2023 International Conference on Intelligent and Innovative Technologies in Computing, Electrical and Electronics (IITCEE) | 978-1-6654-9260-7/23/$31.

00 ©2023 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/IITCEE57236.2023.10091031

ROCK / MINE CLASSIFICATION USING

SUPERVISED MACHINE LEARNING
ALGORITHMS
P Sathish Kumar
Sivachandra.K Kumudham.R
Department of Computer and
Department of ECE Department of ECE
Communication Engineering,
Vels Institute of Science, Vels Institute of Science,
Rajalakshmi Institute of Technology
Technology and Advanced Studies Technology and Advanced Studies
Chennai,India
Chennai,India Chennai,India
sathishmrl30@gmail.com
sivachandra487@gmail.com kumudham.se@velsuniv.ac.in

Rajendran.V G.R.Jothi lakshmi

Department of ECE Department of ECE
Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies
Chennai,India Chennai,India
drvrajen@gmail.com jothi.se@velsuniv.ac.in

Abstract—Nowadays, Artificial Intelligence appears in the

domain of goetechnics, underwater acoustics, tunneling, geomor-
phology engineering and also in several fields too. This paper
focused on the prospectivefor machine learning approaches which
are sub field of artificial intelligence especially in underwater
acoustics domain. In this proposal, machine learning approaches
such as light gradient boosting, logistic regression, and random
forest classifier algorithms are used for categorizing rocks or
mines from collected sonar dataset.Based on performance met-
rics such as precision, F-score, recall, execution time, accuracy
and confusion matrix, evaluate overall performance of machine
learning models. Here, the experimental results shows that
among all classifier algorithms, light gradient boosting achieves
greater validation accuracy as 95% also training accuracy as
100* moreover, random forest classifier achieves 100% accuracy
duringtraining phase.
Index Terms—Light gradient boosting algorithm, Rock/mine Fig. 1. SONAR technology in underwater seafloor.
classification, Machine Learning algorithms (MLA), Accuracy,
Precision,Execution time.

I. INTRODUCTION zoomed imagery. Gradient Boosting classifier produced better

Sound Navigation and Ranging, or SONAR, is a type of
unmanned vehicle which utilizes sound technology to detect
submerged objects, navigate underwater, and communicate.
The acoustics can range from infrasonic (low) to ultrasonic
(high). Underwater acoustics, often known as hydro acoustics,
is the study of underwater sound. Active sonar and passive
sonar are the two types of SONAR. The non-passive trans-
ducers create some sound pulse into the water, which is
used to detect underwater objects. In case some of the things
available in the way of sound pulse, the echo resiles off of
it and come back to the sonar device as a ”echo.” The signal
strength is measured by the transducer if it is ready to receive
signals.Several algorithms as decision tree, k nearest neighbor,
support vectors and gradient boosting by [1] which isolates the
underwater sea objects specifically mines or rocks to obtain
accuracy and how SONAR technology works in underwater
sea is illustrated in figure 1.
Primary intention of this work is mentioned as below
1. To distinguish underwater seafloor metal like minerals
into rock/ mine using sonar data sets.
2. To develop the sub field of AI technique named as MLA
especially supervised classifier algorithms appropriate for
rock/mine classification.
3. To evaluate overall performance of machine learning
models, measures like F-score, recall, precision, execu-
tion time, accuracy also confusion matrix were evaluated.
4.Based on several classes such as TP, FP, TN and FN,
how the underwater acoustics sonar data are predicted
and classified correctly and wrongly by the way finally
classification of rock/mine performs.

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 The contribution of my research work is described as follows
in terms of several advantages of rock or mine classification:

a. Make possible improved in both risk management as

well as optimization.
b. Provide novel prospective on underwater acoustics
sonar data for classifying mine like materials such as
rock, mine, mud, clay and gravels.
c. Provides high-quality sonar images in underwater
seabed appropriate for distinguishing rock/mine while
still maintaining accuracy metrics, by the way helping
to speed up decision making procedure in finding under-
water sea minerals.

II. RELATED WORK

Several researchers applied various machine learning tech-
niques in various domains especially rock/mine classification
in underwater seafloor data using sonar devices. Several ap-
proaches such as artificial intelligence by Gholami et. al [19]
and Lawal et. al [20], Machine learning algorithm by Revathy
et. al [25] for finding malicious behaviour in network based
environment, Fast Region Convolutional Neural Network by
Abhishek et. al [13], SVM used by Harvinder singh et. al
[26] Ravi et. al [8], and Random Forest by Nikitha et. al
[12] Feed Forward Neural Network utilized by choi et. al [3],
introduced computer vision by Maitre et. al [17], introduced
back propagation Neural Network by Hafiz et. al [4]applied
deep learning based approach for mine/rock automatic classi-
fication by Alferez et. al [2] [7], introduced Recurrent CNN
algorithm by Han et. al [31] for detecting mine like materials
in underwater sea or ocean and finally distinguishing rock or
mine by Sidhartha et. al [27] and Qader et. al [10] using under-
water acoustics data. Also some other researchers studied how
MLAs applied in developing mineralogical data by Jooshaki
et. al [15] and exploration, exploitation and reclamation by
jung et. al [18]. Xie et. al [16] introduced computing models
in calculating the size of rock present in underwater seafloor,
generic approach introduced by vitthal et. al [28] and described
the framework for rock mechanics by Babaeian et al [29].
Deep learning based algorithms were utilized by Lee et. al [5]
and Abdesselam et. al [11] for underwater materials detection
Mukherjee et. al [9] and the underwater signal [14] detected
done by Fong et. al [6].Contreros et. al [30] focused on
distinguishing rock type in sandstone depends on formation
of wireline pressure data. Kumudham et al [33] utilised deep
learning approaches for classification of subbottom image.
III. PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
The workflow of our proposed method illustrates the
categorization of minerals in underwater acoustics as mines,
rocks and mud via SONAR datasets.
i. Collecting dataset from the specified resource especially
SONAR dataset.
ii. The sonar dataset are loaded for perform training.
iii. Import pre-processing for feature extraction and apply
Fig. 2. Proposed architecture for rock/mine classification using ML classifiers.
StandardScalar for leveling as well as data conversion of
attributes in sonar.
iv. Fixing the threshold value as 0.5 named as alpha level
v. Splitting sonar dataset into training phase and testing
phase as 90%, and 10% correspondingly.
vi. Apply the classification algorithm such as Light Gra-
dient Boosting classifier, Random Forest classifier, and
another regression technique named as logistic to distin-
guishing objects in submarine acoustics via resources.
vii. To estimate the performance of machine learning
model entirely, metrics namely recall, accuracy based on
confusion matrix, precision are evaluated.
The proposed architecture is shown in figure 2 which specifies
how the datasets are gathered, followed by pre-processing,
selecting relevant features, apply machine learning classifier,
analysis of classifier, finally the output is evaluated as to
distinguish rock or mine.
IV. STEPS USED FOR CLASSIFICATION (ROCK/MINE)
A. Import dataset
In this research work, initiallystage is to upload the Sonar
Dataset in Jupyter Notebook 6.0.1 along with python program-
ming language version 3.7. The description of sonar dataset
comprises of 208 Rows, and 61 Columns
B. Make in class column of Y axis, Rock is 0 and mine is 1
Here, actual Y-axis represents the output of Class Column,
but it is in alphabet, hence the specification of minerals is
referred as 0 for Rockand 1 for mine.
C. Delete low correlations columns
Here, deleting the features which are having less
correlations (i. e) the input and output data have either
less relationship or else no relationship. So the irrelevant
data appear in the column wise are deleted. If both input
and output of correlation matrix is zero, which indicates
very less relationship leads to predict the rock or mine
classification wrongly. The deleted attributes are shown below

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 Fig. 3. Class balance for 208 instances using target analysis.

with specified features.

del a[’attribute23’], del a[’attribute24’]
del a[’attribute25’], del a[’attribute26’]
del a[’attribute27’], del a[’attribute28’]
del a[’attribute32’], del a[’attribute38’] Fig. 4. Selecting the significant features from sonar dataset.
del a[’attribute39’], del a[’attribute40’]
del a[’attribute41’], del a[’attribute42’]
del a[’attribute46’], del a[’attribute47’] column of the data into 0 to 1. This is utilized for converting
del a[’attribute48’], del a[’attribute50’] higher value into lower values of 0 to 1. And also this scalar
del a[’attribute54’], del a[’attribute57’] makes the calculation speed very fast. The StandardScaler
del a[’attribute58’], del a[’attribute59’] function produces a distribution with a standard deviation of
del a[’attribute60’] one. Because variance equals standard deviation squared, the
variance is also equal to one. And 1 divided by 2 equals 1.
The mean of the distribution is set to 0 by StandardScaler.
D. Target analysis
Approximately 68 percent of the readings will be in the range
The feature of underwater sonar dataset about which desire of -1 to 1. The standard scalar along with standard deviation
to learn more is known as the target variable of a dataset and mean are represented in equation (1)
or target analysis. A supervised machine learning algorithm
learns patterns and uncovers links between other features in džLŵĞĂŶ dž  
^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚ^ĐĂůĂƌ  (1)
underwater sonar dataset and the target value with previous ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚĞǀŝĂƚŝŽŶ dž 
data. Here the target analysis is necessary for mentioning
H. Splitting data intotraining and testing phase
distinguishes of rock or mine (class 0 or class 1) along with
208 instances which are depicted in figure 3. Here split the features into Training stage as 90 percentage
and Testing data as 10 percentage. Since,during training stage,
E. Splitting of X and Y machine learning algorithm teach the features of sonar data
Next step is to split the data in to X and Y. Because, around 90 percentage. Also during testing stage, based on our
developing machine learning algorithm to isolate input data chosen machine learning classification algorithms validate the
as well as Output Data via training and testing phase. data nearly 10 percentage. In other words,during testing stage,
F. Feature importance the input of sonar data has only given but our machine learning
will produce the output automatically.
Can find which features are more important, with respect to
target specified in figure 4. V. MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHMS
G. Standard scalar In this research work, supervised machine learning clas-
With eliminating average value and then leveling to entity sifiers are used which are appropriate for detecting the mine
variance, Standard Scaler standardizes a feature. Divide all of like materials and also classifying the data into mine or rock in
the numbers by the standard deviation to get unit variance. underwater seafloor from sonar datasets. The following are the
The formal concept of scale that introduced earlier does machine learning classifier which provides maximum accuracy
not apply to StandardScaler. Now, convert X axis of each in identification, classification of SONAR data too.

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 Fig. 5. Logistic Regression based Sigmoid function.

A. Light Gradient Boosting classifier

Light Gradient Boosting classifier is one of the classifier Fig. 6. Random Forest Classifier .
approaches introduced by Guolin ke et. al [24] which specifies
the highly efficient gradient boosting decision tree for better
classification of dataset. This classifier is publicly accessible C. Random Forest classifier
toolkit which implements the gradient boosting technique in
Several decision tree classifiers together formed random
an efficient and effective manner. LightGBM improves on
forest method which is one of the SMLA utilized for both
the gradient boosting technique by incorporating automatic
regression classification issues shown in figure 6. Every de-
feature selection and concentrating with enhancing instances
cision tree grows as well with full development; it doesn’t
by superior ascents. In this situation, this method led into a
necessitate to engraving the processing. If the trees are in
significant increase in speed during learning and enhanced pre-
large quantity, then the outcome also will be high that are
diction accomplishment. As a result, while functioning through
not over-fitting. This Random Forest approach will perform
statistics tabulation via regression as well as categorization an-
estimation wholly and also has benefits especially selection of
alytical modeling responsibilities, this classifier developed into
features automatically. Lin et. al [22] and Manish kumar et. al
effective approach for learning based on supervised contests.
[21], Kumudham et.al. [32] utilized ensemble random forest
Consequently, along with Extreme Gradient Boosting, it shares
algorithm for large scale applications especially insurance
some responsibilities for growing esteems along with broader
business data analytics. Furthermore, xtreme machine learning
acceptance of GB approach in wide-ranging (XGBoost). For
based random forest method were applied for categorizing
this reason, several classifiers were applied for distinguishing
heart beat automatically attains an accuracy of 98%
minerals like objects in underwater seafloor or seabed via
When the input dataset is large, this approach performs
specific resources.
better. The forest is densely forested, and a significant amount
B. Logistic Regression of DTs are utilized in administrative process. The image
Logistic regression is one of the machine learning algo- collection is split into two halves with similar formation at
rithms represents some deviation of linear regression which first. The edge function using RF algorithm is mentioned in
can be utilized for classification function hence this algorithm equation (3)


appropriate for rock/mine distinguishing in underwater seabed
or seafloor. Logistic regression utilize the significant function
named as “squashing” that essentially convert any kind of Here I corresponds to Indication function h1 (X), h2(X). hn
factual value into value among 0 and 1. The representation (X) are classifiers with ensembling method where X and Y
of sigmoid function is shown in equation (2) and figure5. are random vectors. The function that denotes error which is
 defined as equation (4)
^ ƚ   (2)
Ğ−ƚ
Now the edge function of RF is rewrite as equation (5)
By defining the threshold value, detecting and classifica-
tion of rock/ mine performs on sonar dataset gathered from
underwater seafloor. Suppose for example if threshold value
defined is 0.5, also the output value generated from sigmoid
function exceeds 0.5 will be considered as class 1 specified as
Here represents the potency of classifiers which is repre-
mine, moreover the output value produced by sigmoid function
sented as (6)
reaches underneath or similar to threshold value (0.5) will be 
measured as class 0 indicated as rock.

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Fig. 7. Confusion matrix on rock/mine classification along with classes
Actually Positive.
The RF technique is a time-saving strategy that merges mul-
tiple decision trees into a single tree for the most accurate
prediction.
VI. METRICS ESTIMATION
The entire machine learning approach performance are
analyzed based on specific metrics like recall, f-score, pre-
cision, accuracy, execution time and finally confusion matrix
in identifying minerals in underwater sea along with its
underwater object classification. By evaluating these metrics,
the underwater seafloor materials are classified as true positive,
true negative, false positive and false negative on sonar data
collected from underwater seafloor via SONAR device.
A. Confusion matrix
The two-label classifier confusion matrix is utilized to
analyze the confusion matrix in order to identify the seafloor
minerals available in underwater as well as distinguishingThis
metric describes the proportion of truly predicted positively
from both truly predicted positively and falsely predicted
the data into rock/mine. This two-label classifier aid in the
classification of data into two classes namely class 0 (rock) and
class 1 (mine). Using confusion matrix, sonar data distinguish
into two classes is explained in figure given below.
B. Accuracy
Accuracy describes as the percentage of number of appro-
priatelysecret datas on sonar dataset to the whole quantity of
samples taken. The most important thing need to know is based
on this specific accuracy metric measure, the overall machine
learning model performance is evaluated in identifying metal
mine detection along with two-level classification which may
be either class 0 or class 1. Accuracy can be measured using
the formula (7) in percentage measuring accuracy as equation
(8).
 A. ROC under Curve
(8)
In percentage, the accuracy can be evaluated using formula
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C. Precision
The precision is measured as the proportion among the
number of correctly identified Positive samples (rock) to the
total number of Positive samples (either suitably or impre-
cisely). This metric enhances increase while several MLA
shave many correct categorization and less significant amount
imprecise of categorization. Equation (9) specifies the formula
for calculating precision.
D. Recall
negative. The estimation of this metric has done using formula
(10)

E. Execution time
Execution time can be defined as the time period of every
classifier algorithm utilized for classification of mine/rock.
Three machine learning modelsare introduced hence it is
necessary to calculate the execution time for every functional
MLAs.
F. F score
F score metric is also used to evaluate the binary classi-
fication model. The F1 score, which is one of the accuracy
measure metrics, defines the harmonic mean of both precision
and recall. This parameter is estimated here to separate the
sonar data into rock and mine. Equation (11) can be used to
compute the value of f-score.

VII. RESULTS ANALYSIS
In this section, discussing abouthow classification and re-
gression techniques appropriate in identifying materials like
rock, mine, clay, mud, gravels etc. Also, distinguishing
rock/mine using three MLAs are discussed as table. Descrip-
tion of datasets, default attributes as well as how machine
learning produces the results in terms of ROC (Receiver Op-
erating Characteristic) curve, confusion matrix and some other
metrics. The quality of the evaluation of two classification and
one regression model using sonar dataset for three classifiers
is summarized in table 2.Also, the maximum accuracy value
for every machine learning classifier is highlighted.
ROC under curve, thehistogram that shows how a binary
classifier system’s diagnostic performance changes while the
discrimination threshold is changed. Starting in 1941, the ap-
proach was created for operative of martial sonar transceivers,
hence the name. The below ROC curve represents the plot for
truly classified ratealigned with the rate of positively classified

Fig. 8. ROC curve for LGBM classifier.
inaccurately at dissimilar threshold levels. In machine learning,
the TPR is regarded asidentification of likelihood, recall and
sensitivity. Also, likelihood of fake alarm is recognized as the
False positive rate, and it can be computed as (1- specificity).
ROC is also known as a relative operating characteristic curve
since it compares two parameters (TPR and FPR) when the
criterion changes.The ROC curve for LGBM classifier in
classifying mine/rock by plotting the graph as FPR versus TPR
is depicted in figure 7.
The below ROC curve represents the plot for truly classified
rate aligned with the rate of positively classified inaccurately
at dissimilar threshold levels. In machine learning, the TPR is
regarded as identification of likelihood, recall and sensitivity.
Also, likelihood of fake alarm is recognized as the False pos-
itive rate, and it can be computed as (subtract specificity from
one). ROC is also known as a relative operating characteristic
curve since it compares two parameters (TPR and FPR) when
the criterion changes. The ROC curve for Logistic Regression
for classifying rock or mine by plotting the graph as FPR
versus TPR is depicted in figure 8. The accuracy attained for
distinguishing rock/mine as class 0 and class 1 around 94%
for both ROC and micro-average ROC.
The below ROC curve represents the plot for truly classified
rate aligned with the rate of positively classified inaccurately
at dissimilar threshold levels. In machine learning, the TPR is
regarded as identification of likelihood, recall and sensitivity.
Also, likelihood of fake alarm is recognized as the False posi-
tive rate, and it can be computed as (Minus the specificity from
1). ROC is also known as a relative operating characteristic
curve since it compares two parameters (TPR and FPR) when
the criterion changes. The ROC curve for Random Forest
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Fig. 9. ROC curve among FPR versus TPR using Logistic Regression.
Fig. 10. ROC curve among FPR versus TPR using Random Forest classifier.
classifier for classifying rock or mine by plotting the graph as
FPR versus TPR is depicted in figure 9. The accuracy attained
for distinguishing rock/mine as class 0 and class 1 is 100* for
both ROC and micro-average ROC.
B. Discussion on confusion matrix of supervised ML tech-
niques
1) Light Gradient boosting classifier (LGBC): The confu-
sion matrix for LGBC along with two classes namely class 0
as rock, and class 1 as mine is illustrated in figure 10. The
value of True Positive value is 12, False Positive value as 1,
False Negative as 0, and Truly Negative as 8.
2) Logistic Regression: The confusion matrix for Logistic
Regression along with two classes namely class 0 as rock, and
class 1 as mine is illustrated in figure 11. The value of True
Positive value is 9, False Positive value as 4, False Negative
as 1, and Truly Negative as 7.
3) Random Forest Classifier (RFC): The confusion matrix
for RFC along with two classes namely class 0 as rock, and
class 1 as mine is illustrated in figure 12. The value of True
Positive value is 10, False Positive value as 3, False Negative
as 0, and Truly Negative as 8.
 Fig. 13. Evaluation of confusion matrix using Random Forest.

Fig. 11. Confusion matrix for LGB classifier.

minerals such as rock, mine, clay, mud, gravels etc from
sonar based dataset. Three MLAs such as Light Gradient
Boosting classifier, Random forest and logistic regression are
utilized for making better classification of rock or mine in
sonar dataset. Among three algorithms, light gradient boosting
achieves greater validation accuracy of 95%, logistic regres-
sion algorithm reaches less execution time of 0.015 seconds.
Several performance measures namelyf-score, recall and pre-
cision, confusion matrix, testing and training accuratenesswere
evaluated for estimating the overall performance of machine
learning classifiers in detecting and classifying rock or mine
in underwater seafloor on sonar dataset.

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