GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, VOL. 37, L03201, doi:10.
1029/2009GL041681, 2010
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Detectability of subsurface interfaces in lunar maria by the
LRS/SELENE sounding radar: Influence
of mineralogical composition
A. Pommerol,1,2 W. Kofman,1 J. Audouard,1,3 C. Grima,1 P. Beck,1 J. Mouginot,1,4
A. Herique,1 A. Kumamoto,5 T. Kobayashi,6 and T. Ono5
Received 5 November 2009; revised 4 January 2010; accepted 11 January 2010; published 6 February 2010.
[ 1 ] The Lunar Radar Sounder (LRS) of the SELENE
mission has detected horizontal subsurface features at
depths of a few hundreds of meters within all major lunar
maria. We have mapped these features at global scale and
found a heterogeneous geographical distribution, which
correlates negatively with the maps of TiO 2 and FeO
obtained from UV‐VIS measurements by the Clementine
probe. High concentration of ilmenite (FeTiO 3 ) in the
basaltic mare lava can explain this correlation, this mineral
being a strong absorber for low frequency electromagnetic
waves. Thus, absence of detection of subsurface interfaces
by LRS on a large portion of lunar maria does not
necessarily imply that these interfaces are actually absent.
Citation: Pommerol, A., W. Kofman, J. Audouard, C. Grima,
P. Beck, J. Mouginot, A. Herique, A. Kumamoto, T. Kobayashi,
and T. Ono (2010), Detectability of subsurface interfaces in lunar
maria by the LRS/SELENE sounding radar: Influence of mineral-
ogical composition, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L03201, doi:10.1029/
2009GL041681.
1. Introduction
[2] Lunar maria cover one third of the near‐side of the
Moon. They consist of more or less circular basins with
diameters of a few hundreds of kilometers and depth of a
few kilometers. Whereas highlands are ancient and mainly
composed of anorthosite formed by crystallization of a
primordial magmatic ocean, mare materials are younger and
consist of successive solidified lava flows filling pre‐existing
topographic depressions.
[3] Information on the structure, nature and origin of lunar
maria essentially comes from geomorphologic analyses as
well as compositional studies using both orbital remote‐
1
Laboratoire de Planétologie de Grenoble, UJF, CNRS, Grenoble,
France.
2
Now at Physikalisches Institut, University of Bern, Bern,
Switzerland.
3
Now at UFR Sciences de la Terre, de l’Environnement et des
Planètes, Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, Université Paris
Diderot-Paris 7, Paris, France.
4
Now at Department of Earth System Science, University of
California, Irvine, California, USA.
5
Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.
6
Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources, Daejeon,
South Korea.
Copyright 2010 by the American Geophysical Union.
0094‐8276/10/2009GL041681$05.00
L03201
sensing and laboratory characterization of materials col-
lected during the Apollo and Luna missions. While optical
methods only probe the very surface of the Moon (<1 mm),
high frequency imaging radars give access to the shallow
subsurface (a few meters to tens of meters [Campbell and
Hawke, 2005; Thompson et al., 2006]). Results from all
these methods indicate that the lunar maria are filled by
strata of volcanic layers with basaltic compositions. Crys-
tallization ages range between about 1 Gy and 4 Gy
[Hiesinger et al., 2008] revealing a long history of magmatic
activity on the Moon. Mineralogy and chemistry of the
basalts show significant temporal evolution, characterized by
an increased concentration of the mineral ilmenite (FeTiO3)
with time [e.g., Staid and Pieters, 2001]. Differentiation of
the magma by partial melting and crystallization is respon-
sible for such an evolution. A regolith composed of finely
divided mare material produced by the combined actions of
solar wind and meteorite bombardment entirely covers the
basaltic layers.
[4] Direct probing of planetary subsurfaces to about
kilometer depths is made possible by the use of low
frequency sounding radar. This method was used for the
first time to characterize the structure of the lunar sub-
surface during the Apollo 17 mission in 1972 (ALSE
experiment [Porcello et al., 1974]). Data acquired during
two equatorial orbits revealed a clear layering of lava fills
in two lunar maria: Mare Imbrium and Mare Serenitatis
[Peeples et al., 1978]. Thirty‐six years later, the LRS
(Lunar Radar Sounder) instrument on‐board the Kaguya
spacecraft (JAXA/SELENE mission) completed a global
coverage of the Lunar surface and subsurface using a
similar method, allowing the mapping and characterization
of subsurface structure inside lunar maria [Ono et al.,
2009]. Subsurface features observed by the ALSE and
then LRS radar are interpreted as horizontal interfaces
between superposed lava flows of different ages [Peeples
et al., 1978; Ono et al., 2009]. Formation of a superficial
regolith between successive lava flows has been proposed
to produce the contrast of dielectric constant. Oshigami et
al. [2009] further discuss this hypothesis. The authors
interpret the spatial distribution of subsurface features
observed by LRS as a result of variations of the thickness
of buried regolith layers. This interpretation is based on
the observation that subsurface features are only apparent
in the most ancient parts of lunar maria.
[5] The aim of the current study is to build a global map
of the distribution of the subsurface interfaces using the LRS
dataset. This map is then interpreted at global and regional
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L03201 POMMEROL ET AL.: SUBSURFACE INTERFACES IN LUNAR MARIA L03201

Figure 1. Examples of LRS sounding profiles in lunar maria with (a) no visible subsurface interface, (b) a unique shallow
subsurface interface and (c) two distinct subsurface interfaces. Assuming a value of the dielectric constant of 7, the shal-
lowest interface is found at an average depth of about 247 ± 127 m and the deepest one at an average depth of 488 ±
210 m. Strong and large hyperbolic features visible on the three profiles are due to off‐nadir surface echoes (surface clut-
ter), generally produced by isolated craters. These three examples are representative of most of the profiles measured in
lunar maria.

scales by comparison with surface maps obtained by other

remote‐sensing techniques.

2. Data and Methods

2.1. Subsurface Dataset
[6] A set of about 300 processed LRS observations or
“radargrams”, covering the entire surface of the Moon, was
used for this study. The vertical resolution of the radar-
grams in vacuum is: r0 = 75 m. The actual vertical reso-
lution is: r = pr0ffiffiffi0 where "′ is the real part of the dielectric
"
constant of materials. Assuming plausible values of "′
between 4 and 9 for typical materials of the Lunar upper
crust (regolith and dense basalt layer respectively), one
can estimate a vertical resolution ranging between 25 and
40 meters. The typical spatial resolution along track is of
75 m per pixel. We stacked the data by averaging 30 adjacent
pulses to increase the signal/noise ratio while decreasing the
spatial resolution to about 2 km per pixel.

2.2. Surface Dataset

[7] We used the USGS “Lunar Airbrushed Shadedrelief
Warped to ULCN2005” digitized map at 64 pixels per degree
(ppd) as a reference geographic background for this study,
allowing the localization of LRS observations and the direct
identification of surface features on radargrams.
[8] The compositional maps of the Lunar surface derived
from Clementine UV‐VIS observations were also exten-
sively used in this study. Of particular interest for radar
analyses are the maps of iron and titanium oxides estab-
lished by Lucey et al. [2000] and made publically available
in a numerical format through the USGS Pigwad server.
[9] In addition to global studies, we carried out a more
detailed study of Mare Imbrium. For this purpose, we used
the geologic map published by Bugiolacchi and Guest
[2008], manually re‐projected to fit the shaded relief map.
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Figure 2. Examples of diagrams showing the evolution of
backscattered power versus apparent depth (“A‐scope” pro-
files). The three diagrams are extracted from the
corresponding sounding profiles (Figure 1) at places where
the subsurface features are the most prominent. Reflection
on the surface at nadir is always responsible for the strongest
echo. The slow decrease of backscatter energy after the sur-
face echo is due to surface and/or volume scattering and limits
the detectability of discrete subsurface features. Echoes
returned by the subsurface interfaces usually have amplitudes
of a few dB with observed maxima of about 10 dB.
L03201 POMMEROL ET AL.: SUBSURFACE INTERFACES IN LUNAR MARIA L03201

Figure 3. The global map of subsurface interfaces identified by the LRS instrument (this work) superposed to the global
TiO2 map built from Clementine visible measurements [Lucey et al., 2000] and the shaded relief map from USGS Pigwad
server. Identification of one unique subsurface interface (Figures 1b and 2b) is indicated by the red color of the LRS
footprints while the identification of two distinct subsurface interfaces (Figures 1c and 2c) is indicated by the yellow color of
the LRS footprints. The dashed black contour outlines the lunar maria. With almost no exception, subsurface interfaces are
never observed in areas where TiO2 concentration is high. We make the hypothesis that the strong correlation between the
LRS detection map and the TiO2 map is due to the strong absorption of low frequency electromagnetic waves by the mineral
ilmenite, FeTiO3 (see text for discussion).

2.3. Analysis of Subsurface LRS Profiles
[10] In a first step, each LRS profile was visually analyzed
to identify potential subsurface features. In a second step, a
semi‐automatic algorithm designed to map subsurface ech-
oes was used to extract the three‐dimensional coordinates
(latitude, longitude and depth) of each pixel of a given
subsurface feature. This algorithm uses a detection of the
maximal returned echo on a given range of distance and
depth defined by the user. It allows an efficient estimate of
the geometry of subsurface features along with a systematic
visual checking of its accuracy by the user. Clutter generated
by surface off‐nadir echoes is likely to produce signals at an
apparent depth below the surface that may be confused with
actual subsurface features. However, the large‐scale conti-
nuity of the observed subsurface features indicates that they
are unlikely to be caused by surface clutter. This was con-
firmed in the case of Mare Serenitatis by physical simulation
of surface clutter [Nouvel et al., 2004; Mouginot, 2008]
from a numerical Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the
surface [LALT Team, 2009].
3. Results and Discussion
[11] Figure 1 shows examples of the three main types of
radargrams that were found in the studied dataset. They
differ by the number of interfaces observed in the subsur-
face: 0, 1 or 2. Assuming an average dielectric constant of 7
for the top kilometer of the Lunar crust, we calculate an
average depth of 247 ± 127 m for the shallowest interface
and of 488 ± 210 m for the deepest interface.
[12] Figure 2 shows vertical profiles of returned echo
power versus apparent depth below the surface for the same
three examples shown in Figure 1. The strong echo arising
from the radar wave reflection on the surface is the most
preeminent signal in each case, with amplitude of 50 dB.
3 of 5
Following this surface echo, one observes a continuous
decrease of the signal due to surface or/and volume scat-
tering of the radar wave. The origin of this scattering, sur-
face or volume, is still unclear and will be the subject of
future investigations. The signals due to subsurface inter-
faces appear as secondary peaks with amplitudes of a few
dB and local maxima reaching 10 dB.
[13] The geographic distribution of the occurrences of the
“one subsurface interface” and “two subsurface interfaces”
radargrams is represented at global scale in Figure 3. We
don’t represent the variations of the depth of the interfaces,
as the conversion of radar time delay to actual depth requires
hypothesis on the value of the dielectric constant that pre-
vents any direct interpretation. Only a limited part of the
lunar maria displays the already described subsurface
interfaces. After trying to correlate various maps to this
distribution of interfaces seen by LRS, it appeared that the
concentration map of TiO2 in the regolith determined from
Clementine VIS spectroscopy gives the best match. This is
evident both at global scale (Figure 3) and at regional scale:
the example of Mare Imbrium is presented on Figures 4a
and 4b. In addition, comparison with the geological map
built by Bugiolacchi and Guest [2008] from geomorpholo-
gic and compositional information shows that the distinction
between areas showing one unique subsurface interface and
areas showing two distinct interfaces corresponds to a puta-
tive distinction between two different lower Imbrian series
with very similar TiO2 concentrations (1.4 and 1.5 wt. %).
[14] The link between the ilmenite distribution on the
surface and the detectability of subsurface interfaces at
depths of a few hundreds of meters is related to the
absorption of the radar wave by ilmenite. This behavior has
previously been documented both from laboratory studies of
returned Lunar material [Olhoeft and Strangway, 1975] and
from radar mapping of the Lunar surface at shorter wave-
L03201 POMMEROL ET AL.: SUBSURFACE INTERFACES IN LUNAR MARIA
Figure 4. (a) Detections of subsurface features by LRS
(red and yellow footprints) superposed to the shaded relief
map in the area of Mare Imbrium. (b) Same map of LRS
subsurface features superposed to the TiO2 surface concen-
tration map from Lucey et al. [2000]. (c) Same map of LRS
subsurface features superposed to the geologic map from
Bugiolacchi and Guest [2008]. The dashed black contour
outlines Mare Imbrium. As for the global maps, detection of
subsurface features in LRS data is systematically associated
to low values of TiO2 and thus ilmenite content in the maria
lavas. Comparison with the geologic map (c) seems to in-
dicate that areas characterized by the detection of one
unique interface (red) or two distinct interfaces (yellow)
correspond to two different lower Imbrian series, respec-
tively 2f and 2g, distinguished for the first time by
Bugiolacchi and Guest [2008].
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L03201
length [Schaber et al., 1975; Campbell and Hawke, 2005].
An empirical relationship between the concentration of
ilmenite in the Lunar regolith and the loss tangent, a mea-
sure of the absorption of the electromagnetic wave by media,
was derived by Olhoeft and Strangway [1975] on the basis
of measurements on Lunar samples returned by the Apollo
missions (equation (1)). Energy loss during propagation in
an absorbing medium can be calculated using equation (2)
from Chyba et al. [1998]. Combining equations (1) and (2),
one can calculate the energy loss through propagation in
superposed lava flows as a function of the thickness and the
concentration in ilmenite of each layer.
tan  ¼ ½ð5:3 104  5:6 104 Þ þ ð2:5 104  9 105 Þ  C   
ð1Þ
pffiffiffi
 ¼ 0:091  "  f  tan  ð2Þ
where tan d is the loss tangent (dimensionless), r is the
density (g/cm3), C is the percentage by mass of FeO + TiO2
(ilmenite content), a is the vertical attenuation (dB/m), " is
the real part of the dielectric constant (dimensionless) and f
is the frequency (in MHz).
[15] The double propagation (down and up) through a
100 meters thick ilmenite‐rich (30 wt. % FeTiO3) upper
layer results in a total attenuation of 5.8 dB, sufficient to
prevent the detection of most of the subsurface features
(Figure 2). By comparison, the same value of electromag-
netic loss is only obtained after propagation through a 1 km
thick layer in the case of an ilmenite‐poor (2 wt. % FeTiO3)
basalt.
[16] This effect of composition, combined with the con-
sequent scattering that affects the signal (Figure 2), can
explain why subsurface interfaces are never observed in the
most recent parts of lunar maria as already noted by
Oshigami et al. [2009]. The origin of the strong scattering
observed in lunar maria is still unclear and subsequent
dedicated studies are required to determine if it originates
from the surface or the volume of lava layers. As a result, we
believe that the absence of detection of shallow and deep
subsurface interfaces on large portions of the lunar maria
does not indicate that these features are actually absent from
these areas. The layering of basaltic flows observed by LRS
in ilmenite‐poor terrains might well be ubiquitously present
within all lunar maria, due to the expected similarity of
regolith development as a function of age across the lunar
surface. This interpretation is a plausible alternative to the
conclusions of Oshigami et al. [2009] who suggest that the
variations of the thickness of buried regolith layers cause
the heterogeneity in the geographical distribution of sub-
surface features observed by LRS. Further work is required
to evaluate the relative importance of these two possible
scenarios.
[17] The presence of regolith layers at relatively constant
depth within all lunar maria, as hypothesized in this work,
would put interesting constraints on lunar magmatic pro-
cesses. According to Hiesinger et al. [2002], the average
thickness of individual lava flows is 30–60 meters with
observed maximal thicknesses of 220 m. Thus, the layering
seen by LRS does not correspond to individual lava flows.
Only successive lava flows separated by a time lag sufficient
to produce a few meters of regolith give rise to the sub-
L03201 POMMEROL ET AL.: SUBSURFACE INTERFACES IN LUNAR MARIA
surface echoes seen in the LRS dataset. Such a long time lag
appears to occur only after a few eruptive events. Com-
parison with models of volcanism in lunar maria and ter-
restrial analogs should now be undertaken to understand this
behavior and its implications for lunar volcanism.
[18] Acknowledgments. We are grateful to the JAXA team that built
and operated the SELENE/Kaguya spacecraft and made this mission possi-
ble and successful. We thank the entire LRS team for data calibration and
documentation. French national space agency, CNES, provided financial
support for this work. We thank Bruce Campbell and an anonymous
reviewer for insightful remarks and suggestions that greatly improved this
manuscript.
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