The Cambridge Guide To Orchestration - (Chapter 3 Percussion Instruments)

CHAPTER 3 PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS
General information
The variety of instruments in this group as well as the methods of sound production pertaining
to them has expanded incredibly since the mid-twentieth century. The percussion instruments
making up the third group of our practical system are themselves divided into the following
groups:
Idiophones: Sound is produced by making the entire body of the instrument vibrate
(through hitting, rubbing, shaking or scratching). These instruments can produce sounds
of definite pitch (mallet instruments, tubular bells, antique cymbals, singing saw), sounds
of indefinite pitch (cymbals, tam-tam, triangle, claves, guiro) or something in between,
meaning an approximate perceived pitch (temple blocks, wood blocks).
Membranophones: These instruments have either one membrane (timpani, bongos, tim-
bales) or two (snare drum, bass drum) which are stretched over a resonant body such
as a shell or tube. This resonant body can be open (bongos, tambourine) or closed (tim-
pani, snare drum). They can also produce sounds of definite (timpani, roto-toms), indef-
inite (snare drum, bass drum, tambourine) or approximate perceived pitch (tom-toms,
bongos).
Chordophones: These instruments have strings that are made to vibrate as well as a resonant
body in the form of a vessel, board, box or combination thereof. All string, plucked and
keyboard instruments are chordophones and are discussed in separate chapters. There are
a few chordophones which do not belong to these families (for example, the cimbalon).
All these instruments produce sounds of definite pitch.
Aerophones: Here sound is produced by making a column of air vibrate. All wind instru-
ments (woodwinds and brass) belong to this family. They are instruments of definite pitch.
There are, however, several aerophones which belong to the percussion family. Although
they actually produce sounds of definite pitch (lotus flute, cuckoo call), these pitches are
not always defined (whistles, siren).
There are a few additional remarks to make about the instruments of approximate perceived
pitch (somewhere between definite and indefinite pitch): the relationship between the vari-
ous instruments plays a major role here, and this becomes clearer when a group of several of
the same instruments is formed (two bongos, five temple blocks, four tom-toms). In combina-
Copyright © 2013. Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.
tion with instruments of definite pitch, they also have the unique characteristic of assimilat-
ing and reinforcing the other instruments’ fundamentals. Some of these instruments’ sounds
contain a large noise component, which causes an additional ambivalence in the perceived
pitch.
The sound variety of the percussion instruments seems endless, not only because of the nearly
boundless number of instruments but also because of the many contrasting sounds that can be
obtained from most of them. Factors that affect the sound quality of a percussion instrument
are:
1. characteristics of the instrument (type, size, material, etc.)
2. beater (type, size, weight, hardness)
3. point of impact
4. method of sound production
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140 Percussion instruments
For example, a large suspended cymbal (1) can be struck (4) on the bell (3) with a snare drum-
stick (2). The same cymbal (1) could also be scratched (4) from the bell to the edge (3) with
a triangle beater (2). The two resulting sounds are totally different, though the instrument
remains the same. Though we will discuss all four of these factors in our discussions of the
various instruments, here is a short overview of the beaters.
Beaters
It is very important for today’s arranger to have a grasp of at least the basic principles and
functions of beaters, which can be divided as follows:
䡲 Mallets: Mallets are used for timpani, bass drum, cymbals, tam-tam, gongs and mallet instru-
ments. A mallet has two parts:
1. Mallet head: This can be round, elliptical, spoon- or disc-shaped and is made from
material such as wood, rubber or metal. Its degree of hardness is designated as follows:
soft, medium soft, medium, medium hard and hard. Hard mallet heads on a hard sur-
face produce clear, well-defined pitches dominated by high partials and accompanied by
an impact noise due to the more intense contact with the instrument’s surface. Softer
mallet heads produce softer, rounder, less well-defined pitches with lower partials and
less impact noise. Mallet heads can be additionally wound, covered or cushioned with
felt, flannel, yarn, leather, and so forth. In everyday usage, “mallet” is used primarily for
round-headed mallets.
2. Mallet handle: This is usually made of wood or raw wood.
䡲 Hammers: These resemble mallets but their head is hammer-shaped and made of wood,
plastic or metal. They can also be covered or cushioned and are used for tubular bells, gong,
anvil, and so on.
䡲 Sticks: These become cone-shaped and thinner toward the tip and usually have a small head.
They are made of wood or plastic and are used for drums, tom-toms, cymbals, and so on.
䡲 Beaters: These are round sticks of differing length and thickness made of wood, plastic or
metal; for drums, triangle, and so forth (also used generically).
䡲 Brushes: These consist of a bundle of elastic metal wires or lamellae (thin plates) attached to
a handle. They are used for snare drum, cymbals, and so on.
䡲 Switches: Like brushes, these are made of a solid handle and an elastic section made of wood,
branches or bamboo; they are primarily used for the bass drum.
䡲 Metal clappers: Used in cast-iron bells.
䡲 Colla mano or con la mano: The hand or a portion thereof (finger, fingertip, finger pad, side
of the finger, fingernail, knuckle, ball of the hand, palm, edge of the hand, fist) is often used
as a beater.
䡲 Other beaters: string bow (a cello or double bass bow, well covered with colophony, works
well for mallet instruments, suspended cymbal or crotales), chains, small percussion instru-
ments (for example, a maraca used to strike timpani, a clave used on the bass drum), knitting
needles (to produce, for example, a very delicate sound on vibraphone or glockenspiel), ruler
(used, for example, for cluster effects on mallet instruments), other items such as coins, shells
or marbles, which are dropped on an instrument (timpani, snare drum, cymbals), and other
everyday items (pencil, bottle, pieces of cloth, screwdriver, nail file, hairbrush, etc.). For cer-
tain effects, very different objects can be used as beaters to strike percussion instruments.
(Care should be taken not to damage the instrument or the beater.)
Idiophones struck directly 141
Idiophones
The idiophones can be systematically divided as follows:
Plates
Bars or rods
Struck with a beater
Tubes
Vessels
Struck directly
Plates
Struck together
Concussion sticks
IDIOPHONES
Frame shaker
Vessel shaker
Shaken idiophones Set shaker
Struck shaker
Struck indirectly Sheet shaker
Scraped idiophones
Plucked
Bowed or rubbed
IDIOPHONES STRUCK DIRECTLY

Plates struck with a beater
Suspended cymbal
The predecessor of all orchestral cymbals is the Turkish cymbal, which was integrated into
European music in the eighteenth century through Janissary music (essentially equivalent
to the Turkish military music of the day) and was always played together with a bass
drum and often with a triangle. The various types of cymbal will be discussed separately
later.
The cymbal consists of a bent metal plate with a domed, non-vibrating center called the bell. It
is usually mounted on a stand but can also be held in the hand or hung on a hook on the music
stand. It is struck with a beater. The cymbal comes in different sizes (small, medium, large) and
thicknesses.
The pitch is indefinite.
Sound (see following music example): This depends very much on where the cymbal is struck.
“On the bell” produces metallic and short-lasting sounds (a), “on the bow,” a metallic sound
with high partials (b), and “on the rim,” long-lasting sounds with a wide spectrum focused in
the lower partials (c). Sounds produced by smaller and/or thinner cymbals fade more quickly,
with the fade time lengthening as the size of the cymbal increases.
Beaters:
usually: cymbal mallet (hardwood beater covered in leather)
also: drumsticks (the tip or the lower end is used for precise rhythms), bass drum beater,
felt beater (hard or soft), mallet instrument beaters, metal beater (for example, tri-
angle beater), brushes, string bow, colla mano, and so on
Use:
䡲 The cymbal should not be used too often.
䡲 Individual strokes (d) or rolls (e) can be executed. A roll with marimba mallets followed by
a single stroke and a natural decrescendo is very effective and is used often in Impressionist
music (f).
䡲 If the sound should continue after the initial stroke, the instruction “l.v.” (let vibrate, laissez
vibrer) will be written next to the notation and/or a tie will be added to the note (g).
䡲 Muting is executed by holding the body of the cymbal firmly with one hand while the other
strikes with a beater. The resulting sound resembles that of a hi-hat.
䡲 Scraping or scratching the cymbal from the bell to the rim using a triangle beater, coin or
similar metal object is a very popular effect which also sounds good piano. The symbol for
this is \. The word “scrape” can be added (h).
䡲 When the cymbal is touched on the rim with a metal beater or coin after the stroke, it pro-
duces a sound like that of a sizzle cymbal. (A written description is required, if necessary
with a separate symbol.)
䡲 Several suspended cymbals may be used simultaneously (i).
䡲 The cymbal may be stroked on the side with a double bass bow (j).
= on the bell
= on the bow
= on the rim
a. b. c. a. b. c.
on the on the
on the bell bow rim
or
d. e. f.
= 84
(marimba mallets)
g. h. i. j.
scrape with a
l.v. triangle beater 3 suspended cymbals arco
Most of these notation examples can also be used for other types of cymbal.
Sizzle cymbal
A special type of cymbal, which has up to twelve rivets nestled loosely in drilled holes at the
edge. When the cymbal is struck, these rivets produce the typical “sizzle” effect. The same effect
can be accomplished by mounting a rattling object or hanging chains on a normal cymbal. The
sizzle cymbal is also an instrument of indefinite pitch.
Sound: a very strong clattering effect due to the sympathetic vibrations of the rivets
Beaters:
usually: drumsticks
also: the other beaters used with suspended cymbal
Use:
䡲 It is best suited for single strokes or rolls (with marimba mallets), but not for rhythmic pat-
terns, which would sound very imprecise.
䡲 It can be dampened with the free hand.
Chinese cymbal
The Chinese cymbal is only used in Western music for special effects and moods. It is a hanging
cymbal with a rim which is slightly curved upward. Chinese cymbals are smaller and sound
lower than the larger, flatter, Turkish variety.
Tam-tam
This is a slightly domed bronze disc with a center that does not protuberate and a rim that
is bent slightly backward. It is mounted on a string and struck with a single beater. It is an
instrument of indefinite pitch.
Sound: full, diffuse and very long-lasting, with exotic character. It can resemble a faraway cym-
bal crash, especially at a loud dynamic. In piano it sounds dark and distant. Thicker tam-tams
“speak” more slowly than thinner ones. When the edge is struck, higher partials dominate.
When the middle is struck, lower partials do.
Beaters:
usually: hard felt-head beater covered in leather (for general use), wooden-head beater cov-
ered in felt (for heavy and large cast-iron tam-tams)
also: bass drum beaters, various mallet instrument beaters, metal beaters, drumsticks,
brushes, colla mano, string bows
Use:
䡲 Suited for single strokes. If several strokes should follow one another, enough time should
be left in between so that the sound of the individual strokes is not compromised.
䡲 Short sounds may be produced, but these should be restricted to small tam-tams which can
be dampened with the hand.
䡲 Rolls are also possible.
䡲 “Let vibrate”: see “Cymbal” above.
䡲 Muting is possible either by laying the instrument flat on a cloth surface or by holding it
between the knees (depending on the size of the instrument). The resulting sound is metallic
and somewhat dry.
䡲 The surface or rim of the tam-tam may be lightly scratched with a triangle beater or similar
object.
䡲 Very quiet sounds may also be produced with the pads of the fingers.
䡲 One can stroke a string bow (for example, a double bass bow) on the edge of the tam-tam to
produce sounds similar to harmonics.
䡲 The tam-tam can be touched with a metal beater or coin immediately after being struck to
produce a sizzle effect.
Watergong
Invented by John Cage. A tam-tam of 30 to 40 cm in diameter is half submerged in water after
being struck. While this is being done, the tam-tam may be struck again or a roll may be played.
When the gong is removed from the water during the roll (or before the sound dissipates), the
pitch usually rises.
Gongs
These instruments of definite pitch are often confused with tam-tams, which are instruments
of indefinite pitch. Gongs are circular bronze plates in the shape of a bowl with a domed center.
They are hung on a stand. They are struck on the semicircular center dome. Gongs are non-
transposing instruments. They are notated in treble or bass clef depending on the pitch they
produce.
Range:
Sound: very clear and precise

Beaters: made of wood, plastic or metal and heavily padded with felt. The head is either round
or hammer-shaped.
Use:
䡲 Individual tones are usual.
䡲 Dampening is possible by touching the dome.
Steel drums
These instruments come from Trinidad. A steel drum consists of an empty oil barrel whose lid,
domed toward the inside, has been divided by hammering it into discrete surfaces of differing
size which produce different pitches (the size of the surface determines the pitch). The length
of the barrel’s body determines what kind of drum it is. There are various sizes, from soprano
to bass. A steel drum is either held with a belt on the player’s front or mounted on a stand. Steel
drums are non-transposing instruments of definite pitch. They are notated in treble or bass clef
depending on the pitch they produce.

Range:
This is the complete range, which can be produced on up to twelve pitched drums. Higher
pitches require smaller playing surfaces, so there are more of these on a single drum (thirty
pitches on the “solo lead drum”). Lower pitches require larger playing surfaces, so there are
fewer of these on a single drum (five pitches on the “bass drum”).
Sound: similar to that of the marimba, and especially effective in a group. Sustained pitches can
be produced through tremolo.
Beaters: rubber mallets
Use:
䡲 normally played in an ensemble of up to thirty instruments
䡲 often accompanied by Latin American instruments such as claves, maracas, bongos, cow-
bells, congas, and so on
䡲 a local instrument of the Caribbean, rarely used elsewhere
Bell plates
Tuned plates of aluminum, bronze or sometimes steel are hung by rope on a stand and struck
with a beater. Striking either the center or the lower end of the plate produces the fundamental.
Striking in the middle of the upper or lower third of the plate produces a sound which is louder
and richer on overtones. Plate bells are non-transposing instruments of definite pitch. They are
notated in treble or bass clef depending on the pitch they produce.
Range:
Sound: similar to the sound of a church bell but with fewer overtones and more fundamental.
This becomes even clearer when the plate bell is struck with softer wrapped beaters. Harder
beaters produce sounds with more overtones. Sometimes resonators are built in to reinforce
the lower partials. The lower range is especially weak and sometimes requires electronic rein-
forcement.
Beaters:
usually: a large, heavy wooden hammer; metal core beaters with felt or leather padding
also: heavy, hard felt mallets
Use:
䡲 These are normally used as a substitute for church bells, which are not used in the orchestra
because of their size and their mixed sound components (which cause intonation problems
when combined with other instruments).
䡲 Individual tones are most effective.
䡲 Rolls with two beaters may be used as a special effect.
Lithophone
Consists of chromatically tuned bars of normal or (recently) Solnhofen limestone plates. A new
type of lithophone uses specially designed and cut blocks of rock (phonolites, soundstones)
which are played by rubbing.
The best place to strike it is near the edge. The lithophone is a transposing instrument of definite
pitch which sounds one or two octaves higher than written. It is notated in the treble clef.
Range:
Notation Sound
8va
or
Sound: hard, dry, penetrating

Beaters:
usually: heavy glockenspiel mallets (for the usual sound), plastic or xylophone mallets (for
softer sounds)
also: metal beaters (which should be used carefully, as they can damage the plates)
Use: similar to that of the mallet instruments, but with more restrictions. For example,
quick patterns are not easy to play on this instrument due to the shape of the plates.
Anvil
This instrument, which simulates the sound of the blacksmith’s anvil, with a flat surface and
two horns, is usually manufactured in the form of a steel or iron bar. There are three sizes: small,
medium and large. It is preferably struck on the rounded tip of the instrument. The anvil is an
instrument of indefinite pitch.
Sound: penetrating, short and metallic
Beaters: metal hammers, wooden mallets
Use: typically used in forte passages, often in connection with heroic scenes or scenes of war.
More delicate effects are possible in piano.
Auto-brake drums
Auto-brake drums are salvaged from junked cars and come in various sizes. They are instru-
ments of indefinite pitch and are struck with metal hammers.
Beat-board
A wooden board about 2 cm thick which is struck with round wooden sticks.
Bars or rods struck with a beater: wooden mallet instruments

These instruments consist of a series of wooden bars arranged in a certain order which does
not necessarily have to correspond with that of a piano keyboard (though such an arrangement
is usual in orchestral use). The bars are struck with beaters, whereby the type of instrument,
its range and the desired sound or effect determines the choice of beater. The following should
serve as a guide:
䡲 Hard beaters are used for:
▫ all registers of the xylophone,
▫ the middle and upper registers of the marimba and the xylomarimba,
▫ the upper register of the bass xylophone.
䡲 Soft beaters are used for:
▫ the lower and middle registers of the xylophone and the xylomarimba,
▫ all registers of the marimba,

▫ the middle and upper registers of the bass xylophone.
䡲 Soft, heavy beaters are used for:
▫ the lower registers of the marimba and the xylomarimba,
▫ all registers of the bass xylophone.
All these instruments are instruments of definite pitch. With the exception of several notational
techniques for the marimba and xylomarimba, they are notated on a single staff.
Two important points concerning notation of the mallet instruments:
䡲 Notation of rolls must be clearly distinct from that of trills (a).
䡲 All notes but the very shortest are played as a roll on mallet instruments with little or no
resonance (xylophone, marimba); these notes are played as notated on the vibraphone, which
has enough resonance (b).
a.
Roll Trill
b.
Notation Xylophone and
= 60 marimba play Vibraphone plays
Xylophone
The xylophone is the most well-known mallet instrument with wooden bars (modern instru-
ments have resonator tubes). It is a transposing instrument which sounds one octave higher
than written. The xylophone is notated on a single staff in treble clef.
Range:
Notation Sound
8va
Sound: brilliant, clearly defined, penetrating sound of relatively short duration (in forte, the
sound fades in 2 seconds). The first (fundamental) and third partials dominate.
Beaters:
usually: wooden- or plastic-headed mallets covered with thin leather (heads round or egg-
shaped): typical sound; beaters with a heavy wooden head: hard, sharp sound
also: wooden-headed mallets covered with rubber:
▫ hard: less sharp sound, good for general use
▫ medium: the sound is even less sharp
▫ soft: for a sound like that of the marimba cord mallets
cord mallets:
▫ hard: softer than the beaters covered with rubber
▫ medium/soft: for marimba-like effects in the low register

Use (see following notation example):
䡲 staccato passages (a) as solo or doubling (including melodic shadowing); scales, arpeggios,
rolls (b), trills (c) and tremolo (d) are possible.
䡲 Double notes and chords can be played by one or multiple players. They are, however, more
typical for the marimba and vibraphone. A player can use up to four beaters at one time
(two in each hand). Each hand can reach an interval up to a 7th or even an octave, but for
practicality it is better to use smaller intervals (6ths or smaller). The player requires more
time to move between multiple simultaneous tones than between single tones (e).
䡲 Glissando is very effective using the C major scale (f).
䡲 The xylophone can also be used beautifully in softer dynamics, especially in pointillistic
instrumentation.
䡲 dead stroke/dead stick: After the stroke, the beater stays on the bar instead of rebounding
away (see comments on the vibraphone on page 153).
a. b. c.
= 120
d. e. f. gliss. gliss.
Trough xylophone
A special kind of xylophone which originated in south Asia. It was introduced in its current
form by Orff. It is made up of a set of bars arranged in a single row in chromatic or diatonic order
and mounted on a cradle-shaped wooden resonator box. This instrument is, due to this single-
row arrangement, more difficult to play than regular xylophones or marimbas. The chromatic
trough xylophone is the only mallet instrument on which it is possible to play a chromatic
glissando.
In addition to the bass trough xylophone, which has a relatively weak sound, there are two
kinds of these instruments, both non-transposing:
Soprano trough xylophone (range: c –g )

Usually played with xylophone beaters and normally replaced by a regular xylophone or
marimba.
Tenor trough xylophone (range: a–d )

Usually played with rubber mallets with wooden cores. In comparable registers this instrument
has a louder sound than the marimba.
Bass xylophone
This is the bass member of the xylophone family and has resonators. The bass xylophone is a
non-transposing instrument and is notated in bass clef.
Range:
Sound: Its sound resembles that of the marimba due to the larger dimensions of the bars. Single
tones are not as penetrating as on the xylophone.
Beaters:
usually: mallets with heavy, soft, solid rubber heads: all registers except the very lowest; large
wooden-headed mallets with soft felt stripes: all registers
also: cord mallets; soft felt timpani mallets
Use:
䡲 Although all xylophone techniques are in fact playable on this instrument, care should be
taken due to its size and lower timbre.
䡲 A quiet roll on the lowest bars sounds similar to a timpani roll.
Marimba
For a long time this instrument was not as popular as the xylophone, but it is now commanding
more and more interest due to its wider range and greater potential for blend. It has wooden
bars and resonator tubes. The marimba is a non-transposing instrument. It is notated in treble
or bass clef (either on one staff or two, depending on the work).
Range:
This is the range found most typically today. Other ranges can also be found:
a. b. c. d.
Sound: Soft and organ-like in the lower register, the timbre becomes more and more brilliant
the higher it is played and sounds like a xylophone in the upper third of the instrument’s range.
The sound is dominated by the 1st (fundamental) and 4th partials, these are also reinforced by
the resonator tubes and give the instrument its characteristic sound.
Beaters:
usually: rubber mallets
▫ medium hard: higher registers
▫ soft: all registers except for the very highest
cord and yarn mallets: all registers
also: xylophone mallets
Medium hard and soft beaters are especially good for blending with the woodwinds. Soft beat-
ers sound very good in the low register.
Use:
䡲 The same applies as for the xylophone.
䡲 As already mentioned, long notes are normally played with a roll, when not otherwise spe-
cified. Quiet rolls in the low register sound similar to timpani.
䡲 Chords of three to four notes are specially recommended for the marimba.
䡲 The instrument has a much smaller sound volume than the xylophone.
䡲 A single bar rubbed with a cello or double bass bow produces a breathy sound. However,
this effect functions much better on the vibraphone and produces a sound which is not
breathy.
䡲 dead stroke/dead stick: the beater stays on the bar instead of rebounding away after the
stroke (see comments on the vibraphone on pages 152–153)
䡲 A kind of glissando, or rather a percussive effect, can be produced by stroking the resonators
with a mallet or drumstick. This is also possible on other mallet instruments with resonator
tubes.
Bass marimba
This is the bass member of the family.
Range:
Xylomarimba (xylorimba)
An extended form of the marimba containing the entire range of the xylophone. Except for the
range, the instrument has all the characteristics of the marimba. It is a transposing instrument
sounding one octave higher than notated.
Range:
8va
Notation Sound
Sound: Due to its large range the instrument combines characteristics of the xylophone and the
marimba.
Beaters:
usually: xylophone mallets: for the higher registers;
marimba mallets: for the lower registers
also: as in corresponding registers on the xylophone and marimba
Use: as on the xylophone and marimba
Keyboard xylophone (Klaviaturxylophon)

An instrument with a keyboard through which the strokes are transferred to the wooden bars;
otherwise it has the same range as and is notated like the xylophone.
The sound is less characteristic than that of the xylophone, but the keyboard allows the use of
pianistic techniques.
Bars or rods struck with a beater: metal mallet instruments

The bars of these mallet instruments are made of metal and are played with various kinds of
beaters. As with the wooden instruments, here is a general classification of beaters which are
used in the various registers of these instruments:
䡲 Hard beaters are used for:

▫ all registers of the glockenspiel,
▫ the upper one-third of the vibraphone.
䡲 Soft beaters are used for:
▫ the lower two-thirds of the vibraphone.
䡲 Soft, heavy beaters are used for:
▫ the lowest one-third of the vibraphone.
Orchestra bells (glockenspiel)

The oldest mallet instrument in the orchestra. Its bars are made of steel. It is a transposing
instrument which sounds one or two octaves higher than notated. It is notated on a single staff
in treble clef. Its characteristic registers are the three- and four-line octaves. Many players take
it upon themselves to transpose their parts one or two octaves higher than notated (this is why
the instrument sometimes sounds two octaves higher than written). If only a single octave of
transposition is required, this should be clearly stated.
Range:
Notation Sound 8va
or
Sound: very sharp and carrying, even in the loudest tutti. The sound tends to ring for a long
time, thus instruments with a damper pedal are preferred. If there is no pedal, the bars must
be silenced by hand, which can hamper playing.
Beaters:
usually: brass and metal mallets
also: wooden- and plastic-headed beaters: produce a full tone with a kind of “click”
Use:
䡲 Used to support high melodic lines and chords.
䡲 In very quick passages it is better to highlight individual notes rather than play an entire line.
䡲 Very effective in pointillistic instrumentation.
䡲 Played with a medium hard, plastic mallet, the glockenspiel can be used as a substitute for
the celesta.
䡲 As the bars can be hung, the instrument can be used as a substitute for crotales.
䡲 Vibrato can be produced as follows:
▫ hung bar: making it swing after striking it
▫ mounted bar: moving the hand back and forth above the bar after striking it
䡲 The 3rd or 4th partial can be produced by laying a fingertip on the bar and striking the bar
with a hard mallet.
䡲 The orchestra bells should be used very sparingly, as they can be tiring on the ear.
䡲 The sound blends well and can be used in combination with other metal instruments.
Keyboard glockenspiel (Klaviaturglockenspiel)

This instrument appeared frequently in orchestras toward the end of the nineteenth century
but had already existed for quite some time. It is used, for example, in Mozart’s Magic Flute. Its
metal bars are struck with small metal-headed hammers and its pedal sustains the sound, as
on the piano. It is a transposing instrument and sounds one octave higher than written.
Range:
8va
Notation Sound
Sound: a penetrating, bright, bell-like sound which is almost without dynamic flexibility
Use: All points apply as for the glockenspiel. The advantages of the keyboard must also be
mentioned (for quick passages, chords, arpeggio-like figuration, etc.).
Celesta
Though related to this group, the celesta is no longer considered a percussion instrument and
will therefore be discussed in a separate chapter along with the other keyboard instruments
(see “Keyboard instruments” on page 245).
Vibraphone
The only mallet instrument which includes vibration in its sound. It has metal bars with res-
onator tubes. The vibration, which can be varied in intensity, is produced by electrically pow-
ered rotating metal discs in the upper portion of the resonator tubes. The motor which pro-
duces this effect can be turned on and off (see below). The pedal mechanism dampens all tones
when released (upper position) and lets them ring when pushed down (lower position). In slow
passages it is also possible to dampen single tones by hand. The vibraphone is played with two
to four beaters. It is a non-transposing instrument and is notated in treble clef.
Range:
( )
This is range found most typically today. One finds other ranges as well:
Sound: the lowest third of the range sounds weaker and carries less well in orchestral tutti than
the upper two-thirds. The sound of the instrument varies greatly through use or non-use of
the motor and pedal.
Motor off: sounds like a tuning fork and blends well with woodwinds. Instruction: “motor
off.”
Motor on: the typical vibrating sound. Instruction: “motor on.”
The speed of the vibrato can be set to between three and eight oscillations per second. This
range is notated: slow fan / medium fan / fast fan. The speed of rotation of the metal discs can
be varied with a free hand while the sound is ringing (see the following example). Instructions
for use of the pedal can be either inferred from the length of the notes or notated as “Ped.”
below the staff.
slow fan fast fan
or
Beaters:
usually: cord and yarn mallets (yarn mallets are somewhat more subdued than the
cord mallets):
▫ hard: sharp, percussive, sometimes metallic
▫ medium: good as standard beater
▫ soft: excellent for a smooth legato in a soft dynamic
rubber mallets with wooden or plastic cores: only hard rubber can be used, as softer
rubber absorbs the sound
also: wood or plastic beaters for special effects; metal brushes, metal beaters
Use (see the following notation example):
䡲 All points apply as for the marimba including the use of up to four beaters.
䡲 The instrument blends very well with the woodwinds, especially flute and clarinet.
䡲 Unlike on the xylophone and marimba, the vibraphone player does not automatically add
tremolo to longer notes except when explicitly instructed to do so (a).
䡲 Chords and clusters of many notes can be played by use of the pedal (b).
䡲 Selected tones can be dampened by hand while others are allowed to ring. The notes which
should be dampened are notated with diamond-shaped noteheads. The arranger can deter-
mine when the notes should be dampened. In this notation, the tail of the note does not
indicate the length of the note but merely serves to connect the notated pitch with the sym-
bol for dampening (c).
䡲 As on the glockenspiel, the 3rd or 4th partial can be produced by laying the fingertip on the
middle of the bar and striking the bar with a hard mallet. Harmonics can also be produced
by striking the front or side edge of the bar with a metal mallet (d).
䡲 Dead stroke/dead stick: This technique can also be used on the xylophone and marimba.
The beater is held on the bar after the stroke. The resulting sound is dull, dry and without
vibration (e).
䡲 The free edge of a bar may be stroked with a cello or double bass bow, which produces a
sound typical for the vibraphone (f).
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
arco
Metalophone
The metalophone resembles the vibraphone in many ways and may be described as a vibra-
phone without a motor. Special forms of this instrument exist, including the campanelli giap-
ponesi (Puccini, Madame Butterfly) or the loo-joon (a bass metalophone introduced by jazz
musician John Lewis). The range is the same as that of the vibraphone, and sound and use are
similar. All vibraphone mallets as well as timpani beaters may be used.
Triangle
A further instrument of Turkish origin. The triangle is made of a steel stick which is bent into
the shape of a triangle with three equal sides, with one corner left open.
There are different sizes of triangle though the pitch depends more upon the thickness of the
steel than upon its length. One differentiates between high, medium and low triangles (and
not small, medium and large). The triangle is either hung from one hand and played with a
beater in the other or mounted on a stand, which allows complex rhythms to be played with
two hands (two beaters).
The triangle is an instrument of indefinite pitch as its sound is very rich in overtones, which
all ring together. The actual pitch of a triangle can be heard by holding it lightly muted in one
hand and striking it with a leather-covered wooden beater.
Sound: very brilliant, metallic, rich in overtones, rings long and carries well
Beaters:
usually: metal triangle beater (for a strong sound which carries well)
also: plastic (for softer effects and “clicks”); drumsticks (for legato and a softer ring).
Where necessary, the beaters are differentiated according to their thickness:
thin/medium/thick.
Use:
䡲 The triangle lends brilliance to orchestral climaxes.
䡲 It is also very effective in piano passages, especially in combination with soft strings and high
woodwinds.
䡲 Ornamentation is possible within a wide dynamic range (pp–ff).
䡲 A very popular effect is the roll, produced by striking two of the inner sides of the instrument
alternately.
䡲 Muting is possible by touching or grasping the instrument with one hand or putting the
instrument in a sack and striking it from the outside.
䡲 A typical effect is also dampening the instrument immediately after the stroke.
䡲 Shaking the instrument after it is struck creates vibrato in the sound.
䡲 Several triangles of different sizes can be hung on a stand and used simultaneously.
Tubes struck with a beater

Tubaphone
The tubaphone is a mallet instrument with brass or steel tubes. It is a transposing instrument
of definite pitch, sounding two octaves higher than written.
Range:
Notation Sound
8va
Sound: metallic and hollow with a light vibrato; resembles the glockenspiel in the high registers
Beaters: wooden beaters padded with leather; hard wooden hammers
Use: like the xylophone
Tubular bells (chimes)

A set of cylindrical brass tubes which are hung in a chromatic sequence similar to that of the
piano keyboard. A pedal is used to dampen the tones after they are struck. The pedal can also
be used to dampen the tones only partially and reduce the bell-like quality of the sound, espe-
cially in quick passages. Each tube may be struck on its uppermost rim. Often only those tubes
required for a particular piece are mounted on stage due to the size and weight of the instru-
ment. It is a non-transposing instrument notated in treble clef.
Range:
Sound: a very bell-like sound which carries well. It contains many partials, especially one octave
above the fundamental and a 6th below it, which sounds somewhat out of tune.
Beaters:
usually: wooden or plastic hammers padded with hard leather
also: metal hammers: for hard, metallic sounds
wooden hammers: less penetrating than metal hammers
hammers covered with felt: for very soft sounds
triangle beaters: for very metallic sounds
Use:
䡲 single tones and quick passages (played with two hammers and often with the pedal on
half-damper)
䡲 coloring soft chords or slowly moving lines, melodic shadowing
䡲 glissando: especially effective on the “white” notes with two hammers, the second dampen-
ing the tones
䡲 muting: by holding the metal tubes in the hand
䡲 chords: possible, especially with two players, but risky in terms of intonation because of the
“out of tune” sound of the tubes
䡲 recently popular effect: striking several tubes against one another and then either letting
them go (so that they can strike each other again repeatedly) or grabbing and dampening
them. Instead of actively striking the tubes against one another, one can also hold them
together in a clump and then suddenly release them.
䡲 blowing into the tubes
Vessels struck with a beater

Slit drum
This instrument comes from Africa. It consists of a portion of a tree trunk with a hollowed-out,
lengthwise incision creating a resonating chamber. This slit is narrower in the middle. The slit
drum is struck on the sides of the slit. Slits of different shapes allow the production of tones in
intervallic relationships (for example, 3rds or 4ths); all the same, the slit drum is considered to
be an instrument of indefinite pitch.
Sound: Darker than that of wood blocks or temple blocks (see below), it carries well. The thick-
ness of the edges of the incision is responsible for the sound’s character. If these walls are thin-
ner, the sounds produced are lower and darker; if they are thicker, the sounds are brighter and
clearer.
Beaters: hard wooden beaters (for precise sounds with a noise component), heavy, hard felt
beaters (for low, hollow sounds)
Use: very limited usage in Western art music
Log drum
Originally a Mexican-Indian instrument, this is a wooden bass drum with a long, rectangular
wooden box, the lid of which has a free-swinging cut-out tongue. Although they have a tonal
range of approximately c to g and tuned log drums are required in particular pieces, they
are considered to be instruments of indefinite pitch due to the high noise component of their
sound. Their pitch is determined by the length of their lid.
Sound: sonorous but carries poorly; similar to the sound of the bass xylophone
Beaters: heavy, hard felt beaters; rubber mallets covered in soft felt
Use: seldom in Western art music, more common in American popular music
Wood blocks
Wood blocks are rectangular pieces of hardwood with slits on both sides, which produce a
resonating chamber. They come in different sizes. When only one wood block is being used,
it can be held in one hand and struck with the other. Multiple wood blocks are mounted on a
stand. Each block can produce two different pitches a 2nd or 3rd apart (one pitch per surface).
The surface producing the desired pitch is usually held upward. Though their sound can, more
or less, be perceived as pitched (somewhere between c and g ), wood blocks belong to the
instruments of indefinite pitch as their sound contains a hard, penetrating noise component.
Sound: very dry, biting and penetrating
Beaters: drumsticks, marimba beaters, and wooden, rubber and plastic mallets
Use:
䡲 Secco rolls are very typical and effective.
䡲 Quick passages with complicated rhythms are possible.
Temple blocks
These are globe- or tear-shaped wood blocks with a long, lengthwise slit and extensively
hollowed-out resonating chamber. Normally five blocks are used in combination, but fewer
can be used as well. They are normally mounted on a stand. The sound range is approximately
c –g . Due to the high noise component of the sound, temple blocks are considered to be
instruments of indefinite pitch. A regular five-line staff is used for a kind of tablature notation:
each temple block is notated on a separate line. Regardless of actual pitch, the largest temple
block is notated on the lowest line and so forth.
Sound: more resonant, more hollow sounding and softer than the wood block
Beaters: as with wood blocks
Use:
䡲 in popular and serious music
䡲 well suited for playing secco: single notes, rolls and quick passages
Cylindrical or tubular wood block
A round section of hardwood with a lengthwise incision in the body; hollowed out to differing
depths on each side, thus producing two different pitches. The sound and the beaters are similar
to that of the wood block. Although this instrument was used for a time in popular music, it
has been replaced by the wood block due to its unsatisfying sound.
Wood-headed drum and wood barrel

A wooden tom-tom that has a thin wooden lid instead of a membrane head. It is usually used
in pairs, but these can be differing pairs in various sizes. Its predecessor is the Japanese wooden
barrel (sake barrel). This instrument is played with round wooden sticks.
Bell
Normally this is made of bronze (78 percent copper and 22 percent tin) but it can also be
made of iron, steel or even glass. In its early medieval beehive and thimble forms the sound
was dominated by dissonant partials; this was rectified by the Gothic ribbed form. Bells are
non-transposing instruments of definite pitch.
Sound: typical bell sound with a rich overtone spectrum; each pitch has a variety of sound
components. The first tone heard after striking is the nominal tone, which is one octave higher
than the fundamental. The other sound components follow. These partials do not follow the
harmonic spectrum of the natural overtone series, which makes their combination with other
instruments in the orchestra difficult.
Range:
Beaters: clapper (from within, “ringing”), hammers (from without, “striking”)

Use: more for church and signal functions. Bells are required very seldom in orchestra music
and even then mostly substitute instruments are used (for example, bell plates or tubular bells).
Cup bells and hand bells

Cup bells are steel bells equipped with a handle.
Hand bells are small, tuned bells with an inner clapper. Usually one finds a set of twelve bells
chromatically in the range of an octave which can be played by one or two players simultane-
ously.
Shepherd bells
Cowbells in various sizes, usually with a clapper inside. They are instruments of indefinite
pitch.
Sound: typical metallic cowbell sound
Beaters: bell clapper, metal stick, drumstick
Use: in the orchestra, to create a pastoral atmosphere
Almglocken (Alpine/Swiss cowbells)

A refined version of shepherd bells without inner clapper. They come in various sizes. They
are usually mounted in a chromatic set on a stand. They are non-transposing instruments of
definite pitch.
Sound: tuned bell tones, the quality of which depends on the type of beater
Range:
Beaters:
soft felt beaters: soft, ringing and clear
hard felt beaters, vibraphone mallets, or beaters covered with rubber: more precise and
stronger
wooden beaters, drumsticks: bright, metallic and rich in overtones
Use:
䡲 Used principally as a color instrument.
䡲 Simple melodic lines and rolls are possible.
䡲 Though quick and complicated rhythms are playable, large leaps in fast tempi should be
avoided due to the size of the instrument.
Cencerros and agogo
Cencerros are rather thin and straight-walled cowbells without clappers. When two cencerros
are mounted on a metal bow, which serves as a handle, the instrument is called an agogo. The
bells of the agogo have a certain intervallic relationship to one another (a 3rd or a 4th); they
can be tuned.
Sound: very metallic, dry, penetrating
Beaters: Cencerros normally with sticks (but also with other beaters); agogo with metal beaters
or sticks
Use:
䡲 Used most characteristically for Latin American music or related effects in art music.
䡲 Single tones as well as fast and complicated rhythms are effective.
䡲 Especially on the agogo, one can produce a large variety of effects and colors, depending
upon where one strikes the instrument.
Cowbells
Conical metal bells without an inner clapper. A shorter type of cowbell is called the metal
block.
Sound: metallic, short, dry but penetrating; depending on where one strikes it, various colors
are possible.
Beaters: drumsticks
Use:
䡲 Used for sharply accentuated and clearly defined rhythmical patterns and rolls.
䡲 The instrument can be muted by placing a piece of cloth inside it.
䡲 One of the best-loved members of the drum set in popular music, where one or two cowbells
are mounted on the bass drum.
Musical glasses (glass glockenspiel)
Also called verrophone or crystallophone, this consists of tuned drinking glasses which are
filled with the appropriate amount of water to produce the desired pitch. The glasses are
placed chromatically on a piece on cloth and their rims are struck with beaters. This is a non-
transposing instrument of definite pitch. The treble clef is used in notation.
Sound: very fine and bell-like
Range:
Beaters: wrapped wooden-headed beaters

Use:
䡲 Single tones, rhythmic patterns and gentle rolls can be played.
䡲 The pitches can also be produced by rubbing the rims of the glasses with a wet finger (see
“Glass harp” on page 167).
Idiophones struck together: wood plates

All these instruments produce sounds of indefinite pitch.
Bones
A pair of small hardwood or ivory boards. Each board is held is one hand. The hands are
clapped together and the result is a short, precise, clattering sound. Only single, short notes
are playable (a repetition cannot follow too quickly).
Whip (slapstick)
Two boards which are connected at one end with a V-shaped hinge. Each hand is slid between
the leather grip and the outside of one board. The sound (actually a noise) is produced by
clapping the two hands together. As with the bones, only single, short notes are playable. The
dynamic becomes louder when tones are played swiftly one after the other. There are models
which can be played with one hand.
Castanets
This instrument from Spain consists of a pair of shell-shaped hardwood cups, which are struck
together using various techniques. The most popular types are as follows:
Hand castanets
Each hand holds a pair of castanets. In Spanish folk music, the larger pair is held in the left and
the smaller pair in the right hand. The extremely refined technique of Spanish folk musicians is
not used in the orchestra, however. The player holds a pair of castanets in each hand and strikes
them on the knee. Both pairs of castanets are the same size and the player holds them on the
end where they are bound together with a string. All effects and dynamic levels are possible.
Paddle-mounted castanets
Both cups of a pair are mounted on a handle. The playing becomes easier but dynamic flexibility
and performance of ornamentation suffer. On the other hand, excellent rolls are possible on
stick-mounted castanets.
Machine (concert) castanets

One or more pairs of castanets can be mounted on a resonating box; the lower cup is attached
firmly to the box and connected to the upper cup with a spring. The upper cup is struck with
the index finger or with soft mallets. Some instruments consist of only one cup mounted on a
board of rosewood.
Sound: very sonorous, dry, typically “Spanish”
Beaters: hands, fingers, knees, small soft mallets
Use:
䡲 can play rhythmic patterns including rolls and heavily ornamented passages
䡲 well suited as a substitute for the snare drum especially in doubling or reinforcing muted
brass in staccato passages and also pizzicati
䡲 very characteristic for Spanish sound colors
䡲 also usable for “non-Spanish” colors and in pointillistic instrumentation
Idiophones struck together: metal plates

With the exception of crotales (antique cymbals), all of these instruments produce indefinite
pitch.
Crash cymbals
A pair of Turkish cymbals. There are three sizes (small, medium, large) but this does not need
to be specified.
Sound: typical but, played with different methods, highly variable cymbal sound
Use:
䡲 These provide the typical crash effect for climaxes. If the crash should continue to ring, this
must be notated with the instruction “let vibrate” or “l.v.” (laissez vibrer) and/or a tie added
to the note, even when these instructions seem unnecessary (a).
䡲 A short, silenced crash is produced by dampening the cymbals immediately after striking
them together. The cymbals are pressed separately against the player’s chest. The instruction
secco can be written above the note (b). This effect is sometimes called choke but this is not
recommended, as “choke” is used to indicate another effect (see below).
䡲 A roll can be produced by rubbing the cymbals together. This is not very effective, however
(c).
䡲 Short, soft rolls are produced when the cymbals are held together and then pulled apart with
a sliding motion. This is called swish (d). A similar effect can be produced by holding one
cymbal horizontally and sliding the rim of the other cymbal against it from bell to rim.
䡲 The two cymbals can be held together after the stroke; this is called choke (e).
䡲 Vibrato can be produced by shaking the cymbals after the stroke (f).
䡲 Cymbals also sound good in a soft dynamic.
䡲 This instrument should not be used too often.
a.
l.v. l.v.
or or
b. c. d.
(swish)
(secco)
e. f.
(choke)
l.v. (vib.)
Hi-hat
This instrument was invented in the USA after the First World War. It consists of two small
cymbals which are mounted on a vertical stand so that their inner surfaces face one another.
There is a pedal on the bottom of the stand; when it is pressed, the two cymbals are struck
together. Originally it was played on the unstressed beats of the bar (alternating, for example,
with the bass drum). In modern jazz it is played on the stressed beats as well.
Sound: a very dry crashing sound, as the cymbals are held together for a moment after the
stroke and thus prevented from ringing. A baffling variety of sounds are possible depending
on the position of the cymbals (open, half-open, closed) as well as where the cymbals are struck
and with what.
Beaters: apart from the cymbals themselves: drumsticks, metal beaters, brushes, mallets, colla
mano, and so on.
Use:
䡲 This is used very often in almost all manner of dance bands as part of the drum set; there is
also some rare use in Western art music.
䡲 The cymbals can be held together with the pedal while they are struck with beaters; in this
case the instruction close is required.
䡲 The two cymbals can be left open and the upper one used as a suspended cymbal.
䡲 The cymbals can be used half-closed: the upper cymbal is struck forcefully so that it in
turn strikes the lower cymbal. The resulting sound resembles that of the sizzle cymbal. The
required notation is half-close.
䡲 When a piece of cardboard is placed between the cymbals and held there during playing, the
sound is similar to maracas.
Antique cymbals (cymbales antiques, crotales)

These instruments are made of bronze. Antique cymbals, which are often incorrectly called
finger cymbals, are thicker than finger cymbals and are of definite pitch. They are used either
as a pair (one cymbal in each hand) or mounted chromatically on a board as a set. Either the two
cymbals are struck together on the rim or individual cymbals are struck with metal beaters or
other beaters which are used for the glockenspiel. Antique cymbals are transposing instruments
of definite pitch and sound two octaves higher than written. They are notated in treble clef.
Range:
Notation Sound
8va
Sound: similar to the glockenspiel, but carries less well

Use:
䡲 They can be used in a similar way to the glockenspiel.
䡲 Vibrato can be produced by shaking a cymbal after it is struck or by moving the hand back
and forth above the cymbal set.
䡲 Quick passages are possible with a beater on the cymbal set but the pitches become blurred.
䡲 The sound blends well with high, soft woodwinds, strings, the harp and their overtones.
Finger cymbals
These are like antique cymbals but are instruments of indefinite pitch. They come in various
sizes. In Middle Eastern cultures they are held (like the castanets in Spanish folk music) as a
pair in each hand, one attached to the thumb and one to the middle fingers. In Western music
they are held either singly in each hand or as a pair in one hand. In this case, the free hand is
used to strike the first hand, making the cymbals strike together.
Sound: high, penetrating, metallic. Smaller, thicker cymbals produce comparatively higher par-
tials; larger, thinner cymbals produce lower ones.
Use:
䡲 They are well suited for exotic, folkloric effects.
䡲 The sound blends well with all kinds of high tones.
䡲 Even rolls are possible with a triangle beater, but there are better instruments in the orchestra
for rolls (for example, the triangle).
䡲 With their delicate sound they are very effective in piano and in pointillistic instrumentation.
䡲 Fast rhythmic patterns are playable but, unlike on the castanets, too many ornaments tend
to make the sound unclear (because of the longer ring after each stroke). On the other hand,
this ring creates less of a problem than on the glockenspiel as the cymbals are constantly in
motion and each new stroke dampens the one before.
Cymbal tongs
A simplified version of the finger cymbals in which the two cymbals are connected with a V-
shaped metal wire fork.
Idiophones struck together: concussion sticks

Claves
These consist of two cylindrical hardwood sticks. One clave is held lying horizontally in a
cupped hand and is struck by the other clave, held in the other hand. The cupped hand func-
tions as a resonance chamber. Claves are instruments of indefinite pitch.
Sound: very precise, clear and penetrating
Use:
䡲 They are very popular in Latin American music (for example, rumba).
䡲 Simple rhythms should be used; no rolls.
䡲 Single notes can be effective.
䡲 Playable at all dynamic levels.
IDIOPHONES STRUCK INDIRECTLY

Shaken idiophones with a frame
Sistrum
An instrument from Egypt, shaped like a horseshoe with a handle. Four to six bronze discs are
mounted on a bar between the two ends of the horseshoe. Shaking the discs produces a noise
which is higher, the smaller and thicker the discs are.
Flexatone
This consists of a bendable steel tongue and a metal U-shaped frame with a handle. The top
of the steel tongue is attached to the frame, and it has a wooden, leather-covered clapper on
Idiophones struck indirectly 163
both of its sides. When the instrument is shaken, the wooden clapper strikes the steel tongue
from both sides, thus producing the instrument’s characteristic sound. The pitch is determined
by the thumb, which is used to bend the free edge of the steel tongue. The flexatone is a non-
transposing instrument of definite pitch. It is notated in treble clef.
Range:
Sound: rather like a tin can, dry, somewhat shrill and with weak resonance; changes of pitch
are accompanied by a glissando.
Use:
䡲 It is used mainly for tremolo effects and tone repetitions. Playing individual tones is almost
impossible.
䡲 Dynamic variation and the speed of the tremolo are determined by how intensively the
instrument is shaken.
Cabaza
This instrument comes from Africa. It is made from the body of a squash with a handle
attached. Its irregular surface is covered loosely with a wide-meshed net woven with beads
or fruit seeds. The instrument is supported on the palm of one hand while the other hand
rotates it on its axis with the handle. The seeds or beads are rubbed against the irregular sur-
face of the squash and produce the instrument’s characteristic sound. One can also strike the
squash and its net with an open hand. In modern orchestras, the cabaza is made of metal. It is
an instrument of indefinite pitch.
Sound: a rattling, wiping sound
Use:
䡲 The cabaza is important in African and Brazilian music (for example, samba).
䡲 Rolls are effective.
䡲 Other techniques are possible, such as striking the instrument with fingers or mallets, rub-
bing it with spread fingers (for shorter or longer duration), and so on.
Shaken idiophones with a vessel

Maraca(s)
A very well-loved Latin American instrument which is almost always played in pairs. It con-
sists of a hollow oval (sometimes round) gourd filled with pebbles, fruit seeds or buckshot and
mounted on a stick handle. Its characteristic sound is produced by holding the handle and
shaking the maraca. It comes in various sizes and nowadays also in metal, wood or plastic.
Sound: an imprecise rattling sound
Use:
䡲 Single strokes are possible but imprecise due to the construction of the instrument.
䡲 Rolls are very effective. They can be of long duration in soft or loud dynamics.
䡲 To avoid undesired additional notes, the hand can be turned to face upward; the maraca is
then struck by the index finger of the same hand. This is most effective in piano. Both hands
can also alternate doing this.
䡲 A maraca can be hung and struck with mallets.
䡲 Very quick rhythmic patterns can be played by striking the maracas on the knee.
䡲 The maracas can be muted by holding them not on the handle but directly on the gourd.
Shakers: chocallo and kamesu

A hollow, closed tube of metal (chocallo), wood (kamesu) or bamboo containing some material
which rattles when shaken.
Sleigh bells, bell tree and paddle-mounted sleigh bells

Sleigh bells are small shaken rattles with slits. Inside they have either small clappers or tiny
free-moving balls (usually of metal). They are made of tin. Individually they can hardly be
considered instruments. They are used in the following combinations:
Sleigh bells: five to fifteen sleigh bells are attached to a leather belt or hoop and shaken to
produce sound.
The bell tree is a shaker on which sleigh bells as well as small bells are hung. It was adopted
from Turkish military music in the eighteenth century but also has Chinese roots. It consists of
a wooden staff approximately 2 m long with a crescent moon (sometimes also a star or eagle)
decorated with bundles of horsehair on the tip. Shaking or pounding the staff on the floor
causes the bells and sleigh bells mounted on it to ring. They can also be stroked up and down
with a (usually metal) beater.
The paddle-mounted sleigh bells consist of a handle, the upper end of which is covered with
many wire spines (as on a broom). The sleigh bells are hung on the free end of the wires like
bunches of grapes.
Shaken idiophones with a set of individual pieces

Chain
Two pairs of chain strands are attached at their midpoints to a handle forming a chain rod with
four free-moving strand ends. A resonating surface (a wood or a metal plate) is struck with
these chains, producing the typical chain noise.
Bamboo or wood chimes

Six to eight bamboo or wooden rods are hung next to one another on a horizontal pole. They
are hung so closely together that when one is touched, it strikes the others in a chain reaction.
When the player touches all the sticks in one motion one after another, they rattle. The sticks
can also be hung in bundles, which can be held in the hand as one piece and/or be suddenly
released, creating different sound effects. Sticks of wood have a brighter sound.
Shell chimes
These function according to the same principle as the bamboo chimes with the difference that
they consist of seashells.
Glass chimes
The same, only with glass rods or plates.
Metal chimes
The same with metal rods or plates. The rods can be of different lengths and thus produce
different tones, which makes the sound more variable.
Idiophones struck indirectly 165
Shaken idiophones which are struck
These are all instruments of indefinite pitch.
Quijada (jawbone)
An African instrument consisting of the skeletal lower jawbone of a donkey or a zebra, the
teeth of which sit loosely in their beds. A light hit on the outer edge of the jawbone makes a
short rattling sound with the teeth.
Vibra-slap
This instrument replaces the short-lasting, fragile quijada in everyday use. It consists of a bent
steel rod with a wooden ball on one end and a wooden box full of small metal “teeth” on the
other. The left hand holds the instrument with the ball facing upward. The right hand strikes
the ball which hits the box underneath and makes the metal “teeth” shake. The resulting sound
resembles that of the quijada.
Shaken idiophones with a sheet

Metal foil and thunder sheet
This instrument consists of a vertically hung metal sheet 1 mm thick. Depending on the size
of the sheet (the larger it is, the lower and stronger the sound), different kinds of crackling,
rustling noises can be produced. It can be shaken or struck with a beater.
The maximum size (1 × 2 m) is called a thunder sheet and produces the famous thunder effect.
These are instruments of indefinite pitch.
Idiophones that are scraped

These are instruments of indefinite pitch.
Ratchet
The ratchet consists of one or two wooden tongues, a cogwheel, a frame and a handle. Ener-
getic turning of the frame makes the tongues scrape over the wheel and produce the ratchet’s
characteristic sound.
Sound: penetrating, creaking noise
Use:
䡲 As the dynamic of the ratchet cannot be controlled, it can only be used in loud dynamics.
䡲 Best used for rolls of short or long duration. Single impulses are almost impossible on most
instruments, although some instruments of modified construction exist which can produce
controlled rhythms and also various dynamic levels.
Sandpaper blocks
Two square or rectangular wooden boxes are lined on one side with sandpaper. These two sides
are rubbed together to produce the sound.
Sound: short and hissing, like a steam locomotive
Use:
䡲 Single short strokes, rhythmic passages and rolls are possible.
䡲 Rougher or finer sandpaper can be used to alter the sound as desired.
Guiro
A Latin American instrument, originally a bottle-shaped squash. Today it is a long, bottle-
shaped instrument with a serrated side, which is scraped with a scratcher (up or down).
Sound: very typical, dry, penetrating scraping sound
Beaters: sticks, wire
Use:
䡲 primarily for creating a Latin America atmosphere
䡲 one of the most important samba instruments
䡲 single strokes or rolls possible
Reco-reco
A wooden version of the guiro – a wooden rasper.
Bamboo scraper
Also called sapo cubana or bambú brasileño. Similar to the two preceding instruments and
made of bamboo. Compared to the guiro, it sounds scratchier and less sonorous.
IDIOPHONES THAT ARE PLUCKED

We include these and the instruments in the next group in order to complete the classification
of the idiophones though they have to this day been used very little if at all in Western art music.
Most of the plucked idiophones come from African folk music. They all have metal tongues
of different shape and number which are attached at one end to a resonating chamber. When
these tongues are plucked, certain pitches are produced. The mouth harp (Jew’s harp) is the
best-known of these instruments in Europe and Asia. Other instruments are known under the
general term “lamellaphone”; these include the kalimba, marimba, marimbula, sansa and
others. All these instruments are instruments of definite pitch.
IDIOPHONES THAT ARE BOWED OR RUBBED

All these instruments are instruments of definite pitch.
Musical (singing) saw
In folk music a real saw is used; in art music, a saw blade without teeth. The left hand holds
the instrument at its upper end. The lower end is either pinned between the player’s knees or,
with large instruments, allowed to rest on the floor. The non-serrated edge is either stroked
with a violin bow or struck with a beater. Bending the saw to various degrees with the left hand
produces different pitches. The singing saw is a non-transposing instrument, notated in treble
clef.
Range:
8va
Sound: whining, like a whistle, with exaggerated vibrato. Changes of pitch are accompanied by
a glissando. The sound resembles that of a vibraphone when the latter instrument, with motor
on and set to highest vibrato frequency, is stroked with a violin bow.
Use: better suited for legato lines than for short tones
Membranophones 167
Glass harp
A variant of the glass glockenspiel, the difference being that the glasses are tuned by their con-
struction alone (size, thickness of glass, etc.) and not by filling them with water. The tuning
is thus permanent. The instrument has two resonator boards. Tones are produced by rubbing
the rims of the glasses with wet finger pads. Sometimes it is notated in transposition, sounding
one octave higher than written. Usually treble clef is used, though bass clef can be used when
necessary (especially in transposing notation).
Sound: ethereal, poor in overtones, penetrating, with a slow attack and fade
Range: there are different ranges depending on the size of the instrument:
a.
Notation Sound
or
b.
Notation Sound
or
Glass harmonica
This instrument was invented by Benjamin Franklin in London in 1763 and was rather popular
until the end of the nineteenth century. Even Mozart and Beethoven wrote for it. It consists of
a set of chromatically tuned glass cups mounted on an axis through their center. The cups are
placed inside one another but do not touch. A foot pedal is used to rotate the axis and the
cups. The player produces tones by rubbing the rims of the cups with his wet fingers. The glass
harmonica is a non-transposing instrument, notated in treble clef.
Range: There are various sizes.
Sound: like the glass harp
Membranophones
Kettle drums
Timpani
The timpano (pl. timpani) originated in the Orient and is the most widespread and
important symphonic percussion instrument. The opening of its resonator kettle, which is
preferably made of sheet copper, is covered with a stretched membrane of calf leather or plas-
tic. There are normally four sizes of timpano: D or bass timpano, G or large timpano, C or
small timpano, and A or high timpano. There is also a piccolo timpano for special effects. Usu-
ally two or more timpani are used together, except for a few rare cases in pre-Classical music
where only one timpano is required. The size of the instrument determines its register and
the tension of the drumhead determines its pitch. The timpano is a non-transposing instru-
ment of definite pitch, notated in bass clef. The necessity of changing the tension of the head
more easily and effectively led to the development of various types of timpani in the flow of
history:
Hand-tuned or key-tuned timpani (sixteenth century): Tuning or detuning was accom-
plished by tightening or loosening the (six or more) tuning keys which are placed symet-
rically around the membrane. This was a very tedious process and composers frequently
had to suffer the instrument de-tuning during a work or single movement.
Machine or lever timpani: After Kramer’s invention of the mechanism in Munich in 1812
it became possible – through use of a single crank or, in this case, lever – to control all the
tuning keys with a single main key. This technique is still used today in some orchestras
to tune some bass timpani or the seldom-used piccolo timpano.
Rotating or rotary timpani: Invented by Stumpff in Amsterdam in 1821. The kettle rests
on a base which is mounted on a central spindle. When the entire kettle is turned, the
spindle functions as a tuning key. Despite its irrefutable advantages, this timpano had one
problem: the turning of the drum constantly changed the point of impact.
Pedal timpani: Invented by Pittrich in 1872 and developed further since, it represents the
model of timpani used in the modern orchestra. Here a foot pedal is responsible for tun-
ing, which allows for very quick changes of pitch, even while the drum is being played
(glissando!). There is an indicator connected to the pedal which allows the player to read
the pitch setting.
To avoid problems of terminology, here is the name of the instrument (in the singular and
plural) in three different but closely related languages:
䡲 Italian: timpano/timpani
䡲 Latin: tympanum/tympani
䡲 Greek: tympano/tympani
Sound: clear, resonant, majestic, powerful even in piano; full membrane sound. The timbre
depends on the point of impact (usually within a third of the radius from the rim) as well as
on the type and hardness of the beater.
Additionally, the type of membrane and the degree to which it is stretched plays a role in the
sound quality, as the same pitches can be played on different timpani. Thus an A on the bass
timpano would be the instrument’s highest, barely still playable tone with a rather cutting tim-
bre on a tightly stretched membrane. On the G timpano, this tone lies solidly in the middle
range with optimal sound. On a C (small) timpano it would be a low, colorless tone requiring
a very loosely strung membrane.
The sound quality of each timpano is best in the middle and middle-upper register. Extremely
high tuning can limit the functioning of the instrument’s mechanism. In addition, the instru-
ment tends to become higher on its own.
Timpani and their ranges

Every timpano can be tuned as desired within the range of a 6th. Newer models with plastic
membranes allow variability up to an octave.
Membranophones 169
D/ G/ C/ A/ Piccolo Timpano
bass Timpano large Timpano small Timpano high Timpano
30''–32'' 28''–29'' 25''–26'' 23''–24'' 20''–22''
(75–80 cm) (65–70 cm) (60–65 cm) (55–60 cm) (50–55 cm)
Beaters:
usually: Soft felt beaters in varying degrees of hardness with large heads are preferred.
The soft felt layer around the head can be of differing hardness and thickness.
These beaters are used to replace the sponge beaters required in many past
(and some current) scores. Flannel-headed beaters are also well suited and often
used.
Timpani beaters are categorized by hardness:
▫ hard: ideal for dotted rhythms; still good tone production
▫ medium: good for general use, not so much for dotted rhythms
▫ soft: for long, soft rolls on low notes
additionally: wooden beaters: good for specially percussive sounds, but with less definite
pitch. They should be used only sparingly for bare rhythmic solo passages.
drumsticks, steel brushes, colla mano
Use:
䡲 Like bass instruments, timpani serve certain primary functions in Classical and Roman-
tic music: supporting rhythmically active passages as well as playing repeated notes and
rolls.
䡲 Timpani have a very wide dynamic range and can also be used charmingly and effectively
in piano.
䡲 They can also be used in imitative techniques. They can assume certain motivic functions
and even appear in pointillistic textures.
䡲 Changes of tuning must be requested as follows: Change F to F / F nach Fis umstim-
men / F muta in F / Changez Fa en Fa or simply F→F. Too frequent changes of tun-
ing are difficult and can confuse the player when there are several timpani used. Quick
changes of tuning can be accompanied by glissando, if effected before the previous tone has
faded.
䡲 In changing harmonies, it usually does not matter which pitch of the new chord the timpani
plays, regardless of voice leading. The timpani do not even necessarily need to be retuned
for each change of harmony. Especially for short passages, the timpani can remain in their
previous tuning and “not in harmony.” Because of the timpani’s highly percussive sound
components, the dissonance will not even be noticed.

䡲 Sometimes a single player plays on both timpani simultaneously. Sometimes two or more
players play the timpani together (Berlioz’s Symphonie fantastique, Stravinsky’s Le Sacre du
printemps).
䡲 Rolls are typical and very effective. A single player can even play rolls on two timpani at the
same time. For the roll to be very regular, it must be played in a soft dynamic (as in Impres-
sionist pieces). An irregular, “broken” roll can be played more loudly (as in Expressionist
pieces).
䡲 Glissando is also a very popular effect. It can be produced either directly after the stroke,
while the tone is fading or during a roll. An upward glissando sounds longer and more effec-
tive than a downward glissando due to the loss of membrane tension as the tuning is lowered.
The glissando remains within the range of the timpano on which it is executed. Even a small
interval is sufficient for an effective glissando. A glissando after a single stroke rings for 2 or
3 seconds. (For notation, see the appropriate section in the chapter on strings on page 38.)
䡲 Muting is accomplished by laying a handkerchief or a piece of felt on the timpano and then
striking it. The sound is then less precise and resembles that of a tom-tom.
䡲 Harmonics can be produced by striking the timpano on the rim.
䡲 Two tones can be played simultaneously on two timpani (one on each drum).
䡲 The so-called cannon effect is produced by striking the (dead) middle of the membrane in
fortissimo; the very dull sound resembles that of a cannon shot.
䡲 The following special effects can be played: striking the edge or the copper kettle (differ-
ent beaters produce different sound colors); dropping coins on the membrane; playing a
brass instrument with the bell placed on the membrane; laying other percussion instruments
(cymbals, maracas, tambourine) on the membrane and striking the timpano.
The notation for timpani in the past must be mentioned. In the early Classical period, only
the tones C and G were notated, which represented the tonic and dominant, regardless of the
actual key of the piece. Later, the actual tonic and dominant pitches were notated, but without
accidentals – these came even later. For example, a piece in E major was notated as follows:
Sound 1st notation 2nd notation 3rd notation
Beethoven was the first to discard the tonic-dominant tuning of the timpani (Symphony
No. 7: minor 6th; Symphonies Nos. 8 and 9: octaves; Fidelio: tritone).
Stick drums
Instruments of indefinite pitch. Normally they have two heads (one is struck, the batter; the
other is a resonance membrane), but on some drums the resonance membrane is missing. Such
drums produce more precise pitches.
Tabor, or drum of Provence (It.: tamburo provenzale; Ger.: Tambourin; Fr.:

tambourin)
A large cylindrical drum with one head (sometimes two). In southern France it is normally
worn carried on a strap and played with one hand; the other hand plays a one-handed flute.
Usually it has no snares or ringing wires. In the modern orchestra, this instrument has legs and
tuning screws for the head. It can be considered as a predecessor of the tom-tom.
Beaters: drumsticks, felt beaters
Long field drum (Fr.: caisse roulante avec cordes)

This is also a long drum, but wider in diameter than the drum of Provence. The instrument
has two heads, four to six gut strings and a mechanism for stretching the drumhead. It stands
on three adjustable legs. The sound is dark, diffuse and hollow.
Beaters: drumsticks
Membranophones 171
Parade or short field drum
A shorter version of the field drum. Because it is shorter, the snares are easier to hear, and the
sound is clearer and brighter.
Beaters: drumsticks
Military drum (It.: tamburo militare; Ger.: Militärtrommel; Fr.: tambour militaire)
Smaller than the parade drum with a brighter sound. It has at least eight snares but also a
mechanism with which they can be moved away from the membrane. In the orchestra, the
instrument rests on a stand. Its sound is rich and dry with a penetrating resonance.
Beaters: drumsticks
Tenor drum (Fr.: caisse roulante)

A variant of the stick drums with one or two heads without snares. The body is made of metal
or limed wood, and the tension of the head is adjustable. The timbre of this drum is something
between the bass drum and the snare drum (without snares). In the modern orchestra, it is
normally replaced with a long stick drum without snares or a tom-tom.
Beaters: drumsticks, timpani beaters or hard felt beaters
Snare drum (Fr.: caisse claire)

The smallest instrument of the drum family with snares. It has two heads and is mounted on
a stand. The snares can be released with a simple mechanism; then the instrument sounds
like a tom-tom. The snare drum is manufactured in various sizes, which cannot always be
differentiated one from the other:
䡲 small: jazz snare
䡲 medium: concert snare (the usual type used in the modern symphony orchestra)
䡲 large: similar to the parade drum and military drum
Sound: generally sharp, chirping and short; the smallest instrument has the most open, clear-
est, freshest, highest sound with a prominent creaking noise which changes accordingly as the
instrument becomes larger (and lower). Without snares very dry, hard and with little resonance.
To make the sound even more characteristic, a wire spiral can be used instead of the snares.
The instrument can sound very different depending on the beaters and techniques used.
Beaters:
usually: drumsticks (smaller, lighter ones for jazz; larger, heavier ones for concert use)
additionally: brushes, timpani beaters, mallets
Use:
䡲 Normally the snare drum is played with snares on. If this is not required, the instruction
“snares off” or “senza corde” should be added (the opposite being “snares on” or “con
corde”).
䡲 Single notes, complicated and highly ornamented rhythms, and rolls are playable. There are
many standard strokes for the snare drum (for example, flam, ruff, drag, etc.) which use
grace notes. A few examples:
single stroke double stroke triple stroke quadruple stroke
(flam) (ruff or drag)
䡲 It can be very effective in all dynamics including piano.
䡲 Rim shot (also called pistol shot) is one of the popular effects. There are different ways of
prescribing this:
rim shot
䡲 There are four ways of executing a rim shot:

1. One drumstick rests on the batter head and rim and is struck with the handle of the other
stick.
2. The batter and rim must be struck at the same time with the same stick (which is rather
risky).
3. The handle of the stick rests on the batter and the rim is struck with the tip of the same
stick.
4. The tip of one stick is laid on the batter and its handle is struck by the other stick. This is
also called stick shot.
䡲 Further effects include on the rim, which is playing on the rim for a delicate sound; on the
shell, which is playing on the metal shell for a metallic, non-membrane and highly percussive
sound; and near the edge, which is playing on the batter but very close to the rim for a
distant, softer, less resonant sound with less snare sound.
䡲 The snare drum can be muted with a piece of cloth laid on the batter membrane. Another
possibility is to insert a piece of cloth between the snares.
䡲 It is possible to create a roll with a rapid single stroke by using wire brushes. The instruction
for this is stir or swish (a). Extremely soft rolls are also possible as the wire brushes are set
in circular motion (b).
䡲 Dead stroke/dead stick: As with the mallet instruments, the beater stays on the batter after
striking and does not bounce back (c).
a. b. c.
(stir)
䡲 Composers can indicate the size of the instrument desired by instructing: small, medium or
large.
䡲 Although not a true glissando, a glissando-like effect can be produced by sliding the drum-
stick across the wire snares on a snare drum turned upside down.
䡲 The snare drum can indirectly cause a problem in an orchestra through sympathetic vibra-
tion of the snares, as they are set in vibration by the sound of the other instruments. To avoid
this, the snares are loosened from the bottom head when the instrument is not in use.
Bass drum
Together with the cymbal and the triangle, the bass drum was adopted into Western music from
Turkish Janissary music in the second half of the eighteenth century. It is built like other drums,
only bigger. Very large instruments are used in orchestras, and smaller instruments (which can
be carried) are used in wind bands. The bass drum has, like all double-headed drums, two
heads (one which is struck, the other which resonates), usually without snares. (Folk music in
some cultures uses a bass drum with one or two snares.) It is mounted on a special stand and
can lie horizontally or stand vertically. This second option gives the sound more direction and
volume.
Membranophones 173
Sound: strong bass quality, which also carries well in piano; single strokes have a similar explo-
sive character; tremolo produces a thundering effect.
Beaters: The bass drum is not always played with two similar beaters, but sometimes with only
one beater and sometimes with two dissimilar beaters.
usually: bass drum beater: a large, wooden-headed beater covered with lambskin or
thick soft felt which is well suited for rich, voluminous single strokes at all
dynamic levels. Neither precise articulation nor extreme speed can be expected
with the large beater; it is better to use smaller beaters if more precision is
desired. Soft, large-headed timpani beaters are better suited for rolls.
additionally: hard felt beaters: good for loud, solid beats and marcato passages
leather-headed beaters, marimba mallets: perfect for dotted rhythms, well-
defined beats and rhythmic patterns, which can even be fast
drumsticks: focused but atypical sound
switch: normally played with the left hand as afterbeats to the main beats of the
right hand; a very precise and clear sound
other possibilities: steel brushes, colla mano, and so on
Use:
䡲 for rhythmic support (not only in the wind band, but also in the orchestra)
䡲 Long, extended, dynamically flexible rolls are very effective.
䡲 When the less resonant center of the head is struck, it produces a loud, explosive, very dry
sound resembling a cannon shot, which is what the effect is called.
䡲 Muting is accomplished as follows: if the instrument is standing, the left hand is placed on
the resonator head and the right knee on the batter head. If the instrument is laid down, a
piece of cloth is placed on the batter.
䡲 Dampening the drum is possible by pressing with hands or knees on the drumhead (or
heads) after the stroke.
䡲 When it is used in the drum set, the beater is mounted on a pedal and played with the right
foot.
䡲 The bass drum is really an instrument of indefinite pitch but can be tuned to an approx-
imate pitch. It is also possible to tune its two heads in an intervallic relationship to one
another.
䡲 One special type of single-headed bass drum is called the gong drum and was invented in
England. Its typically explosive sound is most characteristic in loud dynamics.
Frame drums
Instruments of indefinite pitch with a narrow wood frame and usually one head.
Tambourine (It.: tamburo basco; Ger.; Schellentrommel; Fr.: tambour de Basque)

Originally an instrument from Asia with a thin frame of wood or metal and usually one head
of calfskin or plastic. In the Near East there are instruments with two heads or consisting only
of the frame without heads. The frame holds up to twenty pairs of metal discs called jingles.
Its typical sound is produced by shaking the instrument or striking the head (in the latter case
the instrument can be mounted on a stand). There are various sizes but composers usually
do not specify the size. The tambourine should not be confused with the Provence drum
(tambourin).
Sound: a rattling sound which carries well; the tension of the head makes no difference.
Beaters:
usually: colla mano (with the hand, fingers, knuckles; sometimes even the knee)
additionally: drumsticks, hard felt beaters, metal beaters, etc.
Use:
䡲 Complex rhythmic patterns are possible, as are three kinds of rolls:
▫ shake rolls: the instrument is shaken; best used for loud dynamics or in a crescendo,
which can be quite long; not as effective with a decrescendo
▫ thumb rolls: best used in soft dynamics; can be played relatively loudly and intensively,
but then not too long (no longer than 3 seconds forte, 7 to 8 seconds piano)
▫ rolls with both hands or two beaters when the instrument is laid down or mounted on a
stand. The instrument sounds less like a drum when the head is pointing downward.
䡲 Lends the music a Spanish or Asian atmosphere.
䡲 Muting is achieved with the fingers or by laying a handkerchief on an instrument which is
placed horizontally.
䡲 For combination effects, the tambourine can be mounted on another instrument – hung on
the stick of the hi-hat, laid on the low strings of a piano, and so forth.
䡲 Several tambourines can be mounted on a stand and played simultaneously.
Tambourine without jingles

An instrument used historically to accompany dancing, it is used very seldom in modern art
music, and even then it is usually replaced by a snare drum with snares off due to its weak res-
onating power. Its typical sound is produced with soft strokes and soft beaters. It is held in one
hand and struck with the other hand or with a beater. Unlike with the tambourine, the tension
of the head is important here, and on most instruments it can be regulated mechanically, as
well as by pressing the middle finger of the left hand onto the head while playing.
Beaters: soft or hard felt beaters, drumsticks, colla mano
Hand drums
These instruments should be considered instruments of indefinite pitch, although one can per-
ceive certain pitches from them. Played with the hands, they produce an uncountable variety of
sounds which do not depend only upon where they are struck, but also upon very refined play-
ing techniques including different ways of silencing the instrument and using all parts of the
hand (tips, pads, sides, nails and knuckles of the finger; ball, palm and side of the hand; fists).
All these factors make the hand drums virtuoso instruments. Ideally, notation symbols should
be used which distinguish the different playing techniques and give instructions on where to
strike the instrument. Some composers have already developed such symbols (see “Bongos,”
below).
Bongos
These small, single-headed Afro-Cuban drums – the most agile amongst the Latin American
percussion instruments – are combined in pairs. Although they are instruments of indefinite
pitch, their sound contains a pitch component. Therefore they are tuned in an intervallic rela-
tionship to one another (usually a 4th). The head of the bongos is usually adjustable, except in
very basic models. In the Caribbean, bongos are played with the fingers, and virtuoso players
have strong finger musculature and callouses on their hands. In folk music the instrument is
held between the knees. Otherwise it is set on a stand; in this case, more than two bongos can
be played at one time.
Membranophones 175
Sound: very precise, clear and penetrating. A wide variety of sounds can be produced through
an unbelievably refined technique which includes the fingers, knuckles and palms. The sound
can also be altered by striking different points on the drum.
Beaters:
usually: colla mano or cane sticks/bongo sticks. These are like artificial fingers with a
band of tape at their tip.
additionally: soft and hard felt beaters, drumsticks
Use:
䡲 Dense rolls are typical.
䡲 The most complicated rhythms can be played.
䡲 Rim shot (see “Snare drum” on page 172) is very effective.
Notation: As mentioned above, the modern composer should try to provide the player with
precise information as to which beaters and playing techniques should be used. This book
cannot contain all this information, but the following detailed examples of bongo notation
should provide motivation:
Stroke Sound Symbol Beaters Point of impact Finger position

Basic stroke dull index finger head and rim stays on drum
Basic stroke ringing index finger head and rim bounces back
Center stroke dull finger pad center of head stays on drum
Center stroke ringing finger pad center of head bounces back
Center stroke dull thumb center of head stays on drum
Center stroke ringing thumb center of head bounces back
Center stroke muted* index finger center of head stays on drum
*One hand is laid on the head for muting.
These symbols are written above the notes. “Ringing” strokes are used for rolls (the fingers are
not left resting on the head).
3
Conga (tumba)
The conga is also an Afro-Cuban instrument. It is the lowest of all Latin American drums and
has one head. The conga is either mounted on a stand, held between the knees or carried on a
belt from the shoulder.
Sound: As on the bongos, a variety of sounds are playable.
Beaters:
usually: colla mano
additionally: All drum beaters are possible, but they are seldom used.
Use:
䡲 Less complicated rhythms should be used than on the bongos.
䡲 Higher tones are produced on the edges, lower ones in the middle.
䡲 The same table of notation symbols can be used as for the bongos.
Timbales
The Afro-Cuban timbales are mounted in pairs on a stand. Each one resembles a miniature
timpano and consists of a single head on a metal bowl which has an opening on the bottom.
Sound: more metallic and penetrating than a tom-tom
Beaters:
usually: colla mano, timbales sticks: thin wooden sticks (lighter than drumsticks), snare
drumsticks
additionally: wooden-headed beaters, mallets, felt beaters
Use:
䡲 This is an excellent substitute for tom-toms.
䡲 Though it does not really produce a pitched tone, it can be used as a substitute for the piccolo
timpano (with soft felt beaters).
䡲 Timbales play a very active and important role in Latin American music.
Tablas
Pairs of hand drums from India; each hand plays one drum. The right drum is called “tabla”
and has a wooden resonator body; the left drum (“banja”) has a metal one. Pitches can be
altered during play by varying the pressure on the heads. Each head has an outer and inner
section. The finger-stroke technique on the tablas is very refined; up to sixteen pitches can be
produced.
Darabukka
A vase-shaped, single-headed hand drum from the Middle East. It is held between the left arm
and torso. Both hands are used to strike the head and, as with other hand drums, different
varieties of sound are possible.
Tom-toms
Modern (jazz) tom-toms
These instruments were developed from Chinese tom-toms (see page 178) and fulfilled the
requirements of the growing range and importance of jazz and dance music. They should not
be confused with the tam-tam. Originally they were built as cylinders with only one head; the
lower end was left open. Shortly thereafter, a resonating membrane was added, and the modern
tom-tom was produced in differing sizes. Normally six sizes are available. Larger instruments
often stand on their own legs (stand tom-toms). Smaller instruments are mounted in pairs on
the bass drum (hanging tom-toms). They have a key mechanism for altering the tension of
the head and can be considered drums without snares. Modern toms are something between
instruments of definite and instruments of indefinite pitch, as the pitches of many toms (espe-
cially those with one head) can be heard fairly clearly.
Range: The pitch cannot always be heard clearly, but lies approximately between G and c .
However, the tom-toms should be considered as instruments of indefinite pitch.
Sound: with one head: open, clear, with a certain resonance and clearer definite pitch; with two
heads: rather dull, short and dry. In a drum set, the tom-toms fill the gap between the sounds
of the bass drum and the snare.
Beaters:
usually: drumsticks
additionally: wooden-headed beaters, soft and hard felt beaters, mallets
Membranophones 177
Use:
䡲 The general characteristics of the other drums apply here as well.
䡲 Various sound effects can be produced by using different beaters and striking different points
on the drum.
䡲 Muting: a cloth is laid on the drumhead.
Tom-tom set, classical and modern roto- (Remo-) tom-toms

Non-transposing instruments of definite pitch.
Tom-tom set
This instrument is also known as a bongo organ. It has a central spindle mechanism which
allows the instrument to be tuned, like the rotating timpani, by turning. It is made up of six
to thirteen individually tunable (also chromatically tunable) drums without frames, the res-
onating membranes of which are replaced with a wooden or metal plate with eight tightening
screws around the drumhead. Each instrument has the range of a 5th with a sound similar to
that of the bongos.
Range:
On larger instruments, this range can be extended to G below.
Classical roto-toms
A further variant of the tom-tom set on which the turning mechanism functions more quickly.
The drumhead, which can be made of different kinds of plastic, has only a single tuning frame.
The range of each instrument can be more than an octave, and the sound resembles that of the
tom-toms: it is dry and does not ring as long as the timpani or Remo-toms. Classical roto-toms,
today somewhat old-fashioned, consist of three drums.
Range:
10'' (25 cm) 8'' (20 cm) 6'' (15 cm)
Modern roto-toms
Also called Remo-toms after their inventor, they have timpani-like kettle resonators. Their
sound is clearer and more precise than that of the timpani and resembles that of the timbales
(see page 176). The sound rings longer than that of tom-toms of indefinite pitch – approxi-
mately 2 seconds. In modern orchestras, the classical roto-toms are usually replaced by modern
roto- (Remo-) toms.
Ranges:
18'' (45 cm) 16'' (40 cm) 14'' (35 cm) 12'' (30 cm) 10'' (25 cm) 8'' (20 cm) 6'' (15 cm)
Compared with the classical roto-toms, they sound more like timpani and are well suited to
be used as an extension of the high timpani into the upper range. They blend well with other
instruments, even better than the timpani (especially in chamber music ensembles). When
used in combination with timpani, which are notated normally according to their pitch, it is
important that the roto- (Remo-) toms are notated with x-shaped noteheads:
Timpani Moderato
and
Roto- (Remo-)
toms
Both kinds of roto-toms are tuned by turning the head, either clockwise (which tightens the
head and raises the pitch) or counter-clockwise (which relaxes the head and lowers the pitch).
Beaters:
usually: small hard and soft felt beaters (for precise tones)
additionally: drumsticks and timbales sticks (for sound with a dominating noise component
accompanying the stroke)
rubber or plastic-headed beaters
Chinese tom-toms
These instruments from China were very popular during the development of jazz toward the
end of the 1930s in the Afro-American music of North America. Two sizes were available,
small and large. The body of the instrument, usually painted with ornamental Chinese motifs
(dragons, flowers, etc.) was domed in the middle.
Sound: dull and ringing; the sound is reinforced by free-moving spiral springs within the
instrument.
Range: Although the drums are actually instruments of indefinite pitch, some pitch can be
discerned. The large instruments lie between G and g, the smaller ones between c and c .
Beaters: usually small soft felt beaters; otherwise small hard felt beaters, drumsticks
Use:
䡲 Used in dance bands before the invention of tom-toms.
䡲 Used as a substitute for the color of other similar drums.
䡲 Various colors can be produced with different beaters.
Japanese tom-toms
O-daiko
A large Japanese barrel drum, used by Orff. It has a very compact head which is struck with
large, wooden-headed beaters, producing a loud, timpani-like sound.
Taiko
Also used by Orff. Similar to the snare drum, but with a very thick head producing a bright,
penetrating sound.
Native American tom-toms

A wooden frame with one or two membranes, built in three sizes (small, medium and large).
Sound: like a snare drum with snares off. Played with Native American tom-tom beaters
(round-headed beaters with or without leather covering), drumsticks or mallets.
Drum set
This is neither a single instrument nor a group of like instruments, but rather a collection of
various instruments. Because the tom-toms outnumber the other instruments in the set, we
discuss the drum set in the context of the tom-toms. There are many different combinations of
the drum set, but the following is the most usual:
Chordophones 179
䡲 snare drum
䡲 three tom-toms (a standing tom on the player’s right and two hanging tom-toms mounted
on the bass drum)
䡲 bass drum (with foot pedal)
䡲 two or three cymbals in differing sizes
䡲 hi-hat
䡲 one or two cowbells
The set is usually played with snare drumsticks, brushes, marimba beaters, and so on.
The drum set player can play up to four instruments simultaneously, producing very satisfying
results even in complex rhythmic combinations (assuming the player is good!). Either one or
two systems are used in notation, depending upon the complexity of the drum set part.
The drum set plays a very important role in popular music and is also used often in serious
music.
Friction drums
These friction instruments probably originated in India. Although they are known in many
cultures, they appear only very rarely in art music. They are instruments of indefinite pitch.
Friction drum
A friction drum consisting of a tin cylinder which is closed at one end with a stretched mem-
brane. This membrane has a hole in its center which is run through with either several threads
or cords (thread drum) or a wooden stake or straw (rod drum). Moved back and forth, this
long object rubs against the membrane and makes it vibrate, producing a dull rumbling sound
similar to a lion’s roar. The pitch can be varied by pressing upon the membrane.
Lion’s roar or string drum

This is, technically speaking, a whirled friction drum, but in a rather primitive form. The thread
which is strung through the membrane is secured with a knot beneath it, and the other end is
attached with a loop to a handle. A motion from the handle swings the cylinder through the
air and the thread rubs on the membrane from the loop, creating vibrations that are amplified
in the drum. A more refined version of this instrument has been developed for use in the
orchestra.
Cuica
This Latin American version of the friction drum looks like a large bongo. A stake, placed in
the middle of the membrane, is rubbed by the right hand with a damp cloth. The instrument is
held on the body with a belt and stabilized with the left hand, which can also change the pitch
of the drum by pressing upon the membrane.
Chordophones
The string, plucked and keyboard instruments which belong to the chordophone family are
discussed in other chapters of this book. One representative instrument is considered a per-
cussion instrument and thus requires discussion here.
Cimbalon
The cimbalon developed from the hackbrett – a very ancient instrument – and is the most
typical instrument of Hungarian gypsy ensembles. It is shaped like a trapezoid, square or
rectangle and has four legs. Its 35 string choirs are divided into 16 in the bass (with 1–3 strings)
and 19 in the descant (with 4–5 strings). Its metal strings are struck with a clapper which is
held between the index and middle fingers. The modern version of the cimbalon has a foot
with damper pedals. It is a non-transposing instrument of definite pitch.
Range:
Sound: softly metallic, wiry, with a certain resonance which resembles that of the harpsichord
and harp
Beaters: clapper
Use:
䡲 for folkloristic effects (“Hungarian”)
䡲 good for quick, flowing passages, arpeggios, melodic passages
䡲 Notes of longer duration are played with rolls.
䡲 Like the piano, it is notated in treble and bass clef.
䡲 A true two-voice or multi-voice composition is impossible for this instrument, except in the
case that each voice can be played with one clapper. In spite of this fact, typical writing for
this instrument (arpeggios, quick passages) provides for a rich sound.
Aerophones
The wind instruments which make up most of the aerophone family have already been dis-
cussed in their own chapter. Apart from these, there are a few additional aerophones of the
percussion family. Most of them are used to imitate sounds or noises that we know from every-
day life, so that they can be called noise instruments and/or imitative instruments.
Wind machine
This consists of a frame in the form of a large wooden cylinder which is rotated with a crank
handle. A very realistic wind effect is created by thin pieces of wood which are stroked against
the cylinder. This wiping, swiping sound can be intensified by quicker rotation of the cylinder.
Richard Strauss was the first to use the wind machine in the orchestra (Don Quixote, Eine
Alpensinfonie), followed later by Milhaud, Ravel, Orff and others.
Lotus flute
The lotus flute is a wooden, non-transverse flute without fingering holes. It consists of an ebony
tube containing a slide which can be moved by a wire rod to change the pitch. The sound is
similar to that of the recorder but is usually played with exaggerated vibrato. Changing the pitch
while playing produces an audible glissando. The lotus flute is a non-transposing instrument
of definite pitch and has the range g –c .
Whistles and sirens

There are widely varying instruments in terms of size, form and sound. The arranger should
specify in the score which kind of sound is desired. Possibilities include signal whistles, police
whistles, oscillating whistles, siren whistles (with available glissando: the pitch becomes higher
when the air pressure is suddenly increased) and alarm sirens.
Notation of percussion instruments 181
Automobile horns
These instruments were used mostly in scores of the early twentieth century to create impres-
sions of big city life.
Cuckoo call and bird whistle

The cuckoo call is an aerophone containing a column of air which can be varied in length in
order to alter the pitch. Its range lies approximately between b and c . The bird whistle is a
metal whistle with a small container of water which is lightly blown upon.
Toy trumpets and horns

These are further aerophones on which tones are produced by blowing on a metal tongue.
Notation of percussion instruments

The many different kinds of percussion instruments require many systems of notation. Individ-
ual characteristics of notation have already been discussed in relation to specific instruments.
Now we will discuss more general questions of notation for percussion instruments.
Clefs
Instruments of definite pitch are notated on one or two normal five-line staves in treble or bass
clef. Instruments of indefinite pitch are notated either on a five-line staff with a neutral clef ( )
or on a tablature staff of one or more lines also using a neutral clef.
If a single staff is used for both instruments of definite and indefinite pitch, then each change
between instruments must be noted with a change of clef.
Notation on ﬁve-line staves

In using a regular five-line staff for instruments of indefinite pitch, one must be careful to
always use a certain line or space for the same instrument during the whole piece, if at all
possible. There is no single correct way of doing this, and one should try to use common sense,
as illustrated here:
Stand Tom-tom 2 hanging Tom-toms Crash Cymbals Cowbell
Bass Drum Snare Drum Tam-tam Sus. Cymbal Triangle
If a space or line must be shared by two instruments, one must be sure that these instruments
are never used at the same time. Even when each line and space is strictly assigned to only one
instrument, it is recommended to give the instrument’s name or symbol each time it enters.
This enhances clarity and is much appreciated by those reading the score – and if the composer
doesn’t do it, the conductor will in any case.
䡲 As far as possible, higher-sounding instruments should be written higher on the staff and
lower-sounding instruments lower down.
䡲 Ledger lines can be used to expand the staff.
Notation in tablature
As we have already seen in the chapter on string instruments, tablature is a staff consisting of
only one or a few lines. Tablature can be very helpful in notation for percussion instruments
and can be used to replace a normal five-line staff. For example, four tom-toms can either be
notated in the four spaces of a normal five-line staff or on a four-line tablature:
4 Tom-toms
4 Tom-toms
Tablature can be used in many different ways. If different kinds of instruments are notated, the
lines can be drawn further apart; for similar instruments, the lines can be closer together. In
the latter case, a bracket is placed at the beginning of each system. This notation is suited for
instruments of indefinite pitch.
a.
Snare D.
b. or
Snare D. 2 Tom-toms
Bass D.
c.
Snare D. or
Bass D. 2 Tom-toms
d.
3 Tom-toms
e.
3 Tom-toms
f.
Trgl.
Snare D. or
Bass D. 3 Tom-toms
a. one instrument on each line: noteheads on the line, stems up or down (up is better, as this
leaves more room for writing dynamics.)
b. two (similar or dissimilar) instruments on one line: noteheads above and below the line.
c. two (similar or dissimilar) instruments on two lines
d. three (similar) instruments on one line: relatively seldom used
e. three (similar) instruments on two lines
f. three (similar or dissimilar) instruments on three lines
For four or more similar instruments, either a regular five-line staff (for example, four tom-
toms in the four spaces or five temple blocks on the five lines) or a four- or five-line tabla-
ture is used. In the case of four or more dissimilar instruments, a regular five-line staff can
be used as in the example on page 181. But when the instruments are used frequently and
at the same time, it is better to use a staff for two instruments or a separate line for each
instrument.
Noteheads
Some composers use different-shaped noteheads to differentiate between the various instru-
ments, such as: / / / / . This makes a notation which is already usually somewhat
complicated even more so, and thus is not recommended. Besides, these symbols (espe-
cially the x-shaped noteheads) are also used for different methods of sound produc-
tion and different beaters. As long as the instruments are notated one or two to a staff,
this kind of symbol is superfluous. Note duration with x-shaped noteheads is given as
follows:
Rests
When notating instruments which have no reverberation (snare drum, tom-toms, claves, wood
block, whip, etc.), avoid notating unnecessary rests. They make the score more complicated and
difficult to read:
Moderato
Woodblock
not:
Moderato
Woodblock
If there is a resonating sound that should be dampened, then a rest must be notated. The two
versions of the following example produce differing results:
Slowly Slowly
Crash Cymbals Crash Cymbals
Slurs
Phrase marks can indicate either phrase lengths or the fluid transition of one instrument to
another.
Moderato
3 Tom-toms
Supplementing notation
Notation for percussion instruments requires more written instructions and additional sym-
bols than that for other instruments. Sometimes simple notation is not enough. Whether a
snare drum, for example, should be played normally, on the rim, on the side or with a “rim
shot” – this must be reflected differently in the notation. Abbreviations or symbols can be used
for these differing methods of sound production. There are many possibilities for combination:
Allegro
on the on the batter
shell ord. with fingers ord. rim shot
Snare D.
These symbols should be explained at the beginning of the score. Each symbol should then be
explained or its abbreviation given again the first time it is used in the score. After that, the
symbol alone is sufficient (in the example above, this is done for the rim shot).
Rolls
Unmeasured roll on a single tone
There are two notational possibilities used in the literature, only one of which is correct:
Only the first version is correct, as it means the same for all instruments. The second version
indicates a roll on a single tone for the timpani but a trill on the marimba.
It is important to use a tie to connect notes of a continuous roll, otherwise the notes will be
separated or receive accents. Some authors prefer a dotted tie here.
Snare D.
not:
Snare D.
On some mallet instruments such as the xylophone and marimba, each note of longer duration
is automatically played as a roll. If this is not desired, a note must be made to this effect.
Unmeasured roll on two tones

Usually this is notated as follows:
Timpani
There is one exception: the notation of the mallet instruments. The following notation, which
is actually “incorrect,” is generally used instead of the hard-to-read, “correct” notation. What
is required here is a quick alternation between the two notes on a single stem:
Slowly
Marimba
Measured roll
It is very good practice to write out the first beat in its entirety and to notate the remaining
duration as we discussed when notating tremolo on the string instruments (see page 35):
Slowly
Tenor Drum
6 6
Grace notes and ornaments

These are placed in front of the regular notes. They are used to accent them and are always
played before the beat. If these additional notes are to receive more weight, then they should
be written out in regular rhythmic division. Examples of grace notes have already been given
in the discussion of the snare drum (see page 171). These can be applied to most of the other
percussion instruments.
Special eﬀects and methods of sound production

Muting
Some instruments can be muted before sound is produced, either by hand (for example, a sus-
pended cymbal is held with the hand, then struck) or with another object (for example, a cloth
is laid on a timpano before it is struck). Usually the composer must specify how an instrument
is to be muted, as there are often many different ways of doing it. For muting with the hand,
the following symbols are used:
open (not muted): o
muted: +
Dampening
Here the sound is interrupted after the stroke, either by hand or with another object. Of course,
this technique can only be used on instruments that produce sound of some duration. As in
harp notation, the étouffé symbol or a diamond-shaped notehead is used:
a. b.
Vibraphone
Different points of impact

As already seen in the example on page 184, in addition to using different beaters on an instru-
ment, different locations on the instrument can also be struck, rubbed, scratched, and so forth.
This must be indicated with different-shaped noteheads or other symbols and supported by
written explanations.
Even various points on the same surface (for example, on the head of a timpano or drum, on
the body of a cymbal or gong) produce different acoustic results. These points can be indicated
in the score by the following method:
on the dome (cup)
on the bow
on the edge (rim)
l.v.
Suspended
Cymbal
In addition, the point of contact can be gradually varied:
Moderato
2 Timpani
3
Circular rubbing or scratching

If the construction of the instrument allows it, its resonator surface can be rubbed or scratched
in a circular motion:
(wire brushes)
Tam-tam
Dead stick/dead stroke

The beater is held on the surface after the stroke; it is not allowed to bounce back, but stays
pressed on the instrument. The sound is thus suddenly interrupted.
Snare Drum or
Grouping the percussion instruments 187
Playing with two beaters
Two beaters are used simultaneously and notated with stems up or down:
2 Tom-toms
Tuning of instruments of indefinite pitch

The tension of a membrane can be altered with the pressure of a finger, hand or elbow, depend-
ing on the size of the drum. The pitch is raised at first, of course, through the additional pres-
sure; then can it be raised further or lowered.
max.
pitch
Snare D.
3
Grouping the percussion instruments

Score layout
The percussion instruments should be arranged in such a way that their order remains con-
stant throughout the piece. There is no definite rule for this arrangement. We suggest, once the
necessary percussion instruments are decided, that they be arranged as is this book’s table of
contents, with one exception: the timpani should always be the first percussion instruments in
the score.
Notation
If a single tabulature staff or more than one regular staff is used, then the instruments should be
grouped by family. In notation with more than one tabulature, the lines for similar instruments
should be close together and connected with a bracket at the beginning of each system. The
lower-sounding instruments should be placed below the higher-sounding ones:
Triangle
2 Temple Bl.
Claves
4 Tom-toms
Tam-tam
Division amongst players
For economic reasons, no more than four or five percussionists (including the timpani player)
should be expected in a normal symphony orchestra. In a piece requiring a large range of per-
cussion instruments, each player will have to play more than one. The orchestrator can devise
a physical arrangement for the players and include it as a drawing in the score. In dividing up
the instruments, each player should receive a certain number of instruments and should not
be required to share them with the other players. If sharing of instruments is unavoidable (for
example, if an instrument is played alternately by two players), then it is very important that
such instruments are given to players who sit next to one another. Thus, if the claves should be
played by two different players, it is better if these are players 1 and 2 (or 2 and 3, etc.) than play-
ers 1 and 4. It is better to avoid unnecessary movement back and forth between instruments
on stage.
Each player can also play two instruments at once as long as this does not create technical
problems (instruments which do not fit together because of size or type; playing techniques;
complicated notation, etc.).
Instrument symbols
As mentioned already, due to the wide variety of percussion instruments available, the con-
ductor must be continually reminded which instruments are being used in the current score.
Instrument symbols or abbreviations are used for this purpose. The symbols have become more
or less standard these days and can be looked up in various books. The only difficulty is that
they are not always easy to draw. The author of this book has received feedback from dozens
of students stating that they cannot use these symbols as they are not capable of drawing them.
Thus we have attempted to simplify the symbols, sometimes adopting symbols from other
sources especially because they are easier to draw. The following table shows the symbols of
all the instruments in the same order in which we have discussed them in this book.
Suspended Cymbal
Sizzle Cymbal
Chinese Cymbal
Tam-tam T
Gongs G
Steel Drums SD
Bell Plates
Lithophone
Anvil
.
Auto-brake drums . .
.
Beat-board
Xylophone Xy
Soprano Trough Xylophone Sp
Instrument symbols 189
Tenor Trough Xylophone Tn
Bass Xylophone BXy
Marimba Ma
Bass Marimba BMa
Xylomarimba (Xylorimba) XyMa
Keyboard Xylophone (Klaviaturxylophon) KlXy
Orchestra Bells (Glockenspiel) Gs
Keyboard Glockenspiel (Klaviaturglockenspiel) KlGs
Vibraphone Vb
Metalophone Mt
Triangle
Tubaphone Tb
Tubular Bells (Chimes)

Slit Drum
Log Drum
Wood Blocks
Temple Blocks
Cylindrical or Tubular Wood Block
Wood-headed Drum
Wood Barrel
Bell
Cup Bells
Hand Bells
Shepherd Bells
Almglocken (Alpine/Swiss Cowbells)
Cencerros
Agogo
Cowbells
Glass Glockenspiel
Bones
Whip (Slapstick)
Castanets
Paddle-mounted Castanets
Crash Cymbals
Hi-hat
Antique Cymbals
Finger Cymbals
Cymbal Tongs
Claves
Sistrum
Flexatone
Cabaza
Maracas
Shaker
Sleigh Bell
Sleigh Bells
Bell Tree
Paddle-mounted Sleigh Bells

Chain
B
Bamboo Chimes
W
Wood Chimes
S
Shell Chimes
G
Glass Chimes (rods)
G
Glass Chimes (plates)
M
Metal Chimes (rods)
M
Metal Chimes (plates)
Quijada (Jawbone)
Vibra-slap
Metal Foil / Thunder Sheet
Ratchet
Sandpaper Blocks
Guiro
Reco-reco
Bamboo Scraper
Mouth Harp (Jew's Harp)
Singing Saw
Glass Harp
Glass Harmonica
Timpano
Tabor / Drum of Provence DP
Long Field Drum LF
Parade / Short Field Drum PD SD
Military Drum MD
Tenor Drum TD
Snare Drum with snares on

Snare Drum with snares off
Bass Drum
Tambourine
Tambourine without jingles
Bongos
Conga
Timbales
Tablas
Darabukka
Tom-toms
Tom-tom Set
Roto-tom-toms
Roto- (Remo-) tom-toms

Chinese Tom-toms Ch
Japanese Tom-toms Ja
Native American Tom-toms IA
Friction Drum
Lion's Roar / String Drum

Cuica
Cimbalon Cim
Wind Machine
Lotus Flute
Whistles
Sirens
Automobile Horns
Cuckoo Call
Bird Whistle
Beaters
From Berlioz onwards, composers began more and more to require certain types of beaters. In
contemporary music for percussion instruments the type of beater plays a major role, and this
is often designated in modern notation. For this reason, the beaters were included in detail in
our discussions of the individual instruments. There is also a system of symbols for the different
beaters, which is summed up in the following table:
Rubber-headed and plastic beaters: soft
medium
hard
==
Wooden-headed beaters
Metal-headed beaters
Timpani beaters: soft

medium
hard
wooden
Bass Drum and Tam-tam beaters: soft

medium
hard
metal heads
double heads
Drumsticks: with wooden heads
with plastic heads
Small wooden hammer
Small plastic hammer
Small metal hammer
Wooden hammer
Plastic hammer
Metal hammer
Triangle beater
Scraper
Spoon beater
Switch
Brush
String bow
Hand
Fist
Other beaters: individual symbols should be used.

Each of these symbols can be used exactly in the form in which it is listed here or also
modified – for example, to show wrapping of the head. The most usual methods for this are:
wrapped beater
padded beater
covered beater
In this example, the symbol for a hard rubber-headed beater was used. The same principle
can be used for all combinations: a wooden hammer padded with leather, a tam-tam beater
covered with felt, and so on. The type of material used (in these examples, leather and felt)
must be described from the start.
The number and type of beater for each hand can also be shown with symbols:
one beater per hand, two identical beaters
one beater per hand, two different beaters
one pair of beaters per hand,

both pairs identical, each consisting of two identical beaters

each pair different, consisting of two identical beaters

both pairs identical, each consisting of two different beaters
one pair of beaters per hand, each pair different and consisting
of two different beaters – four different beaters in all
These symbols are used to facilitate communication. Not all details concerning the beaters can
be given solely with symbols. The symbols give information about the beater’s type, its degree
of hardness and its covering. At the very least, a written explanation should be included at
the beginning of the piece which answers questions such as “Rubber-headed or plastic-headed
beaters?” or “Covered with thin leather, lambskin or soft felt?” Additionally, the symbol’s form
does not always correspond with the form of the beater itself (for example, a square form is used
for the timpani beater, and a rectangular symbol is used for the bass drum and the tam-tam).
Music parts for the players

The timpani player should receive a separate music part. If another instrument (for example,
the xylophone) is used a great deal in a particular piece, its player can also receive a separate
part. Normally it is preferable to write a part for each separate player and not for each separate
instrument. Thus the parts should be designated Percussion 1, Percussion 2, Percussion 3, and
so forth. The new trend is to integrate all the percussion voices (that is, all the players) in the
parts so that each player can see what the others play. Sometimes the timpani parts are included,
sometimes not.

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CHAPTER 3 PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

IDIOPHONES STRUCK DIRECTLY

Sound: very clear and precise

depending on the pitch they produce.

Sound: hard, dry, penetrating

Bars or rods struck with a beater: wooden mallet instruments

▫ all registers of the marimba,

▫ medium/soft: for marimba-like effects in the low register

Soprano trough xylophone (range: c –g )

Tenor trough xylophone (range: a–d )

Keyboard xylophone (Klaviaturxylophon)

Bars or rods struck with a beater: metal mallet instruments

䡲 Hard beaters are used for:

Orchestra bells (glockenspiel)

Notation Sound 8va

Keyboard glockenspiel (Klaviaturglockenspiel)

Tubes struck with a beater

Tubular bells (chimes)

Vessels struck with a beater

Wood-headed drum and wood barrel

Beaters: clapper (from within, “ringing”), hammers (from without, “striking”)

Cup bells and hand bells

Almglocken (Alpine/Swiss cowbells)

Beaters: wrapped wooden-headed beaters

Idiophones struck together: wood plates

Machine (concert) castanets

Idiophones struck together: metal plates

Antique cymbals (cymbales antiques, crotales)

Sound: similar to the glockenspiel, but carries less well

Idiophones struck together: concussion sticks

IDIOPHONES STRUCK INDIRECTLY

Shaken idiophones with a vessel

Shakers: chocallo and kamesu

Sleigh bells, bell tree and paddle-mounted sleigh bells

Shaken idiophones with a set of individual pieces

Bamboo or wood chimes

Shaken idiophones with a sheet

Idiophones that are scraped

IDIOPHONES THAT ARE PLUCKED

IDIOPHONES THAT ARE BOWED OR RUBBED

Sound: like the glass harp

Timpani and their ranges

components, the dissonance will not even be noticed.

Sound 1st notation 2nd notation 3rd notation

Tabor, or drum of Provence (It.: tamburo provenzale; Ger.: Tambourin; Fr.:

Long field drum (Fr.: caisse roulante avec cordes)

Tenor drum (Fr.: caisse roulante)

Snare drum (Fr.: caisse claire)

䡲 It can be very effective in all dynamics including piano.

䡲 There are four ways of executing a rim shot:

Tambourine (It.: tamburo basco; Ger.; Schellentrommel; Fr.: tambour de Basque)

Tambourine without jingles

Stroke Sound Symbol Beaters Point of impact Finger position

Tom-tom set, classical and modern roto- (Remo-) tom-toms

On larger instruments, this range can be extended to G below.

Native American tom-toms

Lion’s roar or string drum

Whistles and sirens

Cuckoo call and bird whistle

Toy trumpets and horns

Notation of percussion instruments

Notation on ﬁve-line staves

Bass Drum Snare Drum Tam-tam Sus. Cymbal Triangle