a fissure it builds and forms
cones and plug cones.
a lava plain or plateau.
Volcanic cones
 The mount of a volcano is its cone.

 It is made up of lava or lava and rocks torn by
molten magma.
 It may contain layers of ashes and small bits of
lava known as cinders.
 The shape and size of the cone depends on the
nature of materials and type of eruption.
 It has a pipe where the lava flows out and the
exit of the pipe is the crater.
Cinder cone
 Is made up of successive layers of ash deposited

on each eruption.
 Lava is blown a great height when it is ejected
i.e. pyroclastic eruption.
 It breaks into smaller fragments which fall back
to the earth and form a cone.
 Has steeper sides and is small as to other
volcanic cones.
 They are short lived due to processes of
denudation. e.g. Jose Plateau in Nigeria and
Likaiu and Teleki in Kenya.
Lava cone
 The shape and slope depends on whether the lava  It spreads over some distance and forms gentle
is fluid or viscous. slopes e.g. Nyamuragira in DRC and Mauna Loa
 Basic / shield/ fluid lava is very fluid or mobile. in Hawaii with a diameter of 400km and a height
of 9km from sea bed.
Basic lava cone
 Acid / viscous lava produces steeply sloping

cones.
 Viscous lava contains a lot of silicates and is
stick.
 It travels over a short distance before it cools.
 Sometime the viscous lava may form a plug
dome that may block the vent e.g. Pico Cao
Grande in Gulf Guinea.
 Examples of acid lava are the Hoggar Mountains
in Algeria.
Composite cone
 As eruption continues lava pours out forming a

layer on top of ash.
 Lava escapes from the sides of the main cone
where it forms small conelets.
 Sometimes its features include dykes, conduits,
ash and lava, a crater and a pipe.
 It’s very high and it has alternate layers of cinder
and lava and ash hence named stratovolcano i.e.
layered volcano e.g. mount Kilimanjaro in
Tanzania and Mt Cameroon in Cameroon.
Intrusive and extrusive landforms

- Dykes, Sills, Batholith, Lopoliths, and Laccoliths.
1. Dyke  Due to erosion they may form ridge like
 Is a sheet of magma that solidifies across escarpments and others remain as caps on top of
bedding plane. hills.
 It can be vertical or inclined.  They can be dissected by rivers forming isolated
 Dykes are easily eroded forming shallow hills.
trenches.  The Three Sisters in Cape Province South Africa
 Those that resist erosion form ridges. are buttes which have sills.
 Dykes normally give rise to waterfalls for
example Howick Falls in South Africa. 3. Batholith
 A deep-seated dome like igneous intrusion made
up of granite.
 Other examples are the Jos Plateau in Nigeria  Is formed when a large mass of magma that
and Kaap in South Africa. accumulates in the earth`s crust which cools and
2. Sills solidifies within or near the earth`s crust.
 A sheet of magma that lies along bedding planes.  Sometimes they form the root or core of
 A sill is a body of tabular rock that solidifies mountains.
along bedding planes sometime are igneous  They form features like dwalas and low lying
intrusions. hills after denudation processes.
 They are essentially massive underground hills.
 Example is Domboshava near Harare.
4. Lopoliths  They form depression which holds water or form

lakes.
 Example is the Great Dyke in Zimbabwe is not
a dyke according to geological fact.
5. Laccolith
 Is convex shaped massive sheet of magma that
solidifies within the earth`s crust and usually
near the earth`s surface.
 They are arch – like igneous intrusions as a
 A saucer concave shaped sheet of magma that
result of magma solidifies within sediments.
solidifies in the earth`s crust.
 They have a pipe-like feeder coming from the  For example Mt Mlanje in Malawi.
magma pool very deep down.
 Laccolith forces sedimentary rock to curve up
and when exposed to erosion and denudation,
they form low lying hills.
Bedding planes
 Are layers of sedimentary rocks.
 They result from fossil deposits or layers of
sedimentary materials.
Lava Plateau
 Lava eruption through cracks tends to be very

quiet and subdued.
 The lava spreads out over the surrounding
countryside causing layers of lava to build up.
 Eventually covers up the features of the
surrounding area resulting in lava plateaus.
 Some lava plateaus are very extensive in size and cover thousands of killometres e.g. Haruj al Aswad
Plateau in Libya, part of Drankensberg Mountains in South Africa and Mt Nyiragongo.
5. Desert landforms
Landforms produced by wind erosion
Rock pedestals
 Wind abrasion attacks rock masses and
sculptures them into strange shapes.
Zeugen  The heaviest material is deposited first while
the finer material and dust is carried further
 Wind abrasion turns a rock surface with layers before being dropped.
of horizontal resistant rock underlain a non-  As a result loess (which consists of fine
resistant rock into a ridge and furrow. particles) is sometimes deposited thousands of
kilometers from deserts.
 Large mounds of sand result from sand
depositions within the desert.
 These result in the formation of erg landscapes
such as those found in the Sahara.
 Three major types of features result from wind
deposition and form part of the erg landscape:
sand ripples, barchan dunes and seif dunes.
Sand ripples
 These are small wave-like features which

develop on sand which move easily.
 They range from a few centimeters to about a
meter in height
Yardang
 They are often temporary and suffer
 Develops when bands of hand and soft rock lie destruction when the wind changes direction.
parallel to prevailing winds, wind abrasion
produces a ridge and a furrow e.g. Salah in Sand Dunes
Algeria.
 These are hills of sand which are found in a

variety of shape, size and direction.
 Dunes develop when sand grains moved by
saltation and surface creep are deposited
(remember suspension material forms loess
which is deposited outside deserts).
 Some dunes, but not all, form around obstacles
such as trees, bushes, rocks, a small hill or even
a dead animal.
Landforms by wind deposition  Most dunes form on areas that are flat and
Sand dunes sandy rather than those areas that are rocky and
 As soon as wind velocity drops wind uneven.
deposition occurs.  Dunes vary in size from a few meters to over a
100 meters in height.
 Although they take many shapes, there are two Seif dunes
common types of dunes: Barchan and Seif
dunes.
Barchan
 Are also known as transverse dunes, linear

dunes.
 They are ridge-shaped with steep sides and lie
parallel to the prevailing wind.
 They are also formed and appear parallel to
 A barchan dune is a small crescent shaped each other.
dune.  A seif dune has a sharp crest which may be a
 It has a height can range from a few meters to 100 meters in height and they can stretch for up
about 30 meters in height and it can be 400 to 150 kilometers in length.
meters wide.  They are separated by flat corridors which are
 They lie at right angles to the prevailing wind. between 25 and 400 meters wide.
 It has its “horns” pointing downwind.  These corridors are swept clear of sand by the
 They usually form around an obstacle such as prevailing wind.
a rock, piece of vegetation or even a dead  Eddies blow up against the sides of dunes and
animal. drop deposit sand that is added to the dunes.
 As the mound, which is wind ward grows due  They usually develop from small sand ridges.
to continued sand depositions,  They slowly move forward in the direction of
 Its leading edges are slowly carried forward in the prevailing wind as they move forward.
a downwind direction.  They feature in parts of the Namib Desert and
 The windward slope of the dune is gentle. the Sahara Deserts as well as other deserts.
 The downwind side is steep and slightly
curved. Deflation hollows
 This is caused by eddies that are set up by the
prevailing wind.
 A barchan dune moves as grains of sand are
moved up the windward slope to fall onto the
leeward side.
 They can occur both singly or in groups.
 Are also known as closed hollows or blowouts

 These are enclosed depressions caused by wind
erosion.
 In deserts the wind erodes loose material from
flat areas which have, uncemented sediments
such as those occurring in tropical deserts.
 Deflation hollows develop in areas where the
transported materials is deposited.
 As already mentioned deposition occurs when  The removal of the fine particles the lowering
the wind meets with an impediment. of the landform leads to the formation of a
 Deflation hollows are usually formed on depression.
surfaces patches where the protective  An example is the Qattara Depression
vegetative cover has been lost for example due  Sometimes water that falls in these depression
to human activities or periods of extended hollows during freak storms collects to form
droughts. pools in the midst of deserts providing an
 Since that portion becomes unprotected, the essential source of water for local ecosystems,
wind deflates and scours continuously at animals and humans and their activities.
relatively unconsolidated material,  If an area is eroded down to the water table,
 The material is deposited on the edges of the further deflation is prevented unless the water
hollow that are still protected by vegetation table is also lowered by evaporation.
such as marram grass.
The Qattara Deflation hollow
A diagram showing the formation of deflation  Dunes are made from sand that is deposited at
hollows. the leeward side of the wind.
 Some deflation hollows may be formed in part
due to the presence of faults within the rocks
which are exploited and widened by weathering
and the regolith removed by wind erosion.
 Note: all oasis are formed by deflation some are
naturally occurring springs and some result as a
result of freak storms and the underlying
geological rocks limiting the amount of
infiltration.
 Some oases in the Sahara were formed in this
manner and may be below sea level.
Water action
 Various landforms result from water erosion and deposition in deserts viz: wadis, mesas and buttes,
bahadas, playas
Wadis / canyon Alluvial fans/Bahadas/Bajadas
 During the sudden rain storms, flash floods rush

 As already pointed out freak storms occur in down the wadis,
deserts characterised by excessive precipitation  They carry large amounts of materials including
over short periods of time. a lot of silt (all this material is referred alluvium)
 Due to infiltration excess flow and even forming a mud flow
saturation excess flow there is significant run off  As the water dissipates after the end of the storm
in the form of sheet floods, and when it loses its energy upon reaching less
 This flow occurs in the form of rills which later steep slopes the alluvium is deposited to form
join to form gullies which in turn form into fan shaped features at the base of the piedmont
wadis, zone.
 These are deep canyons resulting from sustained
erosion, the have steep banks and flat floors. Desert piedmont zone
 At times the floor may have material deposited
by stream floods.  Is made up of water landforms formed by
 Wadis may also be formed by stream floods erosion, transportation and deposition.
which erode valley sides although some wadis  The landforms found on the piedmont zone
can be dry and only have water during and in the include: mountain front, bajada, peri pediment,
immediate aftermath of these storms. playa and rock pediment.
 An example is the Grand Canyon in the United
States. Features of a piedmont zone.
Mountain front
 It is formed as a result of erosion along a steep slope and sometimes as a result of headward erosion.
 It may also be a made up of large rock boulders resulting from weathering.
Bahada
 A depositional feature see above.
Knickpoint
 A sharp change in profile that marks the transition from the mountain front into a pediment.
Rock pediment
 It is the gentle slope that starts at the knickpoint at the foot of the mountain.
 This may be made out of bare rock or it can be covered in alluvium deposited during floods
Peripediment
 It is made up of deposited material washed across the pediment.
 The peri pediment is a depositional feature that is formed in the same way as bajadas but it is larger.
Playas
 These are sometimes known as inland drainage basins.
 Due to the fact that there are no permanent drainage patterns in deserts any rain that falls either
evaporates or infiltrates into the soil or runs off and drains into basins.
 Basins are depressions.
 When rain falls temporary rivers that flow in canyons/ bahadas are formed and these may eventually
drain in a basin/depression.
 These rivers form lakes in these depressions.
 When these lakes dry up due to evaporation they are turned into salt flats.
 These temporary lakes and salt flats are known as playas or sebkhas.
 Examples of these can be found in the Sahara desert.
 When alluvium is deposited at the edge and overlies the edge of the pediment around the playa it is
known as a peri-pediment.
 Most deserts are characterised by inland
drainage basins as few rivers e.g. the Nile have
enough water supply to flow and persist through
the deserts.
 Most form inland drainage basins/lakes/playa.
Benefits of landforms (Summary)

 Tourism – tourist attraction e.g Victoria  Mountains leads to formation of relief
Falls, Vumba, Alps, Inyangani mountains rainfall e.g in the Eastern Highlands of
and Chinhoyi caves. Zimbabwe.
 Hydroelectric power generation foe example  Landform such as rivers and ridges form
Kariba Hydroelectric power generation at international boundaries for example
deep gorges. Zambezi and Limpopo.
 Provision of fertile soils for example on  Provide precious minerals.
flood plains.  Provision of building materials e.g granite
and limestone rocks.
TOPIC 3
ECOSYSTEMS
Ecosystems
A system is a set of components connected together in an organised way. It is simply a series

of materials, components (parts) or variables linked together by flows or processes.
Ecosystem
 Is a community of organisms involved in a dynamic network of biological, chemical
and physical interactions between themselves and with the non-living components.
 An ecosystem can be classified according to nature (artificial or natural), its size (large
or small) and duration (temporary or permanent).
 Small / micro ecosystem can be temporary or permanent e.g. pond, flowerpot etc.
 Large / macro ecosystem is always permanent and mostly natural e.g Ocean, river,
forest and desert.
Two components are biotic and abiotic.
Biotic Components
 The living organisms present in an ecosystem form the biotic component.
 They are connected through food, some organisms are producing food whereas others
are consuming.
i) Producers
 The role of producers is to manufacture food to provide nutrition to the other organisms.
 Two types of producers are photoautotrophs and chemotrophs.
Phototrophs - These are green plants which can trap sun light to form carbohydrate, simple
sugar from carbon di-oxide and water (photosynthesis).
Chemoautotrophs -few bacteria such as sulfur bacteria, nitrifying bacteria, to utilize free
energy released from the chemical reactions to prepare organic food (chemosynthesis).
ii) Consumers
 These are mainly the animals, unable to synthesise their own food but depends on
producers.
 Some consumers doesn’t get the food from the producers but they are depended on
other consumers (hetrotrophs)
Primary consumers - grasshopper, rabbit, goat, sheep etc.
Secondary consumers – Carnivores-are flesh eaters. e.g. - Hawks, Tiger and Lion.
Omnivores - eat both vegetables and flesh (cockroaches, fox, and
humans).
Tertiary – predators of predators e.g vultures,
iii) Decomposers
33 | P a g e
 These are mainly bacteria and fungi to decompose complex organic material into simple
inorganic material so that it can be used by producers to prepare food e.g bacteria, fungi,
worms, nematodes, mites, etc.
Abiotic components
 These factors include the non-living physiochemical factors of the environment.

 Abiotic factors are as follows:
i) Inorganic substances
 Inorganic substances like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, water, carbon di-oxide, calcium,
phosphorus and their inorganic compounds.
 These are available as free form or dissolved in water and may be adsorbed on the soil
particles.
ii) Organic compounds

 These are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids etc.
 This material is present in dead organic matter. These are broken into the simple
compounds by decomposers in ecosystem for recycling of matter.
iii) Climatic factors
 These are factors present in the environment such as temperature, humidity, light, wind,
rainfall and atmospheric gases etc.
Components of micro ecosystems

Inputs (things going into it)
 Precipitation, heat or solar energy.
 Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
34 | P a g e
 Mineral salts e.g. calcium, nitrates, potassium. All these are used to make food for the
plants.
 The inputs contribute to healthy trees, grass and other plants.
Processes
 Key processes in ecosystems include the capture of light energy and carbon through
photosynthesis, the transfer of carbon and energy through food webs and the release of
nutrients and carbon through decomposition.
Outputs (things coming out of the system)

 The healthy plants resulting from the use of the inputs
 More water vapour added to the atmosphere through evapo-transpiration from plants.
 More surface water resources-leading to fish resources.
 Decomposed plants, litter or vegetation, adds to soil fertility and enables farmers to reap
more crops.
 Pastures or food for animals, birds and insects come from trees and grass.
 Birds and insects help to propagate seeds and fruit resulting in more plant germination.
Interdependence in organisms
A food chain
 Is the sequence of steps through which  Through the process of photosynthesis,
the process of energy transfer occurs in plants use light energy from the sun to
an ecosystem.
make food energy.
 Energy flows through an ecosystem in
one direction – through food chains.  Primary consumers eat plants,
 Food chains illustrate how energy secondary consumers eat primary
flows through a sequence of consumers, and tertiary consumers eat
organisms, and how nutrients are secondary and primary consumers.
transferred from one organism to
another.
 Food chains usually consist of
producers, consumers, and
decomposers.
 The sun is the ultimate source of
energy for all food chains.
A food web is a diagram of a complex, interacting set of food chains within an ecosystem.
Human beings feed on plants, birds and other animals. A lion eats a number of animals
including a human being. A zebra is a prey to a number of carnivores and omnivores.
35 | P a g e
Pyramids of numbers
 It shows the relationship between the producers, herbivores and carnivores in terms of their
numbers.
 This indicates the number of organisms at every trophic level.
 In a grassland the producers, which are mainly grasses, are always maximum in number.
 This number shows a decrease towards apex,
 The secondary consumers, snakes and lizards are less in number than the rabbits and mice.
 In the top (tertiary) consumers hawks or other birds, are least in number.
36 | P a g e
Pyramid of energy Pyramid of Biomass
 In an ecosystem the pyramid of energy
shows the amount of total energy trapped  The amount of living material in an
by the organism at each trophic level in a organism is called biomass.
unit area and time and expressed as kcal/  Pyramid of biomass shows quantitative
𝑚2 /year. relationship existing at various trophic
levels.
 The energy pyramid gives the best
picture of overall nature of the
ecosystem.
37 | P a g e
TOPIC 4
NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural resource
 Anything that exist naturally or without humankind (all of the Earth’s organisms, air,
water, and soil, as well as materials such as oil, coal, and ore that are removed from
the ground).
 Categorised into Renewable resources and Non-renewable resources
Renewable Resources
 are any resource that cycles or can be replaced within a human life span e.g. water,
crops, biogas, wind, soil, sunlight, animals, etc…
Non-renewable Resources
 Any resource that cannot be replaced during the time of a human life span.
 Took thousands of years to form and exist in fixed amounts in the Earth.
 They need to be conserved before they become depleted e.g metallic ores include
(gold, silver, copper, aluminium, zinc, etc… and non-metallic ores and fossils include:
coal, limestone, salt, sand, gravel etc…)
Resource Exploitation
Involves the deliberate use and exploitation of a resource either to satisfy domestic or
commercial needs.
Sustainable utilisation of resources

Resource conservation
This is about using our resources, both renewable, and non-renewable carefully so that future
generations could also benefit.
The following are some of the resource conservation methods which can be implemented.
Forests/wood
 Afforestation.
 Reforestation.
 Education campaigns, for example, the National Tree Planting Day.
 Penalties against those people who indiscriminately cut down trees.
 Limiting timber extraction/harvesting.
 Using less resources (twigs/tsotso).
Water
 Treat waste before disposing it into water courses.
 Avoid stream bank cultivation.
 Limit the use of chemicals on land, for example, fertilizers which cause eutrophication
38 | P a g e
 Recycling used water.
 Penalties for those people who carelessly use and or pollute water.
 Turning off tapes after use.
 Education.
 Water harvesting
 Mulching to conserve moisture.
Land and gold panning
 Proper methods of farming.

 Land redistribution, so as to relieve pressure on overcrowded areas.
 Stiff penalties on indiscriminate dumping of wastes.
 Education campaigns so as to enlighten people about the need to use our only one and
fertile land resource.
 Fencing off degraded/bad land topography so as to protect it from further damage and
thus lesson or limit the impact/damage.
 Ban gold panning.
 3 RS (reduce, reuse and recycle).
 Substitution of minerals.
 Improved technology
39 | P a g e
TOPIC 5
ENERGY AND POWER
Energy Forms
Non-renewable energy: Energy that cannot be reproduced in the time that it takes to consume
it e.g. coal.
Renewable energy: Energy that is naturally occurring and potentially infinite.
Fossil fuels: Any combustible organic matter that is made from the remains of former flora and
fauna.
Siting and production of HEP

Factors
 A gorge and water falls – much water in the narrow valley, a large head of water at the
falls, low cost of construction, firm dam wall on hard rocks e.g Kariba gorge, Cabora Basa
gorge in Mozambique.
 Large perennial rivers for large volumes of water e.g. Zambezi River.
 Space for dam construction and the scheme, thus why people have to be relocated to other
areas.
 Income since it`s expensive to erect the project.
 Demand.
Hydro – electric power generation at Kariba

 Water leaves the lake (head of water) at high pressure and goes through the penstocks
(concrete and steel pipes).
 The larger the depth of water, the more the pressure hence high electricity generation.
 High speed water hits cups of turbines.
 Turbines start spinning and rotating.
 They in turn generators to which they are attached with pistons.
 Generators produce electricity.
 The water passes through surge chambers and return back to the river through tailrace.
 Electricity is transmitted to huge transformer which regulates the power.
 Electricity is transmitted through cables to homes for use.
40 | P a g e
Thermal power
Locational factors
 Near fuel source e.g. S.E Lowveld uses baggase from sugarcane.
 Market based.
 Flat land.
 Near large rivers or source of sufficient water.
 Transport
Thermal power generation
 Fuel such as coal, oil and natural gas can be used to heat water in huge boilers to produce
steam.
 The steam at high pressure turns turbines.
 Turbines turn generators to produce electricity.
 E.g. Hwange and Munyati power station.
41 | P a g e
Environmental impacts from generating and use of energy
1. Fossil fuel
 Deforestion
 Global warming
 Acid rains
 Dangers posed by leaded fuels
 Oil spills
 Water pollution caused by poorly managed coal mines
 Air pollution.
2. Alternate energy resources
 The initial cost of establishment of alternate energy generation is costlier than
conventional resources
 Maintenance of these structures is difficult.
 It requires more space.
 Energy supply is unpredictable during natural calamities.
Management and conservation of energy
 Management of energy is effective planning and control of energy resources.
Management Measures
 Encouraging many people to use public transport.

 Educating people through mass media to create awareness on the importance of conserving
energy.
 Improvement and proper planning of road network to reduce traffic jams in which a lot of
fuel is wasted.
42 | P a g e
 Agroforestry, afforestation and reforestation programmes to reduce overexploitation of
natural forests.
 Banning logging, selective felling of trees and resettling people who have settled into
forests.
Conservation of energy
 Conservation of energy is using available energy resources in the most effective manner to
ensure there isn`t wastage.
Conservation measures
 Putting off electricity gadgets when they are not in use.

 Proper motor vehicle maintenance in order for them to use fuel efficiently.
 Encouraging use of public transport which carries many people at a go e.g. buses.
 Encouraging use of renewable sources of energy e.g. solar, wind and biogas to save on oil
and wood.
 Encouraging use of energy saving stoves which use little charcoal and produce a lot of
energy.
43 | P a g e
TOPIC 6
MAP WORK AND GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SSYTEMS

Maps
A map is a visual representation of the Earth’s surface, drawn to scale and made for a specific
purpose.
Uses of maps
- To locate places.
- To determine where you are going.
- To show distribution of features and type of materials.
Components of a good map
Title Tells us what, where, when and the

subject of the map
Orientation Directions: North, South, East, West
(compass rose)
Date When the map was made
Cartographer Who made the map
Legend Key of map symbols and scale
Symbols Markings on the map: Mts ^^^^,
Rivers ~~~~, Capital*
Scale Distance a unit of measurement
represents on map
Index Alphabetical listing to show the
address of places on map
Grid Letters and/or numbers on map that
locate places: latitude…
Glossary Definition of physical features
located on map
Source Bibliographic information; where did
you get information
44 | P a g e
Types of maps
Political maps – These

show political divisions of
land, such as countries,
districts, and provinces.
Political maps also often
show towns, cities and
villages
Physical maps -Illustrate the

physical features of an area,
such as the mountains, rivers
and lakes.
45 | P a g e
Topographic maps –will
show you hills, rivers, lakes,
roads, railway lines, farms
and settlement areas.
A topographic map shows
only those features the
mapmaker wants to show.
Includes contour lines to
show the shape and elevation
of an area.
Road maps – show major,

some minor highways and
roads, airports, railroad
tracks, cities and other
points of interest in an
area. People use road
maps to plan trips and for
driving directions.
Navigational
maps/Directional maps –
show you where you are
located and where to find
a location.
46 | P a g e
Economic map – show the economic activities and resource distribution in a given country or
region e.g distribution of different minerals or mark the areas where certain economics are
concentrated.
Special purpose maps

Population density is the
number of people per unit
of area.
Climate maps – Show

information about climatic
conditions of an area. They
show elements such as
temperature and rainfall.
Regions receiving same
amounts of temperature and
rainfall are allocated the
same code.
Product map – shows us

what kinds of things are
made in and grown on the
land.
47 | P a g e
Drawing a map
A Sketch map
Is a simplified representation of the real map or features drawn not to scale. It has a title, key
and direction.
How to draw a sketch map
Step 1: Draw the boundaries of the area which resemble the shape of the map.
Step 2: Draw major roads, strets, rivers and other linear features,
Step 3: Draw settlements, hills and mountains using symbols like rectangles for buildings,
circles for hill and lines for roads and rivers,
Step 4: Shade the features differently and insert a key to represent them,
Step 5: Insert a title and direction arrow.
48 | P a g e
Location
Absolute Location
is the exact spot on Earth where a place can be found.
Relative Location
Is the location of one place in relation to other places.
Latitude and Longitude

How do I use latitude and longitude to find the absolute location of places?
Absolute Location: the exact location on the earth’s grid.
Latitude
- Lines run west to east
- Measures distance north and south of the equator
- Also called “parallels”
- Lines end at 90 degrees North and South
Equator
- The main line of latitude
- divides the world into Northern and Southern Hemispheres
- measures a “0” degrees
Longitude
- Lines run north to south
- Measures distance east and west of the Prime Meridian
- Also called “meridians”
- Lines end at 180 degrees east and west
- two end points of longitude meridians are the North Pole and the South Pole
Prime Meridians
- The main line of longitude
- Divides the world into Eastern and Western Hemispheres
- Measures at “0” degrees
- Runs through Greenwich, England
49 | P a g e
Map Referencing / Co-ordinates
 This is the method of finding any point on the map.
Finding 4 Figure Grid References

 It is used for general purpose.
 Always begin from the eastings, followed by the northings.
Steps
1. Locate the grid square of the particular feature to be found.
2. Read the easting for the south-west of the grid square,
3. Read the northing for the south-west of the grid square (the two lines intersect forming
an L- pattern).
4. Simply write the two numbers together, with the easting first.
5. The 4 fig of the shaded box below is: 2 9 5 1
Finding 6 Figure Grid References

 It is used for precise locations
50 | P a g e
 It pinpoints actual location by involving the subdivision of the eastings and northings
reference into 10 imaginary lines.
 Each tiny square represents 1/100 of the original big (grid) square.
Steps
1. Locate the grid square of the particular feature to be found.
2. Divide the grid square into 10 equal parts along both the northings and eastings.
3. Number these divisions from 0 to 9 along both northings and eastings.
4. Mark the southwest corner of the feature that you are locating.
5. Estimate how far the feature is from the easting first using the scale in tenths.
6. Estimate how far the feature is from the northing using the scale in tenths.
7. Write the value for the easting followed by the northing.
8. The six fig grid reference of the spot height below is: 6 2 5 3 3 3
Note:
 The third number is part of the easting and the sixth number is part of the northing.
These numbers refer to the small squares in tenths.
 Accuracy of 6 figure grid reference depends on subdividing the parts equally and
ensuring that the (dotted) lines are parallel to the grid lines.
13 Figure Grid Reference

 We used to do 4 figure grid reference as well as 6 figure grid reference. Hope you are well
versed with how those two are done.
 Now 13 figure grid reference is when we have 6 figures for eastings and 7 figures for
northings.
 Let us start with the eastings.
 If you look closely at the eastings on your topographical map you will notice that there is a
small figure near what we used to take as the normal easting e.g a small 4 besides say
easting 65 or 66. Now include that small 4 then write down the normal easting and you will
have your first 3 figures for the eastings.
51 | P a g e
 Now the last 3 figures are computed in the similar way we computed the former 6 figure
grid reference.
4 6 5 0 0 0
 We are aware that our grid box has an equivalent length of 1000m, and we can divide it
into 10 segments 100m and each 100m segment can be divided into 10 segments 10m each
and each 10 m segment into segments 1m.
 So as you are moving from the main easting into the grid box to a feature you will have
written your small easting as well as the main easting and the fourth figure is obtained by
seeing how many hundreds of meters the feature lies from the main easting, the fifth is how
many tenths of units and the 6th how many units.
 Here the usual result can be 465300. The last two zeroes are there because it's not possible
to measure the distance of a normal 1:50000 topographical map.
4 6 5 3 0 0
 For the northings, you will notice that they start with a double digit alongside that we used
to identify as the normal northing.
 Copy the four numbers and add three zeroes at the end and you will have 13 figure grid
reference.
52 | P a g e
5 1 5 6 0 0 0
5 1 5 6 8 0 0
Scale
- A scale is the ratio of a distance between two points on a map and the actual distance of the same
two points on the ground.
Types of scale
The statement scale
 The statement scale is when you make a statement saying what the distance on the map
represents on the ground.
 One may say 1 centimetre measured on the map represents 1 kilometre measured on the ground
or 1 centimetre to 1 kilometre.
 The smaller distance refers to the map and the larger distance refers to the ground.
 The distance on the ground is always given in killometres or metres. Thus, in this case, the
distance of 1 cm on the map represents a distance of 1 kilometre on the ground.
The Representative Fraction (R. F.)

 The scale is given as a fraction: 1/50000 or as a ratio: 1:50000. One unit on the map is equal to
50 000 units of the same size on the ground.
 One can say 1 centimetre represents 10 cm. On most maps, the Representative Fraction is given
as a ratio, which is usually 1:50000 on topographic maps (2cm represent 1km on the ground).
 A scale of 1:25 000 will show more detail than a scale of 1:100000.
53 | P a g e
The linear scale or line scale
 This is a special ruler that is drawn below a map that can be used to measure an area or distance.
 It is divided into a number of equal parts. The divisions on the line scale measures map
distances and the labelling will give you the distance on the ground.
 To the right of zero – each scale division represents a distance of 1 kilometre.
 To the left of zero – the distance representing 1 km is shown. This is subdivided into ten equal
parts, each part representing a distance of 100m.
 Distances can be measured and read off directly from the scale.
Conventional sign
- Is a standard sign used on a map to indicate a particular feature. The conventional sign may be a
letter of the alphabet or it may be a symbol.
Three Types of Symbols
 Point symbols - buildings, dipping tanks, Trigonometrical stations.

- Line symbols - railways, roads, power lines, telephone lines.
 Area symbols - cultivation, orchards and vineyards, pans.
Six Colour Groups
1. Brown: land or earth features - contours, eroded areas, prominent rock outcrops, sand areas and dunes,
secondary or gravel roads
2. Blue: water features - aqueducts, canals, furrows and siphons, coastlines, dams, lakes, marshes, swamps
and vleis, pans, rivers, water-towers
3. Green: vegetation features - cultivated fields, golf courses, nature and game reserve boundaries, state
forest boundaries, orchards and vineyards, recreation grounds, woodland
4. Black: construction features - roads, tracks, railways, buildings, bridges, cemeteries, communication
towers, dam walls, excavations and mine dumps, telephone lines, power lines, wind pumps, wrecks, ruins,
trigonometrical stations, boundaries
5. Grey: construction features - built-up areas, cadastral information.
6. Red: construction features - national, airdrome and main roads, lighthouses and marine lights; pink also
shows international boundaries
Five Elements
 Relief - contours, spot heights, trigonometrical stations.

 Water - lakes, rivers, waterholes, reservoirs.
 Vegetation - cultivation, orchards and vineyards, forests, plantations, woodland.
 Man-made - communication lines, settlements, etc.
 Political – boundaries
54 | P a g e
Conventional sign
Distance
Distance can be measured using, a ruler, string, straight edge of paper and pair of dividers.
Measuring straight line distance

 Use a ruler to measure straight line map distances.
 Place the zero mark on the ruler at point A and the edge of the ruler with centimetre
measurements at point B, and note the distance between them. For example, point A might
be 10 cm from point B.
 Convert the distance in cm to distance in km using the map's scale information. For
example, if your ruler shows 10 cm from point A to point B, and your map scale shows that
1 cm equals 5 km, the straight-line map distance equals 10 X 5 km = 50 km.
Distance along a curved line

 To measure a curved line you need a piece of paper with a straight edge.
55 | P a g e
Step 1: Put the paper strip with the straight
edge on the first straight part of the road or
curved line. Mark point B onto the strip at
the beginning of it and make another mark
(b) where the road starts to curve away from
the paper strip.
Step 2: Keeping the mark of (b) firmly

fixed, rotate the straight edge of the paper
strip until it follows the next straight part of
the road. Now mark (c) where the road
curves away again (up or down) from the
paper strip.
Step 3: Keep on rotating the paper strip and

marking the parts on the strip, until the
whole curved distance, from A to B, is
marked onto the strip of paper
56 | P a g e
Step 4: Lay the paper strip against your map scale and read the distance from A to B.
Conversion table
Relationships Conversion rules
1 km = 1 000 000 mm From mm to km we divide by 1 000 000
1 km = 1 00 000 cm From cm to km we divide by 100 000
1 km = 1 000 m From m to km we divide by 1 000
1 m = 1 000 mm From mm to m we divide by 1 000
1m = 100 cm From cm to m we divide by 100
Direction
 An approximate way of describing

position of one place in relation to the
direction makes use of 16 cardinal points,
the four main ones being North, South,
East and West
 These four directions are then divided into
another 4 intermediate directions.
 Then another eight directions are placed in
between. These are additional
intermediate directions.
 Direction is a generalised method of showing the position of one place from another i.e. points of
a compass.
Example 1 northeast. Therefore we can say that A is north

 Points A and B represent two places A east of B, or B is southwest of A.
and B.
 What do you think is the direction of B
from A?
Imagine you are standing at B and looking
towards place A. Which direction are you
facing? You are looking towards the
57 | P a g e
Bearing
 Bearing is the measurement of direction in degrees.

 True North is always at the top of the topographical map, but not always at the top of the photos.
 0° is True North, bearings are always read in a clockwise direction from the North line through a
full circle of 36Oº.
 Calculate the true bearing from spot height 735 to spot height 759.
a) With a pencil, draw a line parallel to the side of the map through spot height 735. (This is your
True North line Oº).
b) Join the two spot heights with a pencil line.
c) Measure (with a protractor) the angle between True North, Oº (i.e. the line through spot height 735
and parallel to the side of the map) and line joining two spot heights.
d) The answer is 106°
58 | P a g e
Magnetic bearing Height
 Magnetic Bearing is the distance in degrees  Height on all maps and photos is shown in
from Magnetic North (i.e. from where the metres above sea level.
compass points to North) to the position of  On the topographical map, the contour
the place. interval i.e. the vertical distance between 2
 The magnetic bearing between A and B is contour lines is 20 metres.
angle y = 112º  On the orthophoto map, the contour interval
is 5 metres.
 Height is used to show the following:
 Height is shown on maps in various ways –
always in metres above sea level i.e. as
altitude.
Contour lines.
Spot heights.
Trigonometrical beacons.
Bench marks
Finding Area
Area of a regular shape
 The formula for the area of a rectangle is length x width (i.e. the length of one long side multiplied
by the length of one short side) and the formula of square is side X side.
 Give your answer in either square metres (𝑚2 ) or square kilometres (𝑘𝑚2 ).
 Remember to convert your map distances to real distances before you multiply.
L S
W S
Area of a triangle
In the figure given below the length of the base AB of the triangle ABC is 6cm. The perpendicular height
CD is 4cm. using a scale of 1 cm represents 1km. The length of the base is 6 km and the height is 4km.
Calculate the area.
C C
A D B A B
59 | P a g e
Area of irregular shape
 Follow the rule that parts
of a square are to be
counted if they are half or
more than half occupied,
but are to be ignored if
less than half.
 Count the number of
occupied squares and
multiply the total
𝟐
by𝟏𝒌𝒎 .
 In the figure above there are 12 whole squares and 20 part squares. Part squares are counted as
half squares. To change 20 part squares into complete squares you calculate 20/2 = 10
 The total area is therefore 12 +10 = 22 𝒌𝒎𝟐 .
60 | P a g e
TOPIC 7
MINERALS AND MINING
The country hosts more than 60 different types of minerals, 40 of which have historically been
exploited to various extents. There are a variety of other minerals that have been exploited but
not listed below. These include tin, antimony and a range of semi-precious stones such as
tourmaline, aquamarine, chrysoberyl, topaz, and alexandrite. Zimbabwe also has uranium
deposits estimated at 45, 0000 tons according to the drills made in the Zambezi Valley, and
there are several anomalies elsewhere. In addition, there are potential oil and gas reserves in
the Zambezi Valley.
Classification of minerals in Zimbabwe
Precious Precious Base Metals Industrial Hydro- Dimensi

Metals Stones Metals carbons onal
Stones
Gold Diamonds Copper Asbestos Coal Black
granite
Silver Nickel Graphite
Platinum Tantalite Phosphate
Palladium Emeralds Lithium Limestone
Rhodium Iron ore Feldspar
Chromiu Magnetite
m
Distribution of mines and minerals in Zimbabwe
Qn: Describe and explain the distribution of minerals shown below:
61 | P a g e
Ores and mineral groups
Mineral Occurrence and areas

Gold Over 4,000 recorded deposits. Acturus Goromonzi, Gwanda, Kadoma,
Gweru, Chakari, Chegutu, Bindura, Chinhoyi, Shurugwi, Mazowe,
Mutorashanga, Penhalonga-Makonde, Nyajena-Chiredzi, Zvishavane,
Shamva, Guruve, Mutare, Bubi, Silobela, etc.
PGE Great Dyke – Zvishavane, Chegutu, Shurugwi, Wedza, Msengezi
Diamonds Zimbabwe is a diamondiferous country. Chiadzwa, Zvishavane,
Beitbridge, Somabula , Binga, Triangle, Mwenezi, Bembezi, Sese, Mbizi
clusters
Emeralds Masvingo, Mberengwa, Filabusi
Chromium Great Dyke – Mutorashanga, Makonde, Gweru, Chirumanzu. Greenstone
belts – Shurugwi, Mashava, Belingwe (Mberengwa) Limpopo mobile
belt, Mutorashanga, Makonde, Gweru, and Chirumanzu. Greenstone belts
– Shurugwi, Mashava, Belingwe (Mberengwa)
Nickel Great Dyke: >30 deposits discovered. Zimbabwe geology highly
favourable to nickel. Areas include Madziwa-Shamva, Zvishavane,
Hartley-Chegutu, Shangani- Bubi, Bindura
Lithium Bikita, Kamativi, Zambezi belt
Tentalite Kamativi (tin slugs). 300 known occurrences, examples of which include
Mutoko belt, Odzi, Bikita Tinfields, Harare belt, Makaha belt, Hurungwe,
Shamva, Filabusi (potential), Chipuriro (potential), Inyanga (potential)
Iron ore Mberengwa, Kwekwe, Mwenezi Range- Chivhu, Nyuni (near Masvingo),
Limpopo Mobile belt (Manyoka, Mongula, etc.).
Copper Known deposits number 70, most are located in the northern part of
Zimbabwe. Examples of areas include Zvishavane, Mhangura,
Lomagundi, Sanyati
62 | P a g e
Coal Hwange, Sengwa Coal Fields
Methane Gas Lupane
Limestone Zvishavane, Umzingwane, Shurugwi, Shamva, Rushinga, Nyanga,
Lupane, Marondera, Makoni, Mutasa, Makonde, Hurungwe, Gutu,
Gwanda, Mberengwa, Mazowe, Mudzi, Murehwa, Muzarabani,
Mwenezi, etc.
Phosphate Buhera
Asbestos Zvishavane, Mashava
Graphite Karoi-Hurungwe, Hwange

Feldspar Harare -Mistress mine
Magnetite Kadoma
Black Granite Mutoko, Murewa, Mount Darwin
Uses of minerals
Mineral Main Uses

Diamonds Diamond drilling bits; abrasive materials; jewellery
Emerald Jewellery
Gold Dentistry; computer hardware, communication equipment, space/aircraft
engines, etc. (due to electrical conductivity); financial uses, e.g. backing
of currency; jewellery
Platinum Chemical catalysts used in oil refineries, gasoline production and
petrochemical products; oxidation catalysts in catalytic convertors to treat
automobile exhaust emissions; alloys used in furnace components;
jewellery
Chrome Production of stainless steel; catalyst; plating; pigments
Nickel Coinage; rechargeable batteries; super-alloys used in combustion turbines
in power-generation; refined metal; ferronickel; catalysts; plating
Copper Major industrial metal ranking third after iron and aluminium; power
transmission; power generation; building construction (single largest
use); telecommunications; plating
Iron ore Iron and steel industries
Lithium Heat resistant glass; ceramics (plastics); greases; batteries; neurological
drug for mood stabilization
Tantalite Lamp filaments (now substituted by tungsten); construction of chemical
process plants; electronic components (tantalum capacitors in mobile
phones, computer components: memory chips, in automobiles)
Asbestos Fibre for electrical insulation and textiles; roofing products; gaskets;
friction products
Graphite In high-temperature lubricants; friction materials; battery and fuel cells
Phosphates Fertilizers
Limestone Cement; agricultural lime
Magnetite Source of magnesium used in agricultural, chemical and construction
industries
Coal Steam coal – power generation; cooking; coking coal used in steel
production
CBM Generation of electricity, gas, diesel, petrol and ethanol
63 | P a g e
Importance of mining to Zimbabwe
Home work: Why is mining important to the economy of Zimbabwe? [7].
Answer:
 Employment creation.
 Produce raw materials.
 Support industries as a market.
 Foreign currency from exports.
 Development of infrastructure such as roads, railway line, recreational facilities,
hospitals/clinics, schools and houses.
 Improve living standards.
 Source of income.
 Skills transfer.
Case Study
Copper Mining in Zambia
- Copper deposits occur in an axil belt stretching from Zambia to Democratic Republic of
Congo (DRC) with mines from Nchanga, Mufulira to Ndola.
64 | P a g e
- Occurs in seams of various depths such that both open and shaft mining are used.
- Factors that led to development of mining on the copper belt are labour from nearby
countries e.g. Zimbabwe, technology and capital, market, power supply and political
stability.
Benefits of copper mining Disadvantages
- Earns foreign currency, - Neglecting development of other

- Employment creation. economic activities like agriculture.
- Infrastructural development. - Over – dependency on copper resulted
- Raw materials for industries. in reduction of foreign currency due to
- Income generation. fall in prices of copper on international
markets.
- Pollution of the environment.
- Landslides occur on mine dumps.
65 | P a g e
TOPIC 8
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
Environment
 Is the natural and man-made resources, physical resources both biotic and abiotic,
occurring in the lithosphere and atmosphere, water, soil, minerals and living organisms
whether indigenous or exotic and the interaction between them.
Aspects of the environment
 Land
 Water
 Air.
Land
 It as an important aspect of the environment, forming the top part of the Earth`s crust
made up of rocks and soils.
 Land supports many activities such as farming, construction and many more. It is
affected by land pollution and soil erosion. Land degradation needs to be addressed at
a global level.
 Land degradation reduces soil fertility, cause gully formation, and destroys the aesthetic
value of the land.
 In Zimbabwe, communal areas are at risk to deforestation and soil erosion e.g.
Zimunya, Hwedza and Chivi.
 Urban areas such as Harare, Masvingo, Mutare and others are experiencing sewage
bursting and improper waste disposal.
Water
 Water occupies the largest part of the Earth, in Oceans, lakes, rivers and other sources.
 It is essential to fauna and flora, needed for domestic and industrial use.
 Human activities such as mining, dumping of wastes and farming affects the quality of
water.
 Polluted water becomes unsafe and undrinkable and spreads diseases such as cholera
and typhoid.
 Siltation, gold panning have affected many rivers in the country for example Save,
Mupfure, and Munyati.
 Infestation by water weeds e.g water hyacinth is evidenced in Kariba, Chivero, and
Shaghashe and Mutirikwi rivers.
Air
 Air is a mixture of gases in the atmosphere which include oxygen, carbon dioxide and
nitrogen.
 Oxygen is essential during breathing and respiration.
 Carbon dioxide is used by plants to manufacture food that will also be needed by
animals.
66 | P a g e
 Nitrogen is converted into a usable form such as nitrates and used by plants to make
proteins.
 The quality of air is affected human activities. Air pollution from industries, domestic,
volcanic eruptions and vehicles alter the composition of air in the atmosphere. This
results in global warming.
 The current Zimbabwe air pollution levels are still manageable, certain measures to
reduce air pollution should be adopted and local and national level.
Air composition
Pristine and degraded environment

Pristine Degraded
It means that the environment remains in Environment that has deteriorated in
a pure state quality through depletion of resources
such as air, water and soil
It is free from dirt / clean It is dirty
It is original Has been altered by humans.
IKS in resource management

 Some places such as mountains, rivers and water bodies, forests, caves and veld
resources were regarded as sacred and human activities were not allowed. Taboos,
ceremonies and totems were used in order to protect certain resources against possible
damage.
 A taboo is ‘any ritual prohibition on certain activities…It may involve the avoidance of
certain people, places, objects or actions’.
Mountains
 Several mountains in Zimbabwe are still regarded as sacred today as people say that
they are homes of ancestral spirits.
 They are believed to be characterised by mysterious sounds of activities.
 In some cases people are not allowed to climb without conducting some rituals.
 Visitors to these places are not allowed to divulge what they see lest they risk madness.
67 | P a g e
Durika Chipinge
Rasa Gutu
Dungugwi Mwenezi
Forests /Vegetation
 Some forests are also believed to be sacred.
 Some trees are used for weather forecasting.
 Restricted tree use e.g Muhacha, Muonde, Baobab,
 Fruit trees not used for firewood.
 Conservation of trees for medicinal and warding evil spirits
Type of tree Taboo Traditional belief
Mukamba(pod mahogany);
It is not allowed to be Traditional ceremonies are done
Muonde(fig tree);
chopped for domestic use under any of these trees. They are
Mushakata (parinari
such as firewood associated with ancestral spirits
curatellifolia)
It is placed on a grave after burial.
Mutarara(lacaniodiscus It is not used for domestic
Witches get confused if they
Fraxinifolinus) purposes
attempt to exhume the body
Murungu(lucky bean tree); It is not cut down for use at It is planted on graves. As it grows
Mupanda the home it signifies life for the dead
Planted on graves to allow the dead
Mvuko Not cut for firewood
to avenge his/her killer
Planted at the homestead to ward
Gonde Not to be used for firewood
off lightning
Fruit trees are not cut down
Muzhanje/mushuku(uapaca Mishaps; crops can be consumed by
for any use such as
kirklania) wild animals
firewood
Bring in evil spirits and confusion
Muzeze (peltiforum Not used as firewood or
at the home; causes decay of
africanum) brought to the home
pumpkins
Rivers, water bodies and natural caves
 Some rivers, water bodies and natural caves are also regarded as sacred. Rivers include:
Save (Buhera), Runde (Mwenezi), Mvumvumvu (Chimanimani).
 Water bodies such as Lake Kariba (Zambezi River), Lake Chivero (near Harare),
Manjerenje Dam (Chiredzi) and Lake Mutirikwi (Masvingo) are also believed to be
sacred as they are associated with mermaids. People who violate their taboos risk
mysterious disappearance into the water bodies.
 Deep pools and springs such as Nyanyadzi prohibited to fetch water using metal tins or
black pots.
 Pumps not allowed on springs.
Wildlife
68 | P a g e
 Use of totems
Totemism is a traditional practice used to protect wildlife resources in Zimbabwe. It is
the ‘practice of symbolically identifying humans with non-human objects (usually
animals or plants).
Nzou/Zhou Elephant
Nyati Buffalo
Mhofu Eland
Hove Fish
 Hunting seasons for some animals e.g breeding seasons.

 Restricted hunting.
 Prohibiting killing of animals e.g the Big five.
Maintaining clean environments
 Human waste was disposed in bushes or buried in the grounds surrounding homesteads.
This reduced the spread of diseases through vectors such as flies.
 Burial places for human corpses were located either close to homes or far away while
strict rules on safeguarding sources of drinking water such as wells and springs were
enforced.
Conservation of land / soil

 People practised manje (zero tillage) and intercropping.
 Zero tillage involves digging some holes where the seeds are planted and leave the other
areas intact.
 This conserves the soil structure and soil fertility as well as reducing soil erosion.
 Stone ridging was another form of soil conservation used.
 Mixed cropping in which different seeds are planted in the same field was regarded as
an effective method of soil conservation.
Environmental management
 Deals with managing, conserving and using resources at local and international level.
 See form 2 notes,
Benefits of environmental management

 It leads to a friendly interaction between wildlife and humans.
 It leads to conservation of aspects of environment as a result ensuring sustainability
 It provides income to local communities e.g CAMPFIRE.
 It reduces wastes.
 It reduces spread of diseases such as typhoid and cholera.
 It helps reduces hazards such as drought and floods.
 It reduces the levels of pollution.
 It changes attitudes of local people towards the environment.
69 | P a g e
TOPIC 9
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture
Is the growing of crops and rearing of livestock for a purpose. We grow crops like maize,
sorghum, nuts, cotton, sunflower etc. to feed ourselves and for raw materials for our industries.
Importance of Agriculture
 Export of produce generates foreign currency

 Provides raw materials for industries
 Provides food
 Raises living standards where produce generates money
 Creates employment on farms and in downstream industries
 Promotes infrastructural development as roads, buildings, communication
infrastructure is developed to cater for farming areas.
Types of Agriculture
Agriculture can be classified into subsistence and commercial farming.
Subsistence agriculture
 Involving the growing of crops and /or the keeping of livestock/animals for the family
consumption of the farmer and his family.
Forms of subsistence agric
Shifting Cultivation
 Refers to the growing of crops and rearing of crops while moving from one place to another.
 It is practiced in northern Zambia in Luapula District by the Bemba-Ushi people, parts of
Mozambique, Malawi and Tanzania and in the Amazon forests.
Nomadic Pastoralism
 Is a system of farming whereby farmers (nomads) move with their livestock from place to
place in search of pastures and water for their animals. Practised by the Masai East of
Kenya.
Settled/Sedentary
 Is a type of farming where farmers are permanently stationed at the farms. Communal
farming in Zimbabwe is an example of settled farming.
Commercial agriculture
 Is the process of growing of crops and/or keeping of animals (livestock) for sale at the
market.
70 | P a g e
Forms of commercial agric
Cattle Ranching
 Ranching involves the production of beef.
Market Gardening
 This is the production of vegetables, flowers and fruits that is also known as horticulture.
Dairy Farming
 A specialised type of farming whereby the farmer rears cows for milk production and other
related products e.g. cheese, cream, butter etc.
Irrigation farming
 This is the movement of regular amounts of water from lakes, dams, rivers, wells or
boreholes to cultivated land for various reasons e.g Gezira in Sudan.
Plantation agriculture
 It is a large scale system of commercial farming involving the growing of perennial crops
e.g. tea, sugarcane, over a large piece of land on monocultural basis e.g Katiyo tea estate,
Triangle and Hippo Valley.
Factors influencing agriculture
Labour supply
 All farming activities need either human labour or machines to do the work. Availability
of labour may influence the type of farming. The farm wages, the skills and family labour
affect farming.
Demand/Market.
 This is the customer who buys farm products. Farmers need to sell their crops and animals
to make a profit. The higher the demand the higher the price of the product: and the lower
the demand, the lower the price. The price of the produce and availability of the market are
important factors that affect farming.
Finance /Capital.
 This is money for the payment of wages, purchase of farm inputs/ or imports. This can
affect the type and state of farming. Some crops are capital intensive e.g. money to set up
irrigation facilities etc. Money can be in the form of loans from banks or grants from the
government or capital saved by the farmer.
Government policies
 Government provide subsidies and loans or inputs to encourage new farming practices but
they also place limits on production to prevent food surpluses. Government influence
farming through its police or through infrastructural development and support services e.g
providing tillage facilities through DDF.
71 | P a g e
Transport
 This is needed for the transportation of inputs to the farm and outputs to the market.
Transport network e.g roads and the type of transport affect farming activities. In
Zimbabwe commercial farming is concentrated along main roads.
Technology
 Irrigation and machinery are two examples of expensive technology which increase yields.
Genetic engineering allow new plants to be grown, this reduces diseases and droughts and
give higher yields. Computer control in green houses provides suitable conditions for good
quality crops. Type and availability of equipment and service affect farming activities.
Climate
 The important considerations for farmers are the hours of sunshine, the average temperature
and the amount of rainfall.
Relief
 The relief of the land is a very important factor in determining the type of agricultural
activity that can take place on it. Flat, sheltered areas are usually best for crops as it is easy
to use machinery and there will be the best climatic conditions for crop growth. Steep slopes
are more likely to be used for sheep and cattle farming,
Soils
 Crops grow best on deep, fertile, free draining soils. Soil type and fertility influences the
types of crops that can be grown, the yields per unit area and the cost of production.
Aspect
 The direction a slope faces. In the extreme northern hemisphere south-facing slopes are
best for growing crops and in the southern hemisphere north facing slopes are best for crop
production. (Why?)
Pest and diseases
 These affect workers, crops and animals. Farmers have to fight them in order to avoid
disastrous effects. Pests which affect crops include locusts, birds, boring insects, worms.
The farm as a system

 Individual farms and all types of farming can be seen to operate as a system involving
inputs, processes and outputs as elements of the system.
 Inputs are the initial things needed to carry out something e.g land, knowledge, capital, etc.
 Processes is the work done, manipulating the inputs in order to produce items.
 Outputs are the end products from the work /processes done.
72 | P a g e
The table below shows the main components of a farming system
Inputs Processes Outputs
a)physical inputs Preparing land, Different variety of
Sun’s energy, soils, minerals, ploughing, animals e.g. cattle,
land, conducive temperature, cultivating, planting, weeding, goats, pigs, sheep,
water/rain. watering/irrigating, dosing animals, chicken etc., different
b) human inputs application of insecticides and variety of crops e.g.
labour, knowledge/skills, pesticides, harvesting, dipping maize, millet, wheat
c) Economic inputs animals, vaccinating animals, etc., money, milk and
Crops/seeds, animals, application of manure/fertilizers and other dairy products,
machinery, capital, other chemicals etc. eggs, different variety
infrastructure, pesticides/ of vegetables,
insecticides, use of the land,
different variety of
fertilizers/manure etc.
fruits, etc.
Sedentary / Communal farming in Zimbabwe

 Farmers are fixed within a given piece of land, growing and rearing livestock for family
consumption and sale.
Characteristics of communal farming

 Mainly practiced in rural areas, under rainfed.
 There is no individual ownership of land (Communally owned).
 Practised on fairly small and fragmented pieces of land as mixed farming.
 Labour is provided by the farmer and his/her family and or hiring.
 Farming skills and capital are low.
 Use of simple tools of machines e.g hoes and ox-drawn ploughs.
 Draught power is used.
 A system of monoculture is practised.
 Traditional crops are grown (maize, millet, sorghum, groundnuts, round nuts, rapoko
etc.).
 Livestock include cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys, pigs and chicken etc.
 Cash crops such as sunflower, cotton, tobacco, etc. provides the farmer with direct cash
for school fees.
Elements of a communal farm

Maize seeds, tobacco and Sowing, ploughing, weeding, Grains, rapoko,
vegetable seeds from harvesting, milking, slaughtering, sorghum, pumpkins,
previous harvest of certified. feeding, herding, spraying, etc. cow peas, vegetables,
Artificial and organic meat, cotton and
fertilisers tobacco for sale, etc.
Hoes, axes, ploughs, tractors
73 | P a g e
QN: a) Classify the inputs of a communal farm into physical, human and economic. (9)
b) Identify elements of market gardening. (9)
c) Discuss the elements of a dairy farm below with reference to a case study. (9)
Elements of a dairy farm

Land, favourable climate, rye grass (nutritious Feeding, milking, Milk, cream, yogurt,
best in winter), Kikuyu-star grass (summer), inseminating, ice cream, butter,
cotton seed cake, molasses from sugarcane, vaccinating, meat, cash, manure
Friesland cows- large quantity milk, Jersey transporting, making etc.
cows- for high quality (higher butterfat content), feeds, watering cows,
milking machine, labour, artificial insemination dosing and dipping ,
equipment, dip tank, vehicle, etc. growing of fodder crops
etc.
Challenges faced by communal farmers and solutions
Problem Possible solution

Shortage of land and land fragmentation Resettlement, land consolidation and intensive
production
Inadequate/limited water supply /unreliable rainfall Build dams for irrigation, use short season varieties of
causing serious droughts; animals and crops die seeds, and moisture-conserving techniques, carry out
land use suited to the area. Resettlement to better areas
Soil erosion and exhaustion, siltation of rivers and Implement conservation measures, use organic and
dams artificial fertilisers.
Shortage of grazing areas and overgrazing Resettlement, destocking and paddocking.
Lack of education and low level of technology Education extension services and training,
introduction of appropriate machinery like planters
and ploughs.
Pests and diseases Pests eradication and disease control and monitoring.
Undertake practices like dipping cattle and use of
pesticides.
Shortage of capital to buy input, equipment and to Subsidise inputs, group lending, provision of loans,
develop land. have credit schemes.
Low producer price and lack of market Higher producer prices, more market players, build
depots and ensure quick payment of farmers.
Poor road network and accessibility Upgrade and build roads and increase the number of
marketing depots.
Late distribution and unavailability of agricultural Early distribution of inputs such as financing, tillage,
inputs fertilisers and seeds.
Lack of information on producer prices. Producer prices to be announced early, for example in
June or July
Lack of drought power leaving to land being left Practice zero tillage, practice mechanisation and
fallow or uncultivated. access to DDF ploughing units.
74 | P a g e
Land use zones in a community
Land use planning is the organisation and allocation of land to specialised functions. In a
community land can be used for:
1. Arable land – cultivation is a common land use in rural areas. At a rural home a lot of
land is placed under cultivation or used for growing of crops. However, uncultivated
land can be left.
2. Grazing land – land is allocated for grazing of different livestock. It can be open of put
into paddocks.
3. Residential – used for houses where people live.
4. Transport – land occupied by roads and rail lines.
5. Game parks and wildlife reserves – some of the wildlife will be found in rural areas.
This shows you that one of the land uses in the rural is that of game reserves e.g
Chirisa Game reserve, Gonarezhou National Parks
6. Recreational – land used for dams and sporting activities.
7. Private land – some farms are privately owned for example commercial farms.
Land use zoning is important because:
1. It ensures that given land is used for appropriate land use.

2. It ensures that farmers are well planned to ensure efficiency.
3. It enables proper environmental management.
4. It increases productivity.
5. It creates a balance in land use.
Agriculture land use zoning in an urban area
75 | P a g e
TOPIC 10
INDUSTRY
Industry
 Industry-any form of economic activity through which people produce goods and services
for their consumption.
Levels of Industry
Primary
Primary industries are those that extract or produce raw materials from which useful items can
be made. Extraction of raw materials includes mining activities, agriculture, forestry, and
fishing.
Secondary
Secondary industries are those that change raw materials into usable products through
processing and manufacturing. Bakeries that make flour into bread and factories that change
metals and plastics into vehicles are examples of secondary industries.
The term “value added” is sometimes applied to processed and manufactured items since the
change from a raw material into a usable product has added value to the item.
Tertiary
Tertiary industries are those that provide essential services and support to allow other levels
of industry to function. Often simply called service industries, this level includes
transportation, finance, utilities, education, retail, housing, medical, and other services.
Quaternary
Quaternary industries are those for the creation and transfer of information, including research
and training. Often called information industries, this level has seen dramatic growth as a
result of advancements in technology and electronic display and transmission of information.
Quinary
Quinary industries are those that control the industrial and government decision-making
processes. This level includes industry executives and management and bureaucrats and
elected officials in government. Policies and laws are made and implemented at this level.
Importance of industries
 Provision of raw materials and market for primary sector.
 Earns foreign currency after exporting manufactured goods.
 Industries employ people providing them with income hence raising their standard of
living.
 Increase the country`s GDP.
76 | P a g e
 Development of transport and communication and social amenities such as power,
water, schools and medical facilities where industries have been established.
 Agricultural based industries have led to increased agricultural production in the
process of meeting the rising demand for raw materials.
 Diversification of the economy thereby helping the country to earn revenue throughout
even when agriculture which is the backbone of the economy fails.
 Workers in industries have joined together and formed co-operatives in which they save
money and are then given loans which they use to start projects.
 The government also gets revenue through taxation of industries.
 Establishment of industries promote development of urban centres.
Distribution of Industries in Zimbabwe
 Metallurgical industries – 1. Iron and steel at ZISCO in Kwekwe, 2. Basic metals at ZIM
ALLOYS, ZIMCAST in Gweru, ZIMASCO, SALWIRE in Harare and Bulawayo.
 Mechanical engineering – Harare, Mutare, Kwekwe, Gweru, and Masvingo, Car industries
in Harare at Willowvale and Mutare, electrical goods in Harare and Bulawayo.
 Light industries – textiles in Harare, Bulawayo, Gweru, Kadoma e.g. Martin Spur, David
Whitehead in Chegutu, food stuffs in major towns, foot wear in Gweru e.g. Bata and
Bulawayo.
 Chemical industries – chemicals in Harare, Bulawayo, Triangle, Sable in Kwekwe,
fertilisers in Harare, Bulawayo and Kwekwe.
 Other industries – Hi – Tech industries in Harare and Bulawayo e.g. Phillips, paper and
printing in Harare, Mutare, Marondera and Gweru, furniture in Bulawayo and Mutare,
 Cotton ginneries near source of raw materials in Kadoma, Chegutu, Muzarabani and
Sanyati and Nembudzia.
77 | P a g e
 The factors that can account for the distribution has been sited earlier on the factors
affecting industrial location (See form 2 notes).
78 | P a g e
TOPIC 11
SETTLEMENT AND POPULATION
Settlement
 Is a place where people live.
 A settlement can range from being an isolated building, hamlets, villages, business
centre, growth point, towns, cities or even larger settlements known as conurbations or
megalopolis.
 Isolated farm house  hamlet  village  business centre  growth point  town 
city  primate city  conurbation  megalopolis .
Types of settlements
 Are classified according to size, structure and functions into rural and urban.
Rural settlements
 Are mainly concerned with primary activities such as agriculture, mining, fishing,
forestry etc.
 Population density is small and the settlement size is small.
Urban settlements
 Are nodal in character and have secondary and tertiary activities.

 The chief occupation of the people of urban areas is non-agricultural i.e. industry, trade
and services.
 Population density is high and the settlement size is large.
Function of rural settlements

 Function relates to the main activities of the settlement (socio-economic
development).
 Rural settlement are mainly agrarian and concentrate on extraction of raw materials
i.e. primary activities.
 Some of the functions includes
 Residential
 Farming
 Mining- Dorowa in Buhera, Bikita in Masvingo, Diamond mining in Marange
 Forestry e.g. Chimanimani, Mutasa, Nyanga
 Social and religious services. G.R.J in Zimunya, apostolic church Mafararikwa
in Marange, Jahane Masowe in Gandanzara in Makoni area
 Retailing (small shops)
 Recreation.
Function of urban areas
 Residential
 Manufacturing  Recreation
 Wholesaling  Transport and communication
 Retailing services
 Education  Military defensive needs etc.
 Health  Social and religious services.
79 | P a g e
Interaction between rural and urban settlements
Rural
 Rural areas provide raw materials for urban settlement e.g. Mutare obtain timber for
the timber processing industries from Chimanimani, Mutasa e.t.c.
 Rural areas are a source of labour
 Rural areas act as markets for good and services from urban areas.
 Rural areas provides food i.e. source of food supply for urban dwellers.
 Rural areas act as recreation areas for the urban people.
Urban
 Employment
 Urban areas act as market for agricultural produce
 They are a source of social services such as educational and health facilities.
 Rural areas get skilled personnel,
 Get lower and higher order goods
Settlement site and situation

Site – describes the physical nature of where a settlement is located – the actual piece of land
Situation – describes settlement in relation to other settlements and physical features around
it.
Factors influencing settlement site
Wet point sites – water supply is a key factor; Many settlements grew up near a river or spring.
Early villages located at springs at base of escarpments or where simple wells could be
constructed e.g. desert oasis.
Dry point sites – are found on areas of higher land away from marshy areas or areas prone to
flooding.
Defensive sites – often found on higher ground so that enemies could be seen from a distance
e.g Great Zimbabwe, Khami and Nyanga hill site. These sites also found on meanders in rivers
– which form a natural barrier e.g. Durham.
Resources – important for industry, e.g. towns such as Hwange, Shurugwi are built to exploit
mineral resource.
Good farming land – was essential to produce food (although ideal location would be suitable
for growing food and rearing animals). Many villages grew up on fertile lowlands
Accessibility and communication – were essential – villages grew up at bridging points (e.g.
Oxford) crossroads/route centres and gaps between hills.
Trading centres – often settlements grow where natural route ways and rivers meet, which helps
the development of roads, railways and canals.
80 | P a g e
Aspect – settlements are often found on the sunny side of a mountain or deep valley. This is
common in settlements in the Alps. In the Southern hemisphere, north facing slopes are best
for crop production.
Factors influencing situation of settlements
Rural settlement patterns
Linear settlement pattern. Radial settlement pattern.

 Consists of a line of huts or houses
following a road, river, or cultivated  This pattern usually develops at road
areas/fields. junctions or nodal points.
 Such patterns can also develop along a  They radiate out from a central point like
watershed or a mountain range. the spokes of a bicycle wheel going
 It should be pointed out that Zimbabwe’s outwards in all directions.
roads, especially the major roads, are  These nodal points include rural service
found on watersheds. centres for example District Council
Offices or Growth Points.
81 | P a g e
Circular pattern
 Is a common pattern on desert nomadic
camps, around dwalas, volcanic hills or
wells and watering holes in semi-arid
areas.
 Some tribes e.g. The Kayapo in the
Amazon Basin live in circular villages for
cultural reasons.
 They live in the outer houses and the
central house is a meeting place. Dispersed and Haphazard Settlements
patterns
 Settlements can also be dispersed

especially in areas with fewer resources
that cannot support dense populations.
 This is also common pattern in
commercial farming, communal areas
with ragged terrain and areas with poor
soils.
 Haphazard settlement patterns can be
dispersed or compact but they usually do
Nucleated/Compact not conform to a recognisable shape
 Settlements in rural areas can be showing a lack of planning.
nucleated/gathered around market places,
commercial farming areas or in camps.
 Such settlements tend to be arranged in
much the same manner as electrons in an
atom.
Rural and urban land use legislation

Land Use Acts
The government of Zimbabwe has passed legislations ( rules and laws) governing land uses in
rural and urban areas. These are also called Acts ( Urban Councils Act, Rural District Council
Act, Council By-laws, Provincial Council and Administration Act).
1. Urban Concil Act
The Act governs the administration of cities and towns. It empowers urban council to
manage the use of land in urban area. Urban Councils sell residential and commercial
stands and earn a revenue. The Councils develop the land and come up with land use
plans.
2. Rural District Council Act

It regulates the management of about 59 rural areas in the country. The Rural District
Council manage growth points and rural settlements by offering residential and
commercial stands in the growth point and shopping centers. They also manage natural
resources within the durisdiction such as forest, water, fish and the environment. The
82 | P a g e
local authorities make policies regarding environmenntal management through proper
waste disposal.
3. Council By-Laws
It is law or regulation made by a local authority. The by-lawa are determined by the
objectives and needs of the local authorities and only apply within an area under the
jurisdiction of the council. Some of the by-laws include anti-litter laws, building by-
laws and fire by-laws. These by-laws enables the council to effectively deliver services.
4. The Provincial Council and Adminstration Act

These are councils which manage all local authorities within a given province. They
plan for the development within the province.
83 | P a g e
TOPIC 12
TRANSPORT AND TRADE
Transport
Transport is the act of moving items and people from one place to another while
communication is the process of transferring information between individuals, groups and
places.
Factors influencing transport
1. Existence of sets of corresponding places with surplus (supply) and deficits (demand) for
goods, services and information.
2. Alternative sources may hinder transport e.g. a nearby source of market of a required
commodity.
3. Infrastructure depending on how it is can lead to establishment of efficient or inefficient
transport.
4. Politics where by the government may decide to be the leading provider of transport
facilities.
Modes of transport
There are 3 common modes of transport namely land, water and air transport.
# Land transport
-The type that involves movement of people and goods on land.
Types of Land Transport
1. Human porterage
-Movement of people from one place to another carrying light goods on their back, hands or
shoulders or by using hand carts, trolleys, bicycles or motorcycles.
2. Use of animals
-Use of domesticated animals to carry goods and people on their back or pull loaded carts
(drought animals).
Advantages of human and animal transport

(a) It` s the cheapest and can be used by all classes of people since no fuel is used. Animals
require very low maintenance costs as they feed on vegetation.
(b) Relatively safe because few accidents occur during transportation.
(c) Does not pollute the environment as it does not use fossil fuels.
(d) They are flexible in that they can be used to transport goods in areas without good road
network.
(e) It` s convenient in that it` s readily available whenever required.
Disadvantages
84 | P a g e
(a) Goods can be stolen or destroyed by wild animals and extreme weather conditions because
they are exposed.
(b) They are a very slow means of transport hence time consuming, tedious and boring.
(c) They can`t transport large quantities of goods because human and animal energy get
exhausted with time.
(d) They can cause congestion on busy urban roads which may delay other forms of transport.
3. Road Transport
-Means of transportation of people and goods by motor vehicles on roads.
Advantages of road transport

(a) It`s a faster means of transport compared to human and animal transport.
(b) It`s cheaper compared to railway transport because construction of roads is cheaper than
that of railways.
(c) Its available at ones convenient time.
(d) Roads can be constructed in stages improved and even repaired while they are being used.
(e) It`s flexible in that road connections are available all over the country.
Disadvantages
(a) Traffic congestion and jams when there are many vehicles on roads which leads to delays
and fuel wastage.
(b) Its expensive over long distances and when transporting bulky goods.
(c) Vehicles can carry a limited number of people and amount of goods at a time making
them expensive and uneconomical.
(d) It`s adversely affected by weather e.g. during heavy rains, roads become impassable and
foggy conditions hinder visibility making it easier for accidents to occur.
(e) Vehicles pollute the environment by their exhaust fumes and noise which they produce.
Road Networks in Zimbabwe
85 | P a g e
Roads in Zimbabwe are grouped into wide – tarred and other roads.
Are classified using the A system (autobahn) where they vary from the best surfaced to not
surfaced.
There are wide tarred roads in the central, north east and eastern parts of the country due to
lot of economic activities, more towns with large populations and the land is fair and easy
to make roads.
Other roads link communal areas while wide tarred roads also link commercial areas.
Wide tarred roads crosses Zimbabwe`s boarders at six points e.g Chirundu, Mutare and
Victoria Falls for international trade and tourism.
High concentration of tarred roads are in Harare followed by Bulawayo.
Wide tarred roads are fewer because they are expensive to construct.
Other roads are in communal areas due to imbalances created during the colonial era.
# Railway Transport
-Means of transporting people and goods using trains or rails.
Advantages of railway transport

1. Less expensive compared to road transport because it can carry a large number of people
and heavy and bulky goods in one trip.
2. There is no congestion or jam because there is only one train on a given truck at any particular
time.
3. Passenger trains are comfortable for passengers travelling over long distances in that they
have facilities such as accommodation, dining and toilets accommodation.
4. Safer than motor vehicles because they are less prone to accidents.
5. Have less maintenance costs because they don`t require frequent repairs like roads.
Disadvantages
(a) Very slow means of movement especially of perishable and urgently required goods.
(b) Expensive to construct as much iron and steel is used to construct railway lines and trains.
(c) Inflexible in that railway lines aren`t available all over the country and their direction cannot
be changed.
(d) Are affected adversely by terrain as where there are steep gradients, tunnels and winding
tracks have to be used which adds to the cost of setting up railway system.
(e) Specific gauge of railway line can only be used by a specific design of train unlike roads
which can be used by many varieties of vehicles.
(f) Trains can`t use rails while they are being constructed unlike roads which can be used while
they are being constructed, improved or even repaired.
Examples of Railway Links in Africa
 Tazara railway- connects Zambia Copper Belt with the sea port of Dar-es-salaam.
 Benguela Railway- runs from Zambia Copper Belt to Angola.
 Kenya Uganda Railway- runs from Mombasa to Kisumu. It has an extension from Nakuru
through Eldoret to Malaba then through Tororo to Kampala.
 Kenya’s other railway branches are Voi to Taveta, Konza to Magadi, Nairobi to Nanyuki,
Gilgil to Nyahururu, Nakuru to Eldoret and Kisumu to Butere.
Why there are few railway links among African countries?
86 | P a g e
 Administration by different colonial governments who constructed railway links only
within areas of their jurisdiction.
 Political differences which led to mistrust and hostility which works against effort to
construct railway jointly.
 Countries have railways of different gauges making connection to be difficult.
 Little interstate trade which doesn`t warrant construction of railways to transport bulky
goods.
 Countries lack sufficient capital to establish railways.
 Mountainous landscape and swampy terrain which hinder the development of rails to link
the countries.
Problems which Zimbabwe experiences in the rail transport
 Competition from other modes of transport which are cheaper and flexible.
 High maintenance and expansion costs causing little expansion of rail lines.
 Mismanagement of rail services leading to deterioration at lower income.
 Vandalism during political unrests and by people dealing in scrap metal.
Zimbabwe`s railway network Was built in the late
1890s and early 1990s
during political
events.
Main railway line runs
along the Central
watershed from
Bulawayo to Harare
and Mutare.
Railway line are
linked to other
countries e.g. to
Pretoria and Zambia
for international trade.
Other line branch from
the main route for
specific reasons e.g. to
move minerals and
goods.
They are few railway
line in the country
because it`s expensive
to build them.
# Air Transport
Advantages
Very fast means of transport.
Can be used in case of emergency e.g. rescue operations in disasters such as floods.
Not affected by relief.
High value goods and perishables are carried fast.
87 | P a g e
Disadvantages
Prone to sabotage and terrorism.
Influenced by bad weather like smogs.
Air routes of Zimbabwe

Are designed for
domestic and
international travels.
Harare dominates
international air routes
due to being the
capital city for holding
international
conferences, nice
hotels and bookings
for tourists and large
population/ market for
airlines including Air
Zimbabwe.
Airlines also connects
other towns and tourist
resorts like Victoria
Falls.
Zimbabwe`s airport are located far away from residential areas to avoid accidents and noise
pollution.
 Zimbabwe is trying by all means to upgrade its airways and handling facilities, purchasing
high speed aircraft with comfort and extending existing air ports.
Problems with air transport in Zimbabwe
 Lack of foreign currency to buy spares.

 Ageing aircrafts.
 Corruption and inefficiency leadership.
 No markets for Air Zimbabwe due to political instability in the country.
 Competitions from cheap airlines like Kenya.
Transport Network Analysis
 A pathway followed by a transport type

is called a route or and edge.
 Any settlement through which the route
passes is called a node.
Beta Index (B.I.) of a transport network =
Number of edges (E)

Number of nodes (N)
88 | P a g e
# Pipelines
-Means of movement of fluid or gas products such as water, gas and oil through pipes from
one place to another. Pumping stations are constructed along the pipelines to keep the product
flowing steadily.
Advantages of Pipelines
(a) No delay as there is a constant supply of commodity.

(b) Convenient in that amounts of commodity can be transported within a short period.
(c) There are low operating costs in that minimal labour is required in operating pipelines and
also the cost of maintenance of pipelines is lower than for other means.
(d) They aren`t affected by bad weather like other means of transport.
(e) It doesn`t pollute the environment like other means of transport except in cases of leakages
which are rare.
Disadvantages
(a) Selective in that they can be used to transport fluids and gasses and can transport only one
type of commodity at a time.
(b) Insecure in that they may be sabotaged if they run across a number of countries when there
are political differences or when one country decide to withhold the product.
(c) Pipelines may cause pollution if they burst spilling oil, gas or sewage and the problem
would be grave if it occurred under water.
(d) Inflexible in that they remain permanently in one position and rerouting becomes
impossible and further distribution of the substance from depots has to be done by roads and
railways.
# Water Transport
 It involves movement of goods and people over waterways/ water bodies.

Water transport is classified into two: Sea Waterways/ marine water transport and inland water
ways.
Sea Waterways/ Marine Water Transport

-Involves movement of goods and people using vessels. There are the following types of
vessels used in sea transport:
1. Liners
They are ship with the following characteristics:
 Operate along fixed routes and time schedules.
 They transport both people and goods.
 Fixed rate of freight charges.
There are two types of liners:

Passenger Liners
 Carry people and small valuable items.
 Have luxurious facilities e.g. cinemas, shops, banks, hotels, etc.
Cargo Liners
 For carrying both goods and people.
89 | P a g e
 Have loading and unloading facilities.
 Slower in speed.
 Less prestigious.
 Smaller in size compared to passenger liners.
 Some carry different products while other carry specialised goods e.g. petroleum.
2. Tramps
- They are ships meant for transporting cargo.
-No fixed routes or schedules.
 Are slower in speed.

 Have lower freight charges compared to liners
Improvements in ocean transport
1. Refrigeration facilities to enable transportation of perishable goods.

2. Containerisation (parking of goods in standard sealed metal containers which are unsealed
at the destination).
Advantages of Containerisation
(a) Safety and security because containers are sealed which protects goods from destruction by
bad weather and from being stolen.
(b) Easy to handle because containers are fitted with special devices like hooks and rings which
makes loading and unloading easy.
(c) Time saving because goods are put in one container than being carried in several boxes
which makes loading and unloading easy.
(d) It`s economical in terms of space because containers have a standard shape which reduces
wastage of space by allowing tight packaging of goods.
Ocean/ sea routes/ Ocean trade routes
Are well marked routes through which Ocean traffic passes. They are also called ocean trading
routes because they have come about as a result of trading activities among various regions.
Major ocean routes are concentrated in the northern hemisphere due to the following:
and parts of
Asia.
World major Sea Routes
1. Panama Canal Sea Route- connects Pacific and Atlantic oceans.

2. Cape of Good Hope Sea Route- serves eastern and western coasts of Asia, New Zealand and
Australia.
3. North Pacific Sea Route- serves industrialised countries of Asia e.g. Japan, Singapore, Hong
Kong, S. Korea and W.N. America.
4. N. Atlantic Sea Route- connects W. Europe to E.N. America.
5. Mediterranean Asiatic Sea Route- connects Europe to Africa and the Far East countries.
90 | P a g e
6. Trans-Atlantic sea Route- connects Europe to E.S. America.
Inland water ways
-Movement of goods and people over rivers, lakes and canals.

Examples of Navigable Rivers of Africa
Examples of Navigable rivers in other parts of the World
on and Albany in N. America.
Examples of Lakes which are inland water ways are such as Victoria (largest inland waterway
in E. Africa, Tanganyika, Malawi, Albert and also man-made lakes such as Kariba, Nasser,
Volta and Kainji.
Factors Which Have Hindered Development of River Transport in Africa
1. Inadequate capital to develop waterways, ports and for the purchase of vessels.
2. Fluctuation of water levels which makes sailing difficult as a result of rivers passing through
dry areas.
3. Presence of rapids and waterfalls which hinders the vessels‟ movement.
4. Siltation of rivers which makes their channels shallow hence hindering movement of vessels.
5. Presence of floating vegetation which makes it difficult for vessels to sail due to narrowing
of the river channel.
6. Most rivers pass through unproductive zones hence it’s uneconomical to develop river
transport.
7. Rivers flow across political boundaries which may require negotiation in order for the
countries involved to use them for transport.
8. Inadequate technology.
Canal Transport
A canal is a water channel that is cut through land for boats or ships to travel along. Some
canals join large water bodies like seas and oceans.
Examples of Canals
 Suez Canal which joins Mediterranean and Red Sea.
 Panama Canal which connects Caribbean Sea with Pacific Ocean.
 Dortmund-Ems Canal which joins R. Rhine to the N. Sea.
 So canals which connects connecting L. Superior to L. Huron.
Advantages of Water Transport
91 | P a g e
(a) Offers less friction to the movement of vessels as it’s the case with roads.
(b) Are natural and free transport routes requiring less artificial infrastructures
(c) Less expensive because large loads can be carried at minimal costs and water routes require
minimal maintenance.
(d) It`s a reliable mode of transport since there is very little traffic congestion on waterways
because the waterway is large.
(e) Goods are protected because they are transported in containers or tankers.
(f) It`s a safe mode of transport for delicate goods.
Disadvantages
(a) Many water ways are affected by water fluctuation like low volumes and high volumes
which make them to flow swiftly which make them unnavigable.
(b) Water transport is the slowest and unsuitable for perishables, casualties and medicines.
(c) Great loses are incurred during accidents such as fire outbreaks, typhoons, tsunamis and
mechanical breakdown due to the large carrying capacity of the vessel.
(d) High capital is required in the purchasing of modern shipping vessels and maintenance of
parts.
(e) Ocean transport is available only to people who live near water ways unlike roads which
are flexible.
(f) Insecurity in the oceans where pirates steal from and attack sailing ships.
(g) Sea vessels greatly contribute to water pollution as most of the wastes are thrown into the
sea.
Role of transport in the economic development of Africa
1. Development of trade because buyers are able to move to markets, traders are able to move
to market centres where products are in high demand and order goods for sale without
necessarily going to the suppliers which reduces transport costs and hence increases profits.
2. Development of infrastructure by making tourist attractions accessible.
3. Promotion of industrial development/establishment of more industries since areas with good
transport networks are likely to attract investors to set up industries and finished goods are able
to reach consumers easily..
4. Many people are employed in the transport sectors e.g. drivers, mechanics and engineers.
5. Settlements develop where transport routes converge e.g. Khartoum at the confluence of
blue and white Nile and Mombasa.
6. Transport opens up remote areas for exploitation of natural resources such as minerals, fish,
tourists‟ attractions because labour can be easily ferried to such areas and resources can be
taken easily to processing sites.
7. Transport is source of revenue to the government e.g. tax is levied.
Problems facing transport in Africa and their possible Solutions
1. Some countries are landlocked i.e. located far inland away from oceans e.g. Uganda,
Rwanda, Burundi, etc. the solution is to develop good relations among the nations in the
continent so that countries which have access to the sea permit their landlocked neighbours to
have direct access to the sea routes.
2. Regions having rugged relief due to presence of features like mountains e.g. mountains
Kenya and Kilimanjaro which makes construction of roads and railways difficult and
expensive. Presence of rapids and waterfalls which causes swift movement of water makes
92 | P a g e
development of river transport difficult. The solution is constructing passes and tunnels through
ridges and slopes and building of bridges across rivers and valleys to allow construction of
roads and railways.
3. Shortage of navigable riversdue to presence of obstacles and fluctuations of water volumes,
narrowness and shallowness all of which makes navigation difficult. Solution is widening and
deepening of river channels through dredging and construction of dams across rivers to
improve navigation.
4. Lack of adequate capital for establishment and maintenance of transport infrastructure e.g.
vehicles and locomotives.
5. Political instability in countries such as Somalia and Zimbabwe which have affected
transport. Solution would be to set peace mission in the affected countries in order to restore
stability.
6. High cost of travelling due to high cost of fuel causing the low and middle class persons to
travel less which reduces profits realised in the transport sector. The solution is management
and conservation of energy to save on the available resources and alternative sources of energy.
REFERENCES
1. Doro, C., Chimanikire, S. and Muzvidzani, M. A (2019) Practical Approach to Geography
Form 1. Secondary Book Press. Harare.
2. Mbizi, N. (2019) New Trends in Geography Form 1, Edulight, Harare.
3. Gariwe, S. , Jerie, S and Madondo, M. (2018) Step Ahead Geography Form 1. Pearson
Education Africa. Cape Town.
4. Bunnet, R.B. (2011) Physical Geography in Diagrams for Africa. Longman Group Ltd.
UK.
5. Gocha, N.T., Moyo, S. N.T., Ncube, R. and Nembaware, L. (2007) Dynamics of O`Level:
Human and Economic Geography. College Press. Harare.
6. Dzoma, G. (2015) ZIMSEC Geography Online Free Notes.
7. Internet.
93 | P a g e

Form 1 Geography Notes New Curr Online Print-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Form 1 Geography Notes New Curr Online Print-1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Form 1 Geography Notes New Curr Online Print-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

GEOGRAPHY FORM 1 NOTES 2021

ZJC SYLLABUS 4022

Environment can be divided into two:

Why Geography matters?

The areas covered include:

2. Human and Economic Geography

WEATHER AND CLIMATE STUDIES

 Weather is the current condition of the atmosphere of a place at a given time.

The difference between the terms weather and climate

Basic elements of weather, instruments and their units of measurement

Weather element Instrument used Units of measurement

Humidity Hygrometer/Wet and dry bulb Percentages (%)

Rainfall Rain Gauge Millimeters(mm)

Sunshine Sunshine recorder Hours and mins

Temperature: - Is the degree of hotness or coldness of the atmosphere.

The minimum thermometer

 This thermometer records the minimum temperatures.

The Six’s thermometer

Problems in using the instrument

Factors influencing the temperature of locations are:-

Measuring and recording humidity

Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere.

Advantages of a mercury barometer

 It gives accurate readings  Glass tube must be at least a meter long

Advantages of aneroid barometer

Wind speed and wind direction

Wind vane and wind sock to measure wind direction

 Wind vanes are used to check wind direction

 The four points N,S,E and W are referred to as

 Anemometer is an apparatus for measuring the

Rain Gauge to measure the rainfall

1. Rain gauges are used to measure ……….. .

Important points about weather station

The Stevenson screen

Describe the characteristics of the Stevenson screen

 It is made up of wood: i.e. to prevent absorption and conduction of heat.

Weather symbols and synoptic charts

- A synoptic chart is any map that

 Precipitation occurs when warm moist air rises.

Forms include sleet, hail, frost, fog, snow and others.

a. Sleet – a mixture of snow and rain formed by snow melting as it falls.

Hazards due convectional rainfall

 Lighting conductors, early warning systems, education, cloud dissipation, afforestation/reforestation,

 Two or more winds with different temperatures

Weather focasting zones in Zimbabwe

Factors hindering weather forecasting

a) Lack of skilled man power due to limited training facilities.

LANDFORMS AND LANDSCAPE PROCESSES

Difference between landforms and landscape

Major landforms of world and Africa

2. Landforms from folding

Anticline and Syncline

Hot springs and Geysers

 The water then flows out as a spring naturally as

3. Landforms from faulting

Rift valleys, Lakes and Block mountains

 Alluvial deposits from which can be found

Disadvantages of rift valleys

Advantages of rift valleys  Hot weather can be stiffing and enervating on