Anthropological theories unit 6 paper 1 Refer to PDF 2

Classical evolutionism:
1. Classical evolutionist contribution:
a. Evolution of culture happened in stages
b. Concept of racial superiority is psychological myth
c. Advocated comparative method(tracing Evolution of culture) and survival of the
past(Culture of past still continues)
d. Cultural parallel is due to psychic unity of mankind=need(food,clothing,sex)
same→Same thought process to satisfy → same sequence of evolution
e. Evolved in Uni linear sequence like simple to complex and homogeneity to
heterogeneity
f. savagery to barbarism to civilization
2. E B TYLOR:
a. English anthropologist ,First professional anthropologist
b. Founder of cultural anthropology, modern Anthropology and comparative
ethnology
c. work= primitive culture 1871=Evolution of culture through study of religion and
coined animism
d. Psychic Unity Based on biology
e. comparative method = Traits and characteristics of society are compared to
determine where one fit on evolutionary scale
f. survival = Social custom existing in society that has no logical use or necessity
within the society
eg:Formal evening dress code had its origin in the old fashion practical coat in
which a man rode Horse and worked
g. Savagery(primitive) →Barbarism (absence of culture and civilization) →
civilization( Human society with Different cities with culture and technological
development)
h. Animism and evolution of religion
i. Definition= Belief in spirit Of dead and of inanimate object
ii. Continued existence of individual soul after death who control events in
the world=> Practical intellectual reason( Explanation of death and of
Dreams)
iii. Evolution of religion=> animism (most primitive society)→ polytheism
(advanced society)→ Monotheism (most advanced society)
iv. Linked religion(soul) to ancient man's daydreaming( dual
existence→green funeral and dry funeral) Refer to page 337 of paper 1
i. Happiness= savagery< Barbarism<civilization
j. Defined culture (first anthropologist)=Knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom
and other capability acquired by man as a member of society
k. used statistics In anthropology (first anthropologist)
l. race =Powerful advocate of physical and psychological unity of all mankind
m. Dependent more on secondary source of information, best known as armchair
anthropologist
 n. Criticism:
i. No field work ,No scientific evidence and data collection
ii. Ethnocentric
Considered as father of cultural anthropology and British anthropology
3. Henry Morgan
a. Founding father of modern anthropology, American anthropologist
b. Special interest in kinship
i. Classificatory kinship.eg= iroquois Indian
Descriptive kinship. eg= sudanese society
ii. Linguistic data from iroquois trip=> Distinct kinship system
c. First ethnographies- iroquois
i. League of iroquois
ii. Description of social and political institution
iii. used interview and questionnaire method
d. First to initiate field work, started questionnaire method
e. Believed in psychic unity of mankind=> name it germ idea
f. Book= System of consanguinity and affinity of human families
g. Theory of Social Evolution:
i. Mentioned in Book= ancient society
ii. Savagery( Hunter-gatherer) → barbarism( growing plant themselves) →
civilization( agricultural practices like mechanical ploughing)
h. Stages of societal evolution
Stage of marriage kinship political family technology
society system and
economy

Descriptive state level Nuclear Machine/

Civilization monogamy kinship political family writing
/ system system ↑
polygamy ↑ ↑ iron,
↑ ↑ Chiefdom joint family copper,
Barbarism Group ↑ ↑ system domesticat
marriage tribe level ↑ ion of plant
↑ ↑ political Polygynan and
savagery Promiscuit classificato system drous animal,
y ry kinship ↑ family pottery
Band level system ↑
political ↑ stone tool,
system community bow and
living arrow,
↑ hunting
no family gathering
system and fishing
i. Modern notion present in human brain= germs of thought →Growth of
these germs→ evolution of society
 ii. Diet related to growth of ‘germs of thought’⇒Evolution⇒Savagery( fishing
and gathering) → Barbarism( domestication of plant and animal) →
Civilization( agriculture)
iii. Civilised people had Large brain=>social evolution had biological basis
i. Champion of tribal right
i. Lawyer in Rochester New York→ founded local club→ Champion iroquois
right to their land against ogden company
j. Criticism:
i. Speculative and not scientific
ii. dependent on secondary source
iii. Linking size of brain was irrational
Referred to PDF 4.1
4. James Frazer
a. British social anthropologist
b. Founder of contemporary anthropology
c. first to study religion as social activity
d. Advocated psychic unity of mankind
e. Evolution of religion: magic→ religion→ science
f. Ethnocentric
g. Book= the golden bough, totemism and Exogamy
h. No field work, dependent on secondary source
i. Principle of Magic
i. Law of similarity( imitative magic) →Effect resembles its cause
ii. Law of contact( contagious magic) →Continues to act even after physical
contact lost
j. Taboo and totemism
i. Taboo= set of religious prohibition to maintain order in primitive society
ii. Totemism= Relationship between kindred people and species of natural
or artificial object
iii. Belief= Totem as physical embodiment of soul →Collectively Worship→
Union→ serve social purpose
iv. Taboo to eat or Kill plant and animal Representing God or soul
k. Magic and religion
i. Magic= control event by technical act based on faulty reasoning
ii. religion= appeal for help to spiritual being
l. Criticism:
i. Societal evolution is illogical and irrational
ii. Current British has all magic, religion and Science together
iii. Ethnocentric
iv. desk anthropologist With little original contribution
5. Criticism on classical evolutionist:
a. Independent evolution of culture Stage after stage
b. neglected diffusion of culture And Armchair anthropologist
c. Similar cultural trait due to similar environment condition
Historical particularism
1. Franz boas :
a. German born American anthropologist,Father of American anthropology
b. Field work= baffin Island
c. Studied folklore=> understand historical development of primitive group
d. The study of language and linguistics:
i. Documented American Indian language
ii. Founder and editor of international journal of American linguistics
iii. Aimed to present unwritten language from the point of view of speaker
e. Historical particularism=>
i. culture=Environmental condition+psychological aspect+historical
connection
ii. Many culture developed independently= set of circumstances( geography
+ resources + climate + cultural borrowing)
iii. Reconstructing history of individual culture =Group of cultural trait
collected→ plotted on specific area→Identified borrowed culture +
developed individually
Refer to PDF 4.2
f. Referred Empirical deductive approach
g. Criticised ethnocentrism of evolutionist
h. Critical of comparative approach
i. Introduce diffusionism, field study and research, methodologies
j. Trained RC Brown, malinowski, kroeber, mead
k. Book “ Race, language and culture”=> cultural relativism
l. Book “the mind of primitive people”=> Relationship between psychological aspect
and body growth
m. Local history→ long stay with local people→ learning local language
n. Ethnography kwakiutl Indians
2. Term historical particularism given by Margaret Mead
3. Also called as cultural relativism
4. Criticism:
a. Detrimental sometimes,
b. Too much emphasis on history
Refer to PDF 5

Diffusionism:
1. Diffusionist contribution
a. Originated at some centres and diffused to other locations.
b. No unanimity on place of origin.
2. British School of diffusionism
a. G.E. Smith
i. Founder of diffusionist school
ii. Pan Egyptologist= Man and culture originated and spread From
Egypt=Book “ The origin of Civilization”
 iii. Man in Egypt is culture man and have positive trait, outside man is natural
man
iv. Architecture of pyramid is replicated like pagodas of Japan, temple of
Aztec civilization=> diffusion Of Cultural traits By migration from Egypt
b. William Perry
i. Egypt of 4000 BC=>original and sole source of agriculture, pottery,
basketry,domestic animal, houses and town
ii. Father of diffusionism
iii. Book “the children of the Sun god” → Egyptian at children of sun and Sun
god is universal deity
iv. blindly supported Smith theory, against psychic unity and independent
invention of evolutionist
c. W H R river
i. Pioneer of fieldwork method
ii. Kinship study in form of genealogical method During fieldwork in India
and Pacific Island
iii. Spent some month with todas →”The Toda” ethnographic → genealogical
method to connect language and kinship term
iv. Father of British diffusionism
v. Part of Torres strait expedition
vi. His principles:
● Paper ‘disappearance of useful art’=> degeneration +
un-inventiveness Of culture
Example= melanesian Island had no Canoes
● Culture spread → migration → diffusion
● Origin → other centre but Egypt dominant
3. Criticism of British diffusionism
a. Ethnocentric
b. theoretical with no practical evidences
c. Migration as major source of diffusion is criticised
4. German School of diffusionism
a. Also called as kulture kreise or culture circle
b. Origin → different part of world → spreaded and developed
c. Earliest one → bottom layer & latest one → top player & others→ between
kulture kichton or culture strata & Overlapping → diffusion
d. Ratzel
i. Book “anthropo-geography” =>People will be influenced by one another
rather than geographical factor
ii. FORMEN-GEDANKE (Criteria of form)=> essential and nonessential
aspect →Similar→ diffusion Of Cultural trait
iii. Culture trait diffuse by geographical proximity while cultural Complex
transplanted by Migration of people, environmental adaptation in both the
cases
iv. Cultural circle→ area with similar culture
e. Leo froebenius
i. Student of ratzel
ii. Culture circle=total organically interrelated Cultural trait
iii. added concept to ‘criteria of form’= criteria of quantity( more trait more
diffusion)
iv. biological criteria or developmental criteria= internal change + culture
adjustment materially and non materially
v. Culture circle originated from much older currently invisible circle →
identification → document cultural complex( object of material culture,
principal of ornament,myth or form of social organisation)
Refer to PDF 6
vi. Close examination of Museum collection→ identify cultural complex
example= diffusion of West African cultures circle and diffusion of
malayo-nigritic culture( similarity of clothing, Huts, musical instrument)
f. Graebner
i. Book “methodo des ethano” = certain primaeval culture or urkulturen
→Emergence of culture across world
ii. 6 primaeval culture in oceania region:
● Tasmania culture
● australian Boomerang culture
● Totemic hunter culture
● Two class horticulture culture
● Melanesian culture
● Polynesian patrilineal culture
iii. Book= “The method of ethnology” →” culture historical method” →
defined cultural “ kinship”
iv. Form Kriterium →Crafted object → Institute material culture
v. Two object→ two geography with different culture→ Congruity In formal
design → Previous diffusion between two culture
vi. Diffusion happened at every stage
vii. culture relation→ subsequently culture strata→ culture circle
viii. Finding on culture circle
● Not just mechanical combination of culture trait
● formed by diffusion of selective element with varying speed
● do not fit were not borrowed
● criteria of quantity and quality
g. schmidt
i. Divided culture of world in two different circle on criteria of quality and
quantity
ii. culture circle incorporated social and economical aspect
iii. four major culture circle
● Primitive culture circle (bushmen)=Hunting, gathering, egalitarian
● primary culture circle (neur)= agriculture, patriarchal
 ● secondary culture circle (Asian country)= agriculture, industries,
patriarchal
● tertiary culture circle (western country)= western, industries,
modernization
refer To copy
5. Criticism on German diffusionism:
a. How cultural trait spread to distant reach
b. absence of field work
c. either diffusion first or invention
6. American diffusionism
a. Founder is franz boas
b. Diffusion=> close proximity→ culture is learnt
c. culture area( Geographical area of cultural similarities)
d. multiple centre
e. reasoning of American diffusionist:
i. Imitation
ii. sometimes easy to borrow instead of inventing separately
iii. diffused threat may not exist in original form and changes manly in non
material aspect
iv. culture area approach:
● Emphasised by Clark wissler and supported by A L kroeber
● Methodology:
World into different culture area
List of culture trait are prepared
Try to understand their reach and reason
f. Franz boas
i. Historical particularism and diffusion are complementary ,As trait diffuse,
their particular history is developed
ii. Gave National history approach
g. Clark wissler
i. Student of franz boas
ii. Culture area=> portion of earth with similar culture
iii. Custom of Vicinity culture have greater similarity=> culture is learnt
iv. identify culture centre and culture margin
v. six culture area⇒ food habit
● Caribou food region
● Bison
● Salmon fish
● Wild seed
● Eastern maize
● Intensive agriculture area
Eskimo great plain of North America, North Pacific coast
California, Eastern part of America, South West America Mexico
vi. Age area principle( older trait more spreaded)
 vii. Diffuse in all direction from a point of origin in concentric circle
viii. Concept of culture centre
ix. Two type of cultural diffusion
● Natural diffusion example error method
● organised diffusion transmitted through agency like missionary's,
invaders etc
h. A L Kroeber
i. Find reason for diffusion
ii. Concept of culture climax( larger contact of culture) & culture intensity
( how seriously is followed)
iii. Field work on arapaho indian
iv. Civilization→ borrowed trait→ systematised, modified According to
environment
v. Emphasised upon data collection
vi. Criticised Henry Morgan and stated primitive or civilised →mixture of
classificatory and descriptive tendencies
vii. Complete listing of cultural trait is impossible =>Sensitive indicator→ art,
music, religion, thoughts
7. Criticism of American diffusionism
a. Limited to American continent
b. culture area approach scope is narrow
c. too much of material aspect
d. food was taken as criteria
e. diffusion in all direction

Functionalism:
1. Malinowski adopted functional approach in book= “scientific theory of culture and other
essays” & “dynamic of culture change”
2. Criticised evolutionary approach and diffusionary approach=>Never explain function
Instead focus on irrelevant and insignificant things like evolution,origin
3. Salient feature of functionalism
a. Culture and its trait=> satisfy the need of individual and of society,have function,
interrelated and interdependent =>Maintain existence
b. Trait cease to exist if not performing
4. Malinowski's major contribution:
a. Field work method and writing ethnography
i. Fieldwork + participant observation
ii. New Guinea, Mailu Island, trobriand Island
iii. Stayed 3 year with trobrianders + like native + understood demands and
comfort of their culture + Static documentation with concrete evidence
b. On culture
i. Definition= inherited artefact, good, technical process, ideas, habit and
values
ii. Also included social structure in analysing culture
c. On functionalism
i. book= “ Argonauts of Western Pacific”
ii. Three different type of functionalism
● Integrationalism= all trait are interrelated and change in any
element affect the others
● Dualistic form of functionalism= Contributing to persistence and
integrity of the society
● Monistic form of functionalism= each cultural trait has a function to
perform
d. On need
i. Paper “ scientific culture”
ii. basic need
Basic need institution

reproduction marriage

body comfort shelter and clothing

growth food

metabolism economic substance

iii. derived for primary need
Derived or primary need cultural response

demand of good and its economics

consumption

regulation of human behaviour social control

renewal of Institution by education

increasing the knowledge

authority to control institution political organisation

iv. Integration need= tradition, religion, value, belief→ WE belongingness
feeling
e. on law
i. Civil law= Control personal relation between Kins, maintain economic
relation and families
Criminal law= safeguarding the law of life,property and culture
ii. Need based culture has 4 culture
● Law of culture determinism
● law of native conduct
● law of order and maintenance
● law enforce when breach occur
 f. On kinship study
i. Criticised Morgan kinship terminology
ii. from utility point of view in identifying kinship behaviour=>Kinship algebra
g. On magic, religion, myth, Art and Science
i. Integrative in nature and responsible for existence of individual, man and
Society
h. On study of social change
i. New need→ new cultural trait as function→ culture change→ social
change Like industrialisation, globalisation and urbanisation
i. On economic anthropology
i. Introduce substantivist approach =>Principle of modern economy not
sufficient to understand non economic element in the economic
transaction=>Relationship between economic and social institution like
kinship
ii. 3 model:
● Wasi system
Coastal inhabitant barred from cultivation and accept food
and cereal
Inland inhabitant barred from fishing and accept fish
● Urigubu system
trobriand Island (Papua New Guinea) + between brother
in law + give some food he grow to his sister's husband
and receive produced from his wife's brother
● Kula ring
Refer to PDF 9 Page 3
Field work of trobriand island
kula exchange, ceremonial exchange, voluntary
Complex system of visit and exchange, 7000 man 18
communities, 1300 kilometre using canoe
maintain social relation and connection
Object
i. veigun or soulava, a red shell disc→ travel
clockwise traded to the north
ii. Mwali,armband of white shell→Travel anticlockwise
in south direction
Only man, kula season.
5. Criticism of functionalism:
a. Biological need as centre
b. importance to individual need