Chapter-3

Europeans Arrive in India (15th Century)

Why Europeans Wanted a Sea Route to India:
➢ Trade with India declined after Roman Empire fell (7th century).
➢ Ottomans controlled Constantinople (1453), making land routes difficult.
➢ Europeans wanted spices, fabrics, and other goods directly from India.
European Advantages:
➢ Renaissance spirit of exploration.
➢ Advancements in shipbuilding and navigation.
➢ Growing economies creating demand for luxury goods.
Portugal Takes the Lead:
➢ Prince Henry the Navigator ("the Navigator") obsessed with finding sea route to India.
➢ Wanted to bypass Muslim control of trade routes.
➢ Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided non-Christian world between Portugal and Spain.
➢ Bartholomew Dias rounded Cape of Good Hope in 1487.
➢ Vasco da Gama reached India in 1498.

From Portuguese Traders to Rulers in India

Vasco da Gama (1498):
➢ Arrived in Calicut seeking spices.
➢ Arabs worried about losing trade dominance.
➢ Established Portuguese trade posts in Calicut, Cannanore, and Cochin.
Francisco de Almeida (1505):
➢ First Portuguese governor in India.
➢ Aimed to control trade and build forts.
➢ Faced opposition from Zamorin of Calicut and Mameluke Sultan of Egypt.
➢ Implemented 'Blue Water Policy' to control trade routes.
Afonso de Albuquerque (1509):
➢ Consolidated Portuguese power in the East.
➢ Established strategic forts across the Indian Ocean.
➢ Captured Goa from Sultan of Bijapur (1510).
➢ Encouraged Portuguese settlement in India.
➢ Introduced new crops and infrastructure projects.
Nino da Cunha
➢ Nino da Cunha became governor of Portuguese interests in India in 1529.
➢ Moved Portuguese headquarters from Cochin to Goa in 1530.
➢ Bahadur Shah of Gujarat ceded Bassein to Portuguese in 1534.
➢ Conflict arose when Humayun withdrew from Gujarat in 1536.
➢ Portuguese killed Bahadur Shah during negotiations in 1537.
➢ Attempted to increase Portuguese influence in Bengal with Hooghly as headquarters.

Rise and Fall of Portuguese Power in India

Favorable Conditions for Portuguese (Early 16th Century):
➢ Weak Indian states: North divided, Deccan's Bahmani kingdom collapsing.
➢ No strong navies among Indian powers.
➢ Limited reach of Chinese ships.
➢ Superior Portuguese naval technology (cannons).
Portuguese Territorial Control:
➢ Goa (captured 1510) became the center of Portuguese India.
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 ➢ Coastal control from Mumbai to Daman and Diu.
➢ Chain of forts and trading posts in the south (Mangalore, Cannanore, Cochin, Calicut).
➢ Military outposts on the east coast (San Thome, Nagapatnam).
➢ Wealthy settlement in Hooghly (West Bengal).
Portuguese Administration:
➢ Viceroy (3-year term) headed the administration.
➢ Vedor da Fazenda oversaw revenue and trade.
➢ Captains governed forts, assisted by factors.
Portuguese Religious Policy in the East
➢ Portuguese were hostile towards Muslims due to conflicts in North Africa.
➢ Initially tolerant towards Hindus but became intolerant over time.
➢ Introduction of the Inquisition in Goa led to persecution of Hindus.
➢ Jesuits made a positive impression at Akbar's court due to his interest in theology.
➢ Akbar invited Jesuit priests to convert him to Christianity, but his interest waned.
➢ Fathers Rodolfo Aquaviva and Antonio Monserrate sent to Akbar's court in 1579.
➢ Second mission in 1590, followed by a third mission in 1595, invited by Akbar.
➢ Mission extended influence on secular politics during Akbar's reign.
➢ Prince Salim, later Jahangir, neglected Jesuits upon ascending the throne.
➢ Jahangir renewed favor towards Jesuits in 1606.
➢ Jesuit priests hoped to convert Jahangir but were unsuccessful.
➢ Arrogant actions by Portuguese viceroys led to rift with Jahangir.
Decline of Portuguese Power:
➢ Arrogant actions by viceroys strained relations with Mughals.
➢ Rise of other European powers (Dutch, British, French) challenged Portuguese dominance.
➢ India gained independence in 1947, but Portugal retained Goa, Daman, and Diu until 1961.

The End of Portuguese Influence with the Mughals

➢ In 1608, Captain William Hawkins arrived in Surat with a letter from King James I of England to
Jahangir.
➢ Father Pinheiro and Portuguese authorities tried to prevent Hawkins from reaching Jahangir but failed.
➢ Jahangir received Hawkins favorably in 1609 and appointed him as a mansabdar.
➢ Hawkins married the daughter of an Armenian Christian named Mubarak Shah.
➢ Granting trading facilities to the English offended the Portuguese, leading to negotiations and a truce.
➢ Portuguese stopped English ships from entering Surat port, leading Hawkins to leave the Mughal court
in 1611.
➢ In 1612, English ship Dragon under Captain Best fought and defeated a Portuguese fleet, impressing
Jahangir.
➢ Portuguese piracy led to conflict with the Mughal government in 1613.
➢ Jahangir ordered compensation for Portuguese offenses but lost favor with Shah Jahan.
➢ Hopes of converting the Mughal royal family to Christianity faded with Shah Jahan's reign.

Capture of Hooghly (1632):

➢ Portuguese settled near Satgaon in Bengal based on an imperial farman circa 1579.
➢ Strengthened their position, leading to trade migration to the new port of Hooghly.
➢ Monopolized salt production, enforced duty on tobacco.
➢ Engaged in cruel slave trade, seizing Hindu and Muslim children.
➢ Seized two slave girls of Mumtaz Mahal, leading to the siege of Hooghly in 1632.
➢ Shah Jahan ordered Bengal governor Qasim Khan to take action.
➢ Siege resulted in Portuguese fleeing and Mughal loss of 1,000 men.
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 ➢ 400 prisoners taken to Agra, given choice to convert to Islam or become slaves.
➢ Christian persecution continued for some time before gradually diminishing.

The Downfall of Portuguese Power in India

➢ Rise of Rivals: Powerful empires (Mughals, Marathas) weakened Portuguese influence.
➢ Religious Friction: Harsh policies and piracy caused resentment from locals and rulers.
➢ Shifting Focus: Discovery of Brazil drew Portugal's attention westward.
➢ Union with Spain: Dragged Portugal into wars, hurting Indian trade.
➢ Loss of Monopoly: Dutch & English with more resources challenged Portuguese dominance.
➢ European Competition: Portuguese possessions fell to stronger European rivals.
➢ Decline of Goa: Loss of importance after Vijayanagara empire's fall.
➢ Dutch Domination: Dutch took control of the spice trade.
➢ Maratha Attack: Invaded Goa in 1683, further diminishing Portuguese power.

The Portuguese Impact on India

Military:
➢ Introduced naval power with powerful ships and cannons.
➢ Pioneered use of body armor, matchlock guns, and ship-fired cannons (potentially influencing
Mughals).
➢ Introduced European-style drilled infantry formations (later adopted by Marathas & Sikhs).
Maritime:
➢ Advanced shipbuilding techniques (multi-decked, heavy armament).
➢ Established royal shipyards, pilot systems, and mapmaking.
Cultural:
➢ Missionaries introduced European art forms (painting, sculpture, music).
➢ Goa became a center for metalworking (filigree, fretwork, jewelry).
➢ Church architecture, though simple in plan, featured woodwork, sculptures, and painted ceilings.
Dutch Arrival and Expansion
➢ Cornelis de Houtman reached Sumatra and Bantam in 1596.
➢ States General of the Netherlands formed the East India Company in 1602.
➢ Company authorized to engage in war, treaties, territory acquisition, and fortification.
Dutch Settlements in India:
➢ First factory established in Masulipatnam in 1605.
➢ Nagapatam became main stronghold in South India after capture from Portuguese.
➢ Factories established along Coromandel coast, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, and Bihar.
➢ Other principal factories included Surat, Bimlipatam, Karaikal, Chinsura, Baranagar, Kasimbazar,
Balasore, Patna, and Cochin.
Trade and Commerce:
➢ Participated in redistributive trade, transporting goods to the Far East.
➢ Transported indigo, textiles, silk, saltpetre, opium, and rice from various regions of India.
➢ Monopolized trade in black pepper and spices.
➢ Traded Indian commodities like silk, cotton, indigo, rice, and opium.
Anglo-Dutch Rivalry:
➢ Rising English prominence in Eastern trade posed challenge to Dutch.
➢ Rivalry turned into warfare, climaxing at Amboyna massacre in 1623.
➢ Compromise in 1667 saw British withdrawal from Indonesia and Dutch retreat from India.
Decline of Dutch Presence:
➢ Drawn into trade of Malay Archipelago.
➢ Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672-74) resulted in defeat in battle of Hooghly (1759).
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 ➢ Dutch focused on trade in Spice Islands, losing interest in Indian empire building.

Dutch East India Company (VOC):

• The VOC was established in 1602 by the States General of the Netherlands.
• The VOC was the first publicly traded joint-stock company in the world.
• The VOC was granted a 21-year monopoly on Dutch trade with Asia.
• The VOC was the most important colonial force in Asia for almost 200 years.
• The VOC was successful because it:
• Was granted a monopoly on trade by the Dutch government
• Successfully outcompeted European rivals
• Used an innovative new business model: the joint-stock company
• The VOC had a significant advantage over its European rivals because of the Brouwer route, which
shortened the voyage to Java by months.
• The VOC issued shares that sometimes paid as much as 40% dividends.
• The VOC returned profits between 1635 and 1690, which fueled the Dutch economy during its "golden
age".
• The VOC undertook the world's first recorded Initial Public Offering in the year 1602 and so established
the world's first Stock Exchange.
• The VOC completely controlled all supplies in and out of every continent.
• In 1619 the company renamed Jacatra Batavia (now Jakarta) and used it as a base to conquer Java
and the outer islands.

The English East India Company in India

Early Establishment (1600-1660s):
➢ Founded in 1600, received royal charter from Queen Elizabeth I.
➢ Faced competition from Portuguese and Dutch.
➢ Established factories at Masulipatnam (1611) and Surat (1613) with Mughal permission.
➢ Sir Thomas Roe's embassy (1615-1619) secured trading privileges.
➢ Marriage of Charles II to Portuguese princess brought Bombay to English (1662).
➢ Anglo-Dutch compromise (1667) removed Dutch competition in India.
Expansion in South India (1630s-1690s):
➢ "Golden Farman" (1632) from Golconda Sultan allowed free trade in their ports.
➢ Madras (Fort St. George) founded in 1639, became regional headquarters.
➢ Factories established in Bengal (Hooghly, 1651) and Odisha (Balasore, 1633).
Struggle for Foothold in Bengal (1650s-1690s):
➢ Faced harassment from Mughal customs officials despite farmans.
➢ Desired a fortified settlement in Bengal (Hooghly).
➢ Conflict with Mughals led to sack of Hooghly (1686).
➢ English retaliated but ultimately forced to leave.
Calcutta Founded (1690-1700):
➢ Job Charnock negotiated return to Bengal with Mughals.
➢ Established factory at Sutanuti (1690) with Mughal permission.
➢ Rebellion by a zamindar provided justification for fortification (1696).
➢ Acquired zamindari rights of Sutanuti, Gobindapur, and Kalikata (1698).
➢ Settlement named Fort William (1700), becoming the Eastern Presidency (Calcutta).
Farrukhsiyar's Farmans & English East India Company
1715 Farmans:
➢ English received valuable privileges in Bengal, Gujarat, and Hyderabad.

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 ➢ Considered the "Magna Carta" of the Company.
➢ Key Points:
✓ Bengal: Duty-free trade (except annual fee), right to issue movement passes, rent more land.
✓ Hyderabad: Existing duty-free trade continued.
✓ Surat: Duty-free trade for annual fee.
✓ Company coins minted in Bombay became legal tender throughout Mughal Empire.
Establishment of Dominance:
➢ English used diplomacy to gain concessions, but later defeated French for complete control.
Merger of Rival Companies:
➢ Whigs opposed East India Company's monopoly after the English Revolution (1688).
➢ A rival company emerged but failed.
➢ Both companies merged in 1708 as the "United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East
Indies."
➢ This company (1708-1873) laid the foundation for British political power in India.
East India Company: Formative Years (1600-1717)
• 1600: Founded in England.
• 1609-1613: Mughal permission secured for trade in Surat (factory established in 1613).
• 1615-1618: Sir Thomas Roe's embassy secures farmans for free trade with reduced tolls.
• 1616: First factory in South India established at Masulipatnam.
• 1632: "Golden Farman" from Golconda Sultan grants trading privileges.
• 1633: First factory in East India established at Hariharpur (Odisha).
• 1639: Madras leased from a local king.
• 1651: Permission to trade in Hooghly (Bengal) granted.
• 1662: Bombay acquired by British Crown as dowry.
• 1667: Mughal farman allows English trade in Bengal.
• 1691: Imperial order permits continued trade in Bengal for annual fee.
• 1717: Farrukhsiyar's farman ("Magna Carta") grants extensive trade concessions.

Anglo-French Rivalry
Background of Anglo-French Rivalry:
➢ Both nations aimed for political power in India, stemming from their European rivalry.
➢ Carnatic Wars emerged as a decisive conflict determining Indian supremacy.
First Carnatic War (1740-1748):
➢ Triggered by European Anglo-French War due to Austrian War of Succession.
➢ English navy provoked France by seizing French ships, leading to French capture of Madras in 1746.
➢ War ended with Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, returning Madras to English and French territories in
North America.
Immediate Cause:
➢ English navy under Barnet seized French ships, leading to French retaliation.
➢ France captured Madras in 1746 with help from Admiral La Bourdonnais from Mauritius.
Result and Significance:
➢ Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle concluded the war, restoring Madras to English and French territories in North
America.
➢ Battle of St. Thome highlighted the effectiveness of disciplined small European armies against larger
Indian forces.
➢ Naval strength became crucial in Anglo-French conflict in the Deccan region.
Political Context:
➢ Uncertain political situation in South India with declining power of Nizam Asaf Jah of Hyderabad and
fragmented smaller states.
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 ➢ Maratha kingdom of Tanjore posed interference threat in the region.
First Carnatic War (1740-1748):
• Caused by: Austrian War of Succession in Europe.
• Trigger: British naval attack on French ships.
• French captured Madras (1746) with Indian support.
• Ended: Treaty of Aix-La Chapelle (1748) - Madras returned to British.
• Significance:
• Highlighted European military superiority over Indian forces (Battle of St. Thome).
• Importance of naval power in the conflict.
Second Carnatic War (1749-1754)
Background:
➢ Dupleix aimed to increase French power in southern India by meddling in local disputes.
➢ Death of Nizam-ul-Mulk and release of Chanda Sahib by Marathas led to power struggle.
Immediate Cause:
➢ Dispute over Hyderabad throne between Nasir Jang and Muzaffar Jang.
➢ Appointment of Anwar-ud-din Khan as Nawab opposed by Chanda Sahib.
➢ French supported Muzaffar Jang and Chanda Sahib, English sided with Nasir Jang and Anwar-ud-din.
Course of the War:
➢ Combined forces of Muzaffar Jang, Chanda Sahib, and French defeated Anwar ud-din at Battle of
Ambur in 1749.
➢ Muzaffar Jang became subahdar of Deccan, Dupleix appointed governor of Mughal territories.
➢ French army under Bussy secured French interests at Hyderabad.
➢ Territories near Pondicherry and some areas on Orissa Coast ceded to the French.
Robert Clive's Strategy:
➢ Proposed attack on Arcot to relieve pressure on Trichinopoly.
➢ Successfully captured Arcot with 210 men in August 1751.
➢ Chanda Sahib's siege on Arcot lasted 53 days, ultimately failing.
➢ Mysore, Tanjore, and Maratha chief Morari Rao aided Clive and Stringer Lawrence.
Result:
➢ French recalled Dupleix in 1754 due to heavy financial losses.
➢ Godeheu succeeded Dupleix, adopted negotiation policy with English.
➢ Treaty concluded, parties agreed not to interfere in native princes' quarrels.
Implications:
➢ European success no longer dependent on Indian authority.
➢ Muhammad Ali and Salabat Jang became clients rather than patrons of European powers.
Third Carnatic War (1758-1763)
Background:
➢ Started as part of the Seven Years War (1756-1763) in Europe.
➢ Britain and France were on opposing sides once again.
Course of War in India:
➢ French under Count de Lally captured English forts at St. David and Vizianagaram in 1758.
➢ English retaliated, defeating French fleet under Admiral D’Ache at Masulipatnam.
Battle of Wandiwash:
➢ Decisive battle on January 22, 1760, in Tamil Nadu.
➢ General Eyre Coote led English forces to victory, routing French army under Count Thomas Arthur de
Lally.
➢ Pondicherry defended gallantly by Lally before surrendering in January 1761.
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Result and Significance:
➢ Third Carnatic War proved decisive, marking the end of French political influence in India.
➢ Treaty of Peace of Paris (1763) restored French factories in India but diminished their power.
➢ English emerged as supreme European power in the Indian subcontinent.
➢ Battle of Plassey (1757) often seen as crucial, but Wandiwash also significant in solidifying British rule.
➢ Victory at Wandiwash left English East India Company without European rivals, paving the way for their
dominance.
Native Involvement:
➢ Sepoys served in both armies during the Battle of Wandiwash, highlighting native involvement in
European conflicts.
➢ Lack of geopolitical awareness among native rulers contributed to inevitability of European invasion
and rule in India.
Rise and Fall of Dupleix in India
Joseph Francois Dupleix (1697-1763)
Early Career:
➢ Son of a wealthy French official.
➢ Gained high position in Pondicherry (1720), allegedly due to influence.
➢ Engaged in private trade (then permitted).
➢ Suspended in 1726 due to company restructuring, reinstated in 1730.
➢ Appointed Governor-General of French colonies in India (1741).
➢ Awarded titles by Mughal emperor and Subahdar of Deccan.
Dupleix as Administrator:
➢ Became Governor-General of Pondicherry in 1741.
➢ Faced challenges: Maratha invasion, famine, and economic woes.
➢ Reduced public spending (against council's wishes) and balanced budget.
➢ Fortified Pondicherry despite company's cost-cutting orders.
➢ Developed Pondicherry's trade, making it a commercial hub.
Dupleix as Diplomat:
➢ Pioneered European intervention in Indian politics.
➢ Used Nawabs of Carnatic to protect French settlements.
➢ Secured promises of territory from Nawabs in exchange for military support.
➢ Persuaded French Admiral La Bourdonnais to break agreements with English.
➢ Supported specific candidates in Indian succession disputes (Muzaffar Jang, Chanda Sahib).
➢ Considered the originator of the "subsidiary alliance" system in India.
Reasons for Recall:
➢ Recalled in 1754 due to initial French defeats and high financial costs.
➢ Historians debate the recall's justification, suggesting a potential compromise with England.
Weaknesses of Dupleix:
➢ Overly optimistic, sometimes missing critical moments.
➢ Autocratic style caused friction with colleagues.
➢ Focused on planning and leadership, not battlefield command.
➢ French failures (e.g., Trichinopoly) linked to ineffective execution of Dupleix's strategies.
English Success vs. French Failure in India
English Advantages:
➢ Private company: faster decisions, more enthusiasm.
➢ Superior navy: control of sea routes.
➢ More settlements in India (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras).
➢ Balanced focus on trade and territory (secure finances).
➢ Strong leadership (Clive, Coote, Lawrence).
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French Disadvantages:
➢ State-controlled company: slow decisions, less motivation.
➢ Weaker navy: vulnerable supply lines.
➢ Fewer settlements (Pondicherry only).
➢ Prioritized territory over trade (financial strain).
➢ Limited leadership (Dupleix only).
The Danes in India
Establishment of Danish East India Company:
➢ Founded in 1616.
➢ Established a factory at Tranquebar in 1620.
Principal Settlement: Serampore near Calcutta.
Commercial Significance: Danish factories were not significant in trade.
End of Danish Presence: Danish factories sold to British government in 1845.
Missionary Activities:
➢ Danes known more for missionary work than commerce.
➢ Contributed significantly to Christian missions in India.
Why England Became the Dominant European Power in India
Structure of Trading Companies:
English East India Company:
➢ Board of directors elected annually.
➢ Shareholders influenced decisions.
French and Portuguese companies:
➢ State-controlled, less flexible.
➢ Less shareholder interest.
Naval Superiority:
➢ Strong Royal Navy with advanced technology.
➢ Victories against Spanish Armada and French cemented dominance.
➢ Enabled troop movement and trade protection in India.
Industrial Revolution:
➢ Early industrialization in England (18th century).
➢ Increased production in textiles, metalworking, and agriculture.
➢ Maintained technological advantage over other European nations.
Military Strength:
➢ Disciplined and well-trained British soldiers.
➢ Skilled commanders and innovative tactics.
➢ Technological advancements in weaponry.
Stable Government:
➢ Relatively stable government in Britain compared to other European powers.
➢ France's revolution and Napoleonic Wars weakened their position.
➢ Other nations like Italy and Netherlands faced internal conflicts.
Religious Tolerance:
➢ Less emphasis on spreading Christianity compared to Spain, Portugal, and Dutch.
➢ Made British rule more acceptable to Indian subjects.
Financial Innovation:
➢ Use of debt markets to fund wars and expansion.
➢ Bank of England sold government debt in exchange for funding.
➢ Enabled higher military spending than rivals like France.

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