825432

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SACXXX10.1177/1206331218825432Space and CultureIkudayisi and Odeyale

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Space and Culture
1–18
Designing for Cultural Revival: © The Author(s) 2019
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DOI: 10.1177/1206331218825432
https://doi.org/10.1177/1206331218825432
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Ayodele Emmanuel Ikudayisi1

and Timothy Oluseyi Odeyale2

Abstract
Culture and tradition are essential components of the traditional architecture. However, in the
era of globalization and modernization, traditional architecture is fast disappearing in most part
of Africa due to neglect and lack of understanding of its importance. A reconsideration becomes
necessary as traditional architecture can be a source of inspiration even in contemporary times.
Through a systematic literature review, this article takes a critical look at how culture affects
architecture in Africa with Nigeria as a case study. It explores various traditional architectural
accomplishments across Africa revealing the disappearance of cultural identity and the weak
connection between traditional and contemporary architecture. It then concludes with
strategies toward survival and revival of indigenous African architecture with clear direction on
architects’ key roles in persevering the Africans endangered culture.

Keywords
Africa, buildings, culture, housing, traditional architecture

Introduction
Across geographical regions of Africa, remarkable achievements had been made with regard to
traditional architecture (Denyer, 1979). Notably, the Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, the stone archi-
tecture of Sukur in Nigeria, Swahili architectural heritage in Tanzania, palaces of Deji of Akure,
Olowo of Owo and Emir of Kano in Nigeria, the Ashanti palace in Ghana, and Zulu buildings in
Southern Africa among others are some of the examples recognized across times and spaces
(CRAterre, 2010; International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of
Cultural Property, 2008). In spite of these worthy achievements, the traditional African settle-
ment is fast disappearing, while the urban areas are currently devoid of cultural and regional
identity. The forces of modernization and urbanization have remained as dangerous threats to the
endangered culture and social structure in Africa. Several studies (Adedokun, 2014a; Adeyemi,
2008; Fatiregun, 1999) assert that the root of cultural decadence could be associated with the
advent of colonization, which extremely changed Africans’ mind during the period of colonial
tutelage. The resultant effects are the decay of long-standing family bonds, social inequality,

1Federal University of Technology Akure, Akure, Nigeria

2University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo, Nigeria

Corresponding Author:
Ayodele Emmanuel Ikudayisi, Federal University of Technology Akure, P.M.B 704, Akure 340001, Nigeria.
Email: aeikudayisi@futa.edu.ng
2 Space and Culture 00(0)

increase in crime and security threat, and the high cost of housing as well as poverty (Adedokun,
2014b; Odeyale & Adekunle, 2008; Razzu, 2005). No doubt, this erroneous withdrawal from
culture has not yielded the best outcomes for the Africa continent (Du Plessis, 2010).
It is worthy of note that culture and architecture cannot be seen as parallel poles apart. Culture
is a significant parameter, which dictates the building forms. According to Rapoport (1969, 2005,
2006a, 2006b), house forms have evolved in various cultures as a set of beliefs, which are bun-
dled up into a given understanding of what a house is supposed to be. Therefore, the evolution,
character, and placement of traditional houses are highly cultural. While culture is the lifestyle of
a specific group (ethnic/tribe), which is directed by the social standard, custom, conviction, tradi-
tion, belief, and value (Holden, 2015; Rapoport, 1998, 2008), culture could also be best expressed
through arts, traditions, and social organization of a specific group of people (Cristancho &
Vining, 2004; Maki, 2006). Evidently, the dressing, music, food, occupation, religion, and shelter
are the main focal point of the cultural practices of any group (Carnwath & Brown, 2014;
Jabareen, 2005; Sassen, 1998). Although architectural form and housing design evolve from a
number of factors, yet scholars (Adeyemi, 2008; Osasona, 2008; Rapoport, 1969, 1998) affirm
that culture is the determinant factor of housing form, while other factors such as environment,
climate, economy, and technology are form moderators. Uji (1992) assert that housing issues are
significantly influenced by factors such as socials, environment, climate, economy, technology,
and culture; however, the sociocultural elements still exercise an overriding influence on type
and form of housing development (Rapoport, 1998, 2005; Sanz, 2012).
In this regard, it is important to understand and resolve the weak connection between culture
and architecture currently trending in Africa. Africans and their cultural heritage have remained
inconsequential in the global scheme of things. This mentality must be changed to restore the
creative sense of the Africans (Adeyemi, 2008). This article, therefore, explores the cultural
influences on design process in Africa with a view of proposing strategies for cultural heritage
revival and survival in modern housing development. In doing so, the specific objectives of this
article are to

1. examine how culture and ethnic grouping relates to traditional housing patterns in Africa,
and
2. assess the potentials of traditional architecture and the pathway toward architectural heri-
tage revival and survival in Africa.

The article is expected to contribute to knowledge by promoting heightened understanding of the

complex relationship between architecture and culture with a view of challenging architects
toward promoting the “spirit” of the investigation, experimentation, critical innovations, creative
reflections, and novelty in housing design in spite of globalization.

Research Method
This article is based on qualitative research approach involving systematic literature review as
well as the exploration of emerging concepts and relationships that constitute a cultural phenom-
enon and social realities of the urban milieu in specific case studies (Royse, Dhooper, & Rompf,
2007; Sarvimaki, 2017). The electronic database was searched using relevant keywords such as
“African culture,” “traditional architecture,” and “housing pattern in Africa.” These search
yielded over 1,000+ research output aside duplicates. Afterward, the abstract of these publica-
tions were checked to determine the suitability, proper sorting, and for the thematic arrangement,
and the final selection was principally based on its relevance to the objectives stated above.
Although over 100 studies were eligible, only a selected few were referenced based on signifi-
cance and implications.
Ikudayisi and Odeyale 3

Following the set objectives, the analysis of findings is discussed in four steps. First, the
African habitation, culture, and ethnic grouping were examined with some illustrations from
countries such as Egypt, Nigeria, Ghana, South Africa, Mali, Tanzania, South Africa, and
Zimbabwe. Second, a case study of three prominent ethnic groups in Nigeria was illustrated (i.e.,
Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo) to determine how culture influences housing patterns by showing the
varied components of the traditional housing structure. Third, the architectural transition from
traditional to modern was explored with the focus of literature that examined factors that led to
the transition and the consequences on Africans cultural heritage. Last, the potential of traditional
architecture and account of various efforts toward its revival and survival revival were discussed
with clear direction on the tasks for contemporary architects both in education and practice. In
the subsequent sections, details of the findings and discussions are presented.

African Ethnic Grouping, Culture, and Habitation

Africa is a continent highly recognized for its multiethnic grouping. Notably, there are hundreds
of ethnic groups in Africa speaking different local dialects and upholding highly varied social
practices (Figure 1). Some of the dominant ethnic groups in Africa number over 10 million peo-
ple. For instance, Hausa in Nigeria, Chad, Cameroon, Niger, Ghana, Cote d’Ivoire, and Sudan
(30 million); Yoruba in Nigeria and Benin (30 million); Oromo in Ethiopia and Kenya (30 mil-
lion); Igbo in Nigeria and Cameroon (30 million); Shona in Zimbabwe and Mozambique (10
million); and Zulu in South Africa (10 million; Saylor, 2011) among others. These ethnic groups
formed the major constellation of cultural identity across Africa. Members of the same ethnic
group share a similar lifestyle, mode of dressing, food, occupation and economic activities, arts
and traditions, family life, settlement pattern, and, more important, housing pattern.
In this regard, understanding and interpreting African architecture requires investigating the
sociocultural environment, albeit, it is also imminent to examine the thinking process, meaning-
ful abstracts, and religious belief that moderated African architectural philosophy. For instance,
the first monumental buildings in Africa, such as the Pyramid of Giza, Stonehenge, and the
temple at Karnak, were inspired by ritual tradition. These monuments reflect the cosmology of
cultural trends during the era they were built. Egyptian religion was at its peak when the great
pyramids were built reflecting the astrological constellation in the decorated interiors with the
pyramids’ shape reflecting stairways to heaven (Mwakyusa, 2006).
Since the mid-19th century, most traditional African houses have been associated with round
thatched roof and mud wall hut (Prussin, 1974). Historical research indicates that square and
rectangular forms are of great antiquity and have existed in diverse geographical regions (Denyer,
1979; Kemp, 2006). Evidently, African indigenous architecture has developed from the creative
and intrusive effort of having functional as well as psychological space which is also aestheti-
cally satisfying (see Figures 2 and 3). Thus, African architecture evolves from concern for culture
and safety from the environment, yet not devoid of creative thinking (Clark, 1967; Coquery-
Vidrovitch, 2005).
Several scholars (Baines, 2007; Curtis, 1996; Denyer, 1979; Mwakyusa, 2006; Oliver &
Fagan, 1975; Osasona, 2008; Singer & Weiner, 1963) reveal that housing style, settlement lay-
out, and methods of construction in traditional Africa society depended largely on a number of
factors that are connected with culture and nature. These include geographical conditions, avail-
ability of building materials, construction skills and the political class, and security against
tribal wars and wild animals as well as culture. Geographical conditions influenced the architec-
tural form across Africa creating its diverse and complex landscape. For example, sub-Saharan
Africa covers the widest diversity of physical settings across the longitudinal axis of the
Greenwich meridian from Accra, Ghana, through Timbuktu, Mali, and West Africa. These
changes in the settlement pattern cut across a series of horizontal climatic belts: a humid
4 Space and Culture 00(0)

Figure 1. Map of Africa showing the major ethnic groups.

Source. Adapted from Saylor (2011).

rainforest, a woodland savannah inland disappearing into a grassland savannah, and finally,
changing into a semiarid desert (Mwakyusa, 2006).
As for the building material, earth/mud/adobe was the chief building material combined with
timber, palm trunks, coconut, grass thatch, and straw bales as roofing depending on the avail-
ability of the material within the geographical region (Figures 4 and 5).
According to Dmochowski (1990), Odeyale and Adekunle (2008), and Osasona (2008), most
African builders construct the walls of their building with the mud bricks and a slurry mixture of
Ikudayisi and Odeyale 5

Figure 2. Mosque of Timbuktu, Mali.

Source. http://www.africavernaculararchitecture.com/

earth carefully arranged in layers. The facade of the dried wall was usually finished up with a
dense mud plastered and strengthen with some form of additives such as animal hair, cow dung,
animal skin fat, goat dung, and beaten straw on the surface. Stones were used when predomi-
nantly available for the public and religious buildings. Largely, a unique trait in African’s tradi-
tional architecture is the use of natural clays as paints and decoration in buildings. Most houses
are decorated with relief patterns processed into a malleable clay surface.
Perhaps, the traditional construction technique was of immense influence on building form. In
most part of Africa, the building process involves communal processes requiring skills special-
ization and division of labor between individuals. For example, in the savannah, the earth is
exhumed by the men and boys from various borrow pits; while women fetch water from streams,
mix the earth into proper workable paste, then, the kneaded mud is formed into conical, spherical,
or cylindrical molds and handed up to the mason who sets them in place (Mwakyusa, 2006;
Prussin, 1974). Women were mostly engaged in the duty of decorating the houses. For instance,
in Northern Ghana, Frafra women were noted for decorating the walls of buildings through the
use of geometric outline, which demonstrates and gives information about the social status of the
building owner (see Figure 6). In a similar manner, the Ndebele women in Zimbabwe and the
northeastern part of South Africa paint the mud walls of their houses with geometric models
depending on the shape of windows, doors, steps, and other building features (Adeyemi, 2008;
Denyer, 1979; Dmochowski, 1990).
The traditional system of governance also plays a significant role in settlement pattern and
housing style. Most of the palaces have large spaces and elaborate design with thick walls. The
Yoruba palaces in Southwest Nigeria have magnificent design and structural configuration. They
have several courtyards which are purposefully created to accommodate public assemblies and
festivals. An example was the old Olowo’s palace in Owo, which had 27 courtyards with each
courtyard having a specific function and dedicated to a deity (Denyer, 1979). Courtyard often has
broken pottery and sun-dried mud bricks as walls finish. Doors are intricately carved with abstract
design most times with images of human and animal figures, while the pillars are also carved to
support the veranda’s roof. For instance, the Ashanti palace (Ghana) also has several courtyards
6 Space and Culture 00(0)

Figure 3. The royal compound of Tiebele, Burkina Faso (1996), photograph by Thierry Joffroy.
Source. CRAterre (2010; used with permission).

Figure 4. Rwanda’s King Hut.

Source. http://www.africavernaculararchitecture.com/

culminating around the rectangular building, the walls were decorated with a carved design made
out of mud and paint. In most parts of Africa, art and architecture differs from one geographical
location to the other.
While factors like the geographical condition, availability of building material, construction
techniques, and the traditional social structure are significant factors which influenced housing
pattern across Africa; yet cultural factors are of imminent influence. Generally, the rural societies
in Africa are influenced by cultural factors such as occupation, family lineage, religious activities,
economic activities, and the political hierarchy system in various combinations (Denyer, 1979;
Ikudayisi and Odeyale 7

Figure 5. Rwanda Huts within a compound.

Source. http://www.africavernaculararchitecture.com/

Dmochowski, 1990; Osasona, 2008; Shahack-Gross, Marshall, Ryan, & Weiner, 2004). Most
towns evolved as resting points for wandering immigrants who also use the locations as spiritual
or cultural bases cumulating into larger town as a result of territorial expansion. These types of the
settlement could be found in the house of Dogon people in Southern Mali, the Nyakyusa tribe in
Tanzania, and the Zulu house in Southern Africa (Denyer, 1979; Dmochowski, 1990; Gatto, 2009;
Mwakyusa, 2006). The quest for security, protection of boundary, sense of belonging, and con-
sciousness of intruder also determines the site for such settlement. Most farming village comprises
many family compounds and communal structures that serve the bigger neighborhood (Osasona,
2008). The family compounds have different structures for sleeping, food storage, food prepara-
tion, eating, and defensive space for animals at night, while the communal structures are located
in a prominent place in the village often erected for holding meetings and teaching children (Figure
7). In essence, most important cultural features were exhibited in the rural settlement as vividly
expressed in village buildings, palaces, and shrines among others.

Case Study of Ethnic Groups, Culture, and Traditional Architecture in Nigeria

In Nigeria, as elsewhere in Africa, a clear distinction is pronounced in the traditional architecture
of various ethnic groups as evident in the housing systems (Osasona, 2008). These changes are
majorly influenced by the culture of the different geographical zone/area. Traditional buildings
were designed to respond to the dictates and demands of society. Below are detailed illustrations
of three housing patterns of the three major ethnic groups of Nigeria, which is the Hausa tradi-
tional architecture, Igbo traditional architecture, and Yoruba traditional architecture.

Hausa Culture and Traditional Architecture. The Hausas are the largest ethnic group in Nigeria and
the basic factor that influenced their residential building is Islamic religion. The belief of Muslim
that there should be a separation between the sexes as required in Islam decisively dictates the
layout of the family houses; thus, within their building configuration, there are clear separations
of the outer male reception area from the inner women restricted area (Olotuah, 2002; Osasona,
8 Space and Culture 00(0)

Figure 6. Women decorating a house in Sirugu Village, North Ghana (1997), photograph by Mark
Kwami.
Source. CRAterre (2010; used with permission).

Figure 7. A Kamberi savannah compound built by Egunu’s family in Senegal: (a) kitchen, (b) granaries,
(c) sleeping hut, (d) storage huts or animal pens where manure builds up and is used for compost, and
(e) planted trees and trees deliberately protected are important for shade under which people meet,
work, and converse.
Source. Mumagi (2006).
Ikudayisi and Odeyale 9

Figure 8. Typical Hausa traditional building layout.

Source. Authors.

2008). The Zaure is a place dedicated to the guest reception since the visitors are not allowed to
enter into the private zone; Thus, the compound is tactically divided into two: the male and
female sections with the intermediate zone in between them (Figure 8). The houses are designed
in the courtyard form with enough space for expansion to accommodate more wives and their
children.
The first zone of the building is the reception which gives good security for the building. Next
is the living quarters of the head of the family, which comprises a bedroom, living room, and
Zaure, strategically located to permit his supervising role in the house. The women restricted
areas include a common living room for all the wives, female visitors, and individual bedroom.
The segregation of women from other space is either complete or partial segregation. Besides,
the building of Hausa’s usually faces the east; this is due to the Islamic tenet that while praying,
the people should always face east. Moreover, each neighborhood has an open space commonly
used for Islamic worship while also functioning as the recreational area for the community
mainly for social activities as well as the playground for the children (Agboola & Zango, 2014).
An aspect of Hausa culture, which has played a significant part in traditional architecture, is
their mastery of ornamentation. This is manifested in the treatment of elevation, which is usually
high and sophisticatedly done (Figure 9). The decorations are done with high skills of mud wall
texture. Dust is usually used on the colored surface of the texture, although the effect of dust on
the mud-textured surface is hardly noticed thus preserving the natural beauty of the structure.

Yoruba Culture and Traditional Architecture. Yoruba is the second largest ethnic group next to Hausa
in Nigeria. For several decades, the Yorubas have exhibited a culture that is unique and very
intriguing traceable to their progenitor known as Oduduwa Olofin (Akintoye, 1971; Fadamiro &
Adedeji, 2016; Fadipe, 1991). A common belief among the Yorubas is that they originated from
a common source (Ile-Ife), thus, they need to have a deep connection among family lineage. In
this regard, housing pattern evolves from their cultural beliefs, values, norms, and the need for
effective social interaction among a member of a lineage (Olagunju, 2001). House form is greatly
influenced by family pattern (extended family, lineage system ancestral line of family and kin-
ship [relation by blood]). These factors are the core of Yoruba architecture. The traditional Yor-
uba housing unit is a compound type, an architecture which fully takes into consideration the
circumstances of family life. Yorubas has close kinship ties and belief that family should live
together in a compound or a house commonly referred to as Agbo Ile, that is, the family house
(Akintoye, 2010; Dmochowski, 1987). The family housing is usually rooming housing most
often with a big courtyard for recreation activities of the family (Figure 10).
Idowu (1982) and Osasona (2007) identified that the compound and courtyard architecture
were the most recognized elements in the traditional Yoruba towns. The rooms are rectangular or
10 Space and Culture 00(0)

Figure 9. Decorated house facades Zaria, Nigeria.

Source. Authors’ archive.

Figure 10. Yoruba’s traditional building layout.

Source. Authors.

square; well arranged in a linear pattern to surround the courtyard which also serves as the center
of activities for commercial (drying, weaving, and carving), domestic function (cooking), and
various recreational activities (Akintoye, 2010). Functionally, the corridor serves as the circula-
tion space between the courtyards and the rooms. This interior circulation and socializing place
allow for visual continuity into the adjoining courtyard, while the rooms were accessed through
the colonnaded corridor (known as oode, odede; Osasona, 2007).
A great significance was also attached to the political and social class of members of the com-
munity in respect to neighborhood designs. Yoruba traditional neighborhoods can be classified
into three categories based on their complexity and societal structure: namely, commoners com-
pounds, quarters for the chief, and the Afin traditional palace (Olagunju, 2001). Commoner’s
compound is usually headed by Baale (compound head), while Quarter is often headed by a
chief. A quarter composed of housing patterns as those of the ordinary extended families though
with larger courtyards depending on the chief’s ranks of traditional government. Afin (the tradi-
tional palace) is the traditional residence of the community head, thus, the most multifarious of
the three categories of housing design in Yoruba settlement. As the spiritual and political head of
Ikudayisi and Odeyale 11

Figure 11. Typical Igbo traditional compound layout.

Source. Authors.

the people, the king’s Palace is generally designed to meet his status with ample spaces provided
to support his spiritual and political duties.

Igbo Culture and Traditional Architecture. The Igbos displayed an exceptionally rich planning
instinct with their rectangular shaped buildings commonly made of ingenious structural ele-
ments, incorporated harmoniously into the spatial composition and well finished with excellent
decoration. The compounds varied in shape, protected by a boundary wall with a single main
entrance strongly built, with some defensive contrivances. Quite often, there is another back door
to the compound used in case of necessity as an escape route (Figure 11). The buildings are usu-
ally one or two houses built in cluster form within a compound, each building facing the other,
centrally connected with a common large courtyard.
Typically, a compound has an entrance called Obi (meeting place and ritual altar position), the
family head area, wives house, kitchen, toilet, bathroom, and shed for domestic animals
(Dmochowski, 1990; Nsude, 1987). Their typical plans are rectangular, symmetrical with a lon-
gitudinal axis. The front wall, mainly luxuriantly ornamented at the building the main entrance
complimented with the rectangular courtyard. The back consists of the chief’s house with his
throne and altar, while both sides of the courtyards contained the living rooms of the family
kitchens and stores. The common features of Igbo architecture were massive compound gates
(Figure 12), meeting houses (for families, patrilineages, and secret societies); shrines and two- or
three-storey semidefensive buildings called Obuna Enu (Nsude, 1987).

Architectural Transition From Traditional to Modern: Advent and Effect

Since the early 19th century, African architecture has been characterized and transformed by an
extensive new design concept, absorbed with new building materials noticeable in the modern
buildings (Tofa, 2011). The advent of colonialism in Africa changed the traditional life and cul-
tural value of the continent and created a weak connection between traditional and contemporary
architecture (Fatiregun, 1999). Of late, buildings designs across Nigeria and Africa are predomi-
nantly built with imported materials using construction techniques which satisfy the modern
trends and aspirations. Evidently, traditional architecture has been overridden by modern tech-
nology coupled with the changes in the economy, political, and social features which culminated
in transforming the African cityscapes.
Razzu (2005) and Agboola and Zango (2014) opined that the dramatic changes witnessed in
recent time were brought up by modernization which manifested in different ways, aided by the
12 Space and Culture 00(0)

Figure 12. Gateway to Onyiuke’s compound, Nimo, Enugu.

Source. Okoye (2002).

introduction of modern policies initiated by the colonial government. This has eventually led to the
abandonment of old traditional settlements for new towns, thus, disintegrating the long-standing
extended family bonds, decrease family sizes, create a departure of large family compounds while
presenting smaller nuclear family units (Adedokun, 2014b; Du Plessis, 2010). The introduction of
new technology resulted in the rejection of traditionally molded decorations on clay walls replaced
by modern paints, the rejection of thatch roof for corrugated iron sheets, the transformation of
building from curvilinear forms to rectilinear notably across African cities (Fatiregun, 1999).
Besides, the introduction of new religions, as well as modern education presented by colo-
nials, coupled with their laws and languages had massively influenced African’s lifestyle and
culture. New housing forms paraded at different regions of Africa are the resultant effects of
pursuit for “modern life” comfort. Most beautiful circular shapes apparent in traditional architec-
ture including the dome roofs and decorative wall plasters have been replaced by a rectangular
concrete prototype with imported roman column replicas (Rikko & Gwatau, 2011).
It is essential to note that despite the impact of modernization in terms of styles, process, and
material of construction, several modern housing projects have not been optimally accepted by
the locals due to lack of consideration for cultural and traditional values of the people. Adedokun
(2014b) observed that the new urban structure lacks the concept of defensible space, which lay
emphasis on privacy, less regard for community spirit, and promotion of residential segregation,
which has heighten social disequilibrium. For instance, social anomalies such as crime, drug
abuse, misconduct, and sexual abuse are often exhibited in the urban centers where traditional
life has been neglected or relegated. As argued by a scholar:

The modernist worldview produced architecture that reflected its denial of tradition and past wisdom,
its denial of nature and ancient human principles, its faith in machinery and rational science. But
history has shown that this faith has been knocked back by successive world wars, increased
depression and social breakdown. There is growing medical and sociological evidence that scientific
progress indeed, has not created greater human happiness. (Mumagi, 2006, p. 23)

Razzu (2005) considered the forces of modernization and urbanization as a dangerous threat
to the endangered culture and social structure in Africa. Memmott and Keys (2015) posit that the
Ikudayisi and Odeyale 13

cultural properties of buildings are a subset of the cultural properties of places that provide cul-
tural paradigms for well-being and social quality within the environment. Thus, even in contem-
porary times, traditional architecture should not be discarded, but rather professional’s
consciousness should be tailored toward understanding the innovative techniques and social
implications inherent in historical design motifs.

Potentials of Indigenous Architecture and the Pathway Towards Revival and

Survival: Task for Architects
The indigenous architecture of Africans deserves to be preserved. Africa today suffers from the
enduring effects of modernization and colonization; hence, contemporary architects are in a
unique position to salvage the situation. Rikko and Gwatau (2011) opine that the adoption of
traditional building materials in modern housing is part of a basic and imaginative way of depict-
ing an impressive ability of local builders. Adeyemi (2008) assert that architecture is a poetry,
which cannot be imitated from the foreign model but must develop from its own root and clearly
expressed in its language. With the foregoing, more functional architectural design efforts should
be directed toward harmonizing the traditional and contemporary designs methods.
It is worthy of note that prior studies have brought to fore the remarkable potentials and imagi-
native thought observed within traditional building practices. According to Opoko (2001) and
Rainer, Rivera, and Gandreau (2011), attainment of a high level of comfort both within and out-
side of built environment without recourse to artificial methods could be achieved through appro-
priate building form and natural materials as evident in traditional buildings. Empirical evidence
from previous studies affirms this position. For instance, in Cameroon, Nematchoua, Tchinda,
and Orosa (2014) conducted a comparative survey on the level of thermal comfort in traditional
versus modern building in five regions of the country. The result reveals that the inhabitants of
modern habitats desired more ventilation than those of traditional habitats. The result also reveals
that 51% of traditional building inhabitant desired no change in their building as against 37.6%
of the modern building who voted for “no change.” This evidence suggests that the traditional
building residents perceive more comfortability than the residents of the modern ones.
Similarly, Barau, Ludin, and Said (2013) study at Emir of Kano palace in Northern Nigeria
shows that the building configuration and garden offers high quality for biodiversity manage-
ment, conservation, security, and surveillance and climate resilience. In Malawi, Ngoma and
Sassu (2004) investigated how traditional material and techniques could be adopted for seismic
resistance in disaster-prone areas. The findings show how rectilinear bamboo beam system could
be integrated with stainless steel plates as a possible solution for seismic disaster. Largely, these
studies have provided insight into the eminent potentials of indigenous material and construction
techniques in Africa. Aside from environmental potentials of traditional architecture, housing
affordability is another great benefit offered by the indigenous construction technology and
material. Odeyale and Adekunle (2008) found that local materials such as laterite, textile, dye,
timber, tusks, bamboo, mosaic, mats stones, snail shell, cow dung, cowries’ cane, and mud are
readily available in Africa and these materials are cheaper than the imported ones. Similarly,
Olotuah (2002) explored how the recourse to earth as building materials enables cost reduction
through basic imaginative aptitude of the indigenous builders.
In another perspective, traditional building layout, especially the corridor system, guarantees
good visual expression and security for the compound thereby enhancing physical and social
functions of residential spaces (Osasona, 2008). The traditional housing characteristics, such as
the courtyard and compound systems, are veritable means of reducing social ills and violent
crimes (rape and robbery) and these should be sustained in modern building designs (Adedokun,
2014b). Indeed, environmental hazards such as noise, smoke, and blight could be reduced through
14 Space and Culture 00(0)

the creation of private space achievable through the courtyard system. Despite these discoveries,
little efforts have been initiated toward annexing these gains, thus, calling for creative thinking
among built environment professionals most especially the architects.
Nonetheless, few initiatives toward promoting tradition and indigenous architecture in Africa
are noteworthy. For example, Hassan Fathy (an Egyptian architect) examined traditional proto-
types in rural communities, consequently, formulated alternatives to Western models in his coun-
try and in other parts of the world (Miles, 2006; Pyla, 2013). Also, the International Aga Khan
award for architecture has been instrumental in promoting public awareness on the value of tradi-
tion by recognizing social programs and conservation projects that have improved the quality of
life of common people (Mumagi, 2006). However, building professionals, especially the archi-
tects, are yet to make reasonable efforts toward synergizing cultural as well as indigenous design
ideas, techniques, and craftsmanship within the contemporary practices. Agboola and Zango
(2014) iterated that the recent domination of modern technology and concept would be to the
detriment of indigenous expertise in building design and construction. Hence, architects’ interest
should focus on the adoption of cheaper traditional building materials such as earth, wood, stone,
and thatch even in modern buildings in order for the design principles of privacy and spatial
comfort rooted in the traditional architecture be sustained. A holistic approach should be engaged
in adopting the traditional style by demonstrating a thorough understanding of the styles with
regard to individual structures and collective neighborhood design.
African architects should be inspired by contemporary ecological debate by learning from
foreign projects, such as the work of Tadao Ando and Takasaki Masaharu, which have confirmed
the benefits of derivable from synergizing technology, science, and traditional knowledge (Haley,
2008; Mumagi, 2006). These could be achieved by focusing on community-orientated architec-
ture and the adoption of locally sourced material. The prospects of reinventing building material
such as stone, earth, and straw bale could propel environmental responsiveness, resilience, and
sustainability. Straw, earth, and stone as materials with long history proven to exhibit great sus-
tainability potentials (Opaluwa, Obi, & Osasona, 2012; Sodagar, Rai, Jones, Wihan, & Fieldson,
2011). Hence, deploying appropriate technology on these materials could assist in achieving
sustainability goals.
In another perspective, housing design in local communities should always involve a detailed
research into the cultural value and lifestyle of the people in order to achieve an optimum solu-
tion to the housing problems. Contemporary architects should not underrate the importance of
culture during the planning and execution of mass housing. It should be noted that if cultural
issues are not properly considered in a mass housing scheme, such a project may not be appreci-
ated by the locals for whom it was built. Such housing development may be underutilized by the
people regardless of facilities and amenity provided within the neighborhood. Agboola and
Zango (2014) concluded that the colossal effect of modernization is excellent and cannot be
underrated; however, the significance of cross-mixing the present day idea and the traditional
idea would proffer better solution for housing required. Therefore, specialists are exhorted not to
cast off the traditional legacy and ability connected with building configuration and execution.
Fundamentally, the main requirement for architectural education and practice in the age of
globalization is to instill and display an extensive understanding of the multifaceted dialogue
between architecture and culture through the willingness to study, experiment as well as deploy
creative thought and commitment toward indigenous technology (Amir, 2008). Jegede et al.
(2017) exploration on the curriculum of four schools of architecture in Southwest and Northern
Nigeria reveals that aspects of traditional studies were scantily incorporated into the curricula.
This scenario has to improve. Allied professionals in the building industry should look inward for
solutions to housing problems by employing some indigenous methods, techniques, and building
materials, while African educational system should further embrace the teaching and research on
Ikudayisi and Odeyale 15

traditional African architecture. These will in no doubt equip prospective architects with the
knowledge of traditional architecture, forms, and indigenous building materials deployable in
contemporary construction.
Adeyemi (2008) succinctly put it that the future of any architecture depends on the level of
acceptance by the general public. The general perception that buildings of traditional materials
are substandard remains the strongest barrier toward achieving the objective of developing a
convincing African Architecture which is truly indigenous. Hassan Fathy challenged architects
on the validity of modern architecture in a peasant community by stating thus:

Modernity does not necessarily mean liveliness, and change is not always for the better. . . . Tradition
is not necessarily old-fashioned and is not synonymous with stagnation. . . . Tradition is the social
analogy of personal habit and in art, has the same effect of releasing the artist from distracting and in
the essential decision so that he can give his whole attention to the vital ones. (Curtis, 1996, p. 569)

This assertion is a food for thought for building professionals as something urgent needed to
be done to save our endangered culture in Africa.

Conclusion
This study takes a holistic look at how culture has significantly affected housing design in Africa.
The knowledge harnessed through the research reveals that the sociocultural and economic ways
of life of the people are of paramount importance in the finding architectural solutions and styles.
It also shows that housing problem in African communities is best addressed by indigenous solu-
tion based on cultural values and social needs of the public. Fundamentally, people cannot be
alienated from their way of life and housing is the purest reflection of people lifestyle. Therefore,
housing and culture can never and must not be separated.
Also, architects should embrace the concept of cultural preservation by using some pattern
and form found in our traditional building when designing modern and contemporary ones.
Architecture is a cultural tool to tactically achieve a fusion between a culture’s worldview and
ethos. Architecture offers a veritable opportunity for cultural conservation since architecture
surrounds us on a daily basis. Indeed, architecture could be a veritable means of preserving
and celebrating the culture we cherish since architecture is symbolic, ideological as well as
physical.
It is important to note that the sphere of architects practice at this age of globalization far
exceeds the bounds of any one culture. It is essential for contemporary architects to develop the
ability to engage, analyze, organize, and manipulate diverse bodies of knowledge to creatively
solve problems. To develop these skills, analytical and critical thinking are essential prerequisites
and architectural education has the mandate of emphasizing this to effectively respond to global-
ization. In summary, architects are expected to rise up to the challenge of sustaining the African
rich cultural or traditional architecture. Professional institutes involved in the planning of town
and neighborhood should be aware of the effect of globalization which may relegate African’s
mentality of cultural relativism.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
16 Space and Culture 00(0)

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Author Biographies
Ayodele Emmanuel Ikudayisi is a lecturer in the Department of Architecture, Federal University of
Technology, Akure, Nigeria. His research focuses on Culture, Spatial Morphology and Design Management.
He is a member of the Nigerian Institute of Architects.
Oluseyi Timothy Odeyale earned a PhD in architecture from University of Lincoln, England and he is cur-
rently a senior lecturer in the Department of Architecture at the University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. His
research is rooted in human settlement studies.