INCLUSIVE EDUCATION (INC3701)

DR HR MAAPOLA-THOBEJANE
and
DR TI MASHAU

(DEPARTMENT OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION)

Only Study Guide for INC3701

Contents
1 THE NOTION AND PHILOSOPHY OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION ............................... 1
1.1 Introduction................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Definition of inclusive education ................................................................................. 1
1.3 Inclusive education in the South African context ........................................................ 2
1.3.1The South African approach to inclusive education .................................................. 2
1.3.2 What is inclusive teaching? ..................................................................................... 9
1.3.3 Sociocultural consciousness and affirming views about diversity ............................ 9
1.3.4 Knowledge............................................................................................................. 10
1.3.5 The role of teachers in inclusive school communities ............................................ 11
1.3.6 Indigenous Knowledge Systems as part of inclusive teaching and learning .......... 12
1.3.7 Teacher and learner agency.................................................................................. 13
1.3.8 Power dynamics in school communities ................................................................ 19
1.3.9 A summary of inclusive teacher characteristics ..................................................... 23
1.4Theories underpinning inclusive education ............................................................... 26
1.4.1Critical theory ......................................................................................................... 26
1.4.2 African philosophies .............................................................................................. 26
1.4.3 Social constructivism ............................................................................................. 27
1.5 Academic theories and models of inclusive education ............................................. 27
1.5.1 Theories and models related to inclusive education .............................................. 28
1.5.2Ecological systems theory and Bronfenbrenner’s model ........................................ 31
1.5.3Critical diversity literacy (CDL) ............................................................................... 33
1.5.4 Theories and models of inclusive education in practice ........................................ 36
1.5.5 Two other theories underpinning inclusive education ............................................ 39
1.6 The epistemological underpinnings of inclusive education ....................................... 40
2 THE CONTEXT OF EXCLUSION AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION POLICIES........... 42
2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 43
2.2 Definitions of exclusion ............................................................................................. 46
2.2.1 Inherited exclusions from the past ......................................................................... 48
2.3 Inclusive education policies, laws and agreements: South Africa and beyond ......... 52
2.3.1 International human rights and inclusive education ............................................... 53
2.3.2 Inclusive education policies and laws: South Africa and Africa ............................. 56
2.4 Summary of South African policies supporting inclusive education .......................... 60
3 LEARNER DIVERSITY ............................................................................................... 66
3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 66
3.2 Defining diversity ...................................................................................................... 68
3.2.1 Diversity in learning ............................................................................................... 69
3.3 Diversity in the classroom......................................................................................... 75
3.3.1 Levels of learners’ access to the curriculum .......................................................... 77
3.3.2 Ways of making meaning from learning ................................................................ 77
3.3.3The ways that learners behave .............................................................................. 78
3.4 Learners’ socio-economic circumstances ................................................................. 80
3.4.1 Impact of poverty on education outcomes ............................................................ 80
3.4.2 Put yourself in their shoes ..................................................................................... 82
3.5 Psychosocial wellbeing ............................................................................................ 83
3.5.1 Learner behaviour ................................................................................................. 84
3.5.2 Thoughts, feelings and emotions ........................................................................... 85
3.6 Disability ................................................................................................................... 94
3.6.1 Defining disability .................................................................................................. 95
3.6.1.1 Diversity and disability ........................................................................................ 96
3.6.2 Gender identity and sexual orientation .................................................................. 99
3.6.3Understanding prejudice and discrimination ......................................................... 101
3.6.4Promoting a culture of safety, inclusivity and non-discrimination in schools ......... 102
3.6.5 Promoting a culture of inclusion in your school ................................................... 102
3.6.6 Race, culture and religion .................................................................................... 103
3.6.7 Language ............................................................................................................ 104
3.6.8 Diversity and intersectionality .............................................................................. 104
3.6.9 Equity to ensure equal education for all .............................................................. 107
3.6.10 Attitudes to learner diversity .............................................................................. 112
3.6.11 Learner diversity as an obstacle ........................................................................ 112
3.7 Valuing and affirming learner diversity: an asset-based approach ......................... 115
3.7.1 Social model thinking .......................................................................................... 117
3.7.2 Medical and social model thinking ....................................................................... 118
3.7.3 Quality education for all ....................................................................................... 121
4 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES .................................................................... 124
4.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 124
4.2 What is an inclusive school community? ................................................................ 129
4.3 Stakeholders in inclusive school communities........................................................ 132
4.3.1 Policy mandates for school and government structures ...................................... 133
4.4 Enacting inclusive school communities through teacher and learner agency ......... 134
4.4.1 Teacher agency in practice ................................................................................. 134
4.4.2 Promoting learner agency ................................................................................... 137
4.4.3 The South African framework and tool for building inclusive schools .................. 139
4.5 Care and support for teaching and learning—a SADC initiative ............................. 139
4.5.1 How the CSTL framework fits into the global and African agenda ....................... 140
4.5.2 The CSTL approach ............................................................................................ 143
4.5.3 CSTL in South Africa ........................................................................................... 145
4.6 Using the screening, identification, assessment and support (sias) process to build
support into the education system ................................................................................ 150
4.6.1 What is the purpose of SIAS? ............................................................................. 150
4.6.2 Principles of SIAS ................................................................................................ 150
4.6.3 The SIAS process ............................................................................................... 154
4.6.4 SIAS documents and role-players in individual support planning ........................ 160
4.6.5 The teacher’s role in implementing SIAS ............................................................ 163
4.6.4 SNA2 and Individual Support Plan (ISP) ............................................................. 165
4.7 Different ways of working together ......................................................................... 167
4.8 Characteristics of collaborative practices in inclusive school communities ............ 172
4.8.1 Models of collaborative practice .......................................................................... 172
4.8.2 Characteristics of effective collaboration ............................................................. 174
4.8.3 Benefits of collaboration ...................................................................................... 174
4.8.4 Collaboration among teachers............................................................................. 175
4.8.5 Creating an enabling environment for child-centred collaboration: collaboration
through the CSTL ......................................................................................................... 179
4.8.6 Building community relationships ........................................................................ 181
4.8.7 Challenges to collaboration ................................................................................. 183
5 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING ............................................................... 184
5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 185
5.2 Understanding inclusive pedagogy......................................................................... 186
5.2.1 What does inclusive teaching and learning mean? ............................................. 186
5.2.2 How is the thinking different? .............................................................................. 187
5.2.3 What does inclusive pedagogy do and not do? ................................................... 188
5.2.3.1 Creating an inclusive school culture ................................................................. 188
5.2.3.2 What does inclusive pedagogy mean for you? ................................................. 190
5.3 Using diversity as an asset: practical strategies that support learning for all .......... 197
5.4 Creating an inclusive classroom environment ........................................................ 200
5.4.1 Creating and maintaining an inclusive classroom community ............................. 200
5.4.1.1 Types of learning environment ......................................................................... 200
5.4.1.2 How to develop an inclusive classroom community ............ Error! Bookmark not
defined.
5.4.2 Planning and catering for accessibility and engagement ..................................... 211
5.4.3 Positive discipline ................................................................................................ 215
5.4.4 Affirming diversity ................................................................................................ 230
5.4.4.1 Affirming diversity through Indigenous Knowledge Systems ............................ 231
5.4.5 Allowing space for the learners’ voices ............................................................... 232
5.5 Using inclusive teaching and learning strategies .................................................... 234
5.5.1 Scaffolding........................................................................................................... 234
5.5.2 Differentiated teaching and learning .................................................................... 237
5.5.2.2 Another differentiated teaching strategy: Multi-level teaching and learning ...... 252
5.5.3 Peer learning, cooperative learning and group work ........................................... 259
5.2.1 Starting from and linking to what learners already know ..................................... 266
5.5.5 Multi-modal and multi-sensory approaches ......................................................... 268
5.5.5.1 Using ICT for teaching and learning ................................................................. 270
5.5.6 Assessment for learning ...................................................................................... 272
5.6 Planning inclusive lessons...................................................................................... 280
5.6.1 Developing clear, achievable and measurable objectives ................................... 280
5.7 Summary ................................................................................................................ 286

Abbreviations

CAPS Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement

CBO Community-based organisation

CBST Circuit-Based Support Team

CSTL Care and Support for Teaching and Learning

DBE Department of Basic Education

DoE Department of Education

DBST District-Based Support Team

FBO Faith-based organisation

LSE Learning Support Educator

LTSM Learning and Teaching Support Material

NGO Non-governmental organisation

PIRLS Progress in International Reading Study

PLC Professional Learning Committee

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

RCL Representative Council of Learners

SADC Southern African Development Community

SBST School-Based Support Team

SGB School Governing Body

SIAS Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (Policy)

SMT School Management Team

SSRC Special School Resource Centre

WHO World Health Organization

CAPS Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement

DBE Department of Basic Education

DoE Department of Education

ISP Individual Support Plan

MLT Multi-level teaching

PBIS Positive Behavioural Interventions and Support Programme

SBST School-Based Support Team

 LEARNING UNIT 1
THE NOTION AND PHILOSOPHY OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

OUTCOMES
When you have completed Learning U1, you should be able to:
• Define inclusive education
• Describe inclusive education in the South African context
• Explain theories underpinning inclusive education
• Discuss academic theories and models of inclusive education
• Describe the epistemological underpinnings of inclusive education

1.1 Introduction

The focus of this unit is to thoroughly define inclusive education, describe inclusive
education in the South African context, explain the theoretical assumptions in inclusive
education, discuss the academic theories and models of inclusive education, and the
epistemological standpoints in response to the theoretical assumptions and academic
defence of epistemological standpoints.

1.2 Definition of inclusive education

Before we can define inclusive education, it is critical to comprehend the term "inclusion".
Inclusion is an ambiguous term. This is due to conceptual challenges in defining the
philosophy, as well as what constitutes proof of its practice and model practice (Florian,
2012).
Inclusion attempts to improve learners' participation in local school cultures, curricula, and
communities while reducing their marginalisation. It involves restructuring the cultures,
policies, and practices in schools so that they respond to the diversity of learners. Inclusion
is concerned with the learning and participation of all learners vulnerable to exclusionary
pressures, not only those with disabilities or those categorised as experiencing barriers to
learning and development.
Inclusion is concerned with improving schools for staff as well as learners. It is about
acknowledging that all learners have a right to education in their local community. Diversity
is not viewed as a problem to overcome, but as a rich resource to support the learning of
all. Inclusion is concerned with fostering mutually sustaining relationships between
schools and communities. To realise successful and effective inclusion, teachers must
possess a good understanding of external and internal barriers to learning and be
prepared to respond to all learners’ individual needs.
For inclusion to be realised, inclusivity must be put into practice. The practice of inclusivity in
education is thus called inclusive education (IE), it is a continuous process aiming at offering
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high-quality education to all students while respecting diversity and the different needs,
interests, traits, learning expectations of learners and communities, and eradicating all forms
of prejudice (UNESCO, 2009:126). The internationalisation of inclusive education is motivated
by historical, social, cultural, and economic factors. Inclusive education is a fundamental
human right derived from the idea of equality, which, if recognised, would contribute to a
democratic society. The belief that there is no clear separation between the characteristics
of learners with and without special needs underpins inclusive education.
There are various service delivery models in inclusive education. These include
mainstream schools, full- service schools and special schools. This variety stems from
various factors including the level and intensity of learners’ support needs..
According to Hewitt (2005), inclusive educational settings offer all learners the following
benefit:

• Equal opportunity to develop social, communication, academic, positive conduct,

and coping skills that cannot be achieved in special education settings
• Acquiring education alongside their regularly developing peers
• More interaction with peers
• Preparation for real-life situations
• A sense of belonging within society
• Greater access to the general education curriculum and high-quality instruction,
leading to improved developmental outcomes
• Opportunities for developing communication skills within a natural setting
• Academic content exposure and learning chances

STOP AND REFLECT!

How inclusive am I? Do I believe that it is my responsibility to accommodate the
needs of all my learners?
1.3 Inclusive education in the South African context

In this section we will clarify key concepts related to inclusive education and inclusive
teaching, and the expectations for the actions and characteristics of teachers in South
Africa.

1.3.1 The South African approach to inclusive education

There is not one shared definition of inclusive education. Classrooms and schools are the
products of different cultural, political and economic systems, with different dynamics of
inclusion and exclusion. Which learners are considered to be “marginalised” can therefore
vary from context to context. As a result, the practice of inclusive education is as diverse
as the classrooms, schools, communities and countries in which it is practised. If its core
principles have been grasped, it can be applied in many different ways.
“It is important to advance a rationale and understanding of inclusive education in South
Africa that extends beyond universal values systems and examine own histories and
cultural traditions of knowledge production and ground it in local community settings”
(Phasha, Mahlo & Dei, 2017),

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In South Africa, we must take care not to allow models of inclusive education from
developed countries of the global North to distort and obscure the dynamics, challenges
and opportunities specific to us. This module is informed by the human-rights, strengths-
based, Afrocentric, and broad approach to inclusive education. Let’s examine these
approaches in more detail.

1.3.1.1 A human-rights approach

Embedded in the human-rights approach is a strong belief that human beings are born
equal and therefore must be afforded equal dignity and rights. In a human-rights approach:
• Education is a basic right for all learners
• Education should be accessible, of a good quality, and offered in educational
environments that embrace and respect learner diversity
• Education should offer all learners opportunities to participate actively, learn to the
best of their ability and, most importantly, succeed
• Those who hold responsibility for children’s development—the state, families,
communities, teachers, civil society organisations, as well as the international
community—should collaborate to provide an environment that enables quality,
respectful, participative education to all in order that everyone can have an equitable
chance of success
Most learners in South Africa have been denied quality education and have had unequal
opportunities to succeed. It can be argued that even those who were historically privileged
were robbed of the opportunities to understand and appreciate those who were different
from them. In South Africa, inclusive education should be—and is seen by the government
as—the educational strategy most likely to address the harms of the past and contribute
to the creation of a democratic and just society where everyone’s rights are equally
respected (Engelbrecht, 2006).

1.3.1.2 A strengths-based approach

A strengths-based approach is a collaborative strategy. It involves identifying and building
on an individual’s strengths and capacity to design support strategies that bring positive
change (Pattoni, 2012). This approach values collaboration between individuals (learners)
and stakeholders (teachers, families, communities, and so on). It suggests that there are
no deficits in an individual. Problems are external to an individual; the problem is the
problem (Hammond & Zimmerman, 2017). Hammond and Zimmerman share the following
social principles which are embedded in this strategy:
• The rights of individuals to genuine ownership and participation in the process of
change in which they are involved.
• Enabling people to engage in strategies, relationships and reflection where they
identify and define their strengths, aspirations and goals.

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• To embrace the sharing of power and resources, and to ensure that power imbalances
among stakeholders are acknowledged and addressed fairly; all practice needs to be
open, transparent, consultative, inclusive and collaborative.
• Recognising and taking steps to address the structural and cultural aspects of a
person’s life that limit their ability to control their own life.

1.3.1.3 An Afrocentric approach

Aims of an Afrocentric approach

An Afrocentric approach advocates for the understanding of knowledge and reality from
the position of Africans. This standpoint does not support the use of non-African
approaches to understand problems in Africa, as that is seen as promoting colonial
supremacy. Asante, cited in Phasha (2017), asserts that:
[W]hen Africans, continental or diasporan, view themselves as centered
and central in their own history then they can see themselves as agents,
actors and participants rather than as marginals on the periphery of the
political or economic experience of Europe.

The adoption of an Afrocentric approach can contribute to the appreciation and

acceptance of African values and ideals. Phasha et al. (2017: 5) stress that:
a. rethinking of African schooling and education has to take us back to
our roots and an examination of our histories and cultural traditions of
knowledge production, dissemination and its use. We need to look at
education from this source in terms of its connections with family life,
community and social relevance, and see how the question of difference
was evoked and responded to.

b. Africa’s vision of children’s participation

The CSTL Children’s Participation Framework (2018) identifies national
education systems as being responsible for driving Africa’s vision of rights-based
inclusive and sustainable development. It recognises education as having a
fundamentally transformative purpose: to prepare children to be active and
engaged citizens in social, economic, political and cultural life and in so doing be
the agents of sustainable development.

Agenda 2063 mainly attributes the failure to attain previous development goals to poor
quality education, which has not adequately prepared the most marginalised children to
take their place as active, engaged citizens and drive sustainable development. Crucially,
education has failed to prepare them to be economically active and find employment in
modern society (African Union 2013, in CSTL, 2018).
To address the above challenges, it is required that by 2040 all African education systems
should ensure: (African Union, 2013: 12-13):
• Access to and integration of affordable information and communication technology
devices, content and connectivity
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• A pedagogical approach that equips learners for employment and entrepreneurship,
with a focus on technology, engineering, mathematics and informational technology,
and that ensures girls participate fully in these subjects.
• A rights-based curriculum with common features and standards across the continent,
aimed at critical thinking and leadership, and espousing the values of integrity,
accountability and transformative citizenship.
• That children are prepared for change and equipped to be change agents; that they
receive age-appropriate, informed and evidence-based education on sexuality and
reproductive rights; that themes such as gender violence, discrimination and abuse
and harmful cultural practices are addressed as part of a life-skills learning
programme.
• That every child knows their rights and responsibilities

ACTIVITY 1.1

What role could teachers play in ensuring that all African education systems address the
above challenges by 2040?

1.3.1.4 A broad approach

As we have seen, inclusive education is essential to ensuring sustainable development.
While there is no one overall definition of inclusive education, there are some principles
that combine to make up what can be described as a broad approach to inclusive
education. We outline three key principles below.

1. Affirming diversity
Inclusive education affirms learner diversity. Each learner has natural, unique
characteristics that influence how they make meaning from learning, and make them
special and different from others. These characteristics include race; ethnicity; socio-
economic circumstances; family circumstances; physical and mental health, gender and
other identity; culture; religion; beliefs; specific physical, cognitive and sensory
characteristics.

2. Focus on all learners

You may previously have heard people talk about inclusive education as being focused
on children who have a learning disability or difficulty that leads to them being seen as
having “special educational needs”. As you can see from the list above, whilst these
children make up one aspect of inclusive education, diversity in classrooms comes from a
far wider base. Education for “special educational needs” and inclusive education are not
the same thing, and these terms cannot be used interchangeably.
The approach adopted by this module rejects definitions of inclusive education that focus
narrowly on “special needs” or disability. Inclusive education is a broad and dynamic
approach for responding positively to all learners by:

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 • Giving them their right to attend school in their home community (physical access)
• Increasing their participation in a curriculum that is inclusive of their experiences and
realities (engagement in quality education)
• Ensuring that they experience success in education and other areas of development.

“An education system appropriate to the demands of the twenty-first century must be
designed to establish a foundation of knowledge, values, attitudes and skills for all children
and to nurture the particular talents of each child” (Commission on Social Justice,
1994:131).

3. Responding to exclusion using the social model of disability

Inclusive education as a broad approach responds to exclusion from all spheres of life,
and in particular at school, by paying attention to its culture, the curriculum and the
community. It acknowledges the existence of barriers to learning and participation which
can prevent learners from access and engagement in the school system, much like a fence
or a wall. Some of these barriers are as a result of dominant systems of power and
privilege, which we will discuss in more detail in Learning Unit 5.
For some children, several of their different characteristics intersect or overlap, and they
therefore experience the effects of more than one system of power and oppression. This
experience can lead to them experiencing multiple barriers to learning and participation.
The study of how these human characteristics overlap and the impact of these overlaps,
is called intersectionality.
Intersectionality, in other words, is basically the study of what happens when different
forms of discrimination, domination and oppression combine, overlap and intersect.
The concept of intersectionality was introduced to feminist theory by Kimberlé Crenshaw
in 1989. She examined the interaction between race and gender, arguing that the
experience of being both black and a woman could not be viewed separately, but that their
intersection created a unique experience (Crenshaw, 1989). Since then, the concept has
been broadened to include other factors that make us different. Intersectionality examines
the ways in which several factors can intersect or come together in one person’s life to
increase their marginalisation or exclusion.
In order to respond to everyone’s unique experiences in ways that work to decrease
marginalisation and exclusion, we need to understand intersectionality. Given the role of
teachers as change agents in providing equitable, rights-based, inclusive education for all,
we will spend some time exploring intersectionality further through an activity.

ACTIVITY 1.2
Read the case study below and consider the following questions:
1. What’s going on in Sihle’s life? Note down the different factors in her life that have
influenced her thinking about her life and her ambitions.
2. Next, draw lines between the factors that you think are connected, or overlap in
some way. You will probably end up with something that looks quite messy—just
like real life. Doing this should give you a good idea of how Sihle’s circumstances
intersect to compound the difficulties and inequalities she faces.

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 3. Now let’s turn our attention to the roles of different people and institutions involved
in Sihle’s life. From your own knowledge and experience, as well as the case study,
in what ways do the following have the potential to increase or decrease the
intersecting inequalities Sihle faces?
• family
• school
• services in her community
• friends
4. What do you notice about Sihle’s agency as a learner and as a young woman?
What do you think the role of agency is for young South Africans in overcoming
the intersecting inequalities that many of them face?

CASE STUDY: SIHLE, A GRADE 10 LEARNER FROM JOHANNESBURG

Describing myself in conversation often proves to be a task without much difficulty. However,
writing an article about my identity is more challenging.
At the turn of the century, 2000, I was born and named Sihle Mazibu. Many view this period to be
a carefree one. However, it presents a great amount of introspection and self-development to
prepare myself for the senior phase, as well as the future.
As a South African teenager, aspirations, goals and dreams play an important role in my daily life
and are a necessity in motivating myself to strive for those dreams that seem unreachable. I aspire
to get into a career that I am passionate about, hopefully in writing. I hope to pursue journalism
and somehow make a difference in society, whether it is in my writing or motivating those who
may not have their voices heard or have the opportunities that I have had.
I aspire to be an inspiration to women in order for them to realise their potential.
I want to be an inspiration to young black women, like me, or those who come from underprivileged
backgrounds, so that they may realise that they are as powerful as any other demographic.
My biggest aspiration, although a cliché, is to be happy and fulfilled. As a female South African
teenager, there are many challenges and obstacles that I may face in my progression into
adulthood. I think my biggest challenge is doubt, especially self-doubt. Believing that you are not
as good or worthy as your seemingly overachieving peers is a detrimental belief to hold. This is
what stood in my way of doing my best to accomplish or initiate certain activities, such as simple
extramural or even sharing my passion for writing with many others that I subconsciously
convinced myself I was inferior to.
Socially, my challenge is attempting to excel as a female South African. For instance, a 2016 report
by McKinsey & Company, Women Matter Africa, showed that in the private sector in Africa, only
5% of women are CEOs. This is just one of many statistics that show the difficulty and inequality
that women face.
The economy proves to be an ever-challenging factor in South Africa, and this too may be a
challenge for me. Economical and financial difficulty also feed into my dilemma of deciding whether
I want a career that I am passionate about or a career that I can excel in financially. Personally, I
think South Africa is a beautiful country regardless of the difficulties and negatives.
I believe that one of the ways for us to grow further as a nation is to stop choosing to dwell on the
negative events and allowing them to define the country, but rather to mend these negatives and
to strive to reach for a place of freedom and contentment. I believe South Africans need to be
hopeful and patient, no matter how difficult this proves to be.
I get extremely annoyed when I hear my peers discussing how they will leave the country for good
in the future and then complaining about our current leadership.
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I think travel and educating yourself on a global spectrum is incredible and even necessary.
However, I believe that young people have a duty to take the initiative to make the country better
in as many ways as possible, instead of simply wanting to leave and abandon the country.

While it is crucial that you understand intersectionality in the context of dominant power
and oppression, seeing and affirming it as something positive, which makes each person
unique, is also important. Without our overlapping characteristics, identities and choices,
we wouldn’t be ourselves. As you have seen already, it’s natural to be different. What is
key about intersectionality is that by understanding its relationship to power, oppression,
marginalisation and exclusion, we can plan to make sure this does not happen in our
classrooms. Instead, we can plan for socially just, equitable educational opportunities for
all our learners, at the same time acknowledging and affirming their uniqueness.
A broad approach to inclusive education enables this planning through the social model
of disability: seeing the barriers and inequalities a child experiences as the problem, not
the child. The responsibility for removing these barriers lies with the community around
the child, in consultation with the child. In the classroom, this approach requires teachers
to shift views they might have of learner diversity being an obstacle. Instead, it asks them
to use learners’ diversity as an opportunity to extend and enrich teaching and learning
activities, so that barriers to learning and participation are removed. We will come back to
this idea in more detail in Learning Units 2 and 4.

FIGURE 1.1: INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IS EVERYONE’S RESPONSIBILITY

To summarise: Inclusive education involves everyone in school communities: caregivers,

teachers, principals, officials, and the wider community, redefining school culture, policies
and practices. The following aspects underpin the role of schools in developing a broad
approach to inclusive education:
• Widening access, both physically and to aim for the same broad educational outcomes
for all learners (Sands, Kozleski & French, 2000).
• Affirming diversity: difference is understood as an ordinary aspect of human
development; exclusion, marginalisation and inequality are rejected.

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• Meeting the learning needs of all learners: no learners will be marginalised because
of pre-determined judgements about who they are and what they can learn (Florian,
2017: 10–11; Phasha et al., 2017)
• Aiming to improve all learners’ outcomes: academic, social and personal
development.
Taking this broad approach to inclusive education requires rethinking—or at least
extending and enhancing—our approach to teaching and learning. We will explore
practical ways of doing this in Learning Unit 4. Here, we want to spend some time looking
more closely at the roles of teachers in an inclusive education system. We will explore
these roles in the next section.

1.3.2 What is inclusive teaching?

In this module we sometimes refer to an effective teacher within an inclusive education

system as “an inclusive teacher”. By this we don’t mean that an inclusive teacher is
different from or someone additional to a science teacher or a Grade 1 teacher. We mean
that an inclusive teacher is “a good classroom teacher who teaches inclusively” no matter
what their grade or subject. But what do we really mean by “teaching inclusively”?
In South Africa and elsewhere there are many policies giving guidelines on what
constitutes inclusion and how teachers and schools should be engaged in realising the
goals. These policies reflect an understanding about the need for and goals of inclusion.
However, a concern expressed by many is that the policies have not translated into reality
in many classrooms (Hodgeson & Khumalo, 2016; Engelbrecht et al., 2015). Among the
reasons attributed to this gap between policy and classroom practices is that teachers’
thinking, practices and attitudes might not be attuned to principles of inclusion, as well as
the constraining effects of poverty and inequality that are a common feature of schooling
in South Africa. Many teachers, experienced and new, seem to have a very narrow
understanding of what inclusive education is and who it is meant for. Often, teachers and
other sectors of society regard inclusion as the specialised and separate kind of teaching
and classroom accommodation that is afforded learners with disabilities only.
However, good quality teaching for diverse learners is not a specialised kind of teaching
for a certain group of learners, but good quality teaching by all teachers, which caters for
every learner in their classroom.
To prepare you for your career, in this section we seek to understand and identify a
“teacher who teaches inclusively” in the South African context (not a specific “inclusive
teacher” versus “teachers in general”, as all teachers in South Africa are required to teach
inclusively). We identify the knowledge, attitudes and values that teachers need, as well
as the roles they are expected to play.
Successfully teaching every learner in a diverse classroom requires a new way of looking
at society and the function of schools, learner diversity, and our role as teachers.

1.3.3 Sociocultural consciousness and affirming views about diversity.

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Teachers can bring many assets into teaching–learning interactions. Unique personal
experiences, and exposure to a teacher education curriculum that reflects current
developments, can develop some of these assets. In particular, teachers who affirm
diversity and who have a sociocultural consciousness are key to the development of
inclusive education in South Africa.
A sociocultural consciousness is the awareness that a person’s life experiences shape
their view of, and about, the world. These experiences are influenced by a variety of
factors, including ability, gender, race, ethnicity and social class. The awareness that my
life experience might be different to your life experience is key. Villegas, Ciotoli and Lucas
(2017) stress that teachers who lack a sociocultural awareness will unknowingly depend
on only their own personal experiences to try and make sense of learners’ lives. This can
lead to a mismatch of values and a lack of understanding. We will explore this further in
Learning Unit 5.
To be socioculturally conscious teachers need to understand privilege and inequality in
society and how these give rise to differential access to power. Being socioculturally
sensitive and culturally literate enable teachers to understand that the medical deficit view
of individual differences is maintaining the existing social hierarchy in schools (Pantic &
Florian, 2015).
In order to develop a sense of belonging and interest in the classroom, teachers need to
know their learners and recognise and accept that all learners are different (Florian, 2017a;
Oswald, 2010). In understanding who their learners are, teachers need to embrace African
indigenous knowledge and values of social justice in education. Young (1990) argues that
a school or society that embraces ubuntu and promotes values of diversity amongst race,
gender, human dignity, HIV status, disability and social class, breaks down barriers to
success and inclusion. The development of affirming views of differences therefore
enables teachers who teach inclusively to recognise that learners already know a great
deal and have experiences, ideas and language that can be built up and expanded
(Villegas et al., 2017).

1.3.4 Knowledge
The South African policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education
Qualifications (MRTEQ) states clear expectations around what knowledge student
teachers should graduate with in initial teacher preparation programmes such as PGCE
and BEd (Republic of South Africa, 2015). The policy states that teachers as knowledge
professionals should have a three-tier composite knowledge of what to teach, how to teach
it and why. Underlying these is the understanding that the initial teacher education
curriculum will have exposed student teachers to knowledge in the form of disciplinary,
pedagogical, practical, fundamental learning and situational learning. The policy further
sets the tone for basic competences of a beginner teacher that include:
1. Sound subject knowledge.
2. Knowledge of how to teach the subjects, including the selection of the relevant
teaching methodology, sequencing and pacing of content.
3. Knowledge of their learners, their needs and how they learn so that they can
tailor their teaching accordingly.

10
 4. Understanding of diversity in the South African context in order to teach in a
manner that includes all learners. Additionally, beginner teachers must have
knowledge about inclusive education and be skilled in identifying and
addressing barriers to learning, as well as in curriculum differentiation, to
address the needs of individual learners within a class. Their knowledge of
barriers to learning must enable them to identify learning or social problems and
work in partnership with professional service providers to address these. In
addition, they must be able to manage classrooms across diverse contexts
effectively to ensure an environment conducive to learning.
Teaching inclusively therefore demands that teachers should have the necessary
knowledge to:
• Understand that people's ability is not fixed but can change and develop.
• Demonstrate how the difficulties learners experience in learning can be considered
as challenges for teaching rather than problems within the learners.
• Model new creative ways of working with and through others.
• Demonstrate inclusive pedagogical perspectives and practices for teaching diverse
learners that include understanding how learners construct knowledge.
• Using the insights they gain from being socioculturally literate to know more about
learners’ lives and applying their inclusive pedagogical teaching skills to provide
learners with the space in their classroom to express who they are and how they
experience the world (Florian, 2017a; Villegas et al., 2017)

1.3.5 The role of teachers in inclusive school communities

Teachers perform an array of social roles that go beyond what they do in the classroom.
The teacher assumes the role of being an employee, caregiver, citizen, counsellor and so
on in the school setting. Education Acts and policies, including Education White Paper 6
(DoE, 2001), consistently acknowledge the role of teachers in building an inclusive
education system and place teachers at the heart of the initiatives for developing inclusive
human-rights-based learning communities characterised by equity, equality and
inclusivity.
The teacher’s role in promoting the values of ubuntu, including interdependence and
communalism, is to further the respect and value for diversity in the classroom, and plan
to differentiate lessons to suit their learners’ needs. To do this they should:
• Be aware of their own identity, beliefs and practices; of who they are as people.
• Be change agents and be sensitive to gender and racial issues by educating,
empowering and instilling the values of respect, ubuntu, humanity and inclusivity.
• Respect and encourage other peoples’ perspectives, histories, cultures and traditions
in their classrooms.
• Allow space for learners’ voices and diverse perspectives on events that have shaped
human history (Shockley, 2011)

11
FIGURE 1.2: THE TEACHER’S ROLE: UBUNTU IN THE CLASSROOM (ADAPTED FROM SHOCKLEY,
2011)

1.3.6 Indigenous Knowledge Systems as part of inclusive teaching and learning

For over two decades, scholars have criticised the dominance of so‐called Western
epistemologies in African education and advocated for the integration of indigenous
knowledges (Abdi, 2006; Breidlid, 2013; Dei & Simmons, 2009; Nyamnjoh, 2016; Odora
Hoppers, 2002; Odora Hoppers, Moja & Mda, 1999). In this section we explore some of
the practical aspects of indigenous knowledge integration and how this contribute to
inclusive teaching and learning practice. The ideas in this section are largely drawn from
Maren Seehawer’s study of South African Science teachers’ strategies for integrating
indigenous and Western knowledges in their classes (Seehawer, 2018).
Dei and Asgharzadeh define indigenous knowledge as:
… knowing developed by local/indigenous peoples over generations as a result of
sustained occupation of or attachment to a place … with the result that such
occupancy allows peoples/communities to develop a perfect understanding of the
relationship of their communities to their surrounding natural and social
environments (Dei & Asgharzadeh, 2006: 54).

ACTIVITY 1.3
Reflecting on the above definition, discuss the following question with a colleague. If
you are studying on your own, reflect on it and make some notes in your journal.
What is the relevance of African indigenous knowledge systems to teaching and
learning in South Africa?

Sosibo (2013) noted that teachers play an important role in socialising learners in the real
world, and need to be equipped with the knowledge and skills to demonstrate and impart
to their learners what cultural diversity is. African indigenous knowledges are seen as
fundamental to reshaping African curricula and education systems in order to advance the
12
“cultural and socio‐educational transformation of the African continent” (Higgs, 2016: 90),
create an African identity (Van Wyk & Higgs, 2012), and counteract colonial influences.
Abdi (2005) does not propose a return to pre‐colonial education, but rather a constructive
integration of both indigenous and Western knowledges in education. This integration
would include a critique of the way power and knowledge have been used to marginalise
and exclude local knowledge and perspectives.

1.3.6.1 Why integrate indigenous knowledges?

The teachers who participated in Seehawer’s action research study (Seehawer, 2018)
identified the following reasons for integrating indigenous and Western knowledges:
• Decolonisation: To decolonise people’s minds and advocate against the perception
of indigenous knowledge as inferior (Abdi, 2006; Breidlid & Botha, 2015; Dei &
Asgharzadeh, 2006; Dei & Simmons, 2009; Ngara, 2012).

• Relevance: Making classroom science more relevant through:

• Teaching knowledge that is relevant for learners’ daily lives (Keane &
Malcolm, 2003)
• Using indigenous knowledges as a tool to make Western science more
accessible, moving from the known to the unknown (Mawere, 2015)

• Widening perspectives: To offer alternatives and broaden horizons: There are

several options in the world to know or do the same thing in different ways— “two-
eyed seeing” (Aikenhead & Elliott, 2010: 326).

• Sustainable development: To promote local solutions and a healthy, sustainable

lifestyle, and environmental protection (Breidlid, 2013; Glasson et al., 2010).

• Cultural identity: To connect learners with their culture and bring back the role of
parents, community, and elders into education (Khupe, 2014; Mawere, 2015;
Msimanga & Shiza, 2014).

1.3.6.2 Challenges to integrating indigenous knowledge into the curriculum.

Let’s consider some of the challenges to integrating indigenous knowledge into the
curriculum, and ways to overcome these.
Sayed, Motala and Hofman (2017) suggest that trainee teachers need to empower
themselves with epistemic agency so that they can instil in their learners the ability to be
creative and accept all forms of knowledge. “Epistemic” means relating to knowledge or
knowing. In the next section we look at the importance of teacher and learner agency in
inclusive classrooms.
1.3.7 Teacher and learner agency

1.3.7.1 Teacher agency

Schon (2018) defines teacher agency as: “The ability of a teacher to actively shape their
work in order to successfully progress the challenges they encounter. Agency is grown
through a complex interplay of a teacher’s qualities as an individual and the school
conditions in which they operate.”
13
Central to government’s strategy to build an inclusive education system is the
understanding that teachers, in particular, hold the key to transforming the system—they
are the change agents in the system (Themane & Thobejane, 2019). Research shows that
teachers are the most significant in-school factor influencing learner achievement (Hattie,
2009; OECD 2005, cited in Oswald & Engelbrecht, 2018; Swart & Oswald, 2008).
Bhatnagar and Das (2013) suggest that teachers are the most important variable in the
implementation of inclusive education.
➢ Teacher and learner agency: Their active contribution to
shaping their work as teachers and learners and its conditions
for the sake of the overall quality of education. In this way
agency speaks to what teachers and learners do and not what
they have.

➢ Teacher agency: This refers to the individual and collective

actions taken by teachers in situations in which they find
themselves. In this sense agency is not given but involves a
negotiation of power as constituted in the individual teachers,
structures and conditions in which they find themselves.

So, what does being a change agent for inclusive education mean for you as a teacher?
At a broad level, you need to understand that, as a teacher:
• You have a significant, vital role in transforming the education system.
• This role is underpinned by a social justice agenda.
• To make inclusive education meaningful for South Africa, you need to contextualise
the theories, models and approaches to inclusive education, and embed them in
relevant, local cultural ideas.
More specifically, teacher agency involves:
• A sense of purpose, including a commitment to social justice in education
• Competence in using an inclusive pedagogical approach, including working
collaboratively with others.
• Autonomy: understanding and making thoughtful and responsible use of your power
and position in relation to other relevant stakeholders, including learners.
• Reflexivity: a capacity to systematically evaluate your own practices and school
setting.
Teacher agency in an inclusive education system implies a shift from viewing teaching as
the implementation of policies designed by others, to a strong focus on teachers shaping
conditions in their own practice. This shift is needed in order to develop alternatives to
policy and practice based on a different way of thinking about human difference (Florian,
2017a: 18–19).
Teachers who consider themselves to be agents of change regard teaching as an ethical
activity and assume responsibility for intervening in inequitable school practices that affect
quality teaching and learning. Teachers are guided by a code of professional ethics which
recognises the values of ubuntu. The South African Council for Educators’ (SACE) Code
of Professional Ethics (2017) stipulates the following professional ethics for teachers.

14
When working with learners, teachers must:

● Respect the dignity, beliefs and constitutional rights of learners and in particular
children, which includes the right to privacy and confidentiality.
● Acknowledge the uniqueness, individuality, and specific needs of each learner,
guiding and encouraging each to realise their potentialities.
● Strive to enable learners to develop a set of values consistent with the
fundamental rights contained in the Constitution of South Africa
● Exercise authority with compassion
● Avoid any form of humiliation, and refrain from any form of physical or
psychological abuse.
● Refrain from improper physical contact with learners
● Promote gender equality.
● Refrain from any form of sexual harassment (physical or otherwise) of learners
● Refrain from any form of sexual relationship with learners at any school
● Use appropriate language and behaviour in their interaction with learners and
acts in such a way as to elicit respect from the learners.
● Take reasonable steps to ensure the safety of learners.

ACTIVITY 1.4
Consider a Grade 9 class that is chaotic and unruly, with learners that bully each
other and don’t listen to instructions. Refer to the SACE Code of Professional Ethics
and explain how you would deal with these issues in an ethical way.

1.3.7.2 Learner agency

It is important to remember that learners also have agency. Learner agency involves
learners being actively engaged in their learning. It means they have the power to act and
the skills to take responsibility for their own learning; they therefore rely less on the
teacher, the curriculum or other structures. There is growing evidence that children do
better personally, socially and academically when they are encouraged to take ownership
of their learning.
Let’s look at how both teacher and learner agency can support inclusive education and
address issues around exclusion and marginalisation.
➢ Learner agency is when learners have “the power to act”, when
they take responsibility for their own learning, and don’t only rely
on inputs from the teacher, the curriculum, the resources, and
so on.

ACTIVITY 1.5

15
Read the scenarios below, which represent challenging situations that you might
encounter as a teacher. Consider the following questions:
1. How could you use your agency to support the learner in these scenarios?
2. Are there opportunities for the learners in some of these scenarios to use their
agency? If so, can you suggest how?

Scenario 1

Leon is being verbally and physically bullied because of his perceived sexual orientation.
His anxiety around the bullying is affecting his academic performance, which in turn lowers
his sense of self-worth even further. To report the bullying would necessitate a conversation
with school management about his sexuality, which he is not confident enough to talk about.
Homophobic staff members oppose the bullying weakly, or choose to remain silent when
the bullies make homophobic remarks. The school management avoids dealing with it
because it would mean directly confronting their community’s prejudices around sexuality
and taking a stand. A conspiracy of silence persists.

Scenario 2

Noma has just started working at an isolated rural school. Soon after beginning work, she
is sexually harassed by the principal. When she talks about it with some of the other female
teachers, they laugh and encourage her to not make a big deal out of it. When the principal
eventually forces himself on her she threatens to report the incident to the police. On
resuming her duties at school, she suddenly finds she is ostracised by the other female
teachers. When she pushes for an explanation, she is told that her threats against the
principal are making it difficult for all of them. She discovers that many teachers have had
the same experience but are afraid of losing certain privileges they enjoy at the school and
perhaps even their jobs.

Scenario 3
Khotso uses a wheelchair. His parents make an application to send him to a school but are
turned away. The school states that it is unable to meet Khotso’s access needs. They had
already rejected another child a week before on the same grounds, so the procedure for
refusing a child who uses a wheelchair is already in place. Khotso’s parents, however, are
assertive and insist on hearing exactly what the school feels it is unable to do. The parents
argue that barriers to access are a fact of life for a person who uses a wheelchair. They also
argue that the school’s fear of not being able to meet Khotso’s access needs should not
prevent them from at least exploring how to make practical, proactive and inclusive
arrangements.

Scenario 4
Christelle, a refugee child whose parents were killed in the war in the Democratic Republic
of Congo, arrives in South Africa. A school gives Christelle’s caregiver misinformation about
application dates and documentation. The caregiver has all the legal asylum papers, but
Christelle has no birth certificate and is not related to them. The school is aware of how
difficult it is for them to fulfil all the red tape required for “unaccompanied minors”. In South
Africa, the Constitution, the Child Care Act, the Convention on the Rights of the Child and

16
 the Refugee Act protect unaccompanied foreign children. But schools that do not produce
the proper paperwork risk being fined by the Department of Home Affairs.

According to the CSTL Children’s Participation Framework (2018), learners’ participation

in democratic processes does not begin when they reach voting age. It begins when they
embrace the knowledge, values and skills that make participatory democratic processes
a reality in their classroom, their school, their community and their homes. Learners can
become active citizens long before they vote.
The next activity asks you to consider ways in which teachers and learners can play an
active role—using their agency—in challenging some of the policies and practices that
persist in the South African education system. Despite the clear requirement for a rights-
based approach to education, policies and practices that undermine human rights still exist
in South Africa. You might remember the case of Pretoria Girls High School and certain
hairstyles that were prioritised as “normal” over others. We are going to use this case to
consider ways that both learners and teachers can use their agency to address policies
and practices that undermine human rights.

ACTIVITY 1.6
Read the blog and article below about the #StopRacismAtPretoriaGirlsHigh protest.
Then consider the following questions:
1. Why do you think racist policies and practices have persisted so long after the
end of apartheid?
2. Why do you think a word like “neatness” has been allowed to become a tool for
applying racial prejudice?
3. How do you think learners internalise the racist (or sexist, homophobic,
xenophobic, etc.) practices of institutions and begin applying them to
themselves?
4. What role can school-going youth play in leading or invigorating the struggle for
dignity, equality and freedom?
5. In what ways can you as a teacher be a social justice activist?

BLOG
Our Schools are the Breeding Ground of Racism in South Africa
By Will-Ed Zungu
31/01/2017 02:58 GMT | Updated 31/01/2017 02:58 GMT
It's no longer individuals that are racist per se; it’s institutions like schools that perpetuate white
supremacy in more surreptitious ways.
Apartheid ended 22 years ago but its racism has stuck around and become institutionalised. It
particularly manifests itself within schools... In August [2016], the #StopRacismAtPretoriaGirlsHigh
protest made international news. At Pretoria Girls High School a group of Grade 8 girls, led by 13-
year-old Zulaikha Patel, protested over racial abuse by teachers and institutional racism in their
school, which prohibits black girls from having cornrows, afros, dreadlocks, and any other African
hairstyles that don’t meet the school’s white Eurocentric standard of “neatness”. At the school,
black girls were given brushes and told aggressively to “look at yourself in the mirror and neaten
17
your hair.” When girls spoke in their mother tongue with their friends, teachers would say, "Stop
making funny noises or you will have to sit in my office." In reaction to this, the black girls mobilised
and stood as one. The girls held hands and silently walked to the front of the school. Security
guards shut the gates and pushed the girls back. They kept walking and were met with by the
school’s governing body, extra security, and police threatening to arrest them.
Most South African schools, private and public, don't allow black boys and girls to have African
hairstyles because of "neatness". Black girls' hair is a central component to their identity and
culture, and for decades these schools have robbed them from it.
If you’re told from your school years that you are not enough, you eventually start to believe it.
South African schools are sending a message that their standard of beauty does not include black
girls, and certainly not their natural hair. Fight against this, then you’re labelled as an “angry black
woman”. This is not just an issue of hair. This is racism.
At one school I used to attend, black boys weren’t allowed to shave their heads because the school
claimed white boys would want to do the same, and it would look untidy (I know, it made absolutely
no sense to me either). Schools not only make black people hate their hair at an emotional level
but at an institutional level. As a junior in high school, I was the kid with a mini Afro. People stared
at me and asked to touch my hair. All I wanted was to be able to comb and gel my hair like the
white boys. The institutionalisation of white supremacy even made me hate my own hair. I would
constantly ask my mom to relax my hair. I’m thankful, in retrospect, that she refused. I have an
Afro now, and it’s not just a styling choice, it’s a political statement.
I believe high school students with different opinions all over South Africa can educate one another
through conversation. This agonizing process involves sitting down with the same people who
have discriminated and oppressed you. I’ve been called “monkey” for demanding racial equality,
a “faggot” for identifying as a feminist. I’ve been accused of constantly playing the “Race Card”
(which does not exist, by the way). Insults like these make it easy to become cynical about the
possibility of change. But part of the fight is believing in everybody’s capacity to rethink their racist
views.
To all my beautiful black people: I love your hair, I love your shape, I love your skin, don’t ever let
society tell you any different. Stand up for yourself, believe in yourself and join the fight.
(Source: Zungu, 2017: http://bit.ly/2KmxOWW)

ARTICLE
Racism fury at Pretoria Girls High: MEC steps in
GAUTENG / 30 AUGUST 2016, 07:27AM / TANKISO MAKHETHA

18
Pretoria - Sometime last week, a pupil at Pretoria High School for Girls presented an assignment
highlighting inequality in South Africa.
The girl was allegedly taken to the principal’s office and reportedly threatened with suspension. By
Saturday, during the spring fair, black pupils at the school marched, claiming they were fed-up with
institutionalised racism and discrimination at the school.
On Monday anger vibrated across the country as footage of heavily armed security personnel
patrolling the schoolyard appeared. They threatened to arrest the pupils.
The pupils were protesting against the school’s hair policy and for being questioned whenever
they were in groups of two or more. They also claim they were barred from using their home
languages in private discussions.
An online petition was created requesting Lesufi and headmistress Karen du Toit to ensure the
school’s code of conduct did not discriminate against black and Asian girls. It also requested that
disciplinary action be taken against teachers and staff who have implemented racist policies or
racist actions, while also demanding that pupils who protested not be victimised.
Lesufi met with pupils, management and the school governing body to resolve the problems.
Hundreds of young black girls emerged from their classrooms at break-time, repeatedly chanting
“We are tired”.
In an emotion-filled two-hour meeting, pupils related some of the incidents they had experienced
at the school. Several schoolgirls, who cannot be named because they are minors, made
horrendous claims of being insulted and manhandled. “I was called a monkey by a teacher. It pains
me even now because we are treated differently at this school. We are made to feel that we do
not belong,” recounted one tearful girl.
“This was necessary because race has been an issue for a long time,” said Neo Kgobane. “We
should have done something about it a long time ago. The school needs to step up its efforts in
changing some of the rules that have kept many girls oppressed.”
Following another meeting by Lesufi, parents, pupils, governing body and management, a
committee will be appointed to investigate the matter.
Lesufi said there would be a review of the code of conduct and setting aside of the regulation
regarding black hair. The committee set up to look into the matter must report back within 21 days.
Schooling was expected to resume on Tuesday.
tankiso.makhetha@inl.co.za
Pretoria News
(Source: Makhetha, 2016: http://bit.ly/2L2TpUu)

Teachers who consider themselves to be agents of change take their ethical commitment
seriously and assume responsibility for intervening in unfair, unequal school practices that
negatively impact quality teaching and learning. Many of these unfair school practices are
connected to power, so it is important that we examine the role of power in schools in
more detail.

1.3.8 Power dynamics in school communities

ACTIVITY 1.7

19
 Consider the following questions. If possible, discuss them with a colleague. If you are
working on your own, note your answers in your journal.
1. Think about the power dynamics in your family when you were growing up.
• Who paid the bills and supported the family financially?
• Who made the decisions?
• What power did you have in decision-making?
• Was access to opportunities equal? Why or why not?
2. What about power dynamics at your school when you were a learner?
• What power dynamics and power relations did you experience at school?
Give examples.
• What did you experience more of: being empowered or people having power
over you? Give examples.
• How have the above experiences affected the way you will approach your
practice as a teacher?

All around us things are happening that give some people power, take power away from
others, or result in in power being shared. We call these processes “power relations”. We
find power relations in families, schools, sports teams, communities, religious institutions,
workplaces, countries, and the global community. Understanding the power dynamics of
a system means understanding the ways in which energy flows and is exchanged in that
system.
For example, think about the power relations between caregivers and teachers; and
among different learners. In theory, while both parties (the caregivers and teachers are
adults, the learners are children) have equal power, many factors can shape the dynamics
and create the context. For example, both parties have power related to their respective
roles, but both may at times feel powerless. Sometimes, there may be unspoken or
invisible hierarchies within schools. Some caregivers may have more influence or personal
power in the school, or they may have a personal relationship with the principal. Power
relations arising from social inequity and exclusion can be complex. Let’s look at this
complexity through a short case study.

ACTIVITY 1.8
Read the case study below and consider the following questions:
1. To what extent do you agree with the idea that teachers are in a position of
power? Explain your answer by giving examples.
2. What aspects of power, in your opinion, are missing from this description of
teacher power?
3. It has been noted that there is a potential conflict between meeting diverse
learners’ needs and expecting everyone to meet the same standards. How
does this change or expand our understanding of teacher power?

CASE STUDY: HESTER

20
 Hester, a student teacher doing teaching practice at a school in Cape Town, overhears her
tutor teacher saying to a colleague:
As a teacher you are in a position of power. Every day you make choices that affect your
learners directly and have a significant impact on their actions. Use your power creatively
to empower your learners. To do this effectively, you need to understand the nature of
change and learn how to use your power to influence the process of change in your
classroom. With enough knowledge and time, you can do anything, change anything.

The above conversation overlooks the complex relationship between a teacher’s personal
agency and the conditions at the school. This relationship involves power, which works in
different forms and at different levels. As a result, Miller (2001: 6) suggests teachers need
to understand four different types of power that impact on teacher agency:
• Power over: Top-down power, typically found in hierarchical or patriarchal
relationships (the most common form of power in society)
• Power with: The collective power of people and groups working together.
• Power within: The potential power and strength within each person, which comes from
the intimate relationship an individual has with their psyche or self.
• Power to: The power to act and achieve something (agency), the power to make a
difference.

ACTIVITY 1.9
Consider the following questions in relation to the four types of power:
1. What do each of the four types of power above mean to you as a teacher? What
challenges do you foresee related to each type of power?
2. The discussion around inclusive education refers specifically to the human
power teachers have. This enables them to make a difference within structures
and cultures, and to either transform or reproduce these (Pantic & Florian,
2015; Pantic, 2015). What are the implications of this idea of human power for
inclusive education and social justice in classrooms and schools?
3. What is the difference between agency and power? What is the relationship
between them? Support your explanation with examples from your experience.

By now it is clear that a teacher’s contribution to inclusive education is not confined to

content knowledge. Instead, this contribution includes creating an environment where the
intersecting domination of power— “power over” in Miller’s terms—is questioned and
disrupted by inclusive education.
People who hold the “power over” role often believe that they have earned this power or
that everyone could have access to it if only they worked to earn it. Dominance here is not
about numbers, it’s about the amount of power or status awarded to a feature of society.
For example, the language of teaching and learning is often not a home language for the
majority of learners and teachers. Yet from Grade 4 learning happens in English, or
Afrikaans in an Afrikaans-speaking school. If you are an English or Afrikaans speaker, this
makes you part of a dominant group because power lies with the English or Afrikaans
21
languages. Power in this and many other contexts is not earned; it is granted to people in
the dominant groups—whether they want it or not.
Because they don’t have to think about whether they have power or not, people in
dominant groups are frequently unaware that they are members of a dominant group.
They have the privilege of being able to see themselves as individuals rather than
stereotypes. People who do not have power, and are oppressed, do not have this privilege.
We can therefore understand privilege as unearned power, which works on many levels:
personal, cultural and institutional. It means advantages and benefits are granted to
dominant groups at the expense of oppressed groups.
Equally important is how power and privilege intersect to give rise to power relations, which
in turn determine who decides what happens in a situation. Generally, people are
privileged because of their identity—the characteristics that make up who they are.
Recognising privilege is sometimes difficult for people who have it, because they don’t
have to think about it. However, a person’s understanding of their own privilege provides
them with an opportunity to foster empathy, increase understanding and play a part in
correcting some of the inequities that exist in society.
There are many ways that teachers can contribute to questioning and disrupting dominant
models of power and privilege. In relation to “power over”, for example, a teacher might
use critical diversity literacy (CDL), which according to Steyn (2015), is described as a
sharply focused critical lens which examines those operations of power which implicate
social identities to create systems of privilege, advantage, disadvantage and oppression
to reflect on and disrupt features of classrooms that appear to be second nature in the
classroom, such as:
• Routines, rules or customs that reinforce stereotypes of privilege, prejudice, language
use or actions.
• Who decides what is best for everyone?
• How these decisions are made
It is also crucial for teachers to create an environment where everyone can question their
own attitudes towards power and privilege. For example:
• What assumptions do learners in a class have about the concept of a family, religious
beliefs, people in loving relationships, accent and intelligence, citizenship, socio-
economic status and class?
• How are these ideas portrayed in textbooks, in classroom activities, in school culture,
etc?
• What worth do learners place on the opinion of different members of society, for
example, a wealthy businessperson, a poor, unemployed person, a woman, a
scientist, a chef?
By working in this way, teachers bring their own life experience into the classroom. This
experience has the potential to be an important quality of inclusive teachers in South
Africa—as long as it is accompanied by the awareness that others have different
experiences.

ACTIVITY 1.10

22
 Watch the YouTube video, TED Talk: Every kid needs a champion, in which Rita
Pierson delivers a rousing call to educators: http://y2u.be/SFnMTHhKdkw
Watch it a second time and answer these questions:
1. What is Rita Pierson’s call to educators?
1. What attributes does Rita Pierson have that make her a good educator?
2. What strategies does she use to build relationships with her students?
3. What impact do you think Rita Pierson’s mother had on Rita’s classroom
practice?
4. Do you think it’s important for teachers to have role models? Give reasons for
your answer.

ACTIVITY 1.11
Now, conduct an interview with a teacher in the phase you are studying. Aim to find
out about their:
• Personal vision of themselves as a teacher and the ethos they aim to create
in the classroom—including their views on power.
• Commitment to social justice in their teaching practice
• Thoughts about diversity in the classroom
• Ability and willingness to constantly re-examine their personal vision of
teaching and the impact this has on their teaching practice.
• Familiarity with local knowledge and customs and whether this helps to make
their classroom more inclusive.
If you are able to, record the interview—many mobile phones now have a good
recording facility. If not, take as many notes as you can during the interview then
review these straight afterwards, adding further notes from your memory.
Next, analyse the teacher’s responses to each of the five areas above. Give clear
examples and explanations for each of these areas. In addition, highlight where the
teacher is facing challenges with working inclusively.

1.3.9 A summary of inclusive teacher characteristics

For the purpose of this module, we have developed a summary of inclusive teaching
characteristics in the South African context, and concepts stemming from the policies,
values, theories and models discussed in this unit, as well as findings from the Teaching
for All research report (Majoko et al., 2018).
Teaching inclusively means:

• Understanding learners’ individual needs and abilities

• Changing and modifying teaching and learning content, approaches, assessment,
structures and strategies to support meaningful learning.
23
 • Collaborating with key stakeholders as equal partners in education
• Researching, monitoring, evaluating and reporting on learners’ progress

Inclusive teachers:

• Exhibit high expectations for all learners.

• Subscribe to and protect the rights of children.
• Are agents for social justice.
• Value and affirm learner diversity.
• Understand how intersecting identities manifest and can compound exclusion.
• Act in the best interests of the child.
• Collaborate with fellow teachers and other stakeholders.
• Engage in classroom practices that facilitate and support learning for all.
• Are reflective, critical and creative thinkers.
• Are lifelong learners who continue to hone their own skills as inclusive professionals.

Another way of summarising some characteristics of teachers who work inclusively is

shown in the table below. We will revisit each of these areas in more detail in Learning
Units 2 and 4.

TABLE 1.1: KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND SKILLS OF AN INCLUSIVE TEACHER

Knowledge See the learning difficulties learners experience as challenges for
teaching rather than inherent problems within the learners.

Attitudes Be aware of your preconceptions about learners’ abilities,

especially when these might marginalise or stigmatise learners in
the classroom or exclude them from learning in some way.

Skills Model new creative ways of working with and through others.

Demonstrate inclusive pedagogical views and practices for

teaching diverse learners, which include understanding how
individual learners construct knowledge.

Use the insights you gain from being socioculturally conscious to

finding out more about learners’ lives.

Use your inclusive pedagogical teaching skills to provide learners

with the space to express who they are and how they experience
the world.

Source: Adapted from Florian (2017) and Villegas et al. (2017)

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ACTIVITY 1.12
Think of a teacher who had a positive impact on your life when you were at school.
What impact did this teacher have on your life?
1. What qualities did this teacher have?
2. Why do you want to be a teacher?
3. Consider the summary description of an inclusive teacher. Which of those
characteristics are already personal strengths for you? Which areas do
you feel you need to develop?
4. What is your personal vision for yourself as a teacher?

25
 1.3 Theories underpinning inclusive education.

In this section, we will learn more about the theories underpinning inclusive education.
This will include critical theory, African philosophies and social constructivism.

1.3.1 Critical theory

Critical theory critique’s social structure and group culture and criticises social injustice,
racial oppression, discrimination, and other social contradictions (Miles & Singal,
2009). Through the critical theory lens, in inclusive education, every learner has the
right to access education and every learner has different strengths and weaknesses.
The key principles of critical theory are:

• Every learner has the right to access to education.

• Critical theory challenges social injustices and inequalities.
• Celebrates human diversity.
• Promotes human rights for persons with disabilities.
• Promotes peace by striving to eliminate isolation, labelling, bullying and
discrimination in schools and society.

1.4.2 African philosophies

African philosophies are in opposition to schools of thought that favour colonial

dominance. The theories on African philosophies provide us with another lens on issues
that influence inclusive education. Such issues include cultural heritage, belief systems
and values that influence the way learners learn. African ideologies have several
principles, including interdependence, communalism, humanness, respect, and individual
learners’ equal value of uniqueness.

The philosophy of ubuntu, which is deemed a communitarian philosophy, is one great

example of an African philosophy.

1.4.2.1The concept of ubuntu

The isiXhosa proverb Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu sums up the concept of ubuntu: a
person is a person through their relationship with others. In other words, I am because
we are. Sotuku and Duku (2016) have identified the following elements of ubuntu, which
are central to the principles of African philosophy:

• Ubuntu values humanness, justice, personhood, and morality, as well as diversity

and respect for human dignity.
• Ubuntu values interdependence and dependence – “It takes a village to raise a
child.”
• Ubuntu promotes a spirit of interconnectedness, social cohesion, respect and
dignity, collectivism and solidarity, communal enterprise, and legitimate leader-
ship. This is closely linked to the promotion of shared values. Teachers should
26
 therefore promote friendliness and harmony in their classrooms, and reconciliation
rather than confrontation.
• Ubuntu facilitates a spirit of compassion, hospitality and sharing especially towards
strangers. However, sharing is not limited to material things, as it includes
knowledge and skills.

1.4.3 Social constructivism

Social constructivism views disability as a social construct deployed against minorities and
social marginalisation (Rodina, 2007). It shifts perceptions about disability from a
biological and deficit perspective to a social construct perspective. Social constructivism
views disability as a developmental process instead of a static condition (Vygotsky,
1931). It advocates for the adjustment of the school system to create an enabling,
healthy learning climate and environment for each learner. Such adjustment can be
realised through the institutionalisation of policy, legislation and pedagogical practices
that guarantees full access, participation, and achievement for all in the community
mainstream school education system.

Theories of human development such as the ecological theory or the socio-historical

theory developed from the notion that cognition, motivation or emotions are constructed
through social interactions. What an individual perceives and learns is an integral part of
their immediate context as well as related contexts.

The key principles of social constructivism include:

• Culture and context influence learning.

• The pedagogic approach of active learning.
• Learners construct knowledge from their experiences.
• Learners learn most effectively by doing – they therefore require hands-on,
concrete experiences with a wide variety of interesting activities and materials.
• Learners should be encouraged to explore and experiment.
• Learners should be encouraged to ask and answer questions.

1.5 Academic theories and models of inclusive education

There are many theories and models that influence our understanding of inclusive
education, and as a result there is no one overarching definition of inclusive education. In
the section below, we will:
• Introduce you briefly to some of the theories and models that are most commonly
referred to in discussions by teachers discussing and writing about inclusive
education.
• Give you some opportunities to reflect critically on these theories and models, thinking
about their usefulness in your context.
Before we get started, there are two points we would like to make about terminology.

27
First, a word about the word “theory”. Many people are deeply suspicious of this word
because they believe theories are too rigid and abstract to be meaningful in any real-life
situation (Green, 2001), and that reality tends to be more complex than any theory can
completely capture (Maxwell, cited in Ravitch & Riggan, 2017). These are valid
arguments, and theorists tend to agree with them; all theories (and models) have
limitations. However, theories are important in helping us construct knowledge so that it is
worth our attention.
Second, we want to clarify the difference between “theory” and “model”:
• Theories give us a set of ideas, or a framework, for understanding, interpreting and
explaining an experience. For example, we might think we know the different ways in
which children learn to read because there are plenty of theories written about this
topic in books.
• Models are representations of how something works in real life. So, using the reading
example above, we might set up a classroom with groups of children who are learning
to read in different ways, with each group’s method based on a theory we have read
about in books. Each of these methods is a model. Models can tell us whether the
theory works in a particular situation. The findings from models can also bring new
information that can help to develop theories further.
Let’s move on to look at some theories and models that add to our understanding of
inclusive education, and their limitations.

1.5.1 Theories and models related to inclusive education.

When we are looking at theories and models related to inclusive education, we need to
understand the context in which they have been developed, and the context to which they
are being applied. This is because the context in which theories and models have been
developed may not take into account, and therefore may not be applicable to, the context
to which they are being applied.
South Africa has a unique context. Its past of colonialism and apartheid has led to deep,
persistent inequalities that have left a legacy of power for some and the oppression of
others. The theories and models of inclusive education developed elsewhere may not
adequately account for these inequalities. These theories and models could therefore, if
applied without adaptation in South Africa, lead to the continuation of exclusion (Phasha
et al., 2017).
As an example, let’s look at the role of parents in the education of their children. The
benefits of parental involvement and support in children’s education are well documented
(Sime & Sheridan, 2014). Parental support and involvement go beyond topics like helping
children with homework to include issues such as staying in constant communication with
the school, volunteering, decision-making, collaborating with the community and learning
(Epstein et al., 2002). The legacy of power and oppression left by the apartheid past
continue to make such involvement unachievable for millions of caregivers in South Africa.
A teacher in a school who understands the theory and ideal model of parental involvement,
but does not take into account families’ unique contexts, is likely to exclude them further
through feelings of frustration and a lack of understanding and flexibility.
So, as a teacher it’s important that you always ask yourself questions about theories and
models. How do the unique contexts you know about influence your understanding of a
28
theory or model? What do the contexts mean for implementing it? Will the theory or model
work—wholly, partially, with some adapting or not at all? Remember, you are the expert
on your context, not the people who have developed the theories or models.
Keep the discussion above in mind as you read the following section which introduces you
to key theories and models for inclusive education. As you read:
• Analyse the theories and models against the background of historical and current
exclusion—including the role of power and privilege—in the unique South African
context.
• Be aware that these theories and models were developed in high-income countries of
the North without taking the Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) of other countries
into account (Phasha et al., 2017). We will look at the role of IKS in inclusive teaching
in Learning Unit 5.
• Ask yourself how relevant the theories and models are to your unique context. What
could you do to develop an approach that makes use of these theories and models
but in a way that works for your particular context?
➢ Indigenous Knowledge Systems: The complex set of
knowledge, skills and technologies existing and developed
around specific conditions of populations and communities
indigenous to a particular geographic area (Answers.com).

1.5.1.1 Medical deficit theories

Medical deficit theories focus on what is “wrong” with a person—their “sickness” or
“deficit”—and the causes of this problem (Swart & Pettipher, 2016). This focus has led to
the view of people with a huge range of differences as having an individual condition. This
condition is seen as being outside what is considered “normal”, and these people are
therefore thought to be at a social disadvantage.
Medical deficit theories have had a major influence in the fields of psychology and special
education. This has had a profound effect on the education of learners seen as having
“deficits”, including those viewed as having disabilities or learning difficulties, which are
often referred to as “special educational needs” (SEN). Within a medical deficit model of
practice, developed from the theories:
• Where possible, a diagnosis is made.
• The learner is then categorised and labelled.
• Learners with diagnosed “deficiencies” are viewed as qualitatively different—that is,
of a different nature and/or standard—to other learners.
• Often, these learners are educated separately from their peers.
• Specialist support staff intervene to try to improve or even remove the “deficiencies”
within the learner; they do this by using specific educational responses developed for
this “deficiency”.
Within the model the view is that the person is the problem, and therefore it is the person
who needs “fixing” to fit in with everyone else.

29
FIGURE 1.3: MEDICAL MODEL OF DISABILITY

Despite the general emphasis on inclusion and the creation of accepting inclusive school
communities, the medical model described above is still deeply embedded in most
countries, including South Africa. There are still widely held medical deficit assumptions
about the nature and distribution of abilities (Florian, 2015). Research indicates, for
example, that despite the fact that most teachers support the rights of all learners to be in
their classrooms, they still describe them in medical deficit ways and would actually prefer
them to be moved to separate classrooms or special schools (Engelbrecht et al., 2015).

1.5.1.2 Social model of disability

In reaction to the medical deficit model, a contrasting view of ability/disability and special
educational needs—the social model—was developed by people with disabilities. It
counteracts the medical deficit model with a view that comes from, according to Terzi
(2008: 44), the direct experience of disability, by people with disabilities.
The social model perspective does not deny the challenges caused by diverse needs or
the need for medical treatment. However, it challenges the view of difference as a “deficit”.
It therefore sees the medical deficit view of “labelling” and defining individuals by their
conditions as discriminatory, constructed by an ability-oriented environment.
In an education setting, the social model asks us to shift our view away from the learner
as being, or having, the problem. Instead, it proposes that society itself creates barriers
around diversity. The issue is not the person, it’s the world—as the diagram below shows.
The social model proposes that, as inaccessibility is caused by society, solutions therefore
should start with society removing the barriers to access. These solutions start with what
can be done, not with what can’t.

30
FIGURE 1.4: SOCIAL MODEL OF DISABILITY

As a result, the social model stresses the full inclusion of people with diverse needs in
society, and advocates for diverse children to be educated and participate fully in
mainstream schools. In South Africa, the social model underpinned the development of
Education White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001).

1.5.2 Ecological systems theory and Bronfenbrenner’s model

Ecological systems theory aims to show how individual people and groups at different
levels of society are linked in active, interdependent and interacting relationships (Donald,
Lazarus & Lolwana, 2002). The theory evolved from combining ecological theory and
systems theory.
➢ Interdependent: Describes the situation when two or more
people or things depend on each other.
Ecological theory is based on the interdependence between different organisms and their
physical environment (Ibid.). Similar ideas have been applied to relationships among
human beings, and the interactions among groups of people in their social contexts. The
study of these relationships and interactions has led to the development of systems theory.
At the centre of ecological systems theory is the belief that different groups of people are
interactive systems. The functioning of the whole depends on the interaction between
these different groups. For example, a school as a system may look as if it is made up of
staff and learners. However, teachers, heads of departments, and learners in different
grades, for example, are all sub-systems. Therefore, to understand the school as a whole,
you need to examine the relationships among these different sub-systems (Donald et al,
2010; Engelbrecht, 2006).
Urie Bronfenbrenner was a Russian-born American psychologist who developed a model
of child development based on ecological systems theory. This model suggests that there
are layers of different interacting systems that result in physical, social and psychological
change and development (Swart & Pettipher, 2016: 11). The model explains how these
systems, and the relationships among them, affect the development of the learner. It

31
places the child at the centre of the systems and puts central importance on making
decisions that are in the best interest of the child.

FIGURE 1.2: BRONFENBRENNER'S ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS MODEL (ADAPTED FROM:

HTTP://BIT.LY/2KQOBHV)

Bronfenbrenner defines five types of systems which consist of roles, norms and rules that
shape the development of the child: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem
and chronosystem:
• The microsystem is the family, classroom, neighbourhood or systems in the
person’s immediate environment. In the South African context, family as the
microsystem where socialisation takes place first may include the extended family.
• The mesosystem is an interaction of two microsystems, such as the connection
between a child’s home and school, or between neighbourhood and home. In the
mesosystem, all of the microsystems interact together and contribute to the
development of the child.
• The exosystem is an environment that does not directly involve a child but affects
them anyway. For example, when a child’s parent’s workplace requires a lot of
travelling this has an impact on the child. Or when a new community service is
introduced that the child can access, this will have an impact on their life.
• The macrosystem is the larger cultural context: the circumstances, beliefs, customs
and laws shared by the community around the child. The cultural context can
include, for example, socio-economic status, poverty and ethnicity. The
macrosystem evolves over time, because each generation’s circumstances
change.
• Chronosystems show change over time, for example to family structure,
socioeconomic status, schooling and living conditions, as well as events in the
country, region and world (known as socio-historical events) (Bronfenbrenner,
1994). These changes also impact the child’s life.
Bronfenbrenner places the child at the centre of all of these structures. The child is
therefore continuously affected in one way or another by the continuous changes that
happen in their environment (Howard & Johnson, 2000). It is crucial that teachers know
about and understand these changes, and their impact, so that they can understand how
they affect the learners in their classroom and respond appropriately.

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1.5.3 Critical diversity literacy (CDL)

One of the greatest challenges in understanding exclusion and inclusion is how to “read”
the processes around exclusion, in other words, how to look at, analyse and critique them.
Many of these processes use difference to reinforce privilege and oppression, and they
therefore maintain an unequal society. The difficulty of this challenge means that we do
not address these processes, which means that they, and the inequalities they maintain,
continue.
In this section we discuss one way—critical diversity literacy, or CDL—of thinking and
speaking about the way power constructs privilege, oppression and exclusion. We also
explore how using CDL can help us develop a deeper understanding of the relationship
between power, privilege, oppression and exclusion (Reygan & Steyn, 2017). CDL with
its broad focus on "current social problems" extends the scope of inclusive education
beyond impairment, and employs a social model approach.

CDL has been inspired by France Winddance Twine’s (cited in Steyn, 2015) “racial
literacy”. Steyn (2015) describes it as “a sharply focused critical lens which examines
those operations of power which implicate social identities to create systems of privilege,
advantage, disadvantage and oppression”. Put more simply, we might talk about CDL as
being a combination of:
• Being critical in your thinking about social systems, without accepting them
unquestioningly
• Understanding diversity and the issues related to diversity: power, privilege,
advantage, disadvantage, oppression
• Having the language—the literacy— to talk and express clear views about diversity,
the issues related to it and the systems that maintain the status quo (the current
situation)
Steyn also explains CDL as a “reading practice”, that is, a way of understanding and
responding to the social climate and established structures of oppression and exclusion.
Steyn (Ibid.) proposes that there are eight analytical skills involved in practising
CDL. These are shown below (adapted from Steyn, ibid.) in a way that shows the
skill and how it relates to: being critical; understanding diversity: or having the
language (literacy) to express your views.

TABLE 1.2: EIGHT ANALYTICAL SKILLS OF CDL

Skill Skill area

1. Recognise the symbolic and material value of dominant Understanding

masculinity, diversity and
identities, such as whiteness,
heterosexuality, ablebodiedness, middleclassness, etc. connected issues

Analyse how these systems of privilege intersect, Being a critical

2.
thinker
interlock, co-construct and establish each other.

3. Define oppressive systems such as racism as current Understanding

diversity and
social problems and not only historical legacy.
connected issues

33
 4. Understand that social identities are learnt and are an Understanding
diversity and
outcome of social practices.
connected issues

Having the
5. Develop and use grammar and vocabulary that facilitate
language—
a discussion of race, racism and anti-racism, plus
literacy—to
equivalent ideas used in the analysis of other forms of
discuss and
oppression (e.g. gender, sexism, age, ageism,
express opinions
sexuality, homophobia, etc.).

Interpret coded dominant practices which might be Being a critical

6.
thinker
hinted at but not made explicit.
Understanding
7. Analyse the ways that:
diversity and
● diversity hierarchies (putting differences into a connected issues.
“pecking order” so that some become more
important than others), and Being a critical
thinker
● institutional oppressions (the systematic
mistreatment of particular social groups) are being
facilitated by class inequality.
Analyse how the above process varies in specific social
contexts.

8. Engage with issues linked to transforming these Having the

language—
oppressive systems towards deepening democracy/
literacy—to
social justice, in all levels of social organisation.
discuss and
express opinions

Steyn emphasises that people in positions of power in communities determine which

differences influence exclusion and inclusion. For example, a single mother in a poor
community and a suburban-based, corporate executive single mother cannot be said to
have the same power of political persuasion or opportunity regarding the education of her
children (Spreen & Vally, 2006).
The differences between these women are not in themselves superior or inferior, but must
be recognised as real distinctions that give some people advantages and privileges,
including power over others (Spreen & Vally, 2006: 353). We therefore need to develop a
more subtle and sophisticated approach to power and privilege. This approach needs to
include examining multiple forms of exclusion and the ways in which these play out in
school communities, often in very tangible and material ways (Reygan, Walton & Osman,
2018).
Maintaining a position of power and exclusion can be illustrated in the following way:

34
FIGURE 1.3: CRITICAL DIVERSITY LITERACY

ACTIVITY 1.13
Read the following article about how schools use language to exclude children.
Now re-read the table that shows the eight analytical skills linked to CDL.
Then read the article again, thinking about the following questions. Here, your aim is
to put the eight CDL skills into practice. Use the article and the eight skills to:
• Think critically about the issues around diversity that are brought up by the
article.
• Deepen your understanding of these issues through your thinking.
• Express your views about the issues brought up by the article.
Here are some questions to think about. You are not limited to these; their purpose is
to stimulate your thinking. If more questions come into your mind, note them down as
well.
1. What dominant identities do you think are shown through the article? Why do
you think this?
2. What systems of power and privilege do these dominant identities maintain?
How do you know these are current social issues, not only historical? Explain
your thinking.
3. What social identities might the children described in the article be learning?
From which social practices might they be learning these identities?
4. Are there any dominant social practices that you think are “behind the scenes”
of the article? In other words, they are going on in the background but not talked
about explicitly. What are these? What makes you think they are there?
5. Is there a role being played by class inequality in the article that means:
• Some differences are viewed as more important than others?
• You can see there is systematic maltreatment of particular social groups?

35
 6. What are your views on what needs to be done to transform the situation for
the children in the article, so that they achieve equity and social justice?

HOW SCHOOLS USE LANGUAGE TO EXCLUDE CHILDREN

The Conversation, September 6, 2016, Carolyn McKinney and Xolisa Guzula

Kenyan author Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o once described language as “the most important
vehicle through which that [colonial] power fascinated and held the soul prisoner”.
He illustrated this with a disturbing account of receiving corporal punishment, being
fined and wearing a plate around the neck with inscriptions such as I AM STUPID or I
AM A DONKEY. His “crime”? Speaking Gikuyu at his English medium school.
Today, decisions about which language resources should count in schooling— as the
language of instruction, a subject, or a legitimate language for learning—continue to
be informed by the relationships between language and power. Schools and
universities in post-colonial contexts still operate within the logic of coloniality.
These realities have been thrown into sharp relief by revelations that some South
African schools discipline their pupils for speaking any language but English (or
Afrikaans) while on school grounds. At Cape Town’s Sans Souci High School for Girls,
pupils obtain “losses” (or demerits) for a range of “offences”—like being caught
speaking isiXhosa. For many of Sans Souci’s pupils, this is their home language.
African children—whose home languages are by and large not English—are generally
not recognised for the experiences, knowledge and linguistic resources they bring.
They’re expected to adapt to pre-existing school cultures.
African children in ex-Model C schools are expected to feel grateful at being given the
“opportunity” of a quality education in a state school system that performs very poorly.
Many previously white primary and secondary suburban schools offer only English and
Afrikaans as “home language” and “first additional language” subjects. This continues
apartheid’s ideology of bilingualism. Where an African language is offered, it is given
marginal status as “second additional language”. African languages get little space on
the timetable and few resources.
Primary school principals have defended the fact that they offer only English and
Afrikaans by saying their pupils continue on to high schools that only offer these
languages. High school principals, in turn, reported that they had to offer English and
Afrikaans because their feeder primary schools were not offering African languages.
This is a convenient cycle of blame which signals bad faith. If school leaders and
parents were committed to embracing African languages and the spirit of the
multilingual South African language in education policy, surely they would consult each
other and design collaborative language policies?

Once you are confident about the theories we have discussed so far, you can add to your
knowledge by reading about these theories as well.

1.5.4 Theories and models of inclusive education in practice

36
Your head will now be full of theories and models, so let’s take the opportunity to look at
them in practice while they are still fresh. In this section, we will examine a continuum of
inclusion. This continuum, shown below, allows us to describe different forms of inclusion
that you are likely to come across in your career, which are influenced by the theories and
models you have just been studying. We will not talk more about exclusion here, as we
have covered it at length already. Below, we describe each of the four other steps shown
along the continuum: self-contained classrooms (also referred to as segregation);
integration; mainstreaming and full inclusion.

FIGURE 1.4: INCLUSION CONTINUUM

• Self-contained classrooms (or segregation)

This form of inclusion means learners who have similar academic or social needs are
placed together in a classroom that is separate from the regular classrooms but within the
same school. According to Nicole Eredics (2018) the learners could be at different grade
levels working on different concepts. The special education teacher takes responsibility
for teaching all the subjects. The traditional justification for this arrangement is that
learners need, and will receive, specialised support. The challenge is that it limits
opportunities for: learning from others with a wide range of abilities and talents; social
interaction; and everyone being able to experience natural diversity.
• Integration
Integration is a model of inclusion that seeks to make learners with significant learning
challenges part of the regular classroom; they learn alongside their peers without
significant learning challenges. Separate special education programmes are put in place
for these children. These programmes are delivered either within the classroom or through
“pull-out” services, where learners are withdrawn from the classroom to learn in small
groups (which takes us back to segregation, although on a temporary basis). Phasha
(2016) regards this model of inclusion as narrow; it views one group as having learning
challenges in the context of “all is well” with the other learners. She cites Steve Biko (2004)
as saying: “The concept of integration is full of unquestioned assumptions that embrace
the values of the dominant group.” Integration expects learners to adapt to the practices,
methods, curriculum, values and rules of the dominant group, rather than the system
adapting to the learner’s needs.
• Mainstreaming
Mainstreaming involves placing learners with significant learning challenges in a special
education class for some of the time and mixing them with their peers without significant
37
learning challenges for some of the time. The belief behind this form of inclusion is that all
children have the same needs and should therefore (where it is deemed appropriate and
possible) participate in the same social and learning activities.
• Full inclusion
The central ideal of full inclusion is that ordinary schools should provide for all learners,
regardless of their differences: social; cultural; emotional; physical; sensory; cognitive;
linguistic; gender; sexuality or otherwise (Florian, 2008). Full inclusion is about creating
opportunities for all learners to benefit from this diversity and learn from each other. It
requires the teacher to plan rich, differentiated, collaborative learning experiences that use
diversity in the classroom as a resource. In this way teachers use the natural diversity in
the class to encourage all learners to:
• Explore their growing knowledge and skills together, understanding and developing
different ways of making meaning from learning.
• Travel beyond the comfort zones of their predictable personal and cultural
assumptions about themselves and others
Full inclusion is reflected in the teacher’s knowledge, attitudes, values and beliefs about
learners and learning, as well as in their actions and responses when learners experience
or encounter challenges in and outside the classroom.

ACTIVITY 1.14
For each of the four forms of inclusion described above, think about the following:
1. How are the theories and models you learnt about in the previous section
reflected in each form of inclusion described above?
2. Next, think about your own experience at school, or experience you have had
of a school as an adult—or both—and consider the following questions:
• Which forms of inclusion have you experienced or seen in action?
• Thinking about children’s learning in this school—both academic and
social—how well do you think these forms of inclusion worked? Explain
your reasoning.
• What attitudes and beliefs about children with learning challenges did you
see or experience? Which attitudes and beliefs helped inclusion? Which
did not?
• Which of the theories and models you learnt about do you think
underpinned the main beliefs, attitudes and culture of the school?
3. There are many different types of school in South Africa, for example rural,
urban, peri-urban, informal, mainstream, full-service, special, academic,
technical. If you have had experience of a school that is different from the one
you wrote about above, compare and contrast these schools using the following
questions:
• Were the forms of inclusion you saw different? If so, how?

38
 • Were the impacts on learners of these forms of inclusion different? If so,
how?
• Were the theories and models that underpinned the main beliefs, attitudes
and cultures of the schools different? If so, how?
• Did you see differences in the attitudes, beliefs and culture of the schools? If
so, what were these?

1.5.5 Two other theories underpinning inclusive education.

Here is some information about two other theories that may be of interest to you when
developing your understanding of inclusive education.

1.5.5.1 Capability approach

The capability approach (CA) was developed by Sen and Nussbaum (cited in Terzi, 2008).
It asserts that wellbeing and agency are equally important, and interdependent, aspects
of human life.
Sen (Ibid.) draws a distinction between functionings and capabilities. When employed in
an educational setting, functionings refer to educational “beings and doings/actions”, such
as: “access to” and “participation in” education; learning and achieving (e.g., reading and
writing, mathematics grades); and completing basic education. Capabilities are
opportunities to fulfil educational functionings. Although outcomes/functionings (e.g.,
mathematics grades) might appear equal, learners’ actual opportunities to function might
be very different; for example, they may be influenced by gender and (dis)abilities (Okkolin
et al., 2018). <<AUTHOR: Please add to References.>>
As a result, the theoretical framework asserts that the ultimate goal of any social and
political reform, including education (from wide-ranging policies to school-level practices),
should be to enhance people’s functionings and capabilities and support agency. Similarly,
the assessment of people’s wellbeing should be based on the various “beings and doings”
that they can achieve and the opportunities or freedoms to realise these.
In other words, strategic policy priorities and practices should be assessed, with equal
importance placed on the following:
• their impact on people’s functioning (e.g., grades in mathematics)
• their influence on their capabilities (e.g., the set of opportunities needed to achieve a
valued grade in mathematics)
• people’s freedom to act “in line with his or her conception of the good” (Sen, 1999:
206).
Terzi (2008) and Norwich (2016) point out that this framework clarifies the relationship
between education and a just society in terms of the equality of capabilities rather than of
resources and presents genuine opportunities for people to achieve.

39
1.5.5.2 Sociocultural and cultural-historical activity theories
Ecological systems theory helped to form more contemporary theories including
sociocultural theory and cultural-historical activity theory (CHAT). At the heart of these
theories lies an understanding of human learning processes as social and cultural rather
than individual or psychological experiences (Swart & Oswald, 2008).
Vygotsky emphasised that knowledge is constructed socially, that is, individual and social
learning processes are interdependent. Meaning from learning, therefore, cannot be
separated from its sociocultural contexts and interaction between people (Donald et al.,
2009; Swart & Oswald, 2008). Everyday activities take place in contexts in which individual
identities and cultural histories are being interpreted continuously.
Cultural-historical activity theory is a theoretical framework that helps to develop an
understanding and analysis of the relationship between the human mind (what people
think) and activity (what people do). The roots of CHAT are, like sociocultural theory, found
in the work of Vygotsky. Today they are closely intertwined with transformation in
education via sociocultural and cultural-historical approaches to the implementation of
inclusive education.
CHAT’s central principle is that learning is primarily a social accomplishment “achieved
through situated moments in the interactions between the individual(s) and the material
and social environment, where the transactions between active individual(s) and an active
environment co-construct each other” (Blanton et al., cited in Oswald & Engelbrecht, 2013:
438). Core ideas are that:
• Human beings act collectively, learn by doing and communicate via their actions, for
example in the classroom.
• Human beings make, employ and develop tools of all kinds to learn and communicate,
for example classroom routines and policies.
• Community and its cultural history are central to the process of making and interpreting
meaning and thus to all forms of communicating and acting.
Using CHAT, for example, helps us understand: the structure of interaction and activity in
classrooms; and the gaps between what currently exists and what might be the imagined
outcomes.

1.6 The epistemological underpinnings of inclusive education

Epistemology is a philosophical concept targeted at shaping convictions about

knowledge and reality. It includes the ways in which knowledge is acquired and
validated. The epistemological foundations of inclusive education, thus, constitute the
different philosophical conceptions that have informed its history and development.
Epistemology is specifically, the thinking behind inclusive education hence special
attention is afforded to the epistemic features that underpin the growth of special
education. Let’s take a closer look at each one of these epistemologies:

40
• Essentialist epistemology: The essentialist epistemology is also known
as the deficit or medical approach. It interprets and presents disability
as “the intention of nature”. Thus, it locates children’s differences and
disabilities within their individual pathology.
• Social constructivist epistemology: Social constructivist epistemology
interprets and presents disability as a socially contrived construction,
deployed against minorities and enforcing social marginalization.

• Rights-based epistemology: Rights-based epistemology views

education as a basic right for all regardless of background, colour,
gender, ethnicity, disability, or social status.

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 LEARNING UNIT 2
The context of exclusion and inclusive education policies

OUTCOMES
When you have completed Learning Unit 2, you should be able to:
• Define exclusion.
• Describe Inclusive Education policies, laws and agreements in
South Africa and beyond.
• Summarise South African policies supporting inclusive education.

ACTIVITY 2.1
WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT EXCLUSION IN EDUCATION?
Throughout this module you will be asked to keep a journal to write down your
thoughts and reflections on various topics. The ability to reflect on and learn from
your experience and practice—called “reflective practice”—will be key to your ability
to teach inclusively.
You can discuss questions for reflection with a colleague or a friend, and then record
your main takeaway points. Or, if you prefer, you can do the journal activities as a
reflection on your own.
In your journal, you can write in any language you like. You can also use audio or
video recordings. If you are writing, you can use any style you like: for example, as
well as sentences and paragraphs you could use lists, bullet points, mind maps,
collages, drawings, symbols, or anything else that helps you make meaning from
your learning. When we say, “make notes about” or “note down your thoughts”, feel
free to work in whatever way helps you most.
Here is your first journal activity:
Reflect on these statements and questions and make notes about your thoughts.
1. Exclusion from education can mean a child is not attending school at all.
Do you know any children who are not in school? What do you think has led to the
child or children being excluded from the school community?
2. Exclusion from education can still happen when the learner is present in
the classroom. This exclusion is evident when the learner is not participating, not
engaged, not accepted or not being given opportunities to succeed. Do you know

42
 someone who has been excluded in the classroom? What do you think has led to
the child being excluded from learning in the classroom?
3. Exclusion from education can even happen unintentionally. Even the most
well-meaning and professional teacher can exclude children without being aware of
it. Have you ever noticed such types of exclusion? If so, give some examples. Why
do you think these incidents of exclusion happened?

➢ Reflective practice: The ability to reflect on your actions

in the classroom—using knowledge, experience,
theoretical understanding and values—in order to gain
insights and build learning.

2.1 Introduction

In this learning unit, you will learn more about South African educational policies that
deal with inclusive education. Various national and international treaties will be
explained so that you understand how they contribute towards the adoption of
inclusion in education and society. Inclusive education is based on the idea that
children with and without impairments, as well as those who are vulnerable to
marginalization and exclusion, have equal access to educational opportunities. You
will learn about exclusion and inclusive education policies, laws and agreements in
South Africa and beyond.

ACTIVITY 2.2
Read the article about Mcebisi below, then consider the following questions:
1. From your experience of growing up in any country, from what you know of others’
experiences, and from information in the case study, what sort of obstacles might
Mcebisi have faced in his journey to reach university?
2. What, and who, helped Mcebisi to overcome these obstacles?
3. What sort of obstacles have you had to overcome to get to where you are now?
What, and who, helped you overcome these?

ARTICLE
I mastered Matric!
MIET AFRICA Newsletter, March 2019

43
Lihlithemba Technical High School is in semi-rural Ndwedwe, and is one of the best-
performing schools in the province. In 2013 and 2017 learners at the school were among the
top 10 matriculants in KZN, and in 2018 the school did it again! Mcebisi Ntenga achieved an
outstanding seven distinctions in the 2018 National Senior Certificate examinations, including
88% for Maths. His top mark was for Accounting, a subject he admits he did not like at first.
He narrowly missed full marks in the subject by 2%.
“I mastered Matric!” said Mcebisi proudly.
“I am extremely proud of Mcebisi,” said principal Mr Zwane. “When he was in Grade 10 in
my Physical Sciences class I knew he was top 10 material. I have been working with him and
motivating him since then.”
Mcebisi is the last-born of five children. His siblings have all excelled in one way or another
in subjects like Maths, Accounting and Science. But it’s not all in the genes, he said. “Yes,
genes come into it, but I wouldn’t say that’s what it’s all about. You have to enhance your
smartness.”
And that’s what Mcebisi set out to do. While most Grade 11s were enjoying the end-of-year
holidays, he spent his days studying the matric syllabus and answering previous examination
papers so that he could be one step ahead when he started Grade 12 in 2018. He spent all
his spare pocket money on downloading past exam papers; by the time he wrote his final
matric exams last year, he had over one gigabyte of past papers on his phone!
He also attended extra Maths lessons. “Simo Mthethwa [MIET AFRICA’s Maths facilitator]
helped me a lot. He assisted us with resources from the Internet such as Maths education
websites.”
The hours Mcebisi spent studying rather than hanging out with his friends paid off. With his
excellent results he would have been accepted to study medicine as his dream is to be a
surgeon, but circumstances prevented him from applying to the university in time. So he will
study his second option, Pharmacy, at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, where he has been
awarded a scholarship. “I am looking forward to moving to Durban and studying at university.
I will apply the same determination I did at school and I know I will do well.” With his tenacity
and drive, we are sure Mcebisi will achieve his goals.

South Africa has made some—but limited—gains in addressing barriers, inequalities

and under-development in education since its attainment of democracy in 1994 and

44
the adoption of inclusive education. There has been an improvement in the number
of learners enrolling in schools—for example, Statistics South Africa (2016) suggests
an overall annual increase in learner enrolment in all nine provinces. The enrolment
rates in primary schools increased from 88.1% in 2002 to 94.2% in 2015, while in
secondary school enrolment rates increased from 89% in 2002 to 94.5%in 2015.
Yet, despite these improvements in access to education, many thousands of children
and young people in South Africa still remain marginalised and vulnerable to
exclusion from education. They are unable to access their right to quality education
due to attitudes and practices that sustain their marginalisation and exclusion. Most
of these attitudes and practices have been inherited from “over three centuries of
colonial rule and over 60 years of apartheid” (Phasha, 2010). For example, the
findings of the recent study conducted for the Teaching for All project (Majoko et al.,
2018) identified exclusion from and within the school system affecting—in
particular—learners with disabilities and those from disadvantaged communities.
The result of this marginalisation and exclusion is an extremely high school dropout
rate, to the extent that this rate has been described as “a national crisis” (Weybright
et al., 2017). It is estimated that “approximately 60% of first graders will ultimately
drop out rather than complete 12th Grade” (Ibid.). This figure indicates that, although
initial access to education rates seems to be rising, barriers to accessing education
are preventing many young people from matriculating in Grade 12. Perhaps
unsurprisingly, given the dropout rate, over half of young people are unemployed,
and almost a third of all youth are out of employment, training and education
opportunities (Baumann, 2018). In addition, South Africa was the lowest performing
country out of 50 in the 2016 Progress in International Reading Study (PIRLS),
suggesting that there is also a problem with engagement in learning in South African
schools.
So why has the situation not changed a great deal in the last more than 25 years?
Some of the aspects of inclusion that might be influencing it include:
• The language of instruction
• Overcrowded classrooms and lack of resources
• Segregated special schools.
• Bullying and abuse at school or on the way to and from school
• Outmoded, inaccessible and rigid curriculum (subject matter, pedagogy,
assessment and available resources)
• Teachers who have low expectations of learners
• Teachers who lack the knowledge and skills to support a diverse range of
learners.
• Lack of opportunities in schools for genuine learner voices to be heard and acted
on.

45
 ACTIVITY 2.3

• Consider the list of aspects of exclusion above. Give examples of situations

you know about that show the aspects of exclusion in action, drawing on
your own experience and knowledge.
• Add other aspects you think are important.

To summarise: The current evidence suggests many schools and other educational
institutions are still reproducing environments that maintain exclusions of the past.
Many children and young people therefore still lack access to quality, equitable
education. It is against this background that we clarify the term “exclusion from
education” as we begin our journey to understand it further.

2.2 Definitions of exclusion

Various definitions of the term “exclusion in education” exist. As far back as 1996,
Booth defined exclusion in education as “the process of decreasing the participation
of learners in the cultures and curricula of the regular school”. Kearney (2011) defines
the term as “denial of access to education, its resources and rewards”.
These two definitions clarify that exclusion is not only about physical presence—it
also includes learners’ experiences at school. Therefore, the inability of the education
system to provide learners with quality education in an equitable way also constitutes
exclusion from education.

FIGURE 2.1: EXCLUSION FROM QUALITY EDUCATION

46
In June 1994 the World Conference on Special Needs Education, organised by the
Government of Spain in co-operation with UNESCO, was held in Salamanca, Spain.
More than 300 participants representing 92 governments (including South Africa) and
25 international organisations attended and ratified the Salamanca Statement and
Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. The signatories undertook to
“work towards ‘schools for all’—which include everybody, celebrate differences,
support learning, and respond to individual needs” (UNESCO, 1994). Here is an
extract from the Framework.
The guiding principle that informs this Framework is that schools should
accommodate all children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social,
emotional, linguistic or other conditions. This should include disabled and
gifted children, street and working children, children from remote or nomadic
populations, children from linguistic, ethnic or cultural minorities and children
from other disadvantaged or marginalized areas or groups. Schools have to
find ways of successfully educating all children, including those who have
serious disadvantages and disabilities.
This extract from the introduction to the Framework indicates that every child is at
risk of experiencing exclusion in education. Depending on the context, those who are
most vulnerable to exclusion from quality education might include, among others,
children or young people:
• With chronic illness
• From poverty-stricken households
• Who are teenage mothers.
• Who are orphans.
• Who are refugees, including unaccompanied minors.
• Who have dropped out of school before graduation.
• Who have had their education interrupted by gang violence or substance abuse.
• Who are bullied.
• From minority religious groups
• With physical impairments
• With neurocognitive differences
• With poor mental health

Can you add to this list?

In the next section we are going to look at how our education system in South Africa
is shaped by the exclusionary practices of the past, and the challenges this pose for
implementing an inclusive education system for all.

47
2.2.1 Inherited exclusions from the past

This section contains a brief discussion of the history of education in South Africa. Its
aim is to help you understand the origin of the exclusionary practices that exist in the
current education system and begin to deepen your understanding of inclusion within
the South African context. In particular, you will understand who needs to be included,
by whom and how, and you will begin to appreciate your responsibility to teach
inclusively.

2.2.1.1 Arrival of the colonists

South Africa had a long history before the arrival in 1652 of European colonists and
their education practices. Before 1652, children participated in a community-oriented
oral education “intimately integrated with the social, cultural, artistic, religious and
recreational life of the indigenous peoples” (Seroto, n.d.). In stark contrast, the
establishment of the first formal European school in 1658 was specifically meant to
train slaves to become servants of the “master” (coloniser). The suppression of the
indigenous population went beyond their removal from their own countries of origin
to include learning the language and religion of their masters (Dutch). These slaves
were driven physically and psychologically into the world of the masters (Molteno,
cited in Kallaway, 1990).
Division in terms of class between the colonists and slaves became more evident as
separate schooling for slaves was established, separate from schooling provided for
colonists and non-slaves. Discrimination along gender lines was also introduced as
females and males were separated in schools for slaves. Females were taught
domestic tasks and males were taught manual skills. Since the education was
designed to make them fit into Western civilisation, they were forced to abandon their
culture.

2.2.1.2 Mission schools

When the missionaries took over the education of black people in the 19 th century,
funding was limited, and the standard of teaching was low. Schools continued to
weaken traditional religious beliefs and the African way of life. Christie (1991)
described how missionaries helped break people down, and how they imposed
Western culture and undermined the African way of life. Mission schools also
contributed to creating class differences through their curricula. Some schools offered
well-resourced academic education based on European-type curricula, emphasised
Christian values, and included technical training. Others had limited funds, poor
facilities and poorly trained teachers, which contributed to low educational outcomes.
Some mission schools focused only on manual skills.

48
Racism and subordination were evident even in some schools that admitted both
white and black learners, for example, learners from different races played on
separate sports fields, ate at separate tables and slept in separate dormitories.
Education continued to offer different experiences of the curriculum as it prepared
females for domestic life and males for jobs in religion and teaching. For some
children, however, opportunities for schooling were limited or non-existent.

2.2.1.3 Bantu Education Act

In 1953, the Nationalist government passed the Bantu Education Act. This act
formalised, legalised and deepened the structures around exclusion and segregation.
It created racially separate education departments for each of the South African
population groups, at the time termed Whites, Indians, Coloureds and Blacks. The
education for blacks was controlled by the Department of Bantu Education, and was
further separated along the lines of ethnicity. As a consequence, the number of
education departments rose to 18. Overall, blacks were to be trained to be what
Hendrik Verwoerd termed “hewers of woods and drawers of water” (SA History
online, 2019) and to serve white supremacy. Segregation, discrimination and
exclusion were evident in the following:
• Gross neglect of education for blacks, which denied black people access to the
same educational opportunities and resources enjoyed by white South Africans.
• Denial of black people’s history, culture and identity, by promoting myths and
racial stereotypes in its curricula and textbooks.
• Limited educational funding for black learners’ education; education for blacks
was funded by tax collected from them, whereas education for white learners
was funded from the government’s General Revenue account.
• Shortages of resources in schools for blacks, especially in rural areas;
shortages of classrooms and teachers; inadequate facilities such as
laboratories, textbooks and libraries.
• Overcrowded classrooms, high teacher–student ratios, and poor teacher
training, which negatively affected the quality of teaching and learning.
• The creation of private schools to cater for learners from affluent and/or religious
backgrounds.
• Different educational experiences being organised along gender lines: girls, for
example, were trained in domestic science, history and typing, while boys did
woodwork, physics and chemistry.
Children with special needs or disabilities were also labelled, segregated,
stereotyped and given an inferior education. Those within the Bantu Education
System were even worse off than their white counterparts who, while they were
marginalised, still had more resources made available to them (Naicker, 2000). White
children received financial resources through a separate education system for

49
learners with disabilities, often being educated in “special schools” (Phasha, 2010).
On the other hand, black children with disabilities were not allocated any resources
or support. As a result, most black communities resorted to sending their learners
with disabilities to mainstream schools where they received no support (Gwala-Ogisi,
1990; Phasha, 2010).
The provision of education for learners with special needs consisted of two systems:
special education and remedial education. Learners were rigidly categorised as
having, for example: slight specific learning disabilities; moderate specific disabilities;
and severe learning disabilities (Gwala-Ogisi, 1990). This labelling deepened
segregation and discrimination.

2.2.1.4 Post-1994
Even post-1994 many children and young people are excluded from education
because they:
• Cannot receive education in their home language, and/or
• are not receiving the specific support they need to overcome the challenges
preventing them from developing their potential.
Learners continue to be marginalised because of economic inequality; an inability to
access quality education; the daily challenges of living in communities that are deeply
affected by substance abuse and violence; and school cultures that are still burdened
by sexism, racism, homophobia and xenophobia. Many learners are further being
held back by low expectations due to labelling, and the cultural assumptions and
stereotypes attached to these labels.
Exclusion from quality education violates children’s constitutional rights and
reinforces existing structural injustices. This in turn leads to marginalised groups
being excluded from full participation in social, economic and political life as adults.
They remain trapped in inter-generational cycles of poverty and exclusion, thereby
increasing inequality. This situation exacerbates South Africa’s two key development
challenges: redressing the high levels of poverty, and inequality (DBE, 2015: 3).
Inclusive education needs to be understood against this background of social
oppression and educational exclusion. For this reason, education policies and Acts
consistently acknowledge the role of teachers in building an inclusive education
system. They call for teachers to advocate for social justice, human rights and
inclusivity.
This call means that you, as a teacher, are expected to focus on learner wellbeing,
classroom pedagogies and educational practices that strongly and clearly challenge
exclusion and all forms of oppression and discrimination. In order to do this
successfully, you will need to become a change agent. The idea of teachers as
change agents who can help reduce educational inequalities, is linked to research
showing that teachers are the most significant in-school factor influencing student
achievement (Hattie, 2009; OECD, 2005).

50
We will talk more about teachers as change agents later in this learning unit, and will
expand on the areas mentioned above throughout this learning unit and the rest of
the module.
➢ Change agent: Someone who puts their time and energy
into making change happen in an organisation.

ACTIVITY 2.4

Refresh your memory about the Soweto student uprising of 1976. The website link
shown below is a good place to start, although there are many others. Through the
link below you will find an in-depth article about what happened and the reasons
behind the protests, as well as some interesting interviews in the left-hand side bar.
http://bit.ly/2wN9JjS

While doing your research, consider the following questions and note your
answers. Here we want you to focus on the issues of exclusion, marginalisation
and inequality of power that you have studied so far.
1. What were the power dynamics underlying the protest? Who was being
marginalised? Who had the power?
2. How was language used to racialise the education system under the Bantu
Education Act?
3. Who were the change agents before, during and after the uprising? What
qualities did they show as change agents?
4. To what extent do you think the power dynamics of the apartheid era persist
in South African culture? In schools? Draw on your own lived experiences.
5. How do current power dynamics continue to shape the lives and outlook of
many South Africans? How do they shape your own life and outlook?

ACTIVITY 2. 5

Watch the Human Rights Watch film South Africa: Children with disabilities denied
education. http://y2u.be/l7LdwV1gaVg
Consider the following questions:
1. What is the definition, and what are the aims of, inclusive education for
children with disabilities in South Africa?
2. What do you think are the values informing inclusive education for children
with disabilities in South Africa?
3. Why, according to the video, are children with disabilities in South Africa not
accessing quality education?

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 2.3 Inclusive education policies, laws and agreements: South Africa and
beyond

ACTIVITY 2.6

WHY DO WE HAVE INCLUSIVE EDUCATION POLICIES ? <<TEXT SHOULD JUST BE NORMAL

UPPER/LOWER CASE.>>

Read the following case study, which is an extract from an essay by a Grade
10 learner in South Africa. Then consider:
How do you think an inclusive education policy might enable Aviwe to get
support from:
1. The district education authority
2. The principal
3. Teachers
4. Family

CASE STUDY: AVIWE

I am a sucker for horror and supernatural movies, and a fan of metal rock and hip-hop music.
Being a South African teenager comes with its ups and downs.
Sometimes it becomes a living nightmare because there is not a single day that a person like
me does not face discrimination, unless we spend our time indoors. This is because I was
born with a medical condition called albinism.
Growing up and now as a teenager I’ve been called names such as “mlungu”.
People also point at me and will say things like I bath with milk.
I once had an emotional breakdown, but through the support of my parents, I overcame it.

Policies for inclusive education play a vital role because they can:
• Motivate and empower—and sometimes give incentives to—districts, schools
and teachers to work inclusively.
• Empower families to ensure children get what they need to learn effectively.

➢ Policy: A course of action, proposed by the government

for a particular situation, that has been officially agreed
to.

52
South Africa has been committed to building an inclusive education and training
system since 1994. It has developed education laws and policies based on the
Constitution that aim to develop a just, equitable, safe and productive society for the
benefit of everyone. And since the end of World War ll, the world as a whole—through
the United Nations and other international organisations—has also been working to
develop policies and guidelines around inclusive education. In this section we will
look at the development of inclusive education policies, laws and agreements,
explore the extent to which they are effective, and think about some of the barriers to
their effectiveness.
We will start by considering the international human rights and inclusive education
movement, then turn our focus to South African developments against this backdrop.

2.3.1 International human rights and inclusive education

Education is seen as a fundamental human right. As a result, there is a range of

United Nations (UN) conventions and declarations dating back over 70 years that
inform the field of inclusive education. These conventions and declarations started
life as a written document: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, agreed by the
newly-formed UN after World War II. Over the last fifty years, though, the idea of
human rights has developed from words on a page to becoming a global movement,
driven by people from all walks of life and communities across the world. This
movement has led to human rights becoming a fundamental, globally acknowledged
part of every individual’s life, and to their being integrated into international law.

➢ Convention: An agreement between countries

covering particular issues; less formal than a
treaty.

Human rights policies in education aim to:

• Promote, respect and protect the universal right of all children to inclusive, quality
education.
• Recognise that every learner and teacher is free to explore, discover, develop
and express their potential, with dignity, with equal opportunity and without
discrimination.
A rights-based approach to education is closely linked to human rights principles.
These principles are defined in many international declarations, which many
countries—including South Africa—have ratified (signed).

53
Below is a timeline of the development of some UN human rights documents and a
summary of how they inform inclusive education:

TABLE 2.1: INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS ON INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

YEAR DOCUMENT TITLE HOW IT IMPACTS INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

1948 Universal Education is a right. Primary school should be free. We

Declaration of should learn about the UN and how to get on with others.
Human Rights Our parents can choose what we learn. Children should not
(Article 26) be discriminated against. The best interests of the child and
the child’s view should be considered.

1965 International Condemns apartheid and racial segregation and obliges

Convention on the countries to "prevent, prohibit and eradicate" these
Elimination of All practices in all of their territories. Combats racial prejudice
Forms of Racial and encourages understanding and tolerance between
Discrimination different racial, ethnic and national groups.

1982 World Programme Strategy to enhance disability prevention, rehabilitation and

of Action equalisation of opportunities. Refers to full participation of
Concerning people with disabilities in social life and national
Disabled Persons development. Emphasises the need to approach disability
from a human rights perspective.

1989 UN Convention on Protects the rights of children in all areas of their life.
the Rights of the Governments have a responsibility to:
Child ● take all available measures to make sure children’s
rights are respected, protected and fulfilled.
● agree to review their laws relating to children.
Calls on governments to assess their social services, legal,
health and education systems, as well as levels of funding
for these services.

1990 World Education Is a major milestone in the international dialogue on the

Forum: Jomtien place of education in human development policy. Makes
Conference education a top priority; broadens the discussion about
Education for All education from its previous, limited focus on access to
(EFA) primary school.

1993 Standard Rules on Emphasises strong moral and political commitment of

the Equalisation of governments to take action to attain equity for persons with
Opportunities for disabilities. Document is still a basis for policymaking and
Persons with cooperation between countries.
Disabilities: UN
General Assembly

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1994 Salamanca Calls for major school reform. Recognises the need for and
Statement and urgency of providing education for all children, young
Framework for people and adults “within the regular education system”.
Action on Special Children with “special educational needs” must have
Needs Education: access to regular schools as the most effective way of
92 countries, 25 addressing discrimination, creating welcoming
international communities, building an inclusive society and achieving
organisations Education for All.

2000 World Education Culmination of a major assessment of the state of education

Forum: Dakar across the world 1990–2000. Resulted in a set of priorities
Framework that aimed to address equitable access to quality education
– particular focus on gender.

2000 UN Millennium Sets out eight global goals, including halving the extreme
Development Goals poverty rate, halting the spread of HIV & AIDS and
2000–15 providing universal primary education.

2006 UN Convention on Followed decades of work by the UN to change attitudes

the Rights of and approaches to persons with disabilities. Aims to shift
Persons with culture of viewing people with disabilities as “objects” of
Disabilities charity, medical treatment and social protection to viewing
them as “subjects” like anyone else people with rights, who
are capable of claiming those rights, making decisions and
being active members of society.

2015 UN Sustainable Sets out 17 global goals which followed on from the
Development Goals Millennium Development Goals. SDG 4 ensures inclusive,
2015–30 equitable, quality education and promotes lifelong learning
opportunities for all, and has a specific focus on all
marginalised groups.

2015 World Education Focused on the framework for action for SDG 4. Outlines a
Forum: Incheon commitment to “addressing all forms of exclusion and
Declaration marginalisation, disparities and inequalities in access,
participation and learning outcomes”, in practice:
● Provides twelve years of free education
● Ensures access to education and learning is
equitable, with a focus on vulnerable groups
● Ensures that outcomes are relevant and effective,
and provide the building blocks for lifelong learning

ACTIVITY 2.7

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 Read the timeline of international human rights documents and consider the
following questions:
1. Which one of the documents is most interesting to you from an inclusive
education point of view (i.e., education is provided for all children, is relevant,
accessible, fair and of the highest possible quality)? Why do you find this the
most interesting document?
2. Look the document up on the internet and read more about it.
3. Think about a child or young person you know who is at risk of being
marginalised or excluded from education.
• How does the document you have chosen apply to them?
• How could it help them—what is useful and relevant about the document?
• Are there parts that are unhelpful or would need adapting to be relevant for
this child or young person? If so, what are these? What do you think needs
adapting and how?
4. To what extent do you think there is an awareness of human rights related to
education in your community? What helps or hinders this awareness?
5. Do you think this awareness has changed over the last five to ten years? If so,
how? What do you think might be the reasons for the change, or lack of change,
in your community?
2.3.2 Inclusive education policies and laws: South Africa and Africa

ACTIVITY 2.8
Before we continue, spend a few minutes considering the following two questions. If
you can, discuss them with a colleague. If you are working on your own, reflect on the
questions and make notes in your journal.
1. What do you already know about inclusive education policies and laws in South
Africa? For example, do you know which policies and laws exist? Do you know
what they are designed to do?
2. What would you like to know about inclusive education policies and laws in
South Africa? What do you think teachers working inclusively in schools need
to know?

Following the dismantling of the discriminatory Christian National Education system

in 1994, new education policies, laws and guidelines have been put in place in South
Africa. These are grounded in the South African Constitution and Bill of Rights and
are also in line with major international conventions, treaties and declarations to
which South Africa is a signatory.

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The Constitution was the country’s first policy document to reflect a commitment to
equity and equality. It embraced the international principles of human rights and
committed itself to building an inclusive education and training system.
This is our national soul, our contract with one another as citizens,
underpinned by our highest aspirations and our deepest apprehensions.
Our pledge is: Never and never again shall the laws of our land rend our
people apart or legalise their oppression and repression. Together, we
shall march, hand-in-hand, to a brighter future (President Nelson Mandela
at the unveiling of the mural celebrating the adoption of the new
Constitution, May 8, 1996).
Since 1994, South Africa and Africa have developed a number of documents that
show a clear national and regional obligation to implement inclusive education. In this
section we introduce you to some of these documents. Once you know about them,
you can use them to empower yourself to promote an inclusive culture and address
exclusion from education in your classroom and school.
The timeline below shows some of the most significant South African and African
policies and laws, with a brief summary of some of the ways each informs inclusive
education.

TABLE 2.2: SOUTH AFRICAN AND AFRICAN INCLUSIVE EDUCATION POLICY/LAW

DEVELOPMENT

YEAR DOCUMENT TITLE HOW IT IMPACTS INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

1990 African Union: African Emphasises the need to include African cultural values and
Charter on the experiences when dealing with the rights of the child, as
Rights and Welfare their realities are particular to Africa. Any custom, tradition,
of the Child cultural or religious practice that is inconsistent with
children’s rights is discouraged.

1996 The South African Supports the rights to basic education, to a safe
Constitution and Bill environment and to act in the best interest of the child.
of Rights

1996 The South African Articulates the roles and responsibilities of public schools.
Schools Act Ended the system of separate schooling on the basis of
race and created a single system for all learners. Right of
equal access to basic and quality education for all learners
without discrimination of any sort. No learner may be denied
admission to an ordinary school on any grounds. The first
step towards a single, inclusive education system for South
Africa.

2001 DoE: Education Suggests structural and programme changes to South

White Paper 6: Africa’s education system so that diverse learners can be
Special Needs included in mainstream schools. Outlines an inclusive

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 Education: building education system in which all learners have equal access
an inclusive to quality educational opportunities. Recognises the
education and importance of developing learners’ strengths, and of
training system empowering and enabling learners to participate actively
and critically in the learning process.

2005 The South African Protects the rights of children so they are able to grow up
Children’s Act safely and develop well. If abused or neglected, they will be
helped to recover. Children are allowed to have their say
and participate in decisions that affect their lives. Values
and protects families. Ensures proper and safe after-care,
crèches, drop-in centres, and child and youth care centres.

2015 DHET: Revised All teachers need to be familiar with what is needed to
Policy on Minimum implement inclusive education practices.
Requirements for
Teacher Education
Qualifications

2011 DBE: Policy on Framework of procedures to identify, assess, and provide

Screening programmes for all learners who need additional support to
Identification, boost their participation and inclusion in school.
Assessment and
Support (SIAS)

2011 DBE: Guidelines for Strategies for differentiated teaching and learning to meet
Responding to the diversity of learners’ needs.
Learner Diversity in
the Classroom

2011 South African Council Details ten principles for professional teaching.
for Educators (SACE):
Draft Professional
Teacher Standards

2012 DBE: National States what should be in the curricula for each grade in
Curriculum and South Africa, and how it should be assessed.
Assessment and
Policy Statement
Grades R–12

2012 The South African Promotes nation building as a key element within social
National cohesion schemes. Identifies 31 actions that will help to
Development Plan achieve this based on values, equal opportunities,
2030 inclusion, cohesion, citizenship and leadership.

2013 African Union: Strategic plan for the socio-economic transformation of the
Agenda 2063— continent. Emphasises the importance of education and

58
 Africa’s Agenda for children’s civil and political rights as the foundations of
Children sustainable, rights-based development.

2014 Southern African Aims to realise the educational rights of all children,
Development including those who are most vulnerable, by addressing
Community (SADC): barriers to learning and participation. Supports schools
Care and Support for through nine programmes to become inclusive centres of
Teaching and teaching, learning, care and support.
Learning (CSTL)
framework

2018 DBE: Draft Norms Addresses how an inclusive education system will be
and Standards for funded and resourced.
Funding

2018 DHET: Standards for Identifies standards for the development of inclusive
Inclusive Teaching teachers in five key areas: valuing and understanding
learner diversity; agency for social justice and inclusion;
collaborating to enable inclusive teaching and learning;
developing professionally as an inclusive teacher;
employing classroom practices that promote learning for all.

ACTIVITY 2.9
1.Look at the timeline of South African policies in relation to the timeline of
international policies. Identify links between the two.
2.Choose and read three policies from the list below that particularly interest you.
• South African Bill of Rights
• Revised South African Schools Act
• Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education
• Curriculum Policy and Assessment Statement (CAPS)
• Policy on Screening, Information and Assessment and Support (SIAS)
Once you have read the policies, think about and answer the following questions for
each policy:

1. What is useful and relevant about this policy for inclusive education in your
school and community? Why do you think this?
2. Are there parts of the policy that are not useful or relevant for inclusive
education in your school and community? If so, which are they? Why do you
think this?
3. Are there parts of the policy that, if they were adapted, could be more useful
or relevant for inclusive education in your school and community? If so, which
are they? How do you think they need to be adapted?

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 4. To what extent do you think this policy is put into practice in your school and
community? What factors do you think help or hinder it being put into
practice?
5. What needs to be done to overcome some of the factors that get in the way
of this policy being put into practice in your school and community?
6. What have you learnt about inclusive education laws and policy in South
Africa in this section that is going to be useful to you as a teacher working
inclusively?

Remember: despite the limitations of some of the policies and laws about inclusive
education, they are what we currently have in place to support us to teach inclusively.
Use them to do everything you can to make sure that the education learners
experience in your classroom is equitable and inclusive.

2.4 Summary of South African policies supporting inclusive education

South African Constitution and Bill of Rights (Act No 108 of 1996)

The South African Constitution is the foundation on which all legislation and policies
around education are instituted (RSA, 1996). Chapter two of the Constitution (Bill of
Rights) sets out the fundamental rights of all South Africans, but also states when
rights may be restricted. All the ensuing education policies are premised on the
principles well established in the Constitution. Developed within a human rights
discourse, the policies support the following rights:
• To basic education
• Not to be unfairly discriminated against
• To life and integrity, privacy; freedom and access to information
• Freedom of conscience, religion, thought, belief and opinion
• Freedom of association
• To a safe environment
• The best interests of the child

South African Schools Act (No 84 of 1996)

This is a multi-pronged policy (DoE, 1996) with six chapters that establish guidelines
to schools with regard to:
• Compulsory attendance, admission to school and exemption from compulsory
attendance

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• Suspension and expulsion from school
• Code of conduct including disciplinary parameters within which schools should
operate
• Language policy
• Governance and professional management of schools
• Funding
• Establishment of governing bodies, including terms of reference, roles and
responsibilities
• Rules for the establishment of independent schools
• Transition issues
• General provisions
The policy emphasises inclusion and clearly articulates the roles and responsibility
of public schools to ensure an environment conducive to teaching and learning. It is
positioned within a social justice and transformative framework and therefore seeks
to promote equality and create equitable opportunities in schools.
However, the policy presumes that schools are all in the same circumstances, so
implementing the policy is doable for everyone, as well as being something that
everyone will want to do. It assumes that each school has a similar level of capacity,
equal distribution of decision-making powers, competency, willingness, availability of
resources, and attitude towards inclusive education. However, there are huge
differences among schools—for some the policy areas outlined in the act will be part
of their everyday practice and inclusive education is embedded in school culture, and
for others this is not the case at all—but the policy does not offer any answers about
how to address these differences.
The policy is also vague on how to implement ways of monitoring that all children are
attending school or are even in a position to attend school. Many families, schools
and communities face social and financial challenges. Some of these are beyond the
control of children and their caregivers, for example in communities where families
have been severely affected by HIV and other diseases. Children who should be in
school may have to take on added, adult responsibilities such as providing for their
siblings in child-headed households (Brookes et al., 2004).

Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education (2001)

Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education (DoE, 2001) focuses on creating
an inclusive education system in which all learners have equal access to quality
educational opportunities. It aims to change the following so as to meet the needs of
all learners:
• Attitudes

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• Behaviour
• Teaching methods
• Curricula
• Environment
The primary focus of the policy is on changing the understanding of and attitude
towards learners previously labelled as “deficient”, “lacking” or “disabled”, replacing
these labels with an understanding that these learners have diverse needs which
need to be met by the education community. The policy states that systems, and not
people, are lacking and deficient. As a result, it suggests a major change to structures
and systems that will facilitate access, particularly for those learners not previously
attending mainstream/ordinary schools. It calls for a continuum of support throughout
the education system, covering the three types of schools it discusses: ordinary, full
service and special.
The weakness of Education White Paper 6 is that, although it lays strong foundations
that support the concept of inclusive education, it does not offer clear, practical
pathways that schools can follow to implement inclusive education. This has slowed
down implementation, and the progress that has been made is not consistent across
groups of learners or geographical areas.

Curriculum Policy Statements (1997; 2002; 2012) and Guidelines for

Responding to Learner Diversity in the Classroom (2011)

While respecting the rights of all children to education has been the main driver of
policy changes in South Africa, an equally pressing matter has been whether all
children receive quality education once they are in schools. Several reviews of the
curriculum have taken place, as follows:
Curriculum 2005 (DoE, 1997): the first unifying curriculum after the democratic
elections
National Curriculum Statement (DoE, 2002)
Revised National Curriculum Statement (DoE, 2004)
Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) (DBE, 2012)
Curriculum 2005 aimed to ensure that all South Africans were provided with
education that was not demarcated along racial lines. Since then, the main principles
behind curriculum developments have been equity, redress and equality.
However, the disheartening performance of South African learners in regional
performance measures indicates a need for the curriculum to focus on engaging,
quality learning opportunities. This curriculum needs to be delivered in ways that
close the achievement gaps among diverse learners. In response to this need, the
DBE developed Guidelines for responding to learner diversity in the classroom (DBE,

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2011), which are intended to be used by teachers alongside the CAPS. These
guidelines include the DBE’s recommendations for responding to learner diversity in
the classroom, proposing strategies for differentiated teaching and learning for the
delivery of the CAPS. Throughout the guidelines, the DBE emphasises that all
schools are required to offer the same curriculum to learners, while simultaneously
making sure that teaching, learning and assessment strategies are differentiated to
include all learners.
There are three main problems with these guidelines, which could unintentionally
promote exclusion:
1. There is evidence of a silo approach towards inclusive education within the
document. For example, a case study of Brenda, who has a visual impairment,
is presented like this: “When it was time for her to attend high school, her
parents could not afford to send her to a boarding school catering for partially
sighted children in Johannesburg.” Implicit in this case study is the message
that separate education for children with a visual impairment is the preference,
but if this is not possible, teachers are encouraged to consider how to include
Brenda within their mainstream classrooms.
2. No practical tools are suggested to address resource challenges that arise
from suggested policy changes. For example: “Learners who experience
significant barriers to learning and participation must also have the possibility
of straddling grades, which allows them to take certain subjects at grade level
and others at a different level” (DBE, 2011). The timetabling implications of
this suggestion are a big challenge, yet no systems or tools are offered to
enable schools to implement this strategy.
3. The approach to support taken in the guidelines leans towards a “one-size-
fits-all” model. They are simplistic, and do not take into account the complexity
of some learners’ situations and the barriers to learning and participation these
can bring. For this reason, it is unlikely that educators will take the guidelines
seriously.

Policy on Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (2014)

The key purposes of the SIAS policy are:

1. To provide the framework for a standardised approach to screening,
identifying, assessing and supporting learners who require additional support,
to enable them to perform to their potential in school.
2. To promote early identification of learners who experience barriers to learning
and participation, enabling learners to have a positive experience of
participation and inclusion at school.
3. To assist teachers, school-based support teams and district-based support
teams in their efforts to meet the needs of all learners, and to provide quality
teaching and learning.

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The SIAS policy grew from an identified need to provide practical pathways for
schools to follow around inclusive education, following Education White Paper 6. It
also draws on the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and is a
rights-based policy that places the onus on the education system to work to remove
barriers to learning and participation. Its view of support is that it needs to be holistic,
taking into account learners’ individual circumstances and taking a multi-agency
approach, bringing in specialists from different areas as needed. It acknowledges
that barriers to learning and participation are multiple and various, as are suitable
support strategies. It categorises these support strategies into three levels:
• Low: generally met within the school’s usual provision, proactive and preventative
• Moderate: over and above the school’s usual provision, usually short term and of
moderate intensity
• High: more specialised, of higher intensity and frequency
The organising principle for support within SIAS is that every learner has the right to
receive quality basic education within their local community. This means that, as far
as practically possible and affordable, the support must be brought to the learner with
little or no movement from their local community and home. Every type of school—
ordinary, full service and special—is expected to offer an inclusive community that
provides quality education, care and support for its learners.
One of the questions that the SIAS policy raises is about the capacity of stakeholders
(for example teachers) to participate at the different stages involved in organising and
monitoring support. In order to make the policy and expectations clear, there is a
need for teacher training—both at Pre-service Education and Training (PRESET) and
Continuing Professional Development (CPD) levels—and ongoing support. Training
and support for teachers in schools depend on support from the district office and
may be a challenge in some areas. SIAS will be outlined in detail in the next learning
units.

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65
 LEARNING UNIT 3
Learner diversity

OUTCOMES
When you have completed Learning Unit 3, you should be able to:

• Define “diversity”
• Describe diversity in the classroom
• Analyse learners’ socio-economic circumstances
• Describe psychosocial wellbeing
• Discuss disability
• Explain valuing and affirming learner diversity

3.1 Introduction

This learning unit aims to start your thinking about learner diversity and what it means
for you as a teacher. It will introduce you to significant knowledge about learner
diversity, ask you to examine beliefs about it—including your own—and begin to
make connections between these beliefs and classroom practice. This process builds
on your knowledge from Learning Unit 1 and forms the next part of your journey
towards becoming a teacher who works inclusively.
We are realistic about the challenges this journey poses; we know that, for many of
you, it will take place in schools with large classes and overcrowded classrooms
which need more resources. We have designed material and activities with these
challenges in mind. At the same time we encourage you, where necessary, to think
imaginatively about the unit material and take from it what will work for you in your
context. There is always something teachers can do to work with learners more
inclusively, no matter what their circumstances, and we ask you to keep identifying
what this “something” is for you as you study.
We hope you find the learning unit useful and thought-provoking.
Let’s begin it by defining what is meant by diversity.
Learner diversity: Group and individual differences among learners
CASE STUDY: PROGRESS PRIMARY SCHOOL, GRADE 6<<BOX>>
Ms Willemse is in her first year of teaching. She has been teaching English FAL and Maths
to the Grade 6 learners at Progress Primary School for two terms. She is feeling
overwhelmed and her class is completely out of control. Out of 42 children only about ten

66
 of them sit still and pay attention. Thapelo is always arguing with her and questions every
instruction, Jayendra gets up every two minutes and is constantly talking to his friends and
organising games for break time. Aminah stares out the window all day long and her friend,
Funeka just sits next to her saying nothing. The others just don’t seem to get what she
talking about half the time!
One break-time Ms Willemse overheard another Grade 6 teacher, Mrs Mbeki, talking and
laughing in the staff room. “I have the most interesting children in my class. I have a lawyer,
an astronaut and an entrepreneur. I love watching them grow up and develop their amazing
personalities,” said Mrs Mbeki. It took Ms Willemse a minute, but she realised that Mrs
Mbeki must be talking about the same class, because Mrs Mbeki teaches Grade 6 Natural
Sciences and Technology.
Feeling even worse about her difficulties with the class, Ms Willemse went to see her HOD.
“I don’t understand why the Grade 6s are so different for me and for Mrs Mbeki.”
Concerned, the HOD asked what she meant. “They seem to be perfect with Mrs Mbeki but
I just can’t teach them!” she exclaimed. The HOD thought for a few seconds then
suggested that maybe it would be a good idea for Ms Willemse to ask Mrs Mbeki to explain
her thinking about the Grade 6 class to see if this would help.
The next day Ms Willemse approached Mrs Mbeki and asked, “Why do they behave so
badly with me, but you seem to enjoy teaching them?”
Mrs Mbeki explained, “I love the fact they are all so different. Thapelo loves to argue, that’s
why I think he will make a great lawyer. I try to plan at least one debate a week to keep
him engaged. Jayendra is definitely going to have his own business one day. He is always
making a plan and organising everyone. I put him in charge of classroom clean-up. That
way I know it will always get done.
Aminah is my astronaut, she loves thinking about the earth, moon and stars. I gently bring
her attention back when I see she is staring out the window, but I let her teach the class
about the planets. They all love this, especially Funeka, who can be really quiet but she
asks some great questions when Aminah is teaching them. You see, they are all so
different and that is what makes being a teacher so interesting. I adapt my teaching to
make sure they all stay engaged and I encourage them to be unique and to follow their
dreams.”

<<ENDS>>

This case study is an example of something that the vast majority of teachers have
been through—a class of extremely diverse children that you find really challenging
but that one of your colleagues is really enjoying and also making good progress with.
This situation can bring about challenging feelings for teachers including frustration
and inadequacy. You know things aren’t going well and need to change, but how do
you make this happen? Where do you find the knowledge that will help you do
something different? How do you put this knowledge into practice? And, sometimes
most importantly, how do you change your beliefs about this class, some of the
individuals in it, and your ability to teach them?
We will be coming back to the teachers and learners in this case study during the
learning unit.
Let’s continue by examining “diversity” itself—it’s a term that is widely used in
education and beyond, but what does it actually mean? In the following section we
will define diversity and also consider it in the context of learning.

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 3.2 Defining diversity

ACTIVITY 3.1
Think about someone you met recently for the first time. Where did you meet them?
Who introduced you? When we meet people we make assumptions—it is part of
human behaviour. Try to think back to what assumptions you made about this
person when you met them. For example, did you assume that they came from, or
have a particular:
• Type of family?
• Belief system?
• Political viewpoint?
• Economic background?
• Geographical place?
• Linguistic/cultural background?
• Race?
• Ability or disability?
• Sexual orientation?
• Gender identity?
• Academic background?
What do you think are some of the possible effects on human relationships of making
assumptions about others?
Next, think about a good friend that you know well. For two minutes, list all the ways
you can think of in which you and this friend are similar. Then, in the next two
minutes, do the same for all the ways you are different.
On what evidence did you base your lists, in other words, what do you know about
your friend that led you to identify these similarities and differences?
What impact does this level of knowledge have on your relationship with this friend?
Has it, for example, changed your understanding of them? If so, has this
understanding had an impact on the way you behave at times towards them?

Assumptions are based solely on what we as individuals construct as our own

“reality”, rather than on actual evidence. They can lead us to make quick, uninformed
and sometimes unconscious judgments about people. These judgments do little to
help increase our knowledge of others and, in particular, our appreciation of their

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differences. As Activity 3.1 has shown, while we share similarities, there are also
many ways in which we are different.
For example, aspects of difference you identified might include: gender; sexuality;
race; beliefs; family; language; financial situation; employment status; appearance;
abilities; disabilities; likes and dislikes; interests; strengths; talents; attitudes;
personalities; qualities and values—and more. “Diversity is the one true thing we all
have in common” (Anonymous). Each of the differences listed is part of who we are—
part of our unique identity. And if each of us is unique, then each of us has a
responsibility to challenge our own assumptions and help create an environment in
which these differences are understood and everyone can thrive. This is what
diversity means, as illustrated by this quote:
It [diversity] is the exploration of these differences in a safe, positive, and
nurturing environment. It is about understanding each other and moving
beyond simple tolerance to embracing and celebrating the rich dimensions of
diversity contained within each individual (Queensborough Community
College, http://www.qcc.cuny.edu).
When we do what this quote suggests, we start to value diversity as a resource and
an asset—a strength. In a school context, doing this makes it possible for us to hold
high expectations for all learners. However, in order to value and affirm diversity in
schools and classrooms, we need to understand in more detail what diversity means
in relation to learning. We will unpack this in the following section.

3.2.1 Diversity in learning

Firstly, let’s consider how schools have often approached diversity.

ACTIVITY 3. 2
Think about schools you attended as a pupil or schools you have worked in.
Consider the following questions and note your reflections:
1. In what ways were learners grouped in these schools?
2. What reasons were used to justify the groupings?
3. What beliefs about learners and learning underpinned these reasons?

3.2.1.1 The concept of “normal”

Often, schools use a particular idea of “normal” to organise learners, which is based
on a “bell curve”, as shown below.

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FIGURE 3.1: BELL CURVE

The bell curve was originally used in the 18th century to test mathematical concepts
and astronomical measurements. The mean, or average, of whatever data is being
studied is shown at the middle point and “normal distribution” is defined from this
point. More frequent values sit in the middle of the curve and rarer, very large or very
small, values sit at either end.
➢ Normal distribution: This concept is based on the idea that
intelligence and ability are fixed from birth and therefore
predetermine achievement in school, justifying sorting
learners into those who can achieve and those who will
underachieve or not achieve. Therefore, normal distribution
can be used to justify exclusion.
During the 19th century, the bell curve started to be applied to non-mathematical
concepts by sociologists, for example, to the incidence of crime and migration. This
sociological use of the bell curve led to the concept of the “average person”, illustrated
in Figure 3.1 above. When applied to human beings, the bell curve placed our most
frequently occurring characteristics in the middle of the curve. These became
“normal”. Any characteristics that occurred less frequently, at the edges of the curve,
became “abnormal”. Sometimes these “normal” and “abnormal” human
characteristics became associated with a value. For example, judgements such as
“good”, “desirable” or “appropriate” were associated with the middle of the bell curve,
and “undesirable” or “inappropriate” with the outer ends of the curve.
Despite some opposition because of its origins in mathematics, “normal distribution”
using the bell curve has become an accepted way of “sorting” people, as well as
numbers, into categories. The field of education is no different, as Fendler and
Muffazar (2008: 64) explain: “So many people believe that the bell curve represents
the way things are in nature, the ideal of a normal distribution has been naturalized
in education.”
For example, in schools we routinely talk about “above-average” or “below-average”
intelligence; “high”, “average” or “low” ability; or “normal” and “abnormal”—and even
“extreme”—behaviour. All these concepts are based on the idea of “normal

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distribution”, as shown by the bell curve. They are such an embedded part of
educational thinking and organisation that they have rarely been questioned by
teachers, school leaders or policymakers. The belief that intelligence is something
fixed that you are born with, and that learners can therefore be “sorted” in terms of
their intelligence via the bell curve, is still deeply entrenched in educational thinking.
Despite ongoing debates about intelligence—what it is, what forms it takes, how and
when to measure it—it is still widely used as a way of:
• Sorting learners in school settings, for example, grouping them based on test
scores and/or teachers’ judgments about learners’ intelligence.
• Trying to understand the difficulties learners meet in schools, for example, in
many parts of the world, identification of disabilities and/or special educational
needs depends, at least in part, on some form of ability test score. These scores
tend to reinforce the idea that groups of learners can be sorted into learners
with and without special educational needs, or those who are “normal” and
those who are “different” (or even considered “abnormal”) (Florian & Walton,
2018: 168–170).
This embedded idea of “normal”, based on a concept of what “average” is, promotes
the idea that teachers should focus their planning on “average” learners in the centre
of the bell curve. But what is “normal” or “average” in a school? And what does this
concept mean for those who do not fall into this group? Let’s explore these questions
in a context you are familiar with.

WHAT IS “NORMAL”?

ACTIVITY 3.3
1. Think about a school you attended: What was considered “normal” there?
Who decided this?
2. Now think about a school where you have worked or visited, or talk to a
friend or child about their school: What is considered “normal” at this
school? Who decides this?
3. Compare these two experiences: What are the similarities and differences
between “normal” in both places?
4. What happens in these settings to people who are not considered “normal”?

Time for a change?

Inclusive education challenges bell-curve thinking and the concept of “normal” in a

number of ways, which are summarised below.

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Is “normal” a “good thing”, or even a “thing”?

In the previous section, we saw that the bell-curve concept of “normal” is connected
to statistics and to ideas about what is good / not good. The scholar, Martha
Nussbaum, questions why this second connection should be made:
For, obviously enough, what is typical may or may not be very good. Bad
backs, bad eyes and bad judgement are all very typical … [while] much
progress in human affairs comes from people who are unusual … So why, in
more or less all societies, has the notion of the normal as the usual also served
a normative function, setting up the different for stigmatizing treatment?
(Nussbaum, 2004: 218).

➢ Normative function: Has the effect of encouraging

people to accept what is considered “normal”.
Nussbaum suggests that “normal” is a construction—a creation or interpretation of
an idea—that:
• Allows us to protect ourselves from disruption
• Allows us to hide from our imperfections that cause us shame
• Reinforces the notion of “normal” as “good”, which also allows others to hide from
the shame of their imperfections
Nussbaum also points out that different people in different places and at different
times construct different ideas of what “normal” is. Here are some questions you
might like to think about in relation to these constructs.
• Who makes these decisions?
• Who is on the receiving end of them?
With so much possible variation in the way it is constructed, do you think there is
even such a thing as “normal”?

What we know about learning is changing

During your studies, you are learning about the theory and history of learning. Here
we will focus on recent developments that are relevant to developing our thinking
about learner diversity.
The study of the mind is undergoing a kind of revolution. New scientific studies of the
mind and brain about the processes of thinking and learning, the development of
competence, and the physiology of learning are generating new knowledge all the
time.
➢ Physiology of learning: The human biological processes
involved in learning.

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 Two National Research Council reports in the US (2000: 4; 2018, Chapter 2) are
particularly useful as they summarise these understandings:
• We understand more now about people’s abilities to solve problems—how they
organise information and how they use their problem-solving skills effectively.
• We have discovered that young children know more than we think they do.
• We understand more about the importance to learning of existing skills and
knowledge; learning goals; and learning material. All of these are key to planning
the structure and delivery of learning effectively.
• Learning takes place in cultural contexts. These—along with social, cognitive
(related to the thinking process) and biological factors—influence learning. We
therefore need to take them into account when planning learning.
• Most significantly, neuroscience is beginning to provide evidence that shows how
learning changes the physical structure of the brain. Intuitively, we would assume
that it is the physical structure of the brain that determines how we learn—not the
other way round. However, research is indicating that the relationship between
brain development and learning is reciprocal. This means brain development
influences behaviour and learning, and at the same time learning influences brain
development and brain health. This finding provides scientific evidence against the
entrenched view in education that intelligence and ability are “fixed”.

What we know about learning is impacting on our understanding of pedagogy

There is an increasing understanding of the connections between different theoretical

approaches to teaching and learning, and between social, emotional and cognitive
aspects of educational experience. We have therefore come to understand that
teaching and learning need to take account of the role of the socio-cultural contexts
in which children live.
➢ Socio-cultural contexts: Beliefs, customs, language,
culture, practices and behaviours that exist in a society.
As a result, there is a growing understanding of the need to move away from the
belief that one model of learning informs and justifies one model of teaching, towards
a realisation that a combination of teaching strategies produces more powerful
effects. Kershner (2003) offers a typology of teaching strategies that are linked to the
type of learning (not the type of learner) that is the focus of a lesson. She suggests
that a mixture of the following strategies is effective for learning:
• Directly raising attainment
• Promoting “active learning”
• Promoting participation and engagement

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• Making use of knowledge about learning

Learners in the 21st century need different skills

Today, the concept of “knowing” has shifted from repeating and remembering
information to being able to find and use it. Learners need different skills to achieve
this different sort of “knowing” to enable them to access an ever-developing
employment market, or have the skills for self-employment. So, the emphasis in
curricula will need to shift (and some curricula around the world are shifting) from an
emphasis on factual knowledge to an emphasis on problem solving and strategic
knowledge—in other words, learners need to know where to get knowledge from a
wide range of sources and apply it to a wide range of situations.

The reality of learner difference

Letsha always has music on when she is studying. She often makes up rhymes or
taps out a beat to remember her periodic table. Her brother Dino always invites two
friends around and they sit and study together, explaining concepts to each other and
talking things through. Her older sister, Bokang, reads her textbook, highlights the
relevant sections, and paraphrases them in pages of notes.
Who studies in the correct way? They all do! They simply have different preferred
ways of making meaning from learning.
Innate learner differences, such as temperament or personality, inherited
characteristics, and other attributes, interact with the environment in a reciprocal way,
in other words, each influences the other. It is therefore inevitable that the ways in
which learners make meaning from their learning, and their support needs, will be
different. Therefore, we think of an everyday classroom as one in which the
“classroom community is inevitably diverse, consisting of individuals who differ in
many ways and who may require different forms of support at different times in their
school careers” (Green & Moodley, 2018).
The factors above combine to deliver a powerful message that education based on
the bell-curve concept of “normal” is no longer fit for purpose for our learners—it will
not help us plan effectively for the what and how of teaching and learning in diverse
classrooms. Davis asks whether this concept of “normal” is “playing itself out and
losing its utility as a driving force”, proposing that “diversity is the new normality”
(Davis, 2013, cited in Slee, 2018: 52). This is a significant shift in thinking that is
starting to happen in educational systems across the world.
As part of this shift we are developing a growing understanding of the need to move
away from the belief that one model of learning informs and justifies one model of
teaching. Hart (2004: 3), for example, argues that real equity in learning “becomes
possible when young people’s school experiences are not organised and structured
on the basis of judgements of ability”. Achieving equity for diverse learners therefore

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requires a shift in practice as well as in thinking. This shift will be the focus of Learning
Unit 4, but it is worth exploring your initial thoughts here through an activity.

THINKING ABOUT LEARNERS’ ABILITY

ACTIVITY 3.4
1. What other ways are there of thinking about children’s learning—different to
judgments of ability—that you could use to organise and structure
experiences for learners in your classroom? Consider a variety of different
things you can notice or observe in what learners can do and what they may
struggle with.
2. What might be some alternative ways of thinking about the difficulties children
experience with their learning?
3. How can indigenous knowledge systems play a role in changing perceptions
about learning and difficulties with learning?

As we wrote at the beginning of this learning unit, throughout it we will be supporting

you to start a journey towards becoming a teacher who works inclusively and who:
• Thinks about and plans for diverse learners
• Views their differences as an asset and uses them as a resource
We continue this journey by exploring some of the ways in which learners are diverse;
it is vital for you as a teacher to be able to recognise and understand diversity in order
to be able to respond to it effectively. We have established that diversity is a reality
in 21st century classrooms. Let’s now consider diversity in the context of your
classroom.

3.3 Diversity in the classroom

ACTIVITY 3.5
Think of a class you have recently taught, or a class you were in at school. What
differences did you notice between the learners in this class? Record as many
differences as you can think of in whatever way makes most sense to you, for
example, written, graphic or audio.
Next, think about an iceberg in which you can only see part of the iceberg above the
water line, as in the diagram below.

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FIGURE 3.2: ICEBERG

Look at the differences you recorded about the learners in the first part of the activity.
Consider where they would be in the context of the iceberg, using the following
questions:
1. Are all the differences you recorded observable just by looking or listening?
These would be visible above the surface of the water. Identify them on your
list.
2. If not, which differences are below the surface? These are differences that
exist between learners but they are not so easily visible in the classroom.
Identify these too.
3. Are some of the differences you recorded both above and below the surface?
Can you see part of them but there is more to the difference than just what
you can easily see? If so, which ones?

It is likely that, through thinking about learner differences in relation to the iceberg,
you have realised that:
• What you can actually see or hear in terms of learner difference in a classroom
is a small part of what is really going on, and is related to deeper differences that
are less visible or not at all visible.
• Differences that you are able to observe more easily in the classroom could be
related to a variety of factors that lie below the surface. It is therefore crucial to
plan your responses to learner diversity from knowledge about your learners
rather than assumptions—otherwise you may give them inappropriate support for
their learning. We will return to this idea later in the unit.

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Let’s now consider some of the learner differences—from above and below the
surface—that are common in South Africa and classrooms worldwide. It’s important
to understand the range of possible differences so that you can notice the differences
between your learners and get to know them well, and therefore know what they need
from you in the classroom.
These differences are often grouped into five broad areas, which are commonly used
to talk about learner difference:
• Cognitive (the way a learner acquires knowledge, how they think)
• Communication and interaction
• Psychosocial (social and emotional)
• Sensory and physical
• Societal factors (e.g., socio-economic and family circumstances, gender identity,
sexuality, religious beliefs, culture)

The sections below are connected to these broad areas—please look out for and
make links for yourself while you are studying them. Hold the image of the iceberg in
your mind, too. When you’re reading, think about the connections between what you
can see above the surface and what might be happening below the surface.

3.3.1 Levels of learners’ access to the curriculum

In an average class of 40–50 learners you can be sure that not all learners are
accessing the curriculum at their grade level. There are generally four levels of
access to the curriculum that can be identified in any class:
1. Learners who have already mastered the grade level content (these are
gifted learners requiring enhanced or more complex content)
2. Learners accessing the curriculum at grade level
3. Learners requiring “scaffolding” or support to access or engage the
curriculum at grade level
4. Learners who are “grade straddling” or engaging the curriculum at one or
more grades below grade level
The percentage of learners in each group differs from school to school, and even
from grade to grade. When viewed in this way it becomes clear that planning a lesson
that only allows for grade level access to the curriculum means that many learners in
your class are excluded from meaningful participation and learning.

3.3.2 Ways of making meaning from learning

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Each child has unique interests, likes and dislikes, and these will impact on the ways
they make meaning from learning. Take the example of a child struggling with the
mathematical concept of grouping. You know they are passionate about cars so you
could ask them to go through old magazines and newspapers, cut out pictures of cars
and sort them into big/small/different colours to learn about grouping in a way that is
relevant as well as interesting to them.
In addition to interests, likes and dislikes, just as children enjoy doing different things,
they are also good at different things or have different strengths. The ability to
recognise these different strengths in your learners is an important aspect of
understanding the diversity of your classroom. If you adopt an asset-based approach
to teaching, you use learners’ strengths to address challenges. This is different from
the deficit model or needs-based approach, which focuses on the learner’s
weaknesses or areas that need “fixing” and ignores what the learner does well. An
asset-based approach says, “Let’s take what we are already good at and build on
that”. For example, if a child is hyperactive and does not wait their turn but is a good
leader, put them in charge of allocating turns in the game.
➢ Asset-based: Unlocking the potential of learners by focusing
on their talents.

➢ Deficit or needs-based: Focusing on your learners’

weaknesses.

3.3.3The ways that learners behave

In any class of learners you will notice a wide range of behaviours. Whole books are
written about this, so we only have the space here to summarise. Let’s think back to
the Grade 6 class in the first case study, and the four children mentioned there:
Thapelo, Jayendra, Funeka and Aminah. Each of these children displayed big
differences in their levels and ways of communicating, interacting, concentrating and
participating. For example, Thapelo communicates readily, but Funeka less so;
Jayendra’s likes to be active and maybe has a shorter concentration span, while
Aminah seems to like to daydream in her seat; Funeka appears to participate less
than some of the other children.
These are the some of the characteristics you would notice above the surface of the
water if you were thinking about them in relation to Activity 3.5. Underneath the
surface, differences in behaviour can be linked to many different reasons, including
differences in the brain that lead to a variety of ways in which learners see and
interact with their environment, changes in circumstances at home, or psychosocial
issues.
We will return to working positively with behaviour and supporting learners with
psychosocial challenges in Learning Unit 4.

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79
 3.4 Learners’ socio-economic circumstances

This refers to the interaction of social and economic factors within a community,
looking at the differences between people, based mainly on their financial
circumstances. In relation to education, the socio-economic circumstances of
children have a direct correlation or link to their learning outcomes.
Economic advantage or disadvantage determines not only which schools
children end up in, but also how prepared they are physically, socially and
cognitively for school and how well they fare as they progress through the
school system. Because economic advantage is still highly correlated with
race, most black and coloured children, because they have less educated
caregivers with fewer resources, enter the school system with a significant
potential academic disadvantage relative to their white peers (SAHRC &
UNICEF, 2014).
In South Africa the resources and quality of education offered in schools are still
largely unequal. In well-resourced schools children have access to textbooks,
materials, and extra-curricular and a host of other activities, all contributing to their
holistic education and development. This is in stark contrast to learners in poorly
resourced schools where access to even basic amenities like electricity, toilets and
a library is limited. The better schools charge higher school fees and are situated in
more affluent or well-off communities. It is difficult for a poor family to access these
schools. The situation is even more challenging for learners in rural areas.
The South African legacy of apartheid means that children from poor communities
still perform disproportionally worse in education than their more affluent peers. It is
unfortunately also true that poor educational outcomes mean that it is more difficult
for people to escape from poverty.

FIGURE 3.3: POVERTY CYCLE

3.4.1 Impact of poverty on education outcomes

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ACTIVITY 3.6
Read the following research paper and consider the questions below.
http://bit.ly/2IejhKi
1. What are the ways in which economic circumstances impact education
outcomes?
2. Do you agree that low quality education is a poverty trap? Explain.
3. Have your own economic circumstances enabled or posed a challenge to
your receiving an education? Explain.

In addition to families living in poverty not accessing good quality education, the
effects of poverty also have a direct impact on the ability to learn. A child who is cold,
tired or hungry cannot concentrate on learning in class. It is important for you, the
teacher, to be aware of this as you may need to access support for learners to
address these barriers.
In the same way, as financial circumstances impact a child’s learning, so to do their
family and community (social) circumstances.
Children with better-educated caregivers and more educational resources in
the home are more likely to succeed at school and consequently later on in
life. The educational expectations of family members and the broader
community may, furthermore, influence child expectations of and behaviour
towards educational attainment (SAHRC & UNICEF, 2014).
Here it is argued that the attitudes and perceptions of both the family and community
towards education impacts the level of the learner’s educational achievement. Where
education is not seen as important, or when achievement beyond a certain grade is
not considered valuable, then the learner’s motivation for and chances of success
beyond this, are limited.
In the same way, early childhood intervention impacts “school readiness” and later
achievement in education.
In South Africa less than 30% of children in the poorest 75% of schools have
attended two years of preschool or more, in comparison to 60% of children
from the wealthiest 25% of schools (Spaull, 2013). These early inequalities
precede, and arguably cause to some degree, the large inequalities that are
evident later on in children’s schooling careers (SAHRC & UNICEF, 2014).
Community and family violence also have an impact on learning. Children living in
fear or who have been traumatised by violence struggle to focus and learn. Moreover,
they can suffer long-term psychological effects from trauma including post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD) or other emotional or behavioural challenges. These
difficulties could include anxiety, depression and deviant behaviour.

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 ➢ Deviant behaviour: Behaviour that goes against the
norms and values of society. An example of this is
criminal behaviour.

3.4.2 Put yourself in their shoes

ACTIVITY 3.7
Read the four case studies below. Choose one of these case studies and put
yourself in the place of the child and situation described in it.
1. How would you want to be treated at school in these circumstances?
2. You have put yourself in that child’s shoes. How could this impact on how
you treat children in your classroom?

CASE STUDY 1: MARIA<<BOX>>

Maria is a five-year-old girl. She is in Grade R at the local primary school. She lives in a
violent community in Cape Town. Rival gangs frequently battle over territory and drug
dealing. Her teacher was concerned because Maria started crying every day at school. All
she wanted to do was to go home. The teacher thought it might be problems with her
friends or bullying, and called her mother in to discuss the situation. Her mom said Maria
seemed happy when she got home. The first thing she did was run to her daddy to give
him a big hug and then she would stop crying.
Her mom spoke with Maria and she said she liked her friends and bullying didn’t seem to
be the reason. One evening one of her dad’s friends came to visit and Maria started crying
uncontrollably and wouldn’t let go of her father. Suddenly her mom knew the problem. Her
father was a police officer. Maria had overheard her dad’s friend warning him that a local
gang had put him on their “hit” list. Every day when she went to school she was terrified
that when she got her home her father would have been shot dead.
The teacher and her mom and dad were able to discuss this with Maria, reassure her and
put some simple communication plans in place to ease her fears.

CASE STUDY 2: LINGWILE PRIMARY SCHOOL

Lingwile Primary School is the local school next to a large informal settlement in an urban
township. The community has high levels of unemployment and crime. The school is often
vandalised. One Tuesday morning, the Grade 6s and 7s were writing exams. District
officials from the Department were visiting the school. They had come in a minibus which
was parked outside. All of a sudden there were gun shots. The children all dived under
their desks, screaming. It turned out that the driver of the minibus was being held up and
the vehicle was hijacked. The learners were traumatised by the incident and exams were
postponed.

CASE STUDY 3: JOSHUA

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 Joshua is 12 years old. He has always performed well at school, is well liked and appears
to be happy and confident. But at the start of the third term things changed. He started
fighting with other boys and picking on one of the girls in class. He often didn’t finish his
homework and his marks started to deteriorate. He ended up in detention more than once
and didn’t seem to care.
The teacher referred him to the school counsellor and set up a meeting with his parents.
Only his mother attended the meeting and explained that she and her husband were
getting divorced. Joshua’s father had moved out. Joshua was angry about this and felt
betrayed by his dad. It was clear he felt hurt and powerless and was acting out at school.
His mother and father were shocked to realise the impact their divorce was having on him,
made an effort to spend time with him and reassure him that they loved him. Joshua
continued to go for counselling, and his schoolwork started improving.

CASE STUDY 4: THULI

Thuli lives with her grandmother and her five siblings and cousins in a peri-urban area
outside Pietermaritzburg. Her uncles helped build onto the house and there are now three
bedrooms, a big kitchen area and pay-as-you-go electricity. Because there is no running
water the toilet is outside. Thuli is a good learner, and has dreams of becoming a clothing
designer. She usually gets her homework in on time, takes part in activities and enjoys her
projects and assignments. But over the past month things have changed. Thuli has
become sullen. She won’t respond to questions and she spends much of her time in class
daydreaming. Her marks have fallen and when she was sent to the principal’s office she
stared at the floor and refused to say anything. Last week Thuli’s teacher had to break up
a fight between Thuli and her best friend. The principal asked her grandmother to come to
school for a meeting to find out what the problem was. She told him that Thuli was raped
a month ago. It happened late one night when she needed to go to the toilet outside. She
found her neighbour’s son and his friend outside the toilet, smoking dagga and drinking.
The neighbour’s son held her down and his friend raped her. The principal contacted a
local rape crisis NGO and Thuli is now receiving treatment and counselling. The two boys
have been arrested and are awaiting trial.

<<ENDS>>

3.5 Psychosocial wellbeing

Psychosocial wellbeing is a term that is used to describe our mental, emotional and
social health—how we think and feel about ourselves, the quality of our interactions
with others, and our sense of belonging in our communities.
We all have different degrees of psychosocial wellbeing. It can be helpful to think
about it as a continuum.

Poor Satisfactory Excellent

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Where we are on this continuum can change over time. Our psychosocial health can
be influenced by a range of factors including our biology, life circumstances and
experiences—or, to use a technological analogy, our hard-wiring soft-wiring.
Let’s explore psychological health by comparing it to an onion.

FIGURE 3.4: ONION 1

The outer skin of the onion represents our behaviour—how we present ourselves to
the world and behave in different situations. The layers can be peeled back further
and further, revealing various factors that influence our psychosocial wellbeing and,
ultimately, our behaviour.

Let’s have a closer look at this outer skin—behaviour—in relation to learners in a

class.

3.5.1 Learner behaviour

ACTIVITY 3.8
Think about a class you are teaching, or have taught, or a class you were in at
school.
1. What were the ways in which the learners presented themselves to the world,
in other words, what behaviours do, or did, these children show?
2. Did you ever notice changes in the behaviour of any of the children in this
class? If so, what were they?

You have probably listed a whole range of behaviours from, for example, loud to
quiet, active to passive, or kind to unkind. Human behaviour is another way in which
we are diverse. This is not surprising given the differences in our life experiences.
These experiences combine over time to make “scripts” for how we behave in

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different situations. In other words, we learn through our experiences to react and
behave in a similar way in similar situations.
Behaviours are our way of communicating, or sometimes trying to hide—with different
degrees of success!—what is happening underneath our outer skin. This is why it is
important that, as a teacher, you are able to notice differences in behaviour, both
between learners and also within a learner. When—as with Joshua and Thuli in the
above case studies—a learner’s behaviour suddenly changes, this is an alarm bell
that requires you to take note and question what might be happening in their lives.

3.5.2 Thoughts, feelings and emotions

Let’s peel back this outer skin to see what’s going on underneath.

FIGURE 3.5: ONION 2

Underneath our “outer skin” behaviour are a number of different layers. The first layer
is our thoughts and feelings—about ourselves, about others, about situations. Let’s
explore this from a personal perspective in a learning situation.

REMEMBERING LEARNING EXPERIENCES

ACTIVITY 3.9
Think of a time when, as a child or adolescent, you felt good about a learning
experience—this could be, for example, something you suddenly understood that
had been challenging, something you really enjoyed, or a teacher who always made
you feel confident.
• What were you thinking at this time about yourself and about the situation?
• What were you feeling at the time?
Now do the same exercise thinking of a time when you didn’t feel so good about
something you were learning.

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Again, it’s likely that you came up with a wide range of thoughts and feelings for this
exercise, both positive and negative. Learning can bring about some amazing
thoughts and feelings when things go well, but it also brings difficult ones. While we
can’t know exactly what other people—including our learners—are thinking and
feeling without asking them, we can at least empathise with them. We can put
ourselves in their shoes and use our own experience to make some educated
deductions which then inform our behaviour towards them.
Let’s peel back the onion layers again and look at some of the possible causes of
how we think and feel.

3.5.2.1 External factors that affect thoughts and feelings

FIGURE 3.6: ONION 3

First, let’s consider some external factors that impact on how we think and feel about
ourselves and our lives.

THE COMMUNITY
ACTIVITY 3.10
Think about your own community. What factors—for example, family and socio-
economic circumstances—do you think can have a significant impact on learners’
psychosocial wellbeing?
You could use the four case studies in the previous section as a starting point for
your thinking.
Think of as many factors as you can and record them as words, symbols or
drawings.

Many of these factors are similar across the world, there are a number that are
particularly significant for the psychosocial wellbeing of learners in South Africa. Here
are some of them:

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• Family circumstances: Child Gauge South Africa 2018 reported that, compared
to 48 of the other most populous countries in the world, children in South Africa
are the least likely to live with two parents, and the most likely to live with one
parent or no parents (Hall & Richter, 2018). There are a variety of reasons for
this, including parental death or illness (notably from AIDS or substance abuse),
parents working away from the home, and divorce (Singh & Steyn, 2013). The
implications of these circumstances for South Africa are that there are large
numbers of children who might be cared for by extended family members, are in
foster care, or are themselves heading households. All these situations can have
an impact on the level of emotional support a young person receives as they are
growing up.
• Community violence: Many South African children regularly witness high levels
of violence both at home and within their wider community (Barbarin & Richter,
2001; Singh & Steyn, 2013; Jamieson et al., 2018). In one recent study of 2 000
children born in Soweto in 1990, it was found that 99% had experienced or
witnessed some sort of violence, and over 40% had multiple experiences of
violence at home or in their community, including school (Jamieson et al., 2018).
• Peer relationships: The incidence of bullying and peer pressure is significant in
South Africa. The negative impact of bullying—including physical, emotional,
direct and indirect, and online bullying—is well documented worldwide. Peer
pressure can have a significantly positive impact, but is also connected to
behaviour that leads to increased rates of teenage pregnancy and substance
abuse.
• Gangs: In some parts of South Africa, gang culture—with its associated violence,
aggression, substance abuse and crime—is widespread.
<< BOX.>>
ACTIVITY 3.11
Choose two of the above issues. Discuss the possible effects of each on learners,
and suggest ways that you, as a teacher, could support your learners who are
experiencing these challenges.
Finally, let’s peel one more layer of the onion back and look at internal factors, or
needs, that impact on our psychosocial wellbeing.

ENDS>>

3.5.2.2 Internal factors that affect our thoughts and feelings

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FIGURE 3.7: ONION 4

We are now going to look at three factors inside each of us that also play a substantial
role in our psychological wellbeing throughout life. These are:
1. Attachment
2. Adolescence
3. Needs

1. Attachment

Attachment theory suggests that the early relationship a child has with their mother
or primary caregiver impacts on the child’s social, emotional and cognitive
development. Although the theory originated in Britain, it has been tested worldwide
and—with some cultural differences—found to be universally applicable. The theory
was developed by psychoanalyst John Bowlby in the 1940s. He worked in London
with many children who had poor psychosocial wellbeing and found that the mother’s
early connection with the child (“attachment”) had the most significant impact on the
child’s wellbeing.
Attachment characterises how, as infants, we get the security we need by seeking
closeness to our primary caregiver (usually our mother, but this could also be another
caregiver). Newborn babies seek this closeness by crying, and later by smiling and
making sounds. Ideally, this communication creates a warm bond with our caregiver.
This closeness and bond give us the security we need to explore the world as we
grow older.
Other psychologists expanded on Bowlby’s theory and identified four main styles of
attachment:
• Secure: The infant uses their mother as secure base for exploration, is comforted
by her when reunited after separation.
• Insecure–ambivalent: The infant does not show much evidence of using their
caregiver as a secure base for exploration, passive or upset when reunited.

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 • Insecure–avoidant: The infant does not show much evidence of using their
caregiver as a secure base for exploration, keeps distance when reunited.
• Disorganised or disoriented: The infant shows no predictable attachment
response to their caregiver; this style is often seen in children who have been
regularly abused or neglected.
These different styles of attachment are relevant to you as a teacher because they
impact on how children behave as they are growing up. Attachment affects
friendships, social skills, acceptance in peer groups, empathy, self-reliance, problem-
solving ability, confidence, and level of aggression. Different styles of attachment also
result in different learning behaviours, and impact on achievement, as Table 3.1
below shows.

ATTACHMENT IN THE CLASSROOM

ACTIVITY 3.12
Have a look at Table 3.1 and see if you recognise any of the behaviours in yourself
and any other learners you know. What implications do these behaviours have for
classroom management? Can you think of ways that you, as a teacher, can support
the different attachment styles of learners in your class?

TABLE 3.1: ATTACHMENT STYLES IN THE CLASSROOM

Insecure— Insecure— Disorganised/disor
Secure ambivalent avoidant iented

Learner’s Believes they can High level of anxiety. Shows indifference Intense anxiety—
approach to learn. to uncertainty in may be controlling.
school/class new situations.
Classroom is safe. Needs clear
room
structure, rules and
Follows rules and
routines.
routines readily.

Learner’s Trusts teacher. Needs to hold Denial of need for Finds it hard to trust
response to attention of teacher. help. the teacher’s
teacher Asks for help
authority, but may
readily. Depends on teacher Needs to learn to
submit to higher
to engage in trust teacher but
Can wait for authority, e.g. the
learning. also needs to be
teacher’s attention. principal.
independent of
Hostile to teacher teacher.
Able to tolerate not May not accept
when frustrated.
knowing something being taught by
so can wait for teacher—“I know
teacher to teach it. this”.

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Learner’s Believes they can Finds it difficult to Any hostility Fears of
response to learn. attempt task if not towards teacher is incompetence, being
tasks supported. directed at the humiliated through a
Takes risks and task. task because of not
tries new things. Unable to focus on
knowing—may lead
task for fear of losing Task is an
Sets goals and to rejection of task,
teacher’s attention— emotional safety particularly if new.
works out how to
needs to learn that barrier between
reach them.
teacher will not learner and Gives impression of
Concentrates on forget them. teacher. knowing everything.
tasks.
Can only start task
Able to manage on their own
difficult feelings without help.
associated with
learning.
Resilient and
optimistic—keeps
trying.

Learner’s Likely to be Challenges with Limited use of May seem

skills and achieving. numeracy and creativity and unimaginative and
challenges concepts of time. language. uncreative.
Likely to be Likely to be Likely to be
underachieving. underachieving. underachieving.

2. Adolescence

For adolescents, another factor to take into account is the biological changes that
take place starting roughly at age 13 and lasting until around 21, when the brain goes
through a “re-wiring” process. The brain connections in the cortex, particularly the
pre-frontal cortex—the part of your brain behind your forehead—need to be thinned
out in preparation for adulthood. Many of the childhood pathways fall away, and new
ones are formed. While this is happening, adolescents are more impulsive. They take
more risks and do not think as rationally as they might when they reach adulthood,
or even as they did when they were children! They can think things through, but they
need more time to do so.

IMPACT OF ADOLESCENCE ON LEARNING<< BOX.>>

ACTIVITY 3.13
Think back to your adolescence at school. Did your behaviour and that of your
classmates change, and if so, how? What impact, if any, did this have on your
achievement and behaviour at school? Can you think of ways that you, as a
teacher, can support your adolescent learners?

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<<ENDS>>
If you are interested in adolescents’ brain development, you might like to watch this
TED Talk:
http://bit.ly/301fjvV

3. Needs

American psychologist Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is perhaps the most

common model used to summarise human needs in relation to psychosocial
wellbeing. His theory, which he first developed in the 1940s but continued to refine
over several decades, is often represented as a pyramid (although Maslow never did
this himself). Here is a pyramid version of his theory—please note that the visual size
of each part of the pyramid is irrelevant.

FIGURE 3.8: MASLOW’S ORIGINAL HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

(HTTPS://WWW.SIMPLYPSYCHOLOGY.ORG/MASLOW.HTML)<< SOURCE SHOULD NOT BE IN
CAPITAL LETTERS.>>

The broad idea of the theory is that as humans we are motivated by our needs. Firstly,
we try to satisfy our physiological needs and, once these are met, then we are
motivated to move on to meet our safety needs (which is where attachment sits).
Once these basic needs are met, we turn our attention to our psychological needs,
starting with belongingness and love, then move on to esteem, and eventually to self-
actualisation.
Let’s look at this model with a critical eye.

LOOKING CRITICALLY AT MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

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ACTIVITY 3.14
Read the article below about the relevance of Maslow’s hierarchy to Nigeria, and
consider these questions:
1. What do you think about the author’s view of Maslow’s hierarchy in relation
to Nigeria? Do you think each area of need has to be satisfied before moving
onto the next one? Or do you think humans are motivated to work on different
areas at once? Give examples to support your opinion.
2. Think about your own context. To what extent do you think Maslow’s
hierarchy is relevant to the psychosocial wellbeing in your community?
Explain your reasons.

ARTICLE<<BOX.>>
Nigeria: Does Maslow’s Theory of Needs Apply Here?
By Ayodeji Morakinyo (2012/01/15)
Management history has it on record that in 1954, a year when even my father had not
been born, Professor Abraham Maslow of the Brandeis University developed a theory on
a human hierarchy of needs. In the theory which has been published in several
management books since then, the Professor stated that motivation depends on the
realisation of a certain priority of specific needs and he classified these needs into five
levels: physiological, safety and security, belonging and social, self-esteem and status and
self-actualisation needs. He further classified these needs into lower/primary needs and
higher/secondary needs.
According to him, human beings try to satisfy the first level of need before considering the
second level. Then the third, fourth and fifth levels of needs are pursued consecutively. As
such, the physiological needs (food, water, sex, etc) are what bother human beings
basically and once those are met, they seek to satisfy their safety and security needs
(clothing, shelter, insurance, etc). When those too are met, they aim to join clubs and
religious organisations, open a Facebook or Twitter account, know the latest fashion or
music albums, etc (belonging and social needs). Next, they strive to own luxurious
properties, organise parties, aspire for better jobs or more education, etc (self-esteem and
status needs). Finally, they aim to reach the peak of their careers, become the richest, help
the poor, etc (self-actualisation/fulfilment needs).
But opposed to these thoughts are the lifestyles of people in Nigeria. Many hungry people
are now on social networks (Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, Myspace) seeking to make
friends with well-to-do people who might be generous enough to help or employ them.
Virtually all the religious adults in Nigeria belong to one or other religious group. Even when
they have not eaten and are not fasting, they give offerings and attend vigils. Many market
women would rather pay their children’s school fees before thinking of what they
themselves would eat. And, a lot of youths would have renewed their Blackberry
subscriptions before they think of buying lunch. On a lighter note, even certain among the
unhealthy politicians in Nigeria have evolved from humans to extraordinary beings whose
physiological needs now include the accumulation of public funds. So, the assertion that
human needs follow Professor Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is not applicable to the current
trend in Nigeria.
He also stated that only the human needs that are yet to be satisfied can influence people’s
behaviour. This applies to Nigeria because the reasons why people leave the comfort of
their homes every day is to go and earn a living. But the Professor also stated that a time
would come when the triangle will invert itself because the majority of the people in a
society would have attained the lower needs (1-3) and be yearning for self-esteem and

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 self-actualisation (higher 4-5) needs. By implication, lower needs in terms of clothing, food,
shelter, insurance, memberships in clubs and associations, etc, will no longer be sought
by most people since they would be satisfied. Now, that may be true for developed
countries where electricity, food, housing, etc are available and well-catered for by
government but it is precisely wrong in the Nigerian context. The poor quality of
governance and ethical management in Nigeria and many African countries has negatively
influenced the continent’s developmental status which has in turn made this aspect of
Maslow’s theory inapplicable here.
(Source: https://www.cp-africa.com/2012/01/15/nigeria-does-maslow’s-theory-of-needs-
apply-here/)

<ENDS>

Critics of Maslow’s model point out that it is:

• Hard to test scientifically, in particular the area of self-fulfilment, as it is so
subjective
• Based on individualistic cultures rather than those that work more collectively, and
therefore may be less relevant in some areas of the world than others
In addition, the idea of having to completely attain one level of need before you move
on to the next has also been questioned.
These criticisms of the model were put to the test in a worldwide study published in
2011. This study found that Maslow’s identification of needs is broadly accurate, but
it questioned the hierarchy aspect. Across the world people said that they were
working successfully to meet their psychological and self-actualisation needs, even
when their basic needs weren’t being met (Tay & Diener, 2011).
So, while you may want to keep thinking critically about Maslow’s hierarchy, its
content is a solid basis from which to think about the psychological wellbeing needs
of your learners.
Let’s bring all our layers together through an activity.

GETTING TO KNOW YOUR LEARNERS’ PSYCHOSOCIAL WELLBEING

ACTIVITY 3.15
Think about a learner you know—this could be someone you are teaching or have
taught, or someone you know from your family or community.
1. Using the continuum at the beginning of this section, how would you describe
their overall psychosocial wellbeing?
Let’s unpack what makes you think this. Think of this learner in the same way as an
onion with layers:
2. What do you notice and observe about their outer skin—their behaviour?

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 3. What—as best you can, using your experience and your empathy—do you
think some of their thoughts and feelings could be about themselves and the
world? How do you think these relate to their behaviour?
4. For this learner, what do you think are the circumstances and experiences in
their life that impact—positively and negatively—on their thoughts and
feelings, and their behaviour?
5. Look again at Maslow’s needs (remembering that the hierarchy is not so
important). To what extent do you think this learner’s psychosocial needs are
being met? Explain your reasoning.
6. What do you think your role as a teacher is to support your learners’
psychosocial wellbeing?

As a teacher, it’s a challenge to get to know and understand the psychosocial make-
up of all the children in all your classes. Just as your learners will rarely know what
you have been doing between the end of school one day and the start of school the
next, you can’t assume you know what has been happening in their lives. However,
acknowledging the range of psychological wellbeing of your learners and their diverse
experiences, in combination with developing and showing empathy and
understanding, will go a long way. By saying this, we are not advocating that
“anything goes” in your classroom! We will explore ways of putting this empathy and
understanding into practice within a structure of high expectations for all in Learning
Unit 4.

3.6Disability

“Imbecile”, “retarded”, “lunatic”, “cripple”, “spastic”, “handicapped”, “educationally

sub-normal” ... These are just some of the terms that in the past were considered
acceptable to describe people that, today, we refer to as people with a disability or
who have disorders, conditions, impairments or difficulties. These are terms that tend
to have their origins in medical language, but which are used more widely across
society.
Language evolves continuously along with the ways people perceive themselves and
how society views them. For example, some people might prefer the phrase “person
with a disability” because they define themselves as a person first, while others might
view their disability as an integral part of who they are and prefer the term “disabled
person”. Some may prefer the term “disabled” because they perceive themselves as
“dis-abled” by society, while others prefer not to be labelled at all, as they see this as
a label that is put on them by society.
As a teacher you will need to be aware of and sensitive to evolving language and
perceptions, the advantages and disadvantages of labelling, and individuals’
wishes. In this learning unit we will use the terms “disability”, “disorder”, “condition”,

94
“impairment” and “difficulty” as they are still widely accepted, but we ask you to
remain aware of the problematic nature of terminology.3.6.1 Defining disability

Defining disability has historically been a challenge and no single definition has
emerged. Article 1 of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(UN CRPD) describes disability as “long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory
impairments which, in interaction with various barriers, may hinder full and effective
participation in society on an equal basis with others”.
The 2015 South African White Paper on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(WRPD) similarly avoids a finite definition, rather stating that:
Disability is imposed by society when a person with a physical, psychosocial,
intellectual, neurological and/or sensory impairment is denied access to full
participation in all aspects of life, and when society fails to uphold the rights
and specific needs of individuals with impairments.
In attempting to define disability, it is important to bear in mind that disability is the
combination of an impairment with barriers that hinder full and effective participation
on an equal basis with others. It is not the impairment on its own that creates the
disability, but rather the extent to which the person is prevented from full participation
that determines the extent of the disability.
Any attempt to marginalise, exclude or inhibit a person with disabilities from full
participation is a violation of their rights.
Barriers to full participation can include aspects like policy, attitude, environment and
transport, and be found at an individual, organisational or whole system level. Here
are some examples. See if you can identify what aspects of policy are represented.
<<box.>>
EXAMPLE 1
In the classroom, teacher confidence can be a barrier. When the extent of a learner’s
difficulty is larger than the teacher’s capacity to respond confidently, it is often assumed
that the learner is disabled or needs specialist teaching. In this way, the difficulties children
experience in learning come to be defined as disabilities.
EXAMPLE 2
For a learner to get support, they often need to have been identified as having a difficulty,
creating a further barrier as the learner is labelled as “different”. As we have seen
previously, this labelling completes a cycle where learner diversity is marginalised rather
than considered an asset.
EXAMPLE 3
There is plenty of evidence that the structure of schooling institutionally discriminates
against learners who are economically disadvantaged or speak languages other than
English or Afrikaans by pre-judging their abilities. This discrimination leads to the
overrepresentation of these groups in special education, again reinforcing the idea of
diversity as a problem instead of an asset.

<<ENDS>>

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 ➢ Institutional discrimination: When an organisation, network
of organisations, or a whole system discriminates against one
or more people because of a human characteristic (e.g. race,
language, beliefs, ability, etc.). Apartheid is an example of this.

3.6.1.1 Diversity and disability

It is crucial to recognise that children with disabilities do not themselves form one
homogeneous group. There is wide diversity in disability. Different types of disabilities
and the severity of the impairment impact on the diversity of learning needs. The term
“special educational needs” covers many kinds of difficulties in learning, and means
different things to different people in different contexts. It covers an array of problems,
from those related to particular impairments to those related to learning and
behavioural difficulties experienced by some learners compared with other similar
learners. These impairments include:
• Physical: ability to move or physical functioning
• Psychosocial: thinking, mood and behaviour, social and emotional state
• Cognitive: learning, reasoning, problem-solving, everyday social and practical
activities
• Communication and interaction: acquisition and expression of language and
speech, interaction with others
• Sensory: the use of the senses, most commonly, hearing and vision
Some of the terms you may be familiar with that are used to describe children
perceived to have a disability that impacts on their learning include:
• Albinism
• Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
• Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) or Autistic Spectrum Continuum (ASC);
Asperger Syndrome (part of the ASC)
• Down Syndrome
• Dyslexia
• Foetal Alcohol Syndrome Disorder (FASD)
• Hearing impairment
• Stress, anxiety and depression
• Visual impairment

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How do teachers tend to talk about children with disabilities, impairments and
difficulties with learning? What’s the impact of this language?
It is important to note that not all impairments are disabilities. As we have seen above,
children who experience difficulties in learning are referred to as having “special
educational needs” or SEN. The term has become an abbreviation that teachers use
to talk about all kinds of learning problems. As a result, “SEN” covers many kinds of
difficulties in learning, including those resulting from impairments and those related
to learning and behavioural difficulties.
When teachers talk about learners’ difficulties, they judge them to be experienced by
some learners compared with others. This tendency to define differences between
individual learners, or groups of learners, reinforces the idea of “most” and “some”.
This idea, in turn, reinforces difference as a problem rather than an asset. In addition,
identifying particular learners in this way creates labels, which—as we have seen—
can lead to marginalisation of some learners. Teachers also tend to think of this label
as a characteristic of the learner rather than a problem of teaching and learning that
they can work to solve. This thinking leads to teachers feeling unable to help the
learner. We will explore this issue further in Learning Unit 4.

3.6.1.2Inclusive education and disability

Inclusive education is often incorrectly viewed as being about the education of

children with disabilities. As you will have understood by now, this is not the case.
Inclusive education is about affording every child the right to participate meaningfully
in learning in order to reach their full learning potential. It recognises that children are
different and have diverse learning needs. Learners with disabilities may have
specific learning needs associated with their disability and may require additional
support to participate on an equal basis with their peers—this is their right.
What is important to remember is that, regardless of the cause of a learner’s difficulty
(whether that is because of an impairment, inappropriate teaching, or a lack of
opportunity to learn), there is always something the teacher can do to support the
learner.

3.6.1.3 The South African context

In South Africa, children with disabilities have been, and remain, the most excluded
and marginalised group in education.
Currently, between 500 000 and 600 000 children with disabilities are out of school
in South Africa.

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• Whereas some of these children were turned away from mainstream schools in
contravention of the prohibition against unfair discrimination on the basis of
disability, others were refused admission to special schools based on their
particular disability or learning needs.
• Many children with disabilities do not attend school due to a failure to provide
basic reasonable accommodation facilities such as wheelchair ramps and
accessible toilets.
• Where children with disabilities do access schools, such schools often fail to
reasonably accommodate them. For example, research conducted by Section 27
reveals widespread neglect of and discrimination against children with visual
disabilities, as adequate learning materials are unavailable or teachers are not
sufficiently trained to teach children with visual disabilities (SAHRC, 2013–2017).
When we consider intersectionality, we will see how disability is one of the systems
of oppression contributing to this marginalisation.

SUNIL AND THANDKEKA’S EXPERIENCES

ACTIVITY 3.16
Read the case study below and consider the following questions:
1. What are some of the barriers Thandeka experiences?
2. How differently do Sunil and Thandeka experience disability?
3. What reasons do you think account for these differences? Use the whole
disability section, and your prior learning, to put together your list of
reasons.

CASE STUDY: SUNIL AND THANDEKA

Sunil is a wheelchair user. He attends Infinity Inclusive School. The school has wheelchair
ramps and adapted toilet facilities. The school also provides transport for Sunil in an
adapted vehicle. He is included in, and participates fully in, all classes.
His friend Thandeka is also in a wheelchair. She goes to Community Primary School. The
Principal was reluctant to include her as he said they did not have training to teach children
like her. He also said the school does not have money for ramps but if her friends are
willing to carry her to her classes, some of which are on the top floor, she can attend. Her
caregivers have to bring her to school as the school transport is not wheelchair accessible.

Disability is often described as a “barrier to learning”. This is not strictly true, as we

can see from the examples above. Thandeka’s barrier to learning is not the fact that
she is in a wheelchair, but rather the lack of access to learning (wheelchair ramps).

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Similarly, a learner with intellectual disability may experience an inflexible curriculum
as a barrier to learning. When the curriculum is adapted to meet the learner’s level of
access, learning can take place.
• If you are interested in learning more about disability, inclusion and teaching
learners with disabilities, you can enrol in this EU-funded Massive Open Online
Course developed by the University of Cape Town, at
https://www.coursera.org/learn/disability-inclusion-education.
For information about the course, view the promotional video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QAFExsTyHNE

3.6.2 Gender identity and sexual orientation

Gender discrimination has historically played a role in the equality-in-education

debate. Today the issue is still as relevant but has become more complex and
multidimensional.

The gender identity diversity in your classroom could potentially be quite broad. The
LGBTIQ activism movement has ensured that the discussion about gender identity
and sexual orientation is brought into the open and given the attention and
recognition it deserves.

There is often confusion about the terms “sex”, “sexual orientation” and “gender
identity”, so it is important to define these terms. Sex is biological and refers to the
sex characteristics of the human body. Scientifically, people have been classified as
either male or female at birth due to the appearance of genitalia. However, many
people are born with a range of ambiguous sex characteristics and are Intersex.
Sexual orientation is about who you are attracted to emotionally, romantically or
sexually. Gender identity does not necessarily match the sex one was assigned at
birth. Your gender identity is how you identify yourself and this can include a range
of identities not limited to the binary definition of gender (male and female). For
example, people can identify as transgender, where they identify differently to their
sex assigned at birth or where they do not neatly fit into “male” or “female” boxes. It
is important to respect the gender identity that a person chooses and to recognise
that sex, sexual orientation and gender identity all exist on a broad spectrum (GALA
Queer Archive et al, 2017; Marnell & Khan, 2016).

The gender identity debate is influenced by the cultural and religious norms of the
family and community where the school and learner are situated, but the rights of
people regarding their sexual orientation and gender identity are protected by the
Constitution. However, it can be very difficult for a learner to openly discuss their
sexual and/or gender identity if it is considered unacceptable according to these
cultural and religious norms. As an educator, it is imperative to understand that young
people can experience various forms of economic and social marginalisation for
various reasons. These challenges are often exacerbated when individuals do not
identify as heterosexual. Entrenched prejudices, conservative attitudes and

99
persistent myths about sexual and gender diversity all help to create an environment
in which queer youth struggle to exercise their basic rights. Things that many young
people take for granted, such as attending school or having access to medical care,
are often denied to queer youth. (Queer is an umbrella term to describe people who
identify as LGBTIQ.)

LGBTIQ stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Intersex and Queer. These
terms are used to describe a person’s sexual orientation or gender identity.

FIGURE 3.9: I AM HUMAN

“We are born as who we are, the gender thing is something that is imposed on you”
(Laverne Cox, transgender actress and LGBTIQ activist),

Lesbian: A woman who is emotionally and sexually attracted to women.

Gay: A man who is emotionally and sexually attracted to men.

Bisexual: A person who is emotionally and sexually attracted to men and

women.

Transgender: A person whose understanding or expression of their gender is

different to their physical sex. A transgender person may choose to dress, live
and act in a way that is different to what society expects of their gender
assigned at birth. Some transgender people may also choose to change their
body to affirm their gender identity through surgery or other medical
treatments.

Intersex: A general term used to describe a range of biological variations in

which a person is born with a sexual anatomy that doesn’t fit the conventional
definitions of female or male. These biological variations may manifest in
different ways, some of which may be unnoticed throughout an individual’s life,
may be noticeable at birth or may only become noticeable during puberty.

Queer: An umbrella term used to describe anyone who is gender and sexually
diverse, and does not subscribe to heteronormativity (i.e., the belief

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 that heterosexuality or “straight” sexualities are normal and all
other sexualities are abnormal).

Asexual: Asexuality is an umbrella term used to describe people who are

emotionally and psychologically/intellectually attracted to people. Their
attraction is not limited to physical sexual expression.

Ally: A person who aligns themselves with the struggles of LGBTIQA+ people
and shows support in various ways.

Pansexual: Derived from the Greek prefix “all” and refers to a person who is
attracted to people regardless of their gender identity or sexual orientation.

(Source: Acrostic developed by Genevieve Louw, GALA.)

3.6.3 Understanding prejudice and discrimination

As a teacher, you need to be aware of the various forms of prejudice and

discrimination that is present in society and in some school communities.
Homophobia and transphobia are forms of discrimination, just like racism and sexism.
Discrimination impacts negatively on all members of a community, not just the
targets. In your classroom, you will have to teach a diverse group of learners with
varying personal experiences and it is therefore necessary to highlight that there is
no one way in which people experience discrimination. Personal experiences are
based on a number of factors, such as race, ability, class, sexual orientation and
gender identity. (GALA Queer Archive et al, 2017; Marnell & Khan, 2016)

➢ Homophobia and transphobia encompass a range of

negative attitudes and feelings toward people who are
homosexual and/or transgender. These negative attitudes can
lead to violence and exclusion and are thus an infringement of
basic human rights.

CASE STUDY: VOICES FROM TRANSGENDER AND GENDER NON-CONFORMING LEARNERS IN

SA SCHOOLS<<BOX>>
“The uniform is not there to learn, you are there to learn. They should allow you to decide
what you’re going to wear in terms of the school uniform” (Rowland, 17).

“There was little engagement with any kind of identity politics in the school curriculum and
in things like Life Orientation where we have Sex Ed regardless of all the issues that they
covered, like sex and contraceptives and so forth, just in terms of the understanding of
anything beyond heterosexual sex and even within that framework, it was about not having
babies and getting AIDS and there was no discussion around pleasure … I got the sense
that the whole education system is scared to engage with queer issues” (David, 22).

“The problem started in school, because I was not that person to go to the toilet because
I knew there’d be a problem. In the boys’ toilet they would say: ‘What are you doing here?

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 Don’t you see that you’re a woman? Go to the girls’ toilet.’ So I was that person who didn’t
use the toilet because even if I wanted to, I didn’t know which toilet to use … I waited until
I got home” (Pretty, 23).

(Source: These experiences and quotes were taken from Gender DynamiX (2014) Young
and transgender. Available online: http://bit.ly/2YnPvNa)

<<ENDS>>

UNDERSTANDING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION

ACTIVITY 3.17
After reading the quotes from the three learners in the case study above, consider
the following questions:
1. How do you think these experiences made the learners feel?

2. Does it seem like these learners feel included in their schools?

3. Have you ever encountered a learner or staff member with the same or
similar experiences?

After reading the three quotes, what do you think are the main challenges that
gender and sexual diverse learners face in schools?
<<BOX>>
4. ENDS>>

3.6.4 Promoting a culture of safety, inclusivity and non-discrimination in schools

There is ample available information available to reference in order to create inclusive

policies for schools. These documents include the Constitution of South Africa and
the South African Schools Act, which management bodies and educators can draw
on in order to promote a culture of safety, inclusivity and non-discrimination in
schools. Let’s explore how school management teams can address bullying against
sexual and gender diverse (LGBTIQ) learners in schools, and how they can promote
a culture where everyone feels welcome and included in the school environment
(GALA Queer Archive et al., 2017; Marnell & Khan, 2016)

3.6.5 Promoting a culture of inclusion in your school

ACTIVITY 3.18<<BOX>>
Write a paragraph providing your own suggestions on each of the following
questions:

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 1. How can a school’s management team prevent and/or respond to bullying
against gender and sexual diverse (LGBTIQ) learners?

2. What resources do you need in schools in order to make this happen?

Does your school comply with the Department of Education’s policy around
bullying? Does it comply with the Schools Act and the Constitution of South Africa?
If not, how can your school policy improve in order to protect the rights of gender
and sexual diverse (LGBTIQ) learners?

3. <<ENDS>>

For further information visit the GALA Centre for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual,
Transgender, Intersex and Queer (LGBTIQ) culture and education in South Africa:
https://gala.co.za.<<ENDS>>

3.6.6 Race, culture and religion

Although South Africa has come a long way from forced racial segregation in
education, most schools still comprise learners from one dominant racial group. This
is largely because learners attend the school nearest to where they live, and our
social geography is still racially segregated.
Similarly, some schools are made up of learners from predominantly one religion.
The risk is that this becomes the dominant system and learners from minority
religious groups are excluded. For example, a school with predominantly Christian
learners might impose Christian prayer or religious ceremonies on the whole school,
even if there are other minority religions represented at the school.
Many urban schools are made up of learners from different parts of South Africa,
Africa and the world, creating classroom environments rich in racial, cultural and
religious diversity. This creates a wonderful opportunity for learning about different
cultures and experiences and how to create an accepting classroom environment.

CASE STUDY: KAI<<BOX.>>

The Northern Cape is South Africa’s largest province. It is a mineral-rich province with
many mines. The mines attract mine workers from all over the country. At a primary school
in one such community the learners were sharing their weekend activities during the
morning lesson. Kai, who comes from the Namaqua district, shared how he had been
hunting rabbits with his bow and arrow for the family to eat. The other children laughed
and teased him. The teacher wisely saw this as an opportunity for the children to learn
about and appreciate his culture as much as their own.
The teacher asked Kai to bring his bow and arrow to school the next day and give the class
a demonstration. The other learners were so impressed with his skills and were clamouring
for a chance to try it out. Kai was proud to share his heritage.

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<<ENDS>>

DOMINANT AND MINORITY GROUPS AT SCHOOL

ACTIVITY 3.19
Think back to your time at school. To what extent was your school racially integrated?
Was there an assumed dominant culture or religion? Were you part of a minority
group? Did you know anyone who was? How did you or they feel about being in the
minority? What impact did this have on your experience at school?

3.6.7 Language

Learning is taught in home languages for the first three years of schooling with
English taught as a subject, and then in Grade 4 there is the switch to English as
medium of instruction. The reality is that in Grade 4 many children are taught in a
language that is not their home language and they have insufficient knowledge of
English. This can pose several difficulties for the teacher. Added to this, with the
migration of families from other African countries and further afield, in many South
African classrooms there is often more than one home language represented.
Moreover, in a country with 11, soon to be 12 (the inclusion of South African Sign
Language) official languages, multilingual classes are common.
In post-apartheid South Africa, English is viewed as the preferred language of
learning by many caregivers. It is seen as the global language of commerce and
communication. Caregivers believe their children will have an advantage if they are
able to converse fluently and learn in English. As a result, many send their children
to English medium schools. Many children struggle to learn in English and the teacher
must find strategies to support them.
The challenge of having learners in your class whose home language is not the
language of instruction has become a common one in South Africa. So the next part
of this learning unit focuses on creating a language and culturally inclusive
classroom.
By now, you will have begun to understand the extent of diversity in the classroom.
Another important aspect of diversity is that these differences intersect, or overlap.
Let’s explore this area in more detail.

3.6.8 Diversity and intersectionality

MY PERSONAL PROFILE

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 ACTIVITY 3.20

Create your own unique personal profile. Describe how you would define yourself.
You can use some of the identities that were discussed in the previous section, such
as race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, disability.

It is very important in the study of inclusive education to examine not only how your
learners are different from one another, but also how some of these differences are
shaped by power hierarchies in our society. More importantly, we need to examine
how these intersect or combine to increase marginalisation.
In most societies the dominant group imposes its views, opinions, value judgements
and power on the oppressed group. However, the majority group is not always the
dominant group, as we know from our South African history, but it is often the case.
The dominant power hierarchies assert that their identity, belief system and values
are considered “normal” or acceptable and differing views, opinions, beliefs or
identities are “abnormal” or unacceptable. Sometimes these differences are tolerated
but they are not given equal status. Members are privileged purely by virtue of their
being part of this dominant group, and others marginalised or excluded because they
are not. This dynamic has been clearly evident in the gender equality struggle
worldwide. Even today, gender pay gaps exist in many countries, and patriarchal
thinking dictates policy and law-making.
The concept of intersectionality takes this thinking a step further. It examines the
ways in which several of these systems of oppression intersect or come together in
one person’s life to compound marginalisation or exclusion.
Many learners’ education experiences are negatively impacted by several
intersecting systems of oppression. We need to understand how different
social, historical and political processes and personal, cultural and
institutionalized discrimination creates and sustains privileges for some while
creating and sustaining disadvantages for others (Queensborough
Community College, http://www.qcc.cuny.edu).
Look at the profiles of the two learners below.

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FIGURE 3.10: LEARNER PROFILES

While both children are marginalised by their gender and learning differences, their
experience of being girls with learning differences will not be the same due to their
different socio-economic and geographic locations. Living in more affluent socio-
economic circumstances in an urban centre will give Jane an educational advantage
over Lerato as she will be able to access better schools and a wider range of
specialist services. Lerato will more likely attend a poorly-resourced school, far from
home and with little additional support.
Therefore, it would be incorrect to say that they share the same experience as girls
with an intellectual disability. We need to look at how their other identities or locations
intersect with their gender and disability experiences and view their situations
holistically.

LERATO AND JANE

ACTIVITY 3.21
Think back to the iceberg concept. What other differences might there be between
Jane and Lerato that we have not mentioned here, which affect their outcomes?

INTERSECTIONALITY
ACTIVITY 3.22
Watch the video clip using the following link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w6dnj2IyYjE
Think about—and if possible discuss with a colleague—the following questions:

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 1. Greta, Fatima and Jerry have unique combinations of identities that either
privilege or marginalise them. Can you identify these for each of them?
2. Would each of them require the same support to reach their full learning
potential? Why or why not? It might help to think back to the iceberg analogy
here.
We will explore different ways of offering support in Learning Unit 4.

To summarise: An intersectional educational lens enables us to understand the

ways differences can compound to increase discrimination, marginalisation and
exclusion. In understanding these ways, we can plan to address them in order to
create equitable education opportunities for all learners. Next, we explore in more
detail what we mean by equity in relation to learner diversity.

3.6.9 Equity to ensure equal education for all

Often the concepts of “equality” and “equity” in education are used interchangeably.
But there is an important difference between the two. The UNESCO World Education
Forum in Korea (2015) defined equity as follows:
Equity in education is the means to achieving equality. It intends to provide the
best opportunities for all students to achieve their full potential and act to
address instances of disadvantage which restrict educational achievement. It
involves special treatment/action taken to reverse the historical and social
disadvantages that prevent learners from accessing and benefiting from
education on equal grounds. Equity measures are not fair per se but are
implemented to ensure fairness and equality of outcome.
Here is another definition:
Equality aims to promote fairness, but it can only work if everyone starts from
the same place and needs the same aid. Equity, on the face of it, appears
unfair, but it actively moves everyone closer to success by “levelling the
playing field”. It is important to recognise that not everyone starts at the same
place, and not everyone has the same needs (Solomon-Pryce, 2015).
These definitions take into account that our learners are not all the same. They do
not share the same experiences, identities or characteristics. These differences
impact their ability to access education and participate meaningfully in learning.
Information in the rest of this section has been adapted from Achievement and
Inclusion in Schools (Florian, 2017).
Many decades of research have consistently documented that learners from poor
families are less likely to do well in school. Consequently, there is a tendency to
interpret lower standards of attainment in schools that serve these areas as poor-

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quality schools. Schools that serve children from different family backgrounds appear
to be good or better schools because the academic attainment of learners is generally
higher. What is missing from this comparison is an understanding of the prior
experiences children bring to school. These create different starting points in terms
of both advantage and disadvantage that not only obscure achievement but influence
performance expectations. These are issues of “equity” in education.
The association between socio-economic status and attainment is so pervasive that
it would be easy to assume that there is nothing that can be done. Yet, it is also clear
that schools can lessen the impact of deprivation, even though certain factors are
beyond their influence and control. Where schools are able to build links with the
communities they serve, outcomes for disadvantaged learners improve. Also, when
schools work together, rather than in competition, the capacity for improvement can
be enhanced.
As we have seen, some children have been marginalised in education and others
privileged. They do not experience equality in education—of access or of opportunity.
There needs to be some measure of equitable, or fair, redress in order to level the
playing field. Let’s look at an example.
<<BOX>.
CASE STUDY: ANDRE AND MUSA
Andre and Musa are two seven-year-olds who have just started Grade 1. Andre has access
to books, his parents read him stories and taught him to write his name, he has educational
toys, and eats three nutritious meals a day. Musa has none of this. Andre’s first language
is English, Musa’s is isiZulu. The school is an English medium school. Andre therefore
gets a head start in his reading comprehension, language skills, vocabulary and many
other aspects. Musa is a long way behind. They have not started at the same place, so to
ensure equity and fairness, Musa needs a lot of additional support to access education.

<<ENDS>>

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FIGURE 3.11: EQUALITY AND EQUITY 1 (ILLUSTRATION BY ANGUS MAGUIRE, INTERACTION
INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL CHANGE)

This popular image is used to demonstrate this distinction between equality and
equity. Let’s explore it using Andre and Musa as an example. If we give them the
same, as in the left-hand picture—the same learning tasks at the same curriculum
level—it does not mean we would be giving Musa equality of opportunity to achieve
the same educational outcomes, even if it looks fair. In order to achieve the same
educational outcomes, Musa needs different educational input to Andre, as in the
right-hand picture. This input may not be the same, but it is fair because it enables
equal access to the same outcomes. It is fair even if some learners require input that
may cost more and require more skills or resources.
Providing equitable access to education is vital for all learners but is discussed here
specifically for learners with disabilities in order to clarify their rights. The duty to
provide reasonable accommodation to learners with disabilities can best be
understood in terms of equity. Article 2 of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons
with Disabilities defines reasonable accommodation as the “necessary and
appropriate modification and adjustments not imposing a disproportionate or undue
burden, where needed in a particular case, to ensure to persons with disabilities the
enjoyment or exercise on an equal basis with others of all human rights and
fundamental freedoms”.
With respect to the right to education, reasonable accommodation means ensuring
that the specific support needs of learners with disabilities are provided for so that
they are able to equitably participate in learning alongside their peers in ordinary
schools. Failure to do so amounts to discrimination.
Very often teachers make the mistake of preparing lessons assuming that all the
children in their class are exactly the same. This is called a “one-size-fits-all”
approach. The cartoon below clearly illustrates the difficulty of a one-size-fits-all
clothing store. Animals without legs would certainly struggle to fit into a pair of
trousers!

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FIGURE 3.12: ONE SIZE FITS ALL

As a teacher teaching diverse learners you will need to differentiate—or adapt—how

you teach, what you teach, and the way you assess learning, to make sure that all
children are able to reach their full learning potential. Differentiation is for everyone.
You will need to take their diversity into account when you plan and prepare your
lessons and teaching methodology. This does not mean you need to prepare
individual lesson plans for each learner in your classroom. It is about thinking about
meeting the needs of the diverse learners in your classroom by extending the range
of your practice on a day-to-day basis.
Let’s go back to an extended version of the equality/equity cartoon to explain the
impact of differentiation from Musa’s perspective.

(Source: Interaction Institute for Social Change, Artist: Angus Maguire)

FIGURE 3.13: EQUALITY AND EQUITY 2 (ILLUSTRATION BY ANGUS MAGUIRE, INTERACTION
INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL CHANGE)

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We have established that Musa needs different input to Andre in order for him to be
able to access similar educational outcomes—illustrated by the middle picture above.
Adding differentiation into the mix is the “maximising learning” piece of the jigsaw. By
adapting what you teach, teaching the material in a variety of ways, and being flexible
about how you assess children’s learning—all based on your knowledge of your
learners—you will be offering them an element of choice. Have a look at the right-
hand picture. For many children, this choice is like removing the fence, or barrier, that
stands between them and being fully engaged in, and therefore maximising, their
learning. We will explore differentiation in more depth in Learning Unit 4.
To summarise: Adopting a one-size-fits-all approach to teaching will exclude many
of your learners, and lead to inequality of access, participation and outcomes. A focus
on types of learners is problematic because of the many sources of variation within
and between identified groups of learners. This makes it difficult to observe and judge
educationally relevant distinctions between them. Whatever can be known about a
particular category of learners can serve limited educational purposes, because the
variations between members of a group make it difficult to predict or evaluate
provision for the individuals in it. An inclusive, and indeed successful, teacher is one
who recognises, understands and values the rich diversity in the classroom. These
teachers actively plan for diverse learning needs and experiences. By doing so, they
offer their learners equitable opportunities for genuine equality in education.
A socio-cultural perspective on learning supports these teachers to focus on how to
access and use knowledge about how people learn when supporting children who
are encountering barriers. Here it is productive to think about learning in terms of the
development of expertise, rather than to differentiate groups of learners on the basis
of perceived limitations. While individuals are characterised by multiple overlapping
and intersecting identities that produce individual differences, learning occurs
through shared activity in social contexts. Teachers should think about everybody in
the class and how they will work together, as opposed to differentiating for some on
the basis of judgments about what they cannot do compared to others of similar age.
A socio-cultural perspective emphasises the influence of society—language, culture,
social structures, etc.—on our learning processes.
This does not mean that individual differences are unimportant. A teacher may have
two learners, both experiencing similar difficulties in learning, but differences between
the learners (for example, a learner with English as a second language and a learner
on the autism spectrum), require different responses to their particular difficulties in
learning. Teachers cannot know or anticipate every type of difficulty they will
encounter in the classroom, but they can draw on knowledge about learning and
ensure that diversity is treated as a resource and an asset when planning lessons
that are accessible to all. This theme is developed further in Learning Unit 4.
By now you will have noticed that treating diversity as a resource and an asset is a
recurring theme in this unit. It typifies the attitude towards diversity of a teacher who
works inclusively, but this attitude is not one that has been traditionally held within
education or wider society. We will now examine attitudes to learner diversity in more
detail.

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 3.6.10 Attitudes to learner diversity

In this section we will consider two broad attitudes to learner diversity and some of
their impact.
Let’s go back again to the Progress Primary Grade 6 case study in 3.1. Go back and
re-read it as a reminder.
Think about Ms Willemse’s attitude to diversity in the Grade 6 classroom. What words
or pictures might you use to describe it?
What about Mrs Mbeki? What words or pictures might you use to describe her attitude
to diversity?
Here are two possible ways of thinking about these teachers’ attitudes to diversity.
Firstly, Ms Willemse could be described as seeing the diversity of her Grade 6
learners as an obstacle that is getting in the way of teaching and learning. Thapelo’s
arguing, Jayendra’s activity level and Aminah’s daydreaming are all seen as deficits.
This is in contrast to Mrs Mbeki, who sees the learners’ diversity as strengths and
assets, and uses them as a resource in the classroom. She therefore values their
diversity and, by using their differences, she is affirming for the children that their
diversity is valuable.
Let’s look further into each of these attitudes in turn.

3.6.11 Learner diversity as an obstacle

In 3.2.1 we discussed the concept of bell-curve thinking in education, that is,. thinking
that supports the ideas of:
• “Sorting” learners into those who are “normal” and those who are “different” or
“abnormal”
• Intelligence and ability as fixed
Both these ideas encourage teachers to think about diversity as an obstacle. A
concept that enables teachers to consider the majority of learners as “normal” and a
minority as “abnormal” can only promote the idea that the minority is an obstacle to
the teaching and learning of the majority. The majority is a larger group and will be
considered easier to teach because they are “normal”.
The idea of viewing intelligence and ability as fixed is known as “educational
determinism”, which will be explored in greater depth in Learning Unit 4. Essentially,
educational determinism is based on the assumption that we are all born biologically
different, and this biological difference is what determines what we can and can’t do
and learn. What’s more, it is believed that there is little that can be done to change

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this situation. Another concept similar to determinist thinking that you may have heard
of is “fixed mindset”. Researcher Carol Dweck has written about this extensively. This
describes learners who believe that their intelligence is fixed and they can do little to
change it. This mindset negatively affects a learner’s belief in their ability to make
progress and their motivation to attempt more challenging tasks.
➢ Determinism: The belief that all events including
human choice are completely determined by pre-
existing causes.
A further concept that contributes significantly to the view of learner diversity as an
obstacle is the medical model of disability.
The medical model sees the person with a disability as the problem. In this model the
focus is on the disability.
The social model sees attitudes, as well as social and environmental barriers, as the
problem. People are “disabled” by the world around them.
While its origins are in the discourse of disability, the medical model has a wider
application and the word “disability” could be replaced for our purposes with
“difference”. In Learning Unit 1 the medical model was described as focusing on the
“diagnosis of defects and possible interventions to ‘improve’ the learner”. The
diagram below is a helpful illustration of this approach.

FIGURE 3.14: MEDICAL MODEL OF DISABILITY (FROM HTTP://DDSG.ORG.UK/TAXI/MEDICAL-

MODEL.HTML)

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CASE STUDY: FAROUK (1)<<BOX>>
Farouk is a learner with low vision. In Science he’s achieving a high level, whereas in
Maths his achievement is at a low level. This seems odd given that so much Maths is
involved in Science, so the school investigates further. They find that the maths teacher
seats Farouk at the back of the class and makes no effort to make any special
accommodation for Farouk’s vision. When asked about this, she says that Farouk has an
impairment and that someone either needs to fix his eyesight or he should be moved
because she doesn’t think that the school is the right place for Farouk—he should be in a
full service or special school; he can’t learn in this school because she can’t teach him in
the same way as the rest of the class.

<<ENDS>>

As the diagram and case study show, the individual with a disability, or difference, is
seen as the problem in the medical model. The maths teacher sees Farouk as the
problem—he is “impaired” and needs “fixing” in order to fit in with others. She sees
him as an obstacle. He either:
• needs to be removed to enable her to work unimpeded with those without a
disability or difference, in other words the “normal”, or
• he needs to be cured so that he can fit in with everyone else, in other words,
he can become “normal”.
As Farouk’s story shows, the focus of the medical model on diagnosis and treatment
can encourage us to think narrowly about people and to label them as “different” in a
way that leads to stereotyping. While getting a diagnosis can be helpful—for
understanding what is happening for a child, for putting the right support in place, and
because in some cases it brings with it legal protection and rights—labelling as a
result of a diagnosis can also be problematic. A label can become a way of defining
a person, masking their strengths, interests and personality: people only pay attention
to the above-surface part of the iceberg, not what’s underneath. In addition, as Ho
(2004) illustrates, there are other reasons to think very carefully about labelling in
schools:
• Some people don’t want to be labelled because of the judgmental way that
society views people who are different as “abnormal” or “inferior”, which can also
lead to a lowering of expectations.
• Caregivers worry about their children being less integrated, more lonely, more
likely to be bullied and more likely to be treated as an outsider if they have a
diagnosed label.
• Labels can sometimes be used by schools to move “certain children out of the
regular classroom”, maintaining a focus on the child’s label rather than on what
the school should be doing to support the child’s learning.

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SEEING DIVERSITY AS AN OBSTACLE
ACTIVITY 3.23
Think about a time when you have considered a learner’s difference to be an
obstacle to the teaching and learning in a class you have taught. Or think about
somebody you have taught something to in your family or community, whose
difference you considered an obstacle to teaching and learning.
1. What were some of your beliefs about and expectations of the learner?
2. What were some of your beliefs about your ability to teach this learner?
3. What was the impact of seeing this learner’s difference as an obstacle to your
teaching and their learning?

The impact of seeing diversity as an obstacle often lead teachers to believe that:
• some children are able to achieve less than others
• certain children should be removed from the classroom or school
• they don’t have the right experience or skills to teach some children
• they should focus on children who are not seen as obstacles to teaching and
learning
Viewing diversity as an obstacle can therefore lead to low expectations,
marginalisation and exclusion from learning.
The alternative to this view, and how to put this alternative into practice, will be the
focus of the rest of this unit.

3.7 Valuing and affirming learner diversity: an asset-based approach

Valuing and affirming learner diversity does not simply mean an acknowledgement
of the ways learners are different from each other. It encompasses respect for our
individual differences. Respect involves a recognition and appreciation for the
qualities and experiences of others that are different to our own. In other words, these
qualities and experiences are valued. When they are used as assets and resources
in the classroom, learners understand that diversity is expected and valued, diversity
is affirmed. Valuing and affirming diversity is an important element in South African
schools, as this quote shows:
Our schools, public or private, must be proactive about increasing diversity.
To do so is to create an enriching educational experience that prepares pupils
for a complex and diverse world. Our children need to know and understand
differences and diversity because these guide them in recognising and

115
 nurturing a person’s gifts and talents, which helps us to bring out the best in
the person (Panyaza Lesufi, former MEC for Education in Gauteng).
In order for diversity to be valued and affirmed in South African schools, there are a
number of steps schools and teachers need to take.
We have already talked about the first step earlier in this unit: developing a mindset
where diversity is viewed as “the new normality” and therefore moving away from
bell-curve thinking as described earlier. This mindset sends a strong message about
valuing learner differences and promotes high expectations for all.
The second step is to promote an alternative to determinist thinking about intelligence
and ability—one where these traits are seen as being able to develop and grow,
rather than being fixed. As we have already seen earlier, there is recent neuroscience
evidence that supports this ability. We also know that what teachers do can alter
children’s capacity to learn, as Hart and her colleagues assert: “Children’s capacity
to learn can change and be changed for the better as a result of what happens and
what people do in the present” (Hart et al, 2004). Again, we will explore this
transformative thinking in more detail in Learning Unit 4. Here, you may want to
explore the related concept of growth mindset by taking a look at this introductory film
(which also considers fixed mindsets):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=75GFzikmRY0
Perhaps the most crucial step, and one that can transform school culture, is to shift
from medical model thinking to social model thinking. Where the medical model sees
the person with a disability or difference as the problem, the social model places the
onus on society as the problem, as this model shows.

FIGURE 3.15: SOCIAL MODEL OF DISABILITY (FROM HTTP://DDSG.ORG.UK/TAXI/SOCIAL-

MODEL.HTML)

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The social model also places the responsibility on society to remove the barriers it
has put in place to ensure that every person can play an equal role in society. In a
school and classroom context, it places the responsibility on teachers and school
leaders to ensure that barriers are removed to give learners equal access to the
curriculum and to learning opportunities. Learners also have their part to play, though,
in terms of taking responsibility—or exercising agency—over their learning. Let’s go
back to Farouk, our learner with low vision, and look at the social model in practice.

CASE STUDY: FAROUK (2)<<BOX>>

Unlike Farouk’s Maths teacher, his Science teacher has worked with him quite differently.
At the beginning of the school year he spent fifteen minutes with Farouk and his best friend,
Junior, in the Science room making sure that Farouk could find his way round and knew
where everything was. He and Farouk agreed on the best place for Farouk to sit, and what
he would need to be able to fully participate in lessons. Since then, the teacher has:
• Made sure that the room is free of any unusual obstacles
• Made sure Farouk sits at the front of the class
• Produced worksheets with enlarged text for Farouk and agreed that it Is Farouk’s
responsibility to use his text magnifier when necessary
• Improved his writing on the board and now uses high contrasting colours so that Farouk
can read from the board more easily
In addition, Junior has agreed to work with Farouk during practical experiments if there are
things that he found challenging due to his vision. Farouk is happy with this. The teacher
has emphasised to both boys that it’s important Junior works with Farouk rather than doing
things for him. He has stressed to Farouk that he has high expectations of him participating
as much as everyone else in the class and achieve highly as a result.

<<ENDS>>

These arrangements are not about Farouk being a passive recipient of support, they
are there to make sure he can exercise agency—take the most active role possible
in his learning. This last point is important as teacher estimates of learners’
achievement and learners’ beliefs about their own self-efficacy both have potential to
accelerate learners’ achievement (Hattie, 2017).

3.7.1 Social model thinking

ACTIVITY 24
Read the case study about Farouk above and consider the following questions.

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 1. How would you describe the Science teacher’s beliefs about himself as a
teacher, and about Farouk?
2. Think of the learners in a class you are teaching at the moment, or one you
have taught recently. What are some of the steps you could take, or could
you have taken, to promote social model thinking in your classroom?
OR
Think about a class you were in at school. What were some of the steps your teacher
could have taken to promote social model thinking in their classroom?

Let’s compare the impact of medical and social model thinking in schools. You will
recognise at least some of the areas of impact from your learning so far.

TABLE 3.2: MEDICAL AND SOCIAL MODEL THINKING IN SCHOOLS

Medical model thinking Social model thinking
Child is faulty Child is valued
Strength and needs defined by self and
Diagnosis
others
Labelling Identify barrier and develop solutions
Impairment becomes focus of attention Outcomes-based programmes designed
Assessment, monitoring, programmes of Resources are made available to ordinary
therapy imposed services
Segregation and alternative services Training for parents and professionals
Ordinary needs put on hold Relationships nurtured
Re-entry if “normal” enough, or
Diversity welcomed, child is included
permanent exclusion
Society remains unchanged Society evolves
Source: https://ukdhm.org/what-is-ukdhm/the-social-model/

3.7.2 Medical and social model thinking

ACTIVITY 3.25
Read Table 3.2 carefully and think through the meaning of each statement.

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 1. The bottom right-hand box states “Society evolves”. What does this mean?
Do you agree that if social model thinking is followed through then society will
evolve? Why, or why not?
2. Think about a school you have recently worked in, or are working in now, or
the school you attended. Do you think this school’s policies and practices
reflect medical model thinking, social model thinking or some aspects of
each? Note your reasons for your thinking.
3. Now think about yourself. Would you consider your thinking as more medical
model or social model? Why do you say this?

Medical and social model thinking are based on different beliefs, and therefore lead
to different types of questions being asked about learners, which result in different
actions being taken. Let’s go back to Jayendra from our Grade 6 case study to
expand on this idea. Here is an example of a medical and a social model question
that could be asked about him, with answers that show what might happen as a result:

TABLE 3.3A: SOCIAL VS MEDICAL MODEL THINKING

Medical model Medical model Social model Social model
question answer question answer
How can we Give him Ritalin or What can we do Prepare a learning
change Jayendra’s other medication. better to plan with Jayendra
hyperactive understand and setting objectives
behaviour? support Jayendra’s and behaviour
behaviour? management
support strategies
over a six-week
period. Monitor this
plan—include
regular feedback
sessions with
Jayendra.

To help you think through the implications of medical and social model thinking on
learners and learning, we’d like you to try to come up with some questions of your
own about learners you might typically meet in the classroom.

ACTIVITY 3.26

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 Draw your own version of the table below, and have a go at populating it, drawing on
the example above, and the case studies about Jayendra.

TABLE 3.3B: SOCIAL VS MEDICAL MODEL THINKING

Medical Medical
Description of model model Social model Social model
learners question answer question answer
Thabiso has a
significant hearing
impairment.
Samkelo’s
reading and
writing is much
weaker than his
peers.
Rabia finds too
much sensory
stimulation—
noise, colour,
light—distressing
and will run off if
she feels
overloaded.
Louis is going
through a difficult
time at home and
is on a very short
fuse at school. He
has been getting
into some heated
arguments that
have turned
physical.

To summarise: Valuing and affirming diversity involves understanding and

appreciating our differences and our interdependence. It also involves looking for
ways to work together to eliminate all forms of discrimination and ensure equitable
access to quality education.
We first explored many of these differences, along with concepts and models that
influence the ways that difference can impact on learners and learning.

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We have discussed how important it is to really get to know the individual identities
and personalities in your class in order to be able to respond effectively to their
differences. This will help you to know how to plan for and accommodate diverse
learner needs in your teaching.
We finish this part of the unit with a task that asks you to think about different ways
in which you can get to know your learners.

ACTIVITY 3.27
Choose one learner. If you are currently on teaching practice choose a child you are
working with at the moment whom you can observe.
If you are not currently on teaching practice choose a learner in your local community
whom you can interview about their learning in school. Maybe the learner is struggling
with learning or is not being challenged enough, and is not achieving their full potential
in the classroom.
How do you think you could get to know the learner? Think of some activities you could
do, documents you could review, or people you could talk to. Record your ideas.
1. Start off by recording any patterns of behaviour you notice and their impact
on the learner’s ability to learn effectively.
2. Then record the actions you take, for example annotate any documents you
review, make notes after conversations you have.
3. Create a learner profile for the learner you have chosen.
Reflect on what you have discovered about how to relate to the learner and how you
could motivate them to learn more effectively.

All diverse learners deserve quality education. But, what exactly is quality education?

3.7.3 Quality education for all

The endorsement of inclusive education in most policies in South Africa is evidence

that the South African government is committed to the idea of providing equal
education to all learners. White Paper No. 6 is the most important policy
(Department of Education, 2001), This policy lays forth a clear plan for providing
and facilitating high-quality education to all students, regardless of their
backgrounds.

Quality education includes child-centered pedagogy, outcomes that cover

knowledge, skills and attitudes that are linked to national goals for education,
positive participation in society and environments that are healthy, safe,
protective and gender sensitive and that provide adequate resources and

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facilities for all children (UNICEF, 2000). Teachers that acquire skills and
knowledge related to inclusive practices and demonstrate accepting attitudes can
enhance quality education to all learners.

Quality education should be arranged in such a manner that it helps learners to

attain their full potential in terms of cognitive, emotional, and creative capacities,
according to the Education for All (EFA) Global Monitoring Report (UNESCO,
2005). As a teacher, you have the responsibility of creating a classroom that is a safe
place for learners to attain their greatest potential, regardless of their differences.

The provision of quality education for all in is essential because as a teacher, you have
the privilege of working with these learners. During schooling, learners should develop
holistically as total human beings, that is, physically, emotionally, intellectually, socially,
spiritually, and linguistically. To provide inclusive education, teachers must be able to
understand and teach all types of learners to their full potential.

Providing a high-quality education for all people becomes a matter of everyone's

views, values, and attitudes toward inclusive education. Often attitudes need to
change in this regard. If you have a good mindset and promote inclusivity, you can
help to model inclusive practices and give equal education to all learners,
regardless of their requirements.

ACTIVITY 3.28

1. Briefly explain the term quality education.

2. Name and discuss the key principles in promoting quality education.

3. Name at least two strategies teachers can use to provide quality education in
inclusive education, demonstrate these strategies by applying them to a real-
life scenario.

4. Why is it important for teachers to ensure that they provide for quality
education?

5. What benefits come with a positive attitude towards inclusive education?

6. How can you motivate other teachers who have a negative attitude towards
inclusive education?

Below are statements on quality education. Indicate whether each

statement is true or false:

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1. When people get quality education, they can break the cycle of poverty.
2. Education helps to reduce inequalities.
3. Education helps people to live more healthy and sustainable lives.
4. It fosters tolerance between people.
5. It contributes to more societies that are peaceful.
6. When people get quality education, they can get better jobs and have
better lives.

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 LEARNING UNIT 4
Inclusive school communities

OUTCOMES

When you have completed Learning Unit 4, you should be able to:

• Explain the concept of an inclusive school community

• Describe stakeholders in Inclusive school communities
• Analyse inclusive school communities through teacher and learner agency
• Evaluate care and support for teaching and learning
• Critically analyse the screening, identification, assessment and support
process to build support into the education system
• Discuss different ways of working together
• Evaluate characteristics of collaborative practices in inclusive school
communities
4.1 Introduction

In this learning unit we will think about what it means for a school to be an inclusive
centre of learning, care and support, where learner diversity is welcomed and
supported by all stakeholders who work together to realise their shared vision of
quality education for all children. We look at the South African framework (Care and
Support for Teaching and Learning) and tool (Screening, Identification, Assessment
and Support) for building inclusive school communities. We discuss the roles of all
stakeholders with a focus on you, the teacher.
First, we explore the concept of inclusive school communities and what this means
in practice. The roles of the various stakeholders involved in inclusive school
communities are discussed, and we look at ways in which teachers can be
empowered and in turn empower their learners to play an active role in their own
learning and development.
Thereafter we discuss a framework through which teacher actions in building
inclusive communities are guided. Care and Support for Teaching and Learning
(CSTL) is presented as the DBE’s framework for building inclusive school
communities. Within this we look at the DBE priorities for addressing education
exclusion as well as the Policy on Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support
(SIAS) as a practical strategy that guides support provision.
Finally, we explore collaboration further and how it could assist in realising the rights
to education of diverse learners. We discuss collaborative partnerships at school, in
the community and on district level.
We also reflect further on teacher and learner agency: teachers have power within
their classrooms and need to consider voices and actions of learners as active

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participants in school initiatives and cultivate a strong culture of learner participation.
The main focus of this learning unit is on building and enacting inclusive school
communities through teacher and learner agency. Teachers are at the heart of
strategies to build an inclusive education system. From a practical perspective, we
look at the South African policy framework (Care and Support for Teaching and
Learning) and tool (Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support) for the
development of inclusive school communities. We explore the question: What is your
role as a teacher and how do you collaborate with other stakeholders, both within the
education system and within the broader community, to ensure that all your learners
are supported to achieve to their highest potential?

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126
Building inclusive school communities

ARTICLE
<<BOX>>
What it’s really like to be at school in South Africa
Chiara Baumann 2018-06-30
Getting an education is fundamental to moving our young people out of poverty and into
economic opportunity. So why are we struggling to ensure children make it all the way
through school? Perhaps it’s because we fail to see what they’re up against each and
every day.

As a country we have committed to greater access to education for all children. The
importance of early childhood education (the first five years of a child’s life) to improve
children’s capacity to learn and thrive is now firmly on the national agenda. Even the
significance of prenatal care is making inroads in our attempt to give children the best start
in life—right from conception. But what use are these building blocks if we are not investing
the same amount of energy and forward-thinking into keeping our children in school?
Studies show that over the course of primary and secondary school, we lose 45 percent
of learners—they never make it to Grade 12, much less write a matric exam. While it may
be legal in South Africa to exit the school system at the end of Grade 9, we know that
young people without a matric are those who struggle most to find a job. To make matters
worse, further educational opportunities are scarce for those who don’t matriculate—only
one percent of learners who drop out of school go on to study at colleges.
We’ve now reached a situation where more than half of young people are unemployed,
and almost a third of all youth are out of employment, training and education opportunities.
Such high levels of economic exclusion lead to crime and social instability that keeps
mounting over time. Dropout is therefore not an individual problem, it’s a challenge that
affects us all.
For many, the term “school dropout” conjures up the image of lazy, naughty, reckless
teens—learners who choose to leave school and so are responsible for their own
misfortune. But, what if we looked at the situation from the point of view of our learners?
Perhaps we would better understand what it’s really like to be a learner in South Africa.
Each morning, millions of children wake up hungry because they’ve had no supper the
night before and have to leave for school with little or no breakfast. According to the
General Household data for 2015, 13 percent of children reported going hungry
sometimes, often or always in South Africa—that’s 2.4 million children. For some, the only
meal they’ll receive for the rest of day is from their school’s feeding scheme, or from a
concerned teacher who has dipped into her own pocket to buy porridge for her class. Many
children will also wake up alone because their caregivers have had to leave early for work,
often leaving them to get their siblings ready for school, too.
Next, they have to make the journey to school. For many, it is difficult and unsafe—either
requiring long distances on foot (sometimes over 10 kilometres each way in rural areas),

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or waiting in long queues for multiple bus and taxis rides. This is on good days; on bad
days, the weather, transport strikes, or taxi violence will make the journey even longer, and
even more dangerous. Children on the Cape Flats, for example, have to choose their
routes carefully in case a stray bullet comes their way.
So, by the time the first school bell rings—if children manage to make it in time for the first
period at all—they’ve already depleted much of their reserves. Now they are expected to
sit in loud, large classes with as many as 60 learners in one class. The walls of the school
are often completely bare, and there are bars on the windows. Add to this the immense
pressure on teachers to stick to the curriculum, and the result is largely unimaginative
lessons that are rushed; leaving many children behind or simply losing their interest along
the way. Sometimes children have to run the classes themselves because their teacher is
not present.
Then there’s bullying and violence to contend with. A 2015 survey found that 48 percent
of Grade 5 learners in no-fee schools in South Africa reported being bullied weekly.
Another study notes that extreme levels of sexual violence are experienced by girls not
only commuting to school, but also during school hours—by teachers and classmates, with
little in place to hold their educators to account. And, despite it being banned more than
20 years ago, many teachers continue to use corporal punishment in the classroom, even
for minor transgressions, such as being late.
Once the final bell rings for the day, learners still have to face the long journey back home,
only to come home to an empty house, a mound of homework, and for some, a violent
home. With no one around to help, and often with household chores or childcare duties
also to tend to, schoolwork drops to a low priority.
When we add up these experiences, we begin to get a more accurate picture of what it’s
like to be a learner in SA. It comes as no surprise then that by high school our learners are
running on empty, with school dropout peaking in Grades 10 and 11. This may seem like
a picture of doom and gloom, but it’s also a picture of immense resilience, courage, hope
and opportunity. Every day, children are showing up at school, despite the odds. And they
show up over and over again for many years, some for 16 years—until all the things that
weigh them down finally force them to sink. Dropout is therefore less of an active choice,
and more of a culmination of the many factors that work together to push our children out
of the school system.
But this doesn’t have to be the case. For five to seven hours, five days a week, we have
learners within our reach. Let’s use this time wisely. Let’s acknowledge the reality in which
children live, and hold their well-being at the centre of every decision we make. Let’s create
moments of relief for them where they feel acknowledged, supported and safe. Let’s be
mindful of the language we use, and build simple, loving connections within our schools.
We may not be able to change the broader and deep-seated constraints that children and
young people are up against in the short term, but we can protect the time we do have with
them—and ensure that schools are deliberately recognising the obstacles they must
constantly overcome just to make it through the day.
(Source: Chiara Baumann, 2018, Daily Maverick: http://bit.ly/2EQyH6w.)

<<ENDS>>

THE ROAD TRAVELLED<<BOX >>

ACTIVITY 4.1
Read the article “What it’s really like to be at school in South Africa”, and consider
the following questions:

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 1. What is the article saying about the current education system in South
Africa? Do you agree or disagree? Support your opinion by referring to your
own experience, and what you have learnt in your course and this module
so far.
2. How do the circumstances described in the article compare with your own
schooling? What are the similarities and differences? How does this affect
the way you approach your role as a teacher?
What can you, as a teacher, commit to doing to “acknowledge the reality in which
[your learners] live, and hold their well-being at the centre of every decision [you]
make”? What support might you need to achieve this?

3. <<ENDS>>

4.2 What is an inclusive school community?

"Inclusive school communities are about creating communities of learning where

difference is welcomed" (Phasha, Mahlo & Dei, 2017).

Central to inclusive education is the idea of inclusive school communities—schools

as inclusive centres of learning, care and support that are embedded within their
communities. But what does this mean?
There is no agreement about what community means when it comes to schools
(Watson & Bogotch, 2016). There is the idea of “a school community” and also the
idea of “school as a community”. The idea of a school community refers to “the
various individuals, groups, businesses, and institutions that are invested in the
welfare and vitality of a school and its community” (Great Schools Partnership, 2019).
The idea of school as a community “includes other groupings of people sharing
common characteristics or interests” (Green, 2001: 1927).
A community has particular characteristics: its organisation, culture and climate
(Dove, Zorotovich & Gregg, 2018; Stefanski, Valli & Jacobson, 2016). These
characteristics describe the environmental and people factors that determine the
values, attitudes and behaviour of educators, learners and all the other stakeholders
who are part of that school community. These factors include rules governing schools
and the extent to which the rules create the feeling of belonging and shared vision
that is typical of communities (Watson & Bogotch, 2016).

WHAT IS AN INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITY?

ACTIVITY 4.2
Define and list the key characteristics and features of an inclusive school
community. Use the above definitions and what you learnt in Learning Unit 1 and

129
 Learning Unit 2 about inclusion and learner diversity. You can present your ideas in
writing, or as a mindmap or diagram.

An ideal inclusive school community is one where all the learners in the vicinity of a
school attend that school, and where all stakeholders are involved in the school and
share the vision of realising quality education for all. Stakeholders include learners,
teachers, caregivers, school management and leadership teams, as well as other
local schools, government departments, businesses, faith-based, community-based
and non-governmental organisations.
In terms of culture and climate, inclusive school communities are about creating
communities of learning where difference is welcomed (Phasha et al., 2017). All
forms of exclusion and marginalisation and inequalities in access, acceptance,
participation and learning outcomes should be rejected. “Differences in classrooms”
should be understood as a normal aspect of human development. This entails
understanding inclusive school communities as spaces that ensure that everyone
has access to quality education and no learners are marginalised due to pre-
determined exclusionary judgements about who they are and what they can learn
(Florian, 2017: 10–11; Phasha et al., 2017). Inclusive schools adopt a social model
approach within which human rights and participation of all role-players are
respected. It is essential that all relevant government departments are involved.
Enshrined in such a community is a commitment to constitutional values and the spirit
of ubuntu, which refers to “being compassionate, welcoming, hospitable, warm and
generous, willing to share, open, available, as well as affirming others” (Phasha,
2016).

Key terms related to an inclusive school community

School as a community refers to an organisation that consists of a group of people

sharing
• The basic conditions of common life;
• a feeling of belonging together; and
• a sense of mutual identifications of hopes and aspirations among members
themselves, holding a collection of normative beliefs and values that
govern interaction.

School culture consists of the shared ideas such as assumptions, values and beliefs
that give a school its identity and standard for expected behaviours. (Tableman &
Herron, 2004:1)
School climate refers to the kinds of feelings, opinions and attitudes learners and
the school community express about the school, given the specific ways in which
their school does things. These opinions reflect the physical and psychological
aspects of the school that are more susceptible to change and that provide the
preconditions necessary for teaching and learning to take place. (Tableman &
Herron, 2004:2).

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EVALUATE SCHOOL CULTURE AND CLIMATE
ACTIVITY 4.3
Think about the last school you attended.
1. Complete the three tables below.
2. What do the answers tell you about the culture and climate of the school?
3. To what extent did the school put into practice the democratic values
enshrined in the Bill of Rights? How could it have done so more effectively?
Explain your answer.

TABLE 4.1: GETTING ALONG

DOES
IN YOUR OPINION, HOW WELL DID THE FOLLOWING NOT FAIRLY VERY NOT
GROUPS GET ALONG AT THE SCHOOL? WELL WELL WELL APPLY

Boys and girls

Learners who speak different languages
Learners with different abilities
Learners of different races
Learners who belong to different religions
Teachers and management
Parents and teachers

TABLE 4.2: SCHOOL CULTURE

ARE THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS MOSTLY TRUE OR MOSTLY DON’T
FALSE ABOUT THE SCHOOL? T F KNOW

School management and teachers collaborated toward making

the school run effectively.
The principal encouraged experimentation in teaching.
The principal made a point of praising teachers and learners
when they did something well.
Learners cared about the school and felt proud to be there.
Parents and the community were receptive to new ideas.

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TABLE 4.3: TEACHER ATTITUDES
WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING DESCRIPTORS ARE MOSTLY TRUE OF THE DON’T
TEACHERS AT YOUR SCHOOL AND WHICH ARE MOSTLY FALSE? (MARK KNOW
ONE ANSWER FOR EACH LINE.) T F
Apathetic: Indifferent, not interested in school/classroom issues
Cohesive: Unified as members of the school community
Enthusiastic: Eager and passionate about the wellbeing of the
school
Frustrated: Discouraged about being at the school
Innovative and open to change: Always thinking of new ways of
teaching or dealing with challenges; willing to try new approaches
Satisfied: Fulfilled and happy
Unappreciated: Not acknowledged for effort
Traditional: Fixed in their ideas and not willing to try new
approaches
Tense: Nervous and anxious
Source: Adapted from Welsh, Jenkins & Greene, 1998

4.3 Stakeholders in inclusive school communities

As we know from Learning Unit 1, South African legislation and policy aims to develop
democracy and active citizenship, based on principles of human rights and inclusivity,
where citizens take responsibility for what happens in their communities. Full
participation of the following stakeholders is essential for school communities to be
inclusive and effective.
1. The learner is at the centre of the school community, based on the principle of
“Nothing about us without us” (title of a 1998 book on disability rights by James
Charlton). Learners are recognised, respected and enabled to exercise their
rights and to participate in all decisions that affect them.
2. Teachers are at the heart of the strategy to build an inclusive education
system.
3. Parents and caregivers are equal partners in their children’s education.
4. School structures are functional and play their mandated roles: the School
Management Team (SMT); School-Based Support Team (SBST), the School
Governing Body (SGB) and the Representative Council of Learners (RCL).

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 5. The Department of Basic Education structures support school structures: the
Circuit-Based Support Team (CBST) and the District-Based Support Team
(DBST).
6. Education is everybody’s business: government departments, the private
sector, faith-based organisations (FBOs), NGOs and CBOs are all essential
partners toward the realisation of quality education for all.

4.3.1 Policy mandates for school and government structures

The South African Schools Act 1996 sets out the roles and responsibilities of core
structures in school communities: the principal leads the school, supported by the
School Management Team (SMT); the School Governing Body (SGB) represents the
caregivers and school community and the Representative Council of Learners (RCL)
represents learners. Because governance and management are closely connected
and affect the functionality of schools, these committees need to work closely
together with the best interests of learners in mind. For example, while the majority
of SGB members are parents, teachers and RCL members are also represented on
the SGB, along with the principal, who is automatically a member. The School-Based
Support Team (SBST) is a sub-committee of the SMT, and is mandated in Education
White Paper 6, 2001. The SBST’s core function is to assist teachers and learners to
identify support needs and access support from the local community and government
structures. At circuit and district level there are corresponding structures to support
the SBST: Circuit-Based Support Team (CBST) and the District-Based Support Team
(DBST).
All of the above stakeholders have a role to play in building inclusive school
communities. A useful way of looking at this is through the application of complexity
theory, which sees organisations as similar to living organisms. This means that
rather than understanding school systems as fixed and separate, we see them as
inter-connected, dynamic, continuously changing, open to their surroundings and
engaging in feedback. Feedback through communication and collaboration means
schools continuously transform (Cunningham, 2003). Within an inclusive school
community this is achieved through purpose-driven actions—for example, teaching,
interactions among individuals and members, decision-making and participation,
which are all focused around creating a climate of mutual respect and inclusivity. We
will explore collaboration among stakeholders in an inclusive school community in
more depth the last part of this learning unit.
"We should see organisations as similar to living organisms: inter-connected,
dynamic, continuously changing, open to their surroundings and engaging in
feedback" (Cunningham, 2003).

➢ Collaboration: A style of direct interaction between at least

two co-equal persons who are voluntarily engaged in shared

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 problem-solving, shared decision making and shared
resources as they work towards achieving a goal.

4.4 Enacting inclusive school communities through teacher and learner

agency

In Learning Unit 1 we discussed the importance of teacher and learner agency in

inclusive education. As we continue with the topic of developing inclusive school
communities, it is time to place teachers and learners at the centre of these
discussions in a practical way.
➢ Teacher and learner agency: Their active contribution to
shaping their work as teachers and learners and its
conditions—for the overall quality of education. In this way
agency speaks to what teachers and learners do and not what
they have.

4.4.1 Teacher agency in practice

Teacher agency can be defined as the individual and collective actions taken by
teachers in situations in which they find themselves. In this sense, agency is not given
but involves a negotiation of power as constituted in the individual teachers,
structures and conditions in which they find themselves. Long et al. (2017: 10) refer
to teacher agency as “critically shaping our responses to problematic situations in
diverse contexts”. They state that “agency is conditioned by past experiences and
lived realities of the teachers”. This means that we can’t take it for granted that just
because someone is a professional teacher they will always exert their power in ways
that are compatible with the principles of inclusive pedagogy.

➢ Teacher agency: The individual and collective actions

taken by teachers in situations in which they find
themselves. In this sense agency is not given but involves
a negotiation of power as constituted in the individual
teachers, structures and conditions in which they find
themselves.

INCLUSIVITY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

ACTIVITY 4.4
Read the case study and article below and then answer the following
questions:
1. In what ways might Keke’s attitude create barriers to participation and
learning at the school?

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 2. How do views like Keke’s impact on the creation and maintenance of
an inclusive school culture?
3. Keke says, “They’ll never get anywhere close to playing for a national
team, or any team, so why bother?” Comment on this in the light of the
article about Ntando Nokamo, and other examples you know about.
4. How would you advise Keke to address the challenge of including the
two learners in sport?

CASE STUDY: INCLUSIVITY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION<<BOX>>

Keke Motlotla teaches Physical Education/Human Movement as part of the Life Skills
curriculum. Read her conversation with her colleague, Lerato Mahao:
Keke: You know Lerato, I just don’t understand why I’m expected to involve those two
learners in wheelchairs in basketball. What does it mean to them? I think it’s unfair that in
addition to ensuring the safety and involvement of 40 learners on the sports field, I now
have to worry about two children in wheelchairs! They’ll never get anywhere close to
playing for a national team, or any team, so why bother?
Lerato: Ao choma, I thought you learnt about the importance of physical education in your
BEd programme? Sport really helps all learners to be able to do their schoolwork better!
In our school community we support all learners and try to help them become the best
versions of themselves. Why not join me at the next meeting of “Teachers who Care”. I
always find the discussions very helpful in finding ways to meet the challenges we face as
teachers. It helps to know you are not alone.
Keke: I don’t see how a meeting will help but OK, I’ll join you.

<<ENDS>>

ARTICLE
Ntando set to slam dunk his way to top :
Eastern Cape player only 13, but gets nod for SA U23 basketball team
By Mfundo Piliso - 19 August 2018

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 He is only 13, but Ntando Nokama sees his inclusion in the national U23 basketball
men’s wheelchair squad as a chance to travel the world.
Nokama, the youngest wheelchair Springbok in the province, represents the Eastern
Cape wheelchair basketball men’s U23 side and is set to make it into the main
team—Buffalo City Suns—who are campaigning in the Supersport Wheelchair
Basketball National League.
“I think young people should stop abusing drugs and alcohol, and rather focus on
playing sport and on their books because that’s how I managed to get selected to
the team,” said Nokama.
The “guard man” on the court said being born in Stutterheim in Mgwali, where
opportunities for the disabled are few and far between, prompted his relocation to
Mdantsane’s Vukuhambe Special School.
“It all began here when I met the people who inspired me to play this sport,” he said.

Source: DispatchLIVE © 2019 Tiso Blackstar Group (Pty) Ltd.

Let’s take a look at how physical exercise can help boost learners’ achievement in
class, and think of ways you can give learners opportunities to participate in sport
and other physical exercise, both in class and after school.

How physical activity boosts learners’ achievement

Exercise for children appears to stimulate brain growth and boost cognitive
performance. It helps them focus. It may make it easier for them to learn and achieve.
Studies suggest that physical exercise yields short- and long-term benefits for
achievement in the classroom, especially when combined with an element of fun
(Dewar, 2019).
In 2016, 24 experts published a statement in the British Journal of Sports Medicine on
the effects of physical activity on learners age 6 to 18. Among their conclusions were
the following:
• Physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness are good for children’s and young
people’s brain development and function as well as their intellect.
• A session of physical activity before, during, and after school boosts academic
achievement.
• A single session of moderately energetic physical activity has immediate positive
effects on brain function, intellect, and academic performance (Britt, 2019).
And a 2017 review of 26 studies in the United States and 10 other countries and
involving more than 10,000 children, published in the journal Pediatrics, concluded:
“Physical activity improves classroom behaviors and benefits several aspects of

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academic achievement, especially mathematics-related skills, reading, and
composite scores in youth.”

ENCOURAGING LEARNERS’ PARTICIPATION IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 4.5
1. Do you agree that incorporating physical activity would impact positively on
the achievement of all the learners in your class? Give evidence to support
your opinion.
2. Suggest other types of physical activity, in addition to sport, that would be
enjoyable and beneficial for learners to do before, during and after lessons.
What could you do to involve caregivers and the local community in providing
support and opportunities for learners to participate in physical activity at school?

3. <<ENDS>>

4.4.2 Promoting learner agency

The Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) is based on the theory of
constructivism, which places learners at the centre as active agents in their own
development. As we saw in Learning Unit 1, the key message of constructivism is
that learning best takes place if learners are actively involved in the process (Donald,
Lazarus & Moolla, 2014). In other words, the acquisition of skills, knowledge and
attitudes largely depends on learner agency, with learners playing an active role in
their learning. This continuous and active involvement of learners is referred to as
active agency, and the teacher’s key role is to encourage this in learners.
"Cultivating active learner agency requires education systems to support and develop
learner participation in all decisions that affect them" (OECD Learning Framework,
2018).
In teaching we make a clear distinction between teacher-centred and learner-centred
pedagogy. Learner-centred pedagogy is a teaching approach that develops learner
autonomy and initiative by giving learners the responsibility of actively constructing
knowledge rather than teachers just transmitting knowledge.

Active agency, especially where learners are concerned, describes the state of being
personally engaged in one’s learning which is often indicated by the ability to initiate
and take control (Donald, Lazarus & Moolla, 2014).
➢ Learner agency is when learners have “the power to act”,
when they take responsibility for their own learning, and
don’t only rely on inputs from the teacher, the curriculum,
the resources and so on.

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According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
Learning Framework (2018), cultivating active learner agency requires education
systems to support and develop learner participation in all decisions that affect them.
The CSTL framework stresses that education systems should prioritise the
preparation of young people for democratic citizenship. It states that learners “need
to exercise agency in their own education and through life” (OECD, 2018).
As we saw in Learning Unit 1, Africa’s Agenda for Children 2040 (ACERWC, 2015)
advocates a pedagogical approach that prepares children for change and equips
them to be change agents. Learners must be enabled to make full and responsible
use of information, navigate tensions, disagreements and challenges, and
understand the consequences of their actions. This in turn develops a range of
aptitudes, including problem-solving, creativity and a sense of responsibility.

WHAT CAN YOU DO TO PROMOTE ACTIVE LEARNER AGENCY?

ACTIVITY 4.6
What are the implications of the constructivist view of learning for learner
participation in inclusive school communities? What can you do to promote active
learner agency in your classroom practice? Keep this in mind as you work through
this unit.

Teacher agency specifically refers to the human power teachers have that enables
them to make a difference within given structures and cultures and to transform or
reproduce them (Pantic & Florian, 2015; Pantic, 2015).

EXAMPLES OF TEACHER AND LEARNER AGENCY IN PRACTICE

ACTIVITY 4.7
Click on https://youtu.be/D8lm9dfz8-8 to watch a video that portrays teachers and
learners as active agents of change. Then answer the following questions:
1. How is the active agency of learners being promoted at this school?
2. How are teachers and learners portrayed as agents of change?
3. Are you familiar with the World Health Organization’s (WHO) concept of
health promoting schools? If not, find out from these two links and answer the
questions that follow:
• https://www.who.int/school_youth_health/gshi/hps/en/ (WHO
website)
• http://bit.ly/2EPDwNx (a report on Health Promoting Schools
initiatives in South Africa)

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 4. In what ways are the efforts of this New Zealand school demonstrating the
concepts of inclusion and health promotion?

There are many ways in which teachers can bring about change in schools and
classrooms. From a perspective that inclusion is a basic human right, teachers need
to think about the extent to which the voices of learners are heard as reflected in the
examples above from New Zealand.

Embracing your own agency as teacher is crucial because teacher agency implies
that every teacher (including you) has the capacity to make schools truly inclusive.
Your interactions with learners, the curriculum and other co-actors continually impact
positively on the learning goals of all the learners, making classrooms and schools
inclusive.

We now look at South Africa’s policy framework for building inclusive schools—Care
and Support for Teaching and Learning (CSTL), which is a tool for implementing
inclusivity in the classroom—Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support
(SIAS). Information in Section 2.1 has been adapted from an article by Vanessa
Japtha, which was featured in the Inclusive Education South Africa Newsletter (2014)
and updated to include new developments in South Africa.

4.4.3 The South African framework and tool for building inclusive schools

The Care and Support for Teaching and Learning (CSTL) framework is a home-
grown tool for building inclusive school communities. It was initially piloted in South
Africa, Swaziland and Zambia, and then adopted by all Ministers of Education in the
Southern African Development Community (SADC) in 2008, including the
Department of Basic Education (DBE) in South Africa.
The DBE provides for a standardised and documented process for organising support
provision within the system, for coordinating and tracking delivery and addressing
resourcing. This is outlined in the Policy on Screening, Identification, Assessment
and Support (SIAS).
➢ In this learning unit, a framework refers to a set of ideas,
principles, approaches, policies, activities and indicators
used to guide intentional action and to measure its impact.

4.5 Care and support for teaching and learning—a SADC initiative

Care and Support for Teaching and learning (CSTL) is a dynamic and flexible
framework that responds to the needs of children and youth to ensure their full

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access, participation and achievement by creating an enabling environment to
improve their learning experiences and outcomes.
The CSTL framework grew from the recognition by Southern African Development
Community (SADC) member states of the large numbers of children in the region
made vulnerable by a host of interrelated factors such as poverty, HIV, disability and
exposure to violence and abuse. Based on the strong regional and international
mandate to ensure that all children, in particular vulnerable children, realise their right
to education, the Ministries of Education in all of the SADC member states adopted
the CSTL framework in 2008.
Several pilot projects informed the development of the framework including Schools
as Centres for Care and Support, piloted in South Africa, Zambia and Swaziland. The
CSTL framework is an education-led coordinating framework that calls for integrated
action from all stakeholders in each member state to prioritise particular challenges
facing children and youth.
Given the various and diverse types of support that are required for children to realise
their constitutional rights, it is clear that no one government agency or other
stakeholder could, alone, address he needs of vulnerable children. Rather, a
coordinated collaboration between all stakeholders with CSTL as the over-arching
framework is the approach agreed to that will best promote learner wellbeing and
achievement.

4.5.1 How the CSTL framework fits into the global and African agenda

The United Nations’ 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a universal call
to action, providing the most ambitious and transformative framework to date for
ending poverty, reducing inequalities, improving the lives of all global citizens and
preserving and protecting the environment. They came into effect in January 2016,
building on the Millennium Development Goals, and will continue to guide the United
Nations and its member states until 2030. Figure 4.2 shows these 17 SDGs.

140
141
FIGURE 4.2: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

Several of the SDGs address areas of vulnerability impacting the lives of children.
These include SDG 1—Poverty; SDG 2—Hunger; SDG 3—Health and well-being
and SDG 5—Gender equality. These echo the challenges affecting children in the
SADC region and having a profound impact on their access to and participation in
education. The CSTL Framework specifically aims to remedy these.
Of particular relevance to the CSTL framework is SDG 4—Quality education.

SDG 4 promotes every child’s right to inclusive and equitable, quality education. The
CSTL framework recognises that in order to achieve this the education system must
acknowledge and seek to address the impact on learning of the issues raised in
SDGs 1–5.
In addition to being aligned to the SDGs, the CSTL framework is based on regional
African and SADC policies. SADC’s vision is of a common future, within a regional
community, that will ensure for all of the people of Southern Africa:
• Economic well-being
• Improved standard and quality of living
• Freedom
• Social justice
• Peace and security for the people
This vision is anchored in the African Union’s (AU) Agenda 2063, where we share:
• Ubuntu
• Common values
• Shared histories
• Cultural connectedness
• Human rights

A wide range of national laws and policies including our Constitution and National
Development Plan all support this international and regional human rights-based
approach towards children and their well-being.

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 4.5.2 The CSTL approach

The CSTL framework applies a social-ecological model (see Figure 4.3). There is a
recognition of the influence of direct (individual beliefs and attitudes) and indirect
(socio-economic and public policy) factors on a child’s well-being and achievement
at school. These factors can work together to impact a child’s vulnerability.

FIGURE 4.3: A SOCIAL-ECOLOGICAL MODEL (ADAPTED FROM HTTP://BIT.LY/2KQOBHV)

Children are made vulnerable by their environment, community and circumstances.

They may experience:
• Needs related to basic survival (food, healthcare, clothing, shelter)
• Lack of parental care / burden of heading a household
• Educational challenges
• Family and community abuse and mistreatment
Figure 4.4 shows a range of vulnerabilities that can intersect and are almost always
exacerbated by poverty, and how these can impact a child’s education.

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 Not Low Lack of
enough quality enabling
Hunger schools teaching school Low literate
Natural Illness environ- parents HIV
disasters ment &AIDS
Rural
home No identity
documents

Child Absent
labour parents

Grief and
Customary trauma
practices

Disability
Gender
stereotypes Low
enrolment
Violence Poverty
High drop out
Poor
performance

FIGURE 4.4: INTERSECTING VULNERABILITIES

In Learning Unit 2, intersectionality was defined as “The study of what happens when
different forms of discrimination, domination and oppression combine, overlap and
intersect.” This is of direct relevance to education, as it is important to know which
children are vulnerable and therefore at risk of being educationally marginalised or
excluded. It is most often a combination of factors at many levels that create a
spectrum of educational disadvantage. In these circumstances, it is also important to
consider enabling factors that can mitigate the child’s vulnerability, such as caring
supportive family or community members.
Intersectionality means that every child experiences their own unique combination of
factors that either promote advantage or are compounded to increase
marginalisation. For example, the lived reality of a child living in a poor rural
community with a disability is very different to the experience of a child in a well-
resourced urban community with a disability. The fact that they both have a disability
cannot be viewed in isolation. The intersection or combination of their different
identities must be considered.
The goal of the CSTL framework is to reduce vulnerability and increase wellbeing
and resilience through supportive schools and collaborating with multi-sectoral
stakeholders who can reduce risk factors.

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FIGURE 4.5: THE CSTL CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

LINKING CSTL TO OTHER THEORIES AND PHILOSOPHIES

ACTIVITY 4.8
The CSTL Conceptual Framework (Figure 4.5) shows that it takes a village to raise
a child. The variety of concentric systems in CSTL—for example, family, school,
local government—is similar to systems of thinking contained in other theories and
approaches.
Refer back to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory and the philosophy of
ubuntu (Learning Unit 1) and intersectionality theory (Learning Unit 2).
1. How does the CSTL conceptual framework link to each of these
theories/approaches?
2. How can these systems of thinking help in building inclusive school
communities?

4.5.3 CSTL in South Africa

The domestication of the CSTL framework in South Africa took place between 2009
and 2015. The framework fits into a strong existing mandate supporting the protection

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and realisation of rights for all children. This resulted in the Department of Basic
Education identifying ten priority action areas necessary to respond to the needs of
children in the country.
➢ Domestication refers to the process of customising
the framework for a specific country.

FIGURE 4.6: CSTL SOUTH AFRICA’S TEN PRIORITY ACTION AREAS

Here is a description of each of the ten areas:

• A rights-based and socially inclusive and cohesive school: This priority
area aims to ensure that all school community members view education
through a human rights lens—that is, they know, respect, protect and promote
all children’s rights, including their right to education and rights in education
including equality, dignity, equity and freedom from discrimination and
violence. A human-rights-based approach to education is based on the
principle of ubuntu/botho—a recognition of the value of each child’s life in our
community and our obligation to care and protect them equally. Strongly linked
with this are the values underpinning South Africa’s inclusive education
system, which recognises the right of every child to receive the support they

146
 need to participate meaningfully and achieve success in education in their
local community school.
• Safety and protection: This encompasses both the physical and
psychological safety of learners and teachers. Schools should be free from all
forms of violence, abuse, harassment and bullying. Learners should feel safe
to ask questions, enquire and learn without the fear of ridicule. Safety and
protection also include the physical infrastructure of the school such as
fencing, gates, and accessibility ramps.
• Psycho-social support: Schools should meet the social and emotional needs
of learners and teachers. Many children have not learnt appropriate ways of
behaving or the necessary social skills to form functioning relationships. Some
learners may also need support to deal with trauma, abuse, domestic violence
or other issues that affect their emotional well-being. Schools should actively
teach appropriate social behaviour and provide counselling support for
learners.
• Curriculum support: All teachers require the knowledge, attitude and skills
to teach inclusively. This means they should be able to adapt their teaching,
classroom environment and the curriculum to meet the learning needs of a
very diverse learner population. To do this, teachers should have the
resources and support to effectively and efficiently teach ALL children in their
class.
• Co-curricular support: Schools need to develop in-school or after-school
enrichment activities to promote the holistic development and well-being of a
child. These could include opportunities for free play, participation in sport, arts
and culture, life skills and extra homework support.
• Material support: This area includes assistance with school fees, uniforms
and school transport. No child should be excluded from participating in any
school activity because they do not have the money to pay for school-related
costs.
• Social welfare services: This area refers to the role of the school and duty-
bearers in facilitating access to child support grants, acquiring documentation
(birth certificates and identity documents) and the enforcement of childcare
and protection legislation.
• Nutritional support: The National School Nutrition Programme, food garden
schemes and other initiatives ensure that no child goes hungry at school.
• Infrastructure, water and sanitation: This is a commitment to ensure human
dignity through access to clean, safe and habitable schools.
• Health promotion: This priority area focuses on early identification and
intervention in improving and promoting the overall health and well-being of
children and teachers. This is achieved through health screening and
education about health-related matters (DBE, 2014b).
With these ten priority areas in mind, a school as a centre for care and support should:
• Ensure availability of nutritious food through the National School Nutrition
Programme

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 • Reduce the financial burden on poor parents by facilitating the application for
exemption from school fees
• Promote parental involvement in the lives of children
• Offer skills development for parents
• Conduct regular home visits
• Provide a range of recreational activities
• Offer an aftercare programme
• Ensure school safety for learners
• Be a local network for care and support
• Engage with community stakeholders to offer support services at the school
These are all protective factors that improve a child’s well-being.

FINDING OUT MORE ABOUT THE TEN PRIORITY AREAS

ACTIVITY 4.9
Read about the ten priority areas above and watch the DVD at
http://y2u.be/R0CL3VcQjgQ
Then answer the following questions:
1. Why do you think these ten priority areas were prioritised?
2. Why it is important for schools to implement activities in all the priority areas?
3. Identify overlaps among the priority areas.
4. Look back at the article at the beginning of the unit about the challenges
faced by learners. Link these challenges to one or more of the priority areas.
Think of other examples from schools you are familiar with.
4. What do you think your role as a teacher could be in implementing the priority
areas?
5. Who else should be involved?

Focusing on these policy-mandated priorities has been shown to effectively address

barriers to learning and participation, and improve children’s educational outcomes.
Thus schools are required to implement all ten of the CSTL areas in ways that
complement related policy directives.
Because of the complexity and interrelated nature of the rights and services needed
to address intersecting challenges causing exclusion, it is important that they are
delivered as a holistic and integrated package in school communities. This involves
collaboration with multiple stakeholders. We talk about this later in this learning unit.
Now we are going to look at the DBE’s Screening, Identification, Assessment and

148
Support (SIAS) process, which enables you and other stakeholders in the school
community to provide the support learners need to realise to their potential.

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 4.6 Using the Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SIAS)
process to build support into the education system

4.6.1 What is the purpose of SIAS?

WHY LEARNERS NEED SYSTEMIC SUPPORT<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 4.10

South Africa was the lowest-performing country out of 50 countries in the 2016
Progress in International Reading Study (PIRLS). Read the South African
Highlights Report (http://bit.ly/2Xlb5Oz), and answer the following questions:
1. The report analyses a number of background factors associated with
achievement (pages 7–10). Which factors are strongly associated with
learners’ reading literacy?
2. Which of these factors would prevent learners from reaching their full
potential and why?
What issues do the results of the study raise about equal access to quality
education for all learners?

3. <<ENDS>>

The PIRLS report raises issues around offering systemic support for learners in South
Africa. In providing a systemic response to identifying barriers to achievement and
providing support, the SIAS policy aims to ensure the effective inclusion and full
participation of all learners within the education system. It provides standardised
procedures for supporting learners to achieve to the best of their ability. This involves
screening, identification of barriers, assessment of support needs, and provision and
monitoring of support.

4.6.2 Principles of SIAS

Chapter 3 of the SIAS policy (DBE, 2014a: 15–17) offers principles and guidelines
for the provision of support. Every learner has the right to receive quality basic
education within their local community. This means that, as far as is practically
possible and affordable, the support must be brought to the learner with little or no
movement from their local community and home. School staff, in consultation with
parents/caregivers, should be involved in support activities that will enable learners
to participate in all learning activities. In addition, support should not emphasise
diagnosis and remediation of an individual learner’s difficulties, but should be a
holistic approach, taking into consideration the learner’s home circumstances, socio-
economic status and experiences in life. Therefore, the support programme should

150
be designed to facilitate learning with the purpose of ensuring that all learners
succeed.
➢ A strengths-based, holistic, social-model approach takes into
consideration the learner’s home circumstances, socio-
economic status and experiences in life.

• Standardised procedures must be followed to assess support needs

The DBE has developed standardised procedures “to assess the level and extent of
support required in schools and in classrooms to optimise learners’ participation in
the learning process”. The SIAS policy explains how to “identify individual learner
needs in relation to the home and school context, to establish the level and extent of
additional support that is needed” as well as how to get “access to and provide such
support at individual levels” (DBE, 2014a: 13).
Much depends on the way that the school, led by the SBST, responds to diversity
(including attitudes and ethos), the nature of the barriers, as well as the resources
available (and effectively mobilised) in the school and surrounding community (MIET
Africa, 2016).
Support could mean a variety of things. For example, an educator planning lessons
in a different way; increased action to tackle bullying; teacher training on curriculum
and assessment differentiation; building wheelchair accessible toilets; or accessing
specialist services (MIET Africa, 2016).
• Collaboration and community are essential
"If you want to go fast, go alone. If you want to go far, go together" (Zulu proverb).
Support involves the wider school context as well as learners’ specific individual
needs in inclusive classroom contexts. The policy describes ways in which different
stakeholders of a school community (teachers/schools, parents, learners, school-
based support teams, district-based support teams, health professionals, etc.) come
together as a community to address concerns.
• All schools are inclusive centres of learning, care and support

Education White Paper 6 describes three types of schools: ordinary, full service, and
special schools (DoE, 2001). The difference among these types of schools is that,
through Departmental provisioning, some schools have more facilities and
specialised services enabling them to offer higher and more intensive levels of
support.
Ordinary schools must admit all learners in their area—regardless of their
difficulties—and take all possible measures to offer reasonable accommodation to
learners with additional support needs and disabilities. While the school might not
immediately be able to offer the required levels of support to every learner they admit,
the aim is to mobilise support through outreach services delivered by the DBST, full-

151
service schools and special schools within the district. Out-placement of learners to
full-service schools or special schools should be a last resort (DoE, 2001).
Full-service schools are ordinary/mainstream schools that are equipped with
additional support provisioning, so that they can respond to a broader range of
learning needs. These include specialised support staff (Learning Support Educator
[LSE] and counsellor), specialised infrastructure (e.g., counselling room, disability-
friendly toilets) and specialised Learning and Teaching Support Materials (LTSM) and
assistive devices (e.g., braille typewriters and textbooks). These full-service schools
also serve as hubs and share their additional resources with neighbouring schools
(DoE, 2001).

Special schools and Special School Resource Centres (SSRCs) are ordinary
schools that are equipped with even greater support provisioning to cater for the
needs of learners requiring specialised, high-intensity support. Special schools and
SSRCs are able to provide site-based, specialised programmes to learners requiring
high to very high levels of support, and SSRCs are also able to provide support
(specialist skills and resources) to a cluster consisting of ordinary schools and a full-
service school (DoE, 2001).
However, regardless of what type of school they are, all schools are inclusive centres
of learning, care and support. This means that every school must provide relevant
quality education for a broad range of learning needs and should include the following
minimum components:

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FIGURE 4.7: COMPONENTS OF AN INCLUSIVE SCHOOL (MIET AFRICA, 2010)

The level of support is rated and not the learner. In principle, levels of support are
unrelated to the type of school. They are determined by the frequency/intensity,
scope, availability and cost of the required support. Low-level support is generally
proactive or preventative, and is covered within general departmental programmes,
policies and line budgets. Moderate-level support is usually over and above standard
programmes and provisioning, and is generally once-off, short-term or of moderate
intensity. High-level support is also over and above provisions covered by policies
and provisioning for public schools, and is generally highly specialised, expensive,
high frequency and high intensity. (DoE, 2001)
Let’s do an activity to make sure we understand the principles of the SIAS policy.

UNDERSTANDING SIAS PRINCIPLES

ACTIVITY 4.11<<BOX>>
Refer to Chapter 3, pages 15–17 of the SIAS policy to help you complete this task
(DBE, 2014a: http://bit.ly/2X4iHVA).
Read the following statements relating to the principles of the SIAS policy and
decide if each is true or false.

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 If you say a statement is “false”, rewrite it as a “true” statement.

STATEMENTS TRUE (T) OR

FALSE (F)

1 Every child has the right to receive quality education within their
local community.

2 A child can be refused access to their local school.

3 Support includes all activities in a school that increase its

capacity to respond to diversity. For example, this could include
reviewing the school culture, admission policies and co-
curricular programmes.

4 There is no need to involve parents or learners in decisions

around types of support offered and where to place learners.

5 A learner may experience a range of barriers, for example,

poverty, disability or a violent home situation, requiring a holistic
approach to assessing their needs and designing support
programmes.

6 In the context of the SIAS process, assessment refers to the

assessment of scholastic achievement.

7 Parents of learners experiencing a physical or mental disability

should apply directly to a special school for admission of their
child.

8 Support is about the remediation of deficits within the learner.

9 The nature and extent of support needed by a learner could

include addressing educator or school needs.

10 Placement of learners in a specialised setting to access support

is a last resort and should not be seen as permanent.

4.6.3 The SIAS process

As a teacher you need to be able to identify any challenges preventing learners from
achieving, assess their needs, and offer and monitor support.
The SIAS process aims to ensure that:
• Every learner accesses the education system and no one is denied access

154
 • Support, and not out-placement, is the guiding principle
• Schools provide additional support to learners and are enabled to access
additional support provisioning (via the SIAS process)
• Parents/caregivers and learners are involved in the decisions taken to access
additional provisioning (DBE, 2014a: 37)
The SIAS policy outlines a step-by-step process for accessing support. The process
diagram is reproduced in Figure 4.8.
Read Chapter 6.24 of the policy, which describes and summarises each stage of the
process (DBE, 2014a: http://bit.ly/2X4iHVA).

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FIGURE 4.8: THE SIAS PROCESS DIAGRAM

156
Explanation of SIAS process diagram
• As soon as a learner is identified as vulnerable in the Learner Profile the SBST
must be notified and this learner would automatically go to Block C. This
promotes early identification.
• Support needs differ. Some learners will need low levels of support at their
school—this does not mean other support is not available. The teacher, with
the SBST, can request assistance from officials, for example, short-term input
from psychologists, assessment by speech therapists at the circuit/district
office.
• Accessing additional support is a learner’s right but is not automatic. The
support must be applied for through the SBST.
• Every learner must be admitted at their local school. The line on the right-hand
side from C straight to R at the bottom of the page is for an “at risk” learner
identified at admission in an ordinary school, who needs DBST support. These
learners take the path directly to the DBST.
• Most learners will follow the route A, B, F, H, F, H, F, H throughout their school
lives. This cycle is ongoing. Even if a learner receives support, further and
different support needs can develop.

HOW THE SIAS PROCESS WORKS

ACTIVITY 4.12
This activity will help you to understand how the SIAS process works. To do the
activity you need Figure 4.8, the SIAS process diagram and the scenarios below.
1. Work through each of the four scenarios one at a time (1. Linda, 2. Dennis, 3.
Portia and 4. Andy).
2. For each of the learners, read each stage and answer the questions before
you go on to the next stage.
3. Use the SIAS process diagram to decide what happens next and to follow
each learner’s journey.
Follow the SIAS process
1. Linda
1. [Start at Block A]
1
Linda changed schools in the middle of the year. She was from a middle
income, stable family with two working parents. She appeared to be a secure
child with good self-esteem and social skills. Reports indicated average
academic performance.
• Is Linda at risk or not?
• Do you go to Block B or C?

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1. [Move from Block B to Block F]
2
During the first term at her new school, her teacher discovered that Linda was
struggling with maths, and working at a slightly lower level than her peers.
Are there any concerns? Does Linda have possible additional support needs?
Do you go to Block H or I?
1. [Move to Block I]
3
After discussion with Linda and her parents, the teacher put in place a more
intense programme with extra homework to help Linda catch up the work she
had missed due to changing school mid-year. Within two months she had
caught up with her peers in maths.
• Was the support successful or not?
• Do you go to Block J or K?
• Where do you go after that?
2. Dennis
2. [Start at Block A]
1
When Dennis applied for Grade 1, his Road to Health booklet showed he was
not up to date with his measles and polio immunisation.
• Is Dennis at risk or not?
• Do you go to Block B or C?
2. The teacher and SBST gave him a letter referring him to the clinic. Staff at the
2 clinic gave him the missing immunisation. A copy of his updated Road to Health
booklet was filed in his Learner Profile.
• Was the support successful or not?
• Do you go to Block D or E?
• Where do you go next?
3. Portia
3. [Start at Block F]
1
Portia had been at her school for some time without any signs of difficulty.
During routine observation, the teacher noticed that Portia often copied words
incorrectly from the board, but that her close-up reading was fine. She moved
Portia’s desk closer to the board after talking with Portia, and recommended
that Portia visit the clinic.
• Are there any concerns?

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 • Does Portia have possible additional support needs?
• Do you go to Block H or I?
3. During the Department of Health’s planned ISHP eye screening visit shortly
2 thereafter, it was discovered that Portia needed glasses. With regular check-
ups for changes in her eyesight, Portia no longer had difficulties with her long-
distance vision.
• Was the support successful or not?
• Do you go to Block J or K?
• Where to next?
4. Andy
4. [Start at Block A]
1
When Andy was admitted to his new school, his previous reports indicated that
he was very aggressive, was unable to control his temper, and often
endangered himself and others with his impulsive and anti-social behaviour.
• Is concern raised or not?
• Do you go to Block B or C?
4. The SBST examined Andy’s records and recommended that the support given
2 at his previous school be continued, because those strategies seemed to have
been successful. They controlled Andy’s anti-social behaviour and ensured that
he was able to engage productively and effectively with the curriculum and all
school activities. The SBST and teacher met his parents and recommended
that the same support be given, and regularly monitored and reviewed the
situation.
• Do you go to Block D or E?
4. Within two weeks, however, Andy had pushed another learner down a flight of
3 stairs, and threatened to stab himself with his scissors if he was made to do
maths. The teacher was very concerned about Andy’s behaviour. She was
worried about what might happen if she carried on with her existing strategy.
She felt ill equipped to handle Andy and urgently requested the help of the
SBST.
• What now? Block G or K?
4. The SBST recommended that the Learning Support Educator and counsellor
4 get involved immediately to help the teacher and to further assess Andy to
determine the cause of his aggression, and ways to handle it.
In spite of teacher training on strategies to deal with Andy and fortnightly visits
from the counsellor, Andy’s behaviour did not improve, and the situation

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 worsened. Andy hit a child with a cricket bat then climbed onto the roof of the
school, threatening to jump off if he got into trouble.
• Support successful or not? Block M or N?
• Where to next?
(MIET Africa, 2016)

4.6.4 SIAS documents and role-players in individual support planning

The process for individual support planning is outlined in the SIAS policy document.
The flow diagram below identifies the role-players and documents involved in this
process.

FIGURE 4.9: THE SIAS PROCESS FLOWCHART (MIET AFRICA, 2016)

Let’s look at a case study and consider the documentation and role-players involved
in putting an Individual Support Plan (ISP) in place for a Grade 3 learner, Misha.

IDENTIFY ROLE-PLAYERS AND DOCUMENTATION IN THE SIAS PROCESS

ACTIVITY 4.13

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Read the case study about Misha and use the diagram in FIGURE 4.9 to answer
these questions:
1. Make a table in which you list the role-players involved at each point in
Misha’s story and specify each of their roles in the support process. Also
list the documents that each role-player was responsible for completing.
(Do you know what these documents are for? Look them up in the SIAS
policy: http://bit.ly/2X4iHVA)
2. What is the purpose of the forms that needed to be completed?
3. What was the teacher’s role in the process?
4. When did the SBST become involved? What did it do?
5. When did the DBST become involved? What did it do?
6. How did collaboration contribute to the success of the process?

CASE STUDY: MISHA

WHO WAS WHAT
INVOLVED? DOCUMENT
ROLE- S DID THEY
WHAT HAPPENED? PLAYERS USE?

When Misha started school in Grade 1, her parents

completed an admission form. The school admitted her
and her teacher screened her and recorded the
findings in Misha’s Learner Profile. This was then
captured in the Learner Unit Record Tracking
System. There was no obvious evidence of any
barriers to learning. The school kept copies of relevant
documents like her Road to Health Booklet in her
Learner Profile.
During her foundation phase schooling, her teachers
taught, observed, assessed and got to know her, and
met and interacted with her parents. They found Misha
to be a happy child and her year-end reports showed
that although she was slow to start reading, she had
made good progress, especially in maths.
When she got to Grade 3, it became clear that Misha
had some kind of language-based learning difficulty.
Her teacher, Mrs Guma, called a meeting with Misha’s
parents to discuss the issue. They decided to consult
a doctor to find out if there was a medical reason for
Misha’s difficulties. After examining her, the doctor

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gave her a clean bill of health and completed Form
DBE126. Mrs Guma then completed support form,
SNA1, and put an extra reading programme in place.
After monitoring the reading programme for two
months, Mrs Guma found that Misha had made very
little progress and, in consultation with Misha’s
parents, she formally requested additional support
from the SBST. Using the SNA2 form, the teacher and
SBST drew up an Individual Support Plan (ISP) with
the assistance of the district Learning Support
Educator (LSE).
The LSE worked with Mrs Guma and the SBST to
develop and implement the ISP. Mrs Guma continued
to offer support in accordance with the plan but Misha’s
performance remained poor compared to the potential
that she seemed to have. At an SBST review meeting
to monitor the ISP, it was decided that Misha might
require the additional assistance of a speech and
language therapist on a daily basis over an extended
period of time.
The SBST completed DBE 120 to request support
from the district. The DBST reviewed Misha’s case
and, using SNA3, drew up a plan of action for Misha
(DBE121), which recommended providing additional
support in the form of intensive speech and language
therapy for a period of two months, after which her
progress would be reviewed.
(Adapted from MIET Africa, 2016.)

FIGURE 4.10: MRS GUMA MEETING WITH MISHA AND HER PARENTS

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 4.6.5 The teacher’s role in implementing SIAS

Your inclusive approach to teaching should ensure that all learners in your class are
actively engaged and learning. This should provide almost all your learners with the
support they need. However, sometimes you may have learners in your class with
specific higher level learning needs. As you can see from the previous activity, your
role is crucial in identifying and addressing difficulties individual learners may be
experiencing in class. To do this you need to get to know them well. Here are some
ways you can do this:
• Trying to understand each learner and know about their home circumstances.
• Meet their caregivers.
• Talk to them about things that interest them.
• Observe their behaviour and relationships with peers.
• Observe their performance and how they engage with different tasks.
• Observe any changes in their behaviour or performance in class.

Identifying your learners’ needs is not a one-off event, but an ongoing process. You
need to involve your learners in the process and constantly monitor and assess their
progress, both formally and informally. You can do this by recording learners’
strengths, areas of concern and needs as part of the normal teaching–learning
process. You will need to create an Observation Book in which you record any
concerns you have about individual learners.
Let’s look at how Mrs Guma does this.

FIGURE 4.11: MRS GUMA OBSERVING HER CLASS

Based on her observations in class—recorded in her Observation Book—and her

interactions with Misha, Mrs Guma wrote the following progress report on Misha in

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the first term of her Grade 3 year. The SBST and LSE, together with Mrs Guma, used
this information to complete the SNA1 form.

PROGRESS REPORT: MISHA JOSEPH, GRADE 3G

Enabling factors
- Misha is cheerful and friendly with her peers during break.
- On the whole she achieves very well in maths.
- Her parents are attentive and supportive and the home situation seems happy.
- Misha continues to be happy and cooperative at home, except when doing
homework.

Challenges
Home Language/LOLT:
Persistent reading/phonics/listening difficulties seriously affecting performance:
- Misha does not have phonic knowledge at Grade 3 level. She’s still struggling to
pick up small differences in sounds between similar sounding words. She can’t
easily spot the odd word out in sound patterns.
- Doesn’t seem to realise that I am asking the class a question rather than giving
information—she looks rather blank.
- Easily loses her place when reading aloud.
- Comprehension: She’s seldom able to pick out the main idea from spoken
information (even if it is only one or two sentences).
Other areas:
Difficulties described above also evident across other areas of work:
- Some problems when teacher poses “story-sums” orally in maths (her maths
performance is strong otherwise).
- Short concentration span, easily distracted.
- Short attention span means that she sometimes distracts her partner in class,
chatting (though very quietly).
- Polite in meetings with parents, but looks anxious and withdraws noticeably when
her difficulties are discussed.
- Anxious and irritable when doing homework.

Classroom/school capacity
I am planning to put in place an extra reading programme for Misha. If there’s no
positive change by next term, I will need to consider more specialised assessment
and possibly more specialised support than I can offer.

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Overall
I feel that Misha may be experiencing some form of cognitive barrier because there
seem to be some concentration and memory difficulties and issues of logical
comprehension. However, her strong ability in maths must also be taken into
account.

In order to put a classroom support programme in place for Misha, Mrs Guma,
together with the SBST and LSE, needed to complete the SNA1 form. This form is in
the pack of documents at the back of the SIAS policy document. If you identify a
learner in your class as being “at risk” or needing additional support, you will need to
fill in the SNA1 form to start the support process. The following task will help to
familiarise you with SNA1.

UNDERSTANDING HOW TO USE SNA1

ACTIVITY 4.14
Look at the SNA1 form in the SIAS policy, page 48 (http://bit.ly/2X4iHVA) and discuss
the following questions:
1. What is the purpose of this form?
2. Who is it for?
3. When should it be completed and by whom?
4. What information does the form record? (What are the various sections?)
5. Why is this information important?
6. Who is the form submitted to?
7. When submitting this form, what related documents should be included and
why?
8. What information and documentation about Misha does Mrs Guma need to
submit, in addition to the report she wrote?

4.6.4 SNA2 and Individual Support Plan (ISP)

Let’s follow Misha’s progress further. After Misha had been on the reading
programme for two months, Mrs Guma found that she had made very little progress
and, in consultation with Misha’s parents, she formally requested additional support
from the SBST. Using the SNA2 form, the teacher and SBST drew up an ISP for
Misha, with the assistance of the district Learning Support Educator (LSE). The ISP
provided her with goals to be achieved and strategies on how to reach these goals.

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Bear in mind that an ISP is not just used to address academic needs. It looks at the
holistic needs of a learner with a view to providing wide-ranging support for these.
You might refer learners requiring other interventions to the SBST. Examples would
include assistance in applying for a social grant, inclusion on the school feeding
scheme or counselling support.
To summarise: When a learner is identified as being vulnerable or at risk, you
discuss this with the SBST but you drive and coordinate the support process in
consultation with the learner and other role-players, and document the interventions
and progress. You will involve your SBST further if you need additional help. The
SBST will review the documentation and your support strategies so far. If your initial
support has been ineffective, you will work with the SBST to develop an ISP with
strengthened support. If this is still not successful, the SBST will ask the CBST or
DBST for help. Further assessment may be needed and support could take the form
of assistive devices, counselling, or services attached to full service schools. Only as
a last resort will the DBST consider moving a learner from their local school to a full
service or special school.
• Keeping good records is important, and you need to document the support given
to a learner on the SNA forms in the SIAS document.
• Collaboration is also important. We will explore this in more depth further on.

To conclude this section and prepare for the final part of this learning unit, reflect on
the following questions:
1. What makes collaborative activities such as this succeed or fail?
2. If the school community collaborates is learner success guaranteed? Give
reasons for your answer.
3. How does the SIAS policy try to ensure a collaborative approach? Do you
think this is sufficient? What do you suggest could be added or changed in
the policy?
4. What role can you as the teacher play in developing collaborative
practices?
Keep these questions in mind as we work through the next part, where we continue
to deepen our understanding of inclusive school communities by examining practices
that promote collaboration.

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 We regard our living together not as an unfortunate mishap warranting
endless competition among us but as a deliberate act …. to make us a
community of brothers and sisters jointly involved in the quest for a composite
answer to the varied problems of life. Hence all our action is usually joint
community-oriented action rather than individualism (Steve Biko).
We have already found that collaboration is a key part of inclusive school
communities. We will now explore approaches and strategies for collaborating with
others as equal partners.

4.7 Different ways of working together

WHAT DOES COLLABORATION MEAN TO YOU?<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 4.15
1. What does the term “collaboration” mean to you?
2. In what ways do you think collaboration could help teachers to build inclusive
school communities?
3. What are some of the requirements of working collaboratively?
4. What are some of the challenges that teamwork and collaboration might
present. Give examples from your experience.

It has been suggested that inclusive school communities should be an outcome of

social justice, equity and diversity within an education system based on human rights.
Inclusive school communities should be places where everyone has access, is
accepted and can fully participate. To achieve this, members of the school community
should interact and share, as co-equal partners, networks and partnerships to
achieve the goal of providing all learners with equal opportunities to realise their full
potential (Engelbrecht, 2007; Phasha et al., 2017; Sands, Kozleski & French, 2000).
Different terms are used to describe the way in which members of school
communities interact, share and work together. The most important of these are team
and group, consultation, collaboration and collaborative partnerships. Let’s look at
the meanings of these terms:
• Team and group: In educational practice the terms “team” and “group” are often
used interchangeably and refer to a group of individuals with a shared identity
(e.g., a group of Grade 3 teachers). It needs to be noted, however, that teams, in
contrast with groups, usually share a common commitment and a goal for which
they share responsibility (Vangrieken et al., 2015).

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• Consultation: This is when a professional (e.g., educational psychologist) who is
regarded as having expertise, formally advises another person (e.g., a parent or
teacher) who needs the benefit of that expertise (Engelbrecht, 2004).
➢ Consultation: is a specialised problem-solving process
in which a professional (e.g., educational psychologist)
who is regarded as having expertise formally advises
another person (e.g., a parent or teacher) who needs the
benefit of that expertise.
• Collaboration: The term “collaboration” is usually used to describe the
participatory and co-equal interaction among members of school communities
(Engelbrecht & Hay, 2018). Collaboration can therefore act as an “adhesive” by
fostering community, a sense of belonging and participation among all the role
players within an inclusive school community. The types of resources contributed
depend on the roles and activities of the different participants; be it parents,
teachers, support professionals, learners or community members (Oswald, 2010).
Learners’ interests, needs and goals become the focus of collaborative decision
making, creative problem solving and shared responsibility and accountability
(Engelbrecht & Hay, 2018).
• Collaborative partnership: This is based on the recognition that all partners are
equal (Engelbrecht, 2007). This contributes to greater equality in collaborative
efforts in general and professional-parent-teacher relations specifically.
The following case study about Lerole High School will get you thinking about
approaches to collaboration.

EVALUATE WAYS OF IMPROVING LEARNER SUCCESS

ACTIVITY 4.16
Read the case study on Lerole High School, and answer these questions:
1. Suggest two or more strategies to promote sharing of information and
capacitation that you would contribute to the subject meetings.
2. In what ways is sending learners to Seretse not aligned to principles and
values of inclusion discussed in Learning Unit 1?
3. In what ways were Seretse’s colleagues using him as a consultant teacher
as opposed to a collaborator?
4. In your opinion, what is the difference between consultation and
collaboration?

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CASE STUDY: IMPROVING LEARNER SUCCESS AT LEROLE HIGH SCHOOL
Mr Seretse is a Maths teacher with 12 years’ experience, who has been achieving excellent
results. He has recently been appointed Maths HOD for FET at Lerole High School.
Lerole High School has had a very low Maths pass rate for the past five years and everyone
is hoped that Mr Seretse would be able to turn things around at the school.
When he joined the staff at Lerole he noticed that his colleagues had fixed ideas about what
their learners could and could not do and believed they could not help learners experiencing
difficulties. They often complained about the lack of professional support for these learners.
They saw Mr Seretse as a “miracle-worker” and often made comments like, “Now that you
are here, Seretse, Lerole High School will become known as a school that produces
excellent Maths results!”
Seretse’s colleagues often referred their “problem” learners to him in the hope that he would
help them overcome their difficulties with the subject. Because he was a good listener, the
learners told him about their personal issues, such as difficulties at home and with their
peers. In some sessions, issues with Maths were barely discussed.
By the end of the first term Seretse was overwhelmed by the high volume of these referrals.
He had little time to attend to his own workload and was exhausted.
He realised the need for a strategy to involve all his colleagues. At their monthly subject
meeting, he proposed that they should:

• Have weekly meetings to share challenges and suggestions

• Use team-teaching and share resources and ideas
• Investigate possibilities of additional support through school management
Seretse approached the principal and offered to do a presentation to the whole staff on
ways the whole school could work together to promote good practices, including teachers,
learners and caregivers. He also suggested that a Learning Support Teacher (LST) be
appointed to run workshops for all the staff on providing effective education support for their
learners.

The issues at Lerole High School are common. While the SIAS policy promotes
collaboration as a way to share skills, caring and supporting strategies, it can be
difficult to achieve for various reasons, including a fixed, medical model mindset,
insufficient teacher training and lack of resources.
The medical model approach sees difficulties in learning and disability as problems
belonging only to the individual concerned rather than as social, environmental and
attitudinal barriers.
Lerole High’s approach reflects the traditional medical model approach to educational
provision—one of separation. Teachers have little understanding of inclusive
pedagogy and expect support to be provided by education support professionals—
for example, educational psychologists—because they believe that only
professionals can assess and define the problems and needs of their learners. Rather
than collaboration among teachers, parents and support professionals, the

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relationship is one of consultation where the specialist makes all the decisions. This
is not a relationship among equal partners.
Separation means that learners experiencing difficulties are having lessons with
specialists separately from the rest of their peers, often missing lessons in other
subjects to do so. As a result, learners experiencing difficulties in one subject fall
behind in other subjects too, resulting in a downward spiral leading to a sense of
failure, poor self-esteem and lack of motivation.

RETHINKING LEARNER SUPPORT

ACTIVITY 4.17
Reread the previous case study about Lerole High, and the next one about Unity
Secondary School’s approach, and answer these questions:
1. Draw up a table comparing the approaches to learner support at Unity
Secondary School and Lerole High School.
2. How would you sum up the difference in these approaches?
3. Which approach do you prefer? Give reasons for your preference.

CASE STUDY: LEARNER SUPPORT AT UNITY SECONDARY SCHOOL

Feeling overwhelmed by endless requests to help Lerole learners who were experiencing
difficulties in Maths, Mr Seretse suggested that the school investigate a whole-school
strategy together, aimed at supporting learners and improving results.
He invited a colleague from the DBST to talk to the staff about ways to implement an
inclusive approach. The official brought along members of the learner support team at a
neighbouring school, Unity Secondary School. They included an LST, an SGB member, a
local religious leader, and a Grade 9 learner who had benefited from Unity Secondary
School’s learner support interventions.
The learner shared his experiences:
“I’m the third of five children in my family. Every day I walk about three kilometres to school.
It is not like there are no taxis, but I walk so that I can save money for things that my family
can’t afford to buy me. I do pretty well in most subjects but I find the amount of reading we
need to do quite a challenge. As a result I tend to fall back on subjects that require a lot of
reading such as Languages and History.
“Our school has a team that helps learners. It consists of a teaching representative for every
subject, caregiver volunteers, a learning support teacher, and volunteering learners who
are doing well in specific subjects. Whenever I or other learners are experiencing difficulties
the team meets and invites our caregivers to be part of the discussions.
“One of the things I enjoy a lot is that other learners also get invited to these meetings to
suggest ways we would like to be helped. At first I was scared but now I enjoy the meetings.

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 It helps a lot that some of my classmates and more senior learners are part of these
meetings as I can speak to them about things I find difficult to discuss with teachers. Our
school is like a bigger version of my family and I really enjoy going to school every day!”

While Lerole High’s practices could be described as emanating from a medical

model, Unity Secondary’s approach offers support that is more aligned with the
growth-mindset social model. The school’s culture respects and values contributions
of all members of the school community equally, and nurtures and enhances the
active agency of learners. Collaboration takes place on multiple levels, for example,
among learners, among teachers, learners and caregivers, and between the school
and members of the community.
The medical model sees the person with a disability as the problem. In this model the
focus is on the disability.

The social model sees attitudes, as well as social and environmental barriers, as the
problem. People are “disabled” by the world around them.

As we saw in Learning Unit 3, true collaboration cannot happen in schools that,

consciously or not, have a medical model mindset and use “bell-curve thinking” about
learner ability and teacher competency.
Teachers with bell-curve thinking have what can be termed a “fixed mindset”. They
believe a learner’s success is based on their innate ability (the ability they were born
with and cannot change)—how they perform now is how they will continue to perform
in the future. These teachers have little motivation to work collaboratively.
On the other hand, a teacher with a “growth mindset” believes that learners are
capable of improving and that their capacity for learning can be developed. They
believe that the teachers’ role is to facilitate learning achievement for every child in
the classroom.

MEDICAL AND SOCIAL MODEL APPROACHES

ACTIVITY 4.18
Now contrast Mr Seretse’s experiences with the scenarios in the case study below.
1. Which scenario represents the medical model, and which the social model?
Explain your answer.
2. What similarities and differences can you identify between the scenarios
below and Mr Seretse’s experience in the preceding case study?
3. In your view, what is the ideal approach to learners’ barriers to participation
and learning? Why do you say so?

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CASE STUDY: MEDICAL AND SOCIAL MODEL SCENARIOS
The following scenarios imagine two different discussions between Grade 4 teacher
(Ms Buthulezi) and Ms Sono (LST):
Scenario 1
Ms Buthelezi: My learner Lindiwe has a problem. She struggles to identify letters of the
alphabet, reads poorly, and writes backwards. Can you help her?
Ms Sono: Yes. Send her to me after lunch tomorrow. I will do an assessment and send you
a report.
Ms Buthelezi: If she has dyslexia can we arrange for you to see her three times a week?
Ms Sono: That will be fine.

Scenario 2:
Ms Buthelezi: My learner Lindiwe is good at maths but reading and writing are a challenge.
She struggles to identify letters of the alphabet, reads poorly, and writes backwards. Can
we make a time to discuss ways to strengthen her abilities?
Ms Sono: Yes. Let’s find a time when we can assess her together. Then we can discuss
strategies to use in class that will work for many of your learners not just Lindiwe.
Ms Buthelezi: I will ask her parents to come and see us. I am sure they have information
to share.
Ms Sono: If we work together in the classroom and at home, Lindiwe will soon find ways to
make progress with our support.

4.8 Characteristics of collaborative practices in inclusive school

communities

4.8.1 Models of collaborative practice

There are many models of collaborative practice, and many reasons why people
collaborate. Collaboration is not only about addressing barriers or challenges as
described in the case studies above. In TABLE 4 three broad categories of
collaboration are identified. Even though they are presented as separate categories,
there are overlaps, for example, a collegial digital collaboration among teachers.
Identify strategies that could be helpful in your context.

TABLE 4.4: THREE CATEGORIES OF COLLABORATION

Community
Collegial collaboration collaboration Digital collaboration

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 Teachers swapping
classes for a day of two
Team-teaching a lesson or
a topic
Organising school-wide
projects and working
together on them (teachers
and learners)
Learners-to-learner
collegiality under the
supervision and mentorship
of a teacher
Encouraging learner
reflection and evaluation
of collegial practices: what
worked, what did not work,
and why?
Source: Adapted from Getting Smart, 2019.
Expanded stakeholder
roles: Invite community
members (e.g., subject
advisors, a local religious
leader, parents, etc.) to
serve on committees.
Advisory boards: Invite
experts in the field (e.g.,
former teachers) to
participate in an advisory
capacity as mentors to
teachers and learners.
Service
learning/community
engagement/
collaboration: Learners
participating in service
learning projects which give
them opportunities to play
an active role in bringing
about the desired change in
their lives and those of their
peers.
Personal and professional
learning networks
established through for
example social media
platforms (e.g., “Teachers
for Real Change”), with the
purpose of connecting and
collaborating.
Social media: While at
times it is frowned upon, it
can also be a powerful
collaboration strategy
whereby learners and
teachers can
connect/collaborate and in
the process learners receive
real-time support when they
need it. A set of guidelines
communicated to
participants in social media
groups is key, so that
members do not operate
outside these guidelines.
Collaborative blog writing:
With so many issues that
confront education, why not
start a collaborative blog
with colleagues or learners
with the purpose of
reflecting on daily struggles
and achievements?

In inclusive school communities, collaboration is a style of direct interaction among

people who are engaged in working towards achieving a shared goal. This often
includes shared resources, problem-solving, and decision making. Each person
brings their own unique views, experiences and knowledge into the process. These
receive equal respect and are seen as having equal value. Every member of the
group has a role and is regarded as crucial to the process.
Mahlo and Condy (2016) highlight the importance of collegiality and collaboration. In
their view, collegiality is the very essence of any collaborative activity aimed at
promoting inclusiveness. Through collegiality and collaboration there will be
enhanced knowledge sharing, effective management of conflict and many other
benefits.
Collegiality is built on shared values. All stakeholders feel that they belong and have
an interest in the school and its learners. There is a willingness to work together to
solve problems and communicate effectively. Rituals and celebrations build

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collegiality and commitment. The school is value-driven, child-centred and
recognises the value of stakeholders’ contributions (WSG & Bridge, 2016).

4.8.2 Characteristics of effective collaboration

Sands et al. (2002: 121, in Engelbrecht & Hay, 2018) identified the following
characteristics of effective collaboration:
1. Co-equal parties (stakeholders have equal voice and authority)
2. Voluntary participation*
3. Shared responsibility
4. Shared accountability
5. Joint decision making
6. Trusting respectful relationships
7. Mutual support and benefits
8. Converging values

*Note: Where teachers are concerned, voluntary participation is not applicable. It is

a teacher’s responsibility to be part of a team that provides ongoing support to
learners who need it.

SHARED VALUES OF COLLABORATION<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 4.19
Think back to Learning Unit 1. Some of the values identified as underpinning
inclusive pedagogy included the following: reliability, trust, responsibility, respect,
willingness to compromise, tolerance, integrity, compassion.
Suggest ways in which these values could facilitate more effective collaboration by
the various stakeholders. Relate your answers to Engelbrecht and Hay’s list of
characteristics above. Support your ideas with examples.

<<ENDS>>

4.8.3 Benefits of collaboration

Various researchers indicate that collaboration and meaningful collaborative

partnerships—not only among learning support professionals (inclusive of teachers),
but also among school and district support teams, caregivers, teachers, learners, and
community members—have been identified as critical elements in the development

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of inclusive school communities in South Africa (Engelbrecht, 2004; Engelbrecht &
Hay, 2018; Nel et al., 2013; Walton, 2011).

BENEFITS OF COLLABORATION<<BOX>>
ACTIVITY 4.20
Think about what you have learnt about collaboration and collaborative
partnerships. Consider the possible benefits for:
• Teachers
• The school
• Learners
Caregivers and the wider community

• <<ENDS>>

Research on the benefits of collaboration shows that the following aspects are
important:
• At teacher level: Teachers are more motivated and experience a decreased
workload; they report higher levels of competence, better relationships with
colleagues and feeling less isolated.
• At school level: Benefits include a supportive school culture, a cultural shift
towards an acceptance of diversity, a wider acknowledgement within schools of
the needs of learners and a more participatory approach to school leadership.
• At learner level: Improved learner performances and greater participation in
decision-making.
• At caregiver and community levels: Positive involvement of caregivers and other
interested community members as vital sources of information and support
(Engelbrecht & Hay, 2018; Sands et al., 2000; Vangrieken et al., 2015).

4.8.4 Collaboration among teachers

Teacher–teacher collaboration is an important strategy in the development of

inclusive school communities. Informal collaborative strategies among colleagues
could include exploring opportunities and challenges in their classrooms together,
and discussing how to deal openly with conflict. In addition, more formal collaborative
strategies could be agreed on, such as collaborative planning and adaptation of
lessons; team-teaching.

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COLLABORATION AT A SCHOOL
ACTIVITY 4.21
Read the case study below, and answer the following questions:
1. Comment on the first paragraph in terms of the spirit and ethos of inclusion.
What approach to collaboration is the principal criticising, and what approach
is he advocating?
2. Do you recall the procedures of care and support in the SIAS document? How
well is this school doing in line with the SIAS process?
3. Is there a role-player within the support system described below whose voice
is missing? If so, what do you propose should be done about this?

CASE STUDY: A SCHOOL PRINCIPAL DISCUSSES COLLABORATION AT HIS SCHOOL

Effective collaboration means co-collaborators engage in a rigorous, measured and
monitored process, with clearly defined targets. A collaborative meeting is not a talk shop,
a place to vent, a gossiping session, or an opportunity to moan about the child’s behaviour,
where there are no notes taken, no measures discussed. This is nothing more than a way
of abdicating responsibility.
At our school we have pastoral meetings. This implies care and heart because we look at
emotional and social issues rather than just academic performance. Sometimes changes in
academic progress are the result of emotional or social barriers. We have a number of
Professional Learning Committees (PLCs) and a collaborative team of teachers who meet
once or twice a term.
The PLC decides the structure of these meetings and appoints a leader to write up the task
sheet, send it out, do the timekeeping within the meeting and send out the minutes.
Clear criteria are set for each intervention. Teachers monitor learners’ progress against
these criteria.
Teachers come to the meeting with a list of their learners experiencing difficulties. Each one
gets allocated a colour (either red or green) for each of three separate components:
academic; social; emotional.
Red means intervention is needed and green means outcomes have been met. Our goal is
to change reds to greens. So for example, you may have a learner who is doing well
academically but is struggling to socialise. Each teacher has the opportunity to focus on
specific children, but time-keeping is strict.
We assign a number from 1–10 which indicates how complex or simple the task ahead may
be. For example, Sibongile suffers from poor vision. We can enlarge the font size in her
reader, and move her closer to the board. We can easily get this done. That may be
allocated a 1 or a 2.
Robert is disruptive in class and finds it really difficult to concentrate on tasks. His marks
have dropped since last year. We may need to look at cooperative teaching and
differentiation strategies, as well as meeting with his parents to see if there are issues at
home that are affecting him. We might allocate that a complexity level of 8 and it’s unlikely

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 to be solved by the next meeting. Rather, we will discuss Robert’s progress and he will stay
on the agenda until his red turns to green.

• Enabling learner agency

Involving children in decision-making has been found to be effective from as early as
the Foundation Phase years (Grade R–3). Shaik (2016) states that involving children
in their education through enabled decision-making, improves their self-esteem and
achievement because they feel their opinions are valued and acted on by others.
Including learners in support collaborations improves the likelihood of success as
learners have a sense of co-ownership of strategies.

ENABLING LEARNER AGENCY

ACTIVITY 4.22
Read the case study below. Then answer the following questions:
1. Compare Ms Solomons’ and Ms Tshaka’s approaches. Indicate the aspects
of both teachers’ approaches that you think would be “effective” and “not so
effective” in empowering their learners. Explain your opinion.
2. What aspects of their approaches would you adopt and why?

CASE STUDY: MS SOLOMONS AND MS TSHAKA

Ms Solomons and Ms Tshaka are friends and Grade 3 teachers at Ubuntu Primary School.
Ms Solomons believes strongly that a good teacher is one who demonstrates control and
has the upper hand in everything that happens in her classroom. Her classroom
environment is very orderly with neatly arranged rows of little tables and chairs for her Grade
3s. The key learning for their Grade 3 year is how to follow instructions precisely and
speedily. Ms Solomons emphasises to her class the importance of being good listeners.
She doesn’t encourage her learners to share information during lessons and continually
reminds the class that they must only speak when asked to. Activities are highly structured
and there is very little negotiation about who does what and when. All the learners have
now learnt that the teacher’s word is final on everything. Ms Solomons is proud of her
learners and believes that her teaching strategies will ensure that they are well prepared for
Grade 4. She does not believe that collaboration with other teachers would be helpful or
useful.
Ms Tshaka takes a different approach from Ms Solomons. Displayed at the back of her class
is a slogan in large letters YOUR OPINION MATTERS. She allows for lots of discussion
time so that learners can process their ideas and deepen their understanding of topics. She
knows what her learners’ interests and backgrounds are and uses this information to make
lessons more relevant and interesting for her learners. Ms Tshaka’s classroom is a hive of
activity. She encourages her learners to express themselves creatively through art, music
and movement. She enthusiastically shares with her colleagues that her classroom is
“littered with literacy”; from the walls to various stations she has organised so that learners
can choose from a wide variety of activities.

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 • Building relationships with caregivers
Caregivers should be seen as informed partners in collaboration. They can give input
on their child’s behaviour at home, what makes them happy or unhappy, and home
circumstances that may affect their school performance. In turn, a teacher can make
suggestions about how caregivers can assist their children with homework and make
the environment more conducive to learning.
A successful caregiver–teacher meeting means a sharing of ideas, drawing on the
strengths and assets of the collaborators, while building their understanding and skills
as they share ideas. For every commitment a teacher makes, the caregivers should
make a counter commitment. This should result in a documented collaboration
framework with a manageable number of strategies to be tried at home, and at
school, and a date set for a follow-up meeting.
If caregivers find the school environment intimidating, or are unable to get to the
school, you could make a home visit once a term. This will enable you to see the
home environment first hand which will help you to understand your learner better.
Involving caregivers in school activities, where their views are heard, and decision-
making is shared, will result in stronger school-family partnerships, which will benefit
your learners. As teacher, you play an important role in encouraging caregiver
involvement at the classroom level.
Schools can strengthen links with caregivers by, for example:
1. Ensuring that the SGB meets regularly, and that all caregivers are invited.
2. Making caregivers feel welcome when they visit the school.
3. Encouraging caregivers to participate in discussions and decision-making on
school policies and activities, where their opinions are valued, and that they
are kept up to date with news and changes.
4. Setting homework exercises that require learners to involve caregivers and
elicit their opinions and experiences.
5. Encouraging caregivers to discuss concerns about their children with you, and
providing regular opportunities for them to inform the school authorities about
events at home or in the community.
6. Hosting events that involve the learners’ families, such as inviting them to for
events that showcase their children’s work.
7. Encouraging volunteering among caregivers (but not just for cooking, cleaning
and gardening), for example: listening to learners’ reading; running a
homework club; coaching sports.

ESTABLISHING COLLABORATIVE PARTNERSHIPS WITH CAREGIVERS<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 4.22

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 1. Can you think of any more ideas? Choose three ideas that you, as a teacher,
would like to implement.
Plan how you would put each idea into practice, including possible challenges and
ways to overcome these.

2. <<ENDS>>

4.8.5 Creating an enabling environment for child-centred collaboration:

collaboration through the CSTL

“The goal of the CSTL Framework is to reduce vulnerability and increase well-being
and resilience through supportive schools, collaborating with multi-sectoral
stakeholders who can reduce risk factors” (CSTL article, DBE).

Given the various and diverse types of support that are required for children to realise
their constitutional rights, it is clear that no government agency or other stakeholder
can, alone, address the needs of vulnerable children. Rather, coordinated
collaboration among all stakeholders, with CSTL as the over-arching framework, is
the approach that will best promote learner well-being and achievement.
Schools need to build and maintain close collaborative relationships with local
government stakeholders by inviting representatives from local organisations such
as the police and the clinic, to become ad hoc members of the SBST.
The table below summarises the main government and external stakeholders for
each of the CSTL Priority Action Areas.

TABLE 4.5: STAKEHOLDERS SCHOOLS CAN LIAISE WITH TO DELIVER ON THE TEN PRIORITY
ACTION AREAS
Priority Action Area Government department Other external
stakeholders

A rights-based, socially Department of Labour NGOs with a focus on

inclusive and cohesive equity, sports, recreation
Department of Home
school activities and peer
Affairs
education
Department of Health
Local business for
Department of Social sponsorship
Development (DSD)
Chapter 9 Institutions

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Nutritional support Department of Agriculture NGO with a focus on food
gardens
Department of Health
Local business for
sponsorship
Health promotion Department of Health NGO with a focus on HIV
and AIDS and/or other
Department of Social
Development health and wellness areas
Infrastructure, water and Department of Public Local business for
sanitation Works sponsorship
Local Municipality
Social welfare services Department of Home NGO with a focus on child
Affairs protection
DSD / South African
Social Services Agency
(SASSA)
Psychosocial support Department of Social NGO with a focus on
Development counselling for young
people
Department of Health
FBO offering counselling
for young people
Safety and protection SAPS (for alcohol and NGOs with a focus on
drug use) crime and violence and
alcohol and drug use
Department of Social
Development
Curriculum support Department of Higher NGOs with a focus on
Education and Training subject teaching such as
maths and science or
South African Council for
reading
Educators (SACE)
Tertiary institutions
providing leadership,
governance and
professional development
courses
Co-curricular support Department of Sports and NGOs with a focus on
Recreation sports, recreation
activities and peer
Department of Arts and
education
Culture

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 Local business for
sponsorship
Material Support Department of Social Local business for
Development sponsorship and
donations
SOURCE: DBE, 2014b

PARTICIPATION OF EXTERNAL STAKEHOLDERS<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 4.24
1. On a large sheet of paper, make a mind-map to show the involvement of
external stakeholders in implementing CSTL. Copy Figure 4.6: CSTL South
Africa’s ten Priority Action Areas. Around the outside of the circle, add the
government departments and other external stakeholders, showing which
area(s) they are responsible for.
2. Identify the government departments and external stakeholders who would
need to be involved in each of the following situations:
• A learner needs glasses.
• Some learners only get school meals. They are not being fed at home.
• The school has a major problem with bullying and hasn’t been able to deal
with it.
• The school has a problem with substance abuse.
• Many learners have worms.
• The school doesn’t have access to safe, clean water.
• The school does not have sporting facilities for learners in wheelchairs.
• Teachers at the school are struggling to implement inclusive pedagogy in
their classrooms.
• A learner has been raped and is extremely traumatised by the experience.
3. Choose three of the above situations and discuss:
• What challenges might the various stakeholders need to overcome in order
to collaborate effectively?
What solutions can you suggest?

• <<ENDS>>

4.8.6 Building community relationships

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All communities value education for their children and all community role players and
stakeholders have a role to play in helping to develop and support inclusive school
communities.

FIGURE 4.13: A CLINIC NURSE TEACHING LEARNERS ABOUT THE IMPORTANCE OF WASHING
THEIR HANDS

Schools can strengthen links with the local community by, for example, doing the
following:
1. Using expertise in the community to support learning (e.g., nurses could teach
learners about health issues; police officers could teach them about keeping
safe; social services could give them information about applying for grants).
2. Inviting community leadership to awards ceremonies and acknowledging
parents.
3. Offering capacity-building workshops or courses from the school (e.g., adult
basic education and training courses, parenting courses, small-business
courses).
4. Exploring businesses, institutions or individuals in the community that could
help the families of the poorest learners.
5. Using public spaces like community libraries, halls and sports fields.
6. Inviting community members to use the school buildings for community
functions.
7. Running a homework club so that children who live in homes where there is
no adult who can help them with their homework, can get the help they need.
8. Helping families apply for grants.
9. Becoming involved in community functions and events.
10. Developing an asset map and network of local resources.

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Can you add to this list?

COLLABORATIVE PARTNERSHIPS WITH COMMUNITY<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 4.25
1. Choose three examples from the above list that would be possible for you,
as a teacher, to implement at the classroom level.
Draw up a plan of action on how to put each of these strategies into practice. Make
sure that the plan includes possible challenges and ways to overcome these. Who
would be involved and what roles would they play? How might you enlist their
support?

2. <<ENDS>>

4.8.7 Challenges to collaboration

Education White Paper 6 and SIAS recommend a collaborative community-based

approach among equal partners in inclusive classrooms in South Africa. This is in
keeping with the philosophy of ubuntu and connections with family life, community
and social relevance. Community teachings emphasise togetherness, sharing and
reciprocity (Phasha et al, 2017) which are all key characteristics of collaboration
within inclusive school communities.
However, collaboration is often easier to talk about than to do. Various challenges,
including lack of skills, fixed ways of doing things, teacher attitudes and power
dynamics can hinder effective collaboration. As a teacher working toward building an
inclusive school community, this is something you will need to keep working at as it
forms a key part of your mandate.
Let’s look at some of the challenges to effective collaboration facing South African
teachers, and explore ways of overcoming them.
Here are some challenges to effective collaboration that have been identified:
1. Most teachers believe that they are not adequately trained and skilled enough in
collaboration strategies to play an equal participatory role in collaborating with
parents and professionals (Nel et al., 2013).
2. Time constraints and work pressure prevent teachers from fully participating in
collaborative partnerships (Nel et al., 2013).
3. Some teachers have indicated that the levels of competition and individualism in
schools hinder teacher collaboration (Vangrieken et al., 2015).
4. Teachers sometimes lack clarity about the goals of collaboration.

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5. Caregivers, class teachers and other support professionals have historically
participated in a system that was divided and separated, which was incompatible
with the notion of shared responsibilities. As a result, including caregivers in a
support team and acknowledging their contribution can be difficult.
6. Notions of power have caused barriers to collaboration, for example where
support professionals believe that their knowledge gives them power over
classroom teachers and caregivers.
7. Voices missing from collaborative efforts have tended to be those of caregivers
and their children (Swain & Walker, 2003).
8. Unwillingness to collaborate, personality clashes, ineffective leadership and
groups that are either too small or too big can also create barriers to effective
collaboration (Vangrieken et al., 2015). Effective collaboration needs structure
but even when we agree to rational rules for dialogue, relationships with power
can still distort and limit participation.

FINDING SOLUTIONS TO COLLABORATION CHALLENGES

ACTIVITY 4.26
Read the list of challenges, and consider the following questions:
1. How would each challenge impact effective collaboration? Give examples to
support your opinions.
Bearing in mind what you have learnt in this section, what strategies would you
suggest to ensuring more effective teacher collaboration, and collaborative
partnerships among all community stakeholders?
<<BOX>>
2. <<ENDS>>

LEARNING UNIT 5
Inclusive teaching and learning

OUTCOMES

When you have completed Learning Unit 5, you should be able to:

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 • Understand inclusive pedagogy
• Discuss practical strategies that support learning for all
• Creating an inclusive classroom environment
• Use inclusive teaching and learning strategies
• Plan inclusive lessons

5.1 Introduction

Welcome to the final learning unit of the module.

This unit is designed to enable you to put your learning from learning Units 1–3 into
practice. It asks you to draw on the knowledge you now have about theory and
models of inclusive practice; your understanding of diversity and intersectionality,
community and collaboration; and your beliefs about your role as a teacher working
inclusively in supporting all learners. Throughout the unit you will be encouraged to
apply the concepts and strategies you learnt about in Learning Unit 2 to classroom
practice.

The unit can roughly be divided into two parts. The first part clarifies what inclusive
teaching and learning is, and what it does (and doesn’t) do. It also explores what
being a teacher working inclusively means for you in practice, and three core
elements—policy, practice and culture—of an inclusive school. Through this
exploration, the first part of this learning unit briefly examines the relationship
between these three elements, and their role in enabling all children to access, and
be engaged in, quality education.
The second part focuses on key teaching and learning strategies that teachers
working inclusively use to deliver quality education to all children. Here we will first
look at strategies for creating an inclusive classroom environment. After that we will
explore ways of using inclusive strategies for teaching and learning, leading to the
last part, planning inclusive lessons. The summative assessment at the end requires
you to plan a lesson suitable for your context.
This learning unit describes the “how” of inclusion. It explains the principles of
inclusive pedagogy as well as a number of practical, inclusive, pedagogical
approaches for you to use in your classroom. These approaches will help you to
create rich learning experiences in a classroom environment that will enable all
learners to access information and learn effectively. The unit also provides you with
structures to help you put these approaches into practice.
The unit’s main aim is that, through completing it, you will understand and be able to
put into practice a variety of inclusive pedagogical approaches that will enable you to
provide an equitable, engaging learning experience for the diverse learners you
teach.

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 5.2 Understanding inclusive pedagogy

This learning unit, with its emphasis on inclusive classroom practice, encourages you
to build practically on what you already know by taking a number of inclusive teaching
and learning strategies into your context. First, think back to Learning Unit 3 and
reflect on what you learnt there, as you will need to keep this uppermost in your mind
for the purpose of this unit.

THINK BACK TO LEARNING UNIT 3

ACTIVITY 5.1
Without revisiting the material make a list of the main points you can remember from
what we have covered thus far. You will probably find it helpful to use something like
the following as three headings and make a list under each heading:<<AUTHOR:
These three are not actual headings in Unit 3, hence my change.>>
• Diversity, intersectionality and equity
• Responding to learner difference
• Language, culture and learning

Once you have your list, choose two learning points from each. Choose the ones that
interest you most, and that you are most curious about.
Make detailed notes about these six points in your journal. Include:
1. What you remember about the learning point. (If you get stuck and want to
remind yourself, refer back to the Unit 2 material.)
2. Why you chose it. What is it about this area that interests you? In particular,
how does it connect with:
• You as a learner when you were at school?
• You now, as a student teacher?
• You in the future, as you think about the teacher you would like to
become?

As our starting point, let's look at the title of this learning unit: Inclusive teaching and
learning.

5.2.1 What does inclusive teaching and learning mean?

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The term “inclusive teaching and learning”, also referred to as “inclusive pedagogy”,
describes a way of working in support of inclusive education.
Here is a definition of pedagogy by Robin Alexander (2004):
… what one needs to know, and the skills one needs to command, in
order to make and justify the many different kinds of decisions of which
teaching is constituted.

At its most basic and fundamental level this involves:

• Children: their characteristics and upbringing

• Learning: how it can best be motivated, achieved, identified, assessed
and built upon
• Teaching: its planning, execution and evaluation
• Curriculum: the various ways of knowing, understanding, doing,
creating, investigating and making sense which it is desirable for children
to encounter, and how these are most appropriately translated and
structured for teaching.
The term inclusive pedagogy is used to describe research about the practices of
teachers who achieve good results with diverse groups of learners. These teachers
understand that all learners differ—this is the theoretical starting point for inclusive
pedagogy.
➢ Inclusive pedagogy: An approach to teaching that aims to
raise the achievement of all learners, while safeguarding the
inclusion of those who are vulnerable to exclusion and other
forms of marginalisation.

5.2.2 How is the thinking different?

Traditionally, we have tended to think about pedagogy in terms of what works

for most learners alongside something additional or different for those who
experience difficulties.
Inclusive pedagogy starts with a shift in this thinking. It offers an alternative way of
thinking about pedagogy that provides rich learning opportunities for all learners. In
inclusive classrooms everyone is able to participate equitably in learning. The
concept of inclusive pedagogy was developed by Lani Florian and her colleagues
following their studies of the practices of teachers who were able to achieve good
results for learners in diverse classrooms (e.g., Florian & Kershner, 2009; Florian &
Black-Hawkins, 2011; Florian, Black-Hawkins & Rouse, 2017).

Inclusive pedagogy draws from socio-cultural perspectives on learning, for example

beliefs, culture, customs, language and behaviours. These perspectives focus on
how our identities, backgrounds, experiences and connections to each other relate

187
to learning. Remember the iceberg model from Learning Unit 2? These are the
factors you will not see above the surface. But they are vital to our understanding
because they lead us to look at individual differences in a different way.
Rather than a “fixed mindset” which sees differences as being permanently fixed, we
can adopt a “growth mindset”, viewing differences as a result of the interactions
between different parts of our lives. What’s going on in our lives changes, and these
changes impact on the human characteristics that make us different from each other.
Inclusive pedagogy is based on the belief that the characteristics that make us
different can change and grow over time, and that quality learning experiences can
facilitate this process. This “growth mindset” approach is supported by recent findings
from neuroscience research indicating that learning can alter the physical structure
of the brain (National Research Council, 2018). As teachers who work inclusively we
need to be able to notice, understand and respond to these changes in our learners
to enable them to expand their potential.

5.2.3 What does inclusive pedagogy do and not do?

An inclusive pedagogy approach does not deny the individual differences between
learners. It expects every learner to be different, and that these differences will
change, because this is part of being human.
Inclusive pedagogy acknowledges individual differences between learners, but does
not identify some learners as “different” or pre-judge what they are capable of. As we
have seen in Learning Unit 2, doing so can lead to stigma and marginalisation of
some learners. Instead:
The focus of inclusive education is on ensuring that everyone has
access to a good-quality education in systems that do not marginalise
some through organisational and curricular structures that sift and sort
learners on the basis of pre-determined judgements about what they
can and should learn (Florian & Walton, 2018).

In this way inclusive education, through inclusive pedagogy, becomes more than a
way of including learners with disabilities. It is a way of improving learning outcomes
for every learner.
Inclusive pedagogy is all about how all learners achieve these outcomes by taking
part in the community of a classroom—the bonds, trust and sense of belonging that
grow when learners get to know and appreciate each other.
Now let’s have a brief look at how inclusive practice fits into schools.

5.2.3.1 Creating an inclusive school culture

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Inclusive pedagogy used by teachers works in a reciprocal relationship with two other
important factors in the development of inclusive schools: policy and culture.

HOW CAN SCHOOLS CREATE AN INCLUSIVE CULTURE?

ACTIVITY 5.2
1. What key values and beliefs do you think should inform a school’s culture?
2. What policies could a school have to enable access for all learners?
3. Suggest ways in which the school could empower teachers to teach inclusively.

Tony Booth and Mel Ainscow originated the Index for Inclusion: developing learning
and participation in schools in 2000, which was revised in 2011 (CSIE, 2011). The
index identifies three key dimensions necessary for the development of inclusion in
a school. These are shown in the model below:

FIGURE 5.1: THREE DIMENSIONS OF AN INCLUSIVE SCHOOL

Notice that the dimension of creating inclusive cultures is placed at the base of the
triangle. Culture is often described as “the way we do things around here”. It may
also help you to think of it as “why we do things around here this way” because culture
is shaped by our values and beliefs, which in turn inform our behaviour. Booth and
Ainscow have placed creating inclusive cultures at the base of the triangle
deliberately, as they believe that strong inclusive cultures are an important platform
for the development of inclusive policies and practices. For example, SIAS and CSTL
are policies that create a foundation for building an inclusive culture in the South
African education system.

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Within Booth and Ainscow’s model, when policymakers, including school leaders,
sincerely believe that every child can learn, and has a right to be in the classroom
and to receive a quality education, they will do the following:
• Create policies that enable equitable access to education for all children,
that is, make sure that they are able to get into schools and classrooms
in the first place, whatever their diverse characteristics.
• Lead by example, in other words, model the inclusive behaviours they are
looking for in their teachers and learners.
• Empower teachers to practise inclusively. The policies set by school
leaders and other policymakers set the tone for how teachers practise.
They also give teachers access to continuing professional development
that supports their practice, as well as knowledge about inclusive
pedagogy.
When teachers are empowered to work inclusively, they become the enablers in an
inclusive school. They expect and welcome diversity in the classroom and plan in
ways that ensure all children are able to participate and learn effectively, in other
words, they ensure a high level of engagement in the classroom. Their practice is not
wholly dependent on the school’s policies and prevailing culture; they have agency
in their own classrooms, that is, the ability to put their energy and commitment into
working in ways, and developing skills, they see as important. However, inclusive
practice is likely—because of increased empowerment of teachers—to be
strengthened if culture and policy are also inclusive.
Access and engagement are central to an inclusive school. They are commonly used
to measure a school’s progress in its journey to becoming inclusive. They are also
interdependent. There is no point having the best access policies if teachers are not
empowered and enabled to teach inclusively. And there is no point in having high-
quality inclusive practices and curricula that fully engage learners, if they can’t get
access to the school or classroom.
Let’s reflect further on this interplay between inclusive culture, policy and practice
and what it looks like in a setting you are familiar with.

EXPLAIN BOOTH AND AINSCOW’S THREE-DIMENSIONAL MODEL

ACTIVITY 5.3
What are the connections between what you learnt from Learning Unit 3, and Booth
and Ainscow’s three dimensions of an inclusive school? Describe these connections
in a way that makes the most sense to you (e.g., drawing, diagram, writing, audio).

5.2.3.2 What does inclusive pedagogy mean for you?

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Traditional ways of responding to learner differences have been based on the
argument that some children need something “different from” or “additional to”
“normal” pedagogy. Identifying and delivering what these children are thought to need
has been based on the idea that their differences are fixed and that we can match
learners’ needs to their characteristics. However, as we have seen above, part of the
thinking behind inclusive pedagogy is that our characteristics, and therefore our
differences, can change over time.
This thinking means that we need an alternative response to learner difference;
inclusive pedagogy offers this alternative. Teachers who work inclusively develop a
range of pedagogical strategies that offer rich learning opportunities for all learners
that enable them to participate equally in learning. They also develop and maintain a
classroom community that supports the wellbeing of learners—both academically
and psychosocially.
➢ Psychosocial: The close connection between our
thoughts, emotions and behaviour, and our wider social
experience (e.g., our relationships, traditions and culture).
Florian and Black-Hawkins (2011) ask questions that you may find useful in
understanding what inclusive pedagogy requires from you in practice:
• What are the teaching strategies and practices that promote access?
• What are the teaching strategies and practices that reinforce or remove
barriers to access?
In response to these questions, Florian and Black-Hawkins (2011) suggest that
inclusive pedagogy requires us to do the following:
1. Shift our focus from individual learners who have been identified as having
“additional needs”, to learning for all.
2. Reject deterministic beliefs about ability.
3. Base our practice on transformative beliefs about ability, focusing teaching
and learning on what learners can do rather than on what they cannot do.
4. Use a variety of grouping strategies to support everyone’s learning.
5. Use formative assessment to support learning.
6. See difficulties in learning not as deficits in learners but as professional
challenges for us as teachers.
7. Commit to continuing professional development as a way of developing more
inclusive practices.
Let us look at these one at a time.
1. Shift our focus from individual learners who have been identified as having
“additional needs”, to learning for all.
This approach needs a focus on what is to be taught and how, rather than on who is
learning. In this way it aims to avoid the problems and stigma associated with
identifying some learners as different.

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2. Reject deterministic beliefs about ability.

➢ Deterministic belief: The belief that a learner's ability is

essentially pre-set and open to limited change or
development. http://www.dictionaryofeducation.co.uk
Determinism is based on the belief that we are all born biologically differently and
that this biology determines what we can and can’t do and learn; little can be done to
change us. These beliefs—which are sometimes so deeply rooted in our culture that
we’re not even aware of them—put limitations on what teachers expect from learners,
and therefore on learners’ expectations of themselves. They also directly influence
the way curricula are designed, teaching is carried out and achievement is assessed.
As teachers, we should always be willing to change our teaching strategies to suit
the way our learners learn best.

Now let’s look at an example of determinism in a school context.

CASE STUDY: DETERMINISM IN A SCHOOL CONTEXT

Picture the scene: It is the start of the school year. Two teachers are sitting in the staff room
during break. This is their conversation:
Mr Majoro: I can’t believe my bad luck. This year I have to teach Grade 9 E—the slow class
with the low ability.
Ms Esack: I have Grade 9A. At least I know they’re all clever and they’ll do well. I had the E
class last year and, just as I predicted, most of them didn’t pass Grade 9. I think you probably
have a few of my repeats this year. At least the really bad ones dropped out. They weren’t
going to make it to Matric anyway, so it’s pointless to waste our time and theirs.
Mr Majoro: I agree and I heard that one of them is already in the gangs, just like his brother
and father. It’s no surprise.
Ms Esack: I have two learners who tested really well in their end-of-year tests. I’ve even been
told they’re gifted. I’m so glad I will have top achievers. And at least they won’t be held back
by any slow learners.

THE IMPACT OF TEACHERS’ EXPECTATIONS ON LEARNER ACHIEVEMENT<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 5.4
Think about this conversation and consider the following questions:
1. How would you describe the teachers’ expectations of Grade 9A and 9E?
2. What evidence are the teachers basing their expectations on? To what
extent do you think these pieces of evidence are reliable as a way of
predicting learners’ academic achievement? Explain your reasoning, linking
it to your learning from Learning Unit 2.
3. How do you think the expectations of these teachers about learner
achievement will impact on the way they teach?

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 4. If Mr Majoro had high expectations of his learners, in other words, taught
them in a way that they knew they were expected to do well, to what extent
do you think it might change their results? Explain your reasoning.
What do you think about Ms Esack’s final comment about learners being held back
by other “slower” learners? Where might this view have come from? From what
you have learnt so far, would it be the view of a teacher who works inclusively?
Explain the reasons for your answer.

5. <<ENDS>>

Determinism remains deeply ingrained in education practices worldwide, despite the

National Research Council findings cited above showing that learning has the
capacity to change the physical structure of the brain.
Teachers working inclusively also reject the idea that the presence of learners who
are labelled “slow” or “learning disabled” holds back the progress of others. If learning
is planned to be inclusive, everybody progresses at their own rate in different areas,
depending on their unique combination of strengths, challenges and needs.
Therefore, there cannot be one fixed group that is “held back” by another fixed group.

3. Base our practice on transformative beliefs about ability, focusing teaching

and learning on what learners can do rather than on what they cannot
do.

➢ Transformative belief: The belief that ability is not

pre-set and can change and develop.
Teachers with transformative beliefs:
… are willing to accept that it is not necessary or helpful to predict or
predetermine individuals’ outcomes for learning before teaching.
Rather, decisions are structured around how to ensure high levels of
engagement and motivation (Florian, 2016).

Let’s look at an example of transformative thinking in action.

CASE STUDY: TRANSFORMATIVE THINKING IN A SCHOOL CONTEXT

Mr Singh, a Grade 4 English Home Language teacher, is planning a comprehension task from
a reader on Aladdin and the Magic Lamp. In his class he has noticed that there are some
learners who are all verbally articulate, but seem to struggle with text-based comprehension
exercises. This group includes four learners whose home language is isiXhosa and who are
all to some extent grappling with written English vocabulary, and one learner who is on the
Autistic Spectrum Continuum and finds it useful to organise information visually. Based on his
knowledge of these learners, he plans how to present the lesson. He introduces the story

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through a discussion where he places the topic of the story in context. He explains the meaning
of some of the new vocabulary the learners will encounter and puts up the words on the board
with a picture next to each word.
This helps the isiXhosa-speaking learners’ English vocabulary and keeps them motivated, as
they can understand the story. He gives a brief outline of the plot and the main characters
using a graphic organiser. This helps the learner on the Autistic Spectrum Continuum feel
comfortable and engaged with the story.

CHOOSING TRANSFORMATIVE PEDAGOGICAL STRATEGIES<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 5.5
What information does Mr Singh use that leads him to choose these specific
strategies for these learners?
To what extent is he basing his planning on:
• What and how he is going to teach?
• Who he is going to teach?
It is important to remember that not all isiXhosa speakers and learners on the
Autistic Spectrum Continuum will struggle with comprehension or respond to the
particular scaffolds or visual aids used in this case study. Children who seem to
have the “same difference” often turn out to be totally different from each other,
with different strengths, challenges and needs. They will therefore respond to
different strategies.
With this in mind, consider what information you need in order to make choices
about which pedagogical strategies to use.

<<ENDS>>

4. Use a variety of grouping strategies to support everyone’s learning.

This is important because relying on ability grouping to separate “able” from “less
able” learners is a way of labelling learners and reinforces their “weaknesses” without
considering and encouraging their strengths.
5. Use formative assessment to support learning.
Assessment for learning is an ongoing process through which teachers gather data
before, during, and after instruction from multiple sources to determine learners’
progress. It is the way that learners demonstrate what they are learning, or have
learnt, and how their learning will be assessed.
Assessment will be dealt with in detail later.
6. See difficulties in learning not as deficits in learners but as professional
challenges for us as teachers.

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FIGURE 5.1: Challenges for teachers

Seeing difficulties in learning as a professional challenge rather than a deficit in

learners, requires a shift in thinking. This shift moves teachers from viewing planning
and affirmation of diversity as “extra work” to seeing it as “the work” of the teacher. It
is the teacher’s job to develop new ways of working to ensure that all learners are
actively engaged, achieving success and being supported in learning. It is not for
learners to somehow fit themselves into a narrowly prescriptive “one-size-fits-all” way
of learning.
7. Be committed to continuing professional development as a way of
developing more inclusive practices.
As a teacher, it is important to continually add to your knowledge, skills and
understanding of learners, learning and inclusive strategies by, for example,
discussing issues with colleagues, doing online research, and attending professional
development workshops and conferences.

Assess–Plan–Do–Review

Use the “Assess–Plan–Do–Review” cycle to constantly review and improve your

classroom practice.

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FIGURE 5.2: FOUR-PART LEARNING CYCLE

➢ ASSESS

Assessment relates both to your teaching and your learners’ learning. As a teacher
you should be assessing your learners informally and getting to know them better all
the time. This will inform the way you plan your lessons.
What are you noticing about how you teach? Does your teaching facilitate effective
learning? What part of your practice do you think needs attention? What do you hope
to achieve as a result of making the change?

➢ PLAN

Consider:
• Which approach is best to help you make this change?
• What can help you introduce the approach gradually so that it will make
a difference to your practice without overloading you?
• How will you use the approach in your lesson(s)—when and how will you
use it, what will you need to say and do, what resources do you need to
prepare, what organisational arrangements do you need to put in place?
You may plan to try the approach in one lesson or in a series of lessons,
depending on your context.

➢ DO
Put your plan into action by trying out the approach in your lessons.

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➢ REVIEW

Reflection is key to learning. Remember, you will be moving from conscious

incompetence towards conscious competence (and eventually unconscious
competence). This can be an uncomfortable journey, and mistakes are inevitable.
Reflection on your experience, though, will help you to improve. Questions you could
ask, are:
• What went well?
• How can I build on what went well?
• Where were the challenges?
• How did I, or could I, overcome these?
• To what extent did I achieve the changes that I hoped for—both in relation
to my practice and to my learners’ learning?
• What could I do differently next time?
• Does reflecting on this point bring up any other areas of practice that I
think might need attention next?
These final two questions take you back to the “Assess” part of the cycle.
If possible, collaborate with at least one trusted colleague. You will gain enormously
from the mutual support and exchange of ideas. You could, for example:
• Team-teach
• Plan and try out approaches at the same time (either the same approach
or a different one) and build in joint reflection time
• Observe each other trying out an approach and reflect on it together
afterwards

By now, you have a solid understanding of:

• What inclusive pedagogy means
• The main concepts associated with inclusive pedagogy
• What—basically—it requires from you
The rest of this learning unit will focus on creating an inclusive classroom
environment and practical strategies that you can use to plan and teach inclusive
lessons.

5.3 Using diversity as an asset: practical strategies that support learning for
all

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This section contains inclusive pedagogical strategies and some guidelines about
how to use them. The strategies work together to make one integrated, inclusive
system for teaching and learning. However, we do not expect you to start using all of
them at once. Remember, becoming a teacher who works more inclusively is a
journey towards including as many learners as you can for as much of the time as
you can.
Here are the strategies represented as a pizza:

FIGURE 5.4: INCLUSIVE PEDAGOGICAL STRATEGIES

What the journey offers is the chance to develop an ever-growing number of

strategies and experiences that will help you to respond to your learners in an ever-
widening set of circumstances. It’s about developing expertise over time in your own
context. Even in classes that are large and crowded, there is always something you
can do to work more inclusively. The journey therefore requires a level of commitment
from you—using your teacher agency—to:
• Continually add to your knowledge, skills and understanding of learners,
learning and inclusive strategies
• Continuously adjust what happens in your classroom to suit your learners
Mistakes are inevitable along the way! Remember, this journey is a learning process
from “conscious incompetence” to “unconscious competence”.

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FIGURE 5.5: FOUR STAGES OF COMPETENCE

In Learning Unit 2 we talked about this journey as being uncomfortable at times. You
are bound to make mistakes—this is normal—and sometimes you might feel as
though you are taking two steps forward and one step back. The important thing is
that you persevere and turn these mistakes into learning opportunities—“OK, that
went wrong, what can I do differently next time?” It might be useful to remember this
acronym:
First (or Further)
Attempt
In
Learning
You might find that being honest with your learners is helpful too. Try talking with
them about the fact that you are trying out some new strategies. You need their help
and feedback to make them work well, and it might take a few attempts to get where
you want to be. You will probably be surprised at the level of support they give you.
And you will be modelling what you would like them to do when they encounter a
problem.
So, you will need a certain amount of resilience and the ability to be kind to yourself—
remember, you are only human. And remember that by getting to Conscious
Incompetence you have taken a big first step.
To help you with your journey, we have made some suggestions about how to move
forward. When considering how to start using the approaches, we recommend that
you:
• Start from what you already know and do—look for your strengths in
relation to the approaches and build on these.
• Build your knowledge and skills in manageable chunks. Think of the
approaches as a pizza from which you take bite-size chunks. These bites
should be big enough to fill your stomach—nibbling won’t be enough to
bring about any change—but not so big that you end up with indigestion!

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FIGURE 5.6: MANAGEABLE CHUNKS

Let’s start by thinking about how we can develop the classroom environment to
enable all learners to achieve their potential.

5.4 Creating an inclusive classroom environment

An important strategy for you as an inclusive teacher is to create a safe, welcoming

classroom. In a welcoming classroom every child will be able to learn and develop in
their own individual way and feel equally valued for their contribution. This may not
strike you as important, but it certainly is! The way you make your learners feel in
your class will directly impact the way they learn.

5.4.1 Creating and maintaining an inclusive classroom community

5.4.1.1 Types of learning environment

Thinking about the classroom as a community is a major part of creating the learning
environment. The term “learning environment” is used broadly and includes the
physical space; the resources and teaching methods used; the cultural context; and
the educational approach. Here are five types of learning environment that have been
identified through research.

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 1. Dysfunctional: characterised by constant struggle to maintain order
that overshadows attention to academic work.
2. Adequate: characterised by a basic level of control by the teacher, but
with a continuing struggle over order; distractions are frequent.
3. Orderly: characterised by effective management of academic work.
4. Orderly, restrictive: found in smoothly run, highly structured
classrooms, with tightly managed routines and a relatively narrow
range of instructional strategies.
5. Orderly, enabling: found in smoothly run classrooms, with an often
looser (though not loose) structure, and a wider range of routines and
instructional strategies in evidence (Educational Research Service,
n.d.).
Let’s develop our thinking about these environments through an activity.

FIVE TYPES OF LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

ACTIVITY 5. 6
Read through the description of the five types of learning environment above, then:
1. Create a short scenario that illustrates each environment. Draw on experiences of
teaching and learning. Create your scenarios in any way that makes sense for you,
for example storyboard, audio, written script, captioned pictures, etc.
2. Consider each of your scenarios in turn. What words, thoughts and feelings come
to mind when you do so? Note these.
3. Which type of environment would you aim to create as the most conducive to
inclusive education? Explain your answer.

We hope, with all the learning you have done so far, that identifying an orderly,
enabling environment did not require too much thought. This is the learning
environment teachers who work inclusively aim for. But there’s more to it than
structure, routines and teaching approaches: developing a sense of community plays
a big role in this learning environment. But what sort of community should we be
trying to build? Watkins is quite specific about the areas we need to consider.
The benefits of community building in schools are not achieved through
building any sort of community. Much depends on the values which develop,
and the best is achieved through a caring, pro-social, learning-oriented
approach to the relations between all parties (Watkins 2005a, op. cit.: 52).

➢ Pro-social: Something that benefits other people or

society as a whole.

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Research shows that in classrooms where this sense of community is built:
• Learners are active agents and are empowered to take initiative and lead
their own learning (they are “crew” rather than “passengers”)
• An increased sense of classroom belonging develops and leads to
greater participation and motivation
• Governance is shared and the responsibility of all is developed
• Difference is not viewed as a problem and greater diversity of people and
contributions is embraced (adapted from Watkins, 2005a).
These factors all support positive academic, psychosocial and ethical outcomes, or,
as Watkins puts it: “Better learning (and performance), better behaviour, better social
development” (Watkins, 2005b). This type of classroom community, then, is
beneficial for learners as individuals, but also beneficial to communities as a whole.
It’s also clear that, through its embracing of diversity, it is inclusive.
Learners can achieve to their full potential in a positive learning environment where
they feel happy and relaxed. Setting up your classroom with this sense of community
now will make a positive contribution to society in the future. As well as affirming
diversity, it places importance on the ubuntu belief that we are all interdependent—“I
am because you are”. The classroom becomes a family whose members hold each
other accountable—compassionately, honestly and supportively—in order to develop
the adults of the future.

So, how do you go about developing this sense of classroom community?

In this section we will consider:
1. Your role as a teacher in building an inclusive classroom community
2. Classroom community values and behaviours that support, and are beneficial to,
everyone
3. Activities that promote inclusive classroom communities

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1. Your role as a teacher in building an inclusive classroom community

FIGURE 5.7: FIRST DAY AT SCHOOL

It’s likely that you can remember a time when you felt like this. As a teacher, you now
have a great deal of agency and power over how these learners feel at the end of
their first lesson in your classroom, as this quote illustrates:
I have come to the frightening conclusion that I am the decisive element. It is
my personal approach that creates the climate. It is my daily mood that makes
the weather. I possess tremendous power to make life miserable or joyous. I
can be a tool of torture or an instrument of inspiration, I can humiliate or humor,
hurt or heal. In all situations, it is my response that decides whether a crisis is
escalated or de-escalated, and a person is humanized or de-humanized. If we
treat people as they are, we make them worse. If we treat people as they ought
to be, we help them become what they are capable of becoming (Haim Ginott,
teacher and child psychologist)
You attitude towards the different learners in your class will rub off on them. If you
laugh at or ridicule a learner, the other children in the class will think it is acceptable
to do the same. If, however, you actively model and promote the belief that each child
is valuable, and affirm each child’s individual strengths without any judgment or bias,
you will teach this accepting attitude to your whole class. Your learners will also get
the message that if they have a problem, you are a safe person to approach for help.
For some, your classroom will be a vital source of psychosocial support they may not
receive at home. This support is a key aspect of being a teacher—remember, you
teach children, not subjects. As Maya Angelou said: “I've learnt that people will forget
what you said, people will forget what you did, but people will never forget how you
made them feel.”
You are therefore a key player in developing your classroom as an inclusive,
supportive community. Here are some ways you can do this:

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 • Think about the values that are most important to you in developing your
inclusive classroom community. Consider some ways you can model these
values through your behaviour.

The table below shows a number of values—in no particular order—that educators

often refer to when they talk about inclusive classroom communities.

TABLE 5.1: VALUES IN INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS AND SCHOOLS

Safety: emotional and Respect: for self and
physical others Supportive relationships
Rights and responsibilities Participation Cooperation
Collaboration Non-violence Equity and fairness
Joy/Fun Love/Caring Hope/Optimism
Sustainability (maintaining
Courage Affirmation of diversity
the community over time)

➢ A value is a concept that we think is important or useful.

➢ Behaviours are the ways in which we put these values into

action.

UBUNTU VALUES<<BOX>>
ACTIVITY 5.7
Think about the values of ubuntu discussed in Learning Unit 1. How do the values
above relate to ubuntu? Think of other ubuntu values and add them to the list
above.
Let’s look at some ways of putting one of those values into action in the classroom.
In the following table, we have taken the value “Respect for self and others”. In the
right-hand column we have given some example behaviours a teacher might show
in a classroom that model respect for self and others. <<ENDS>>

TABLE 5.2: EXAMPLES OF TEACHER MODELLING OF VALUES THROUGH BEHAVIOUR

Examples of what I can do in the classroom to model this value
Value through my behaviour

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Respect for When learners ask to talk to me, I can give them the time to speak to
self and me (even if it’s not right at that moment). I can really listen to what
others they have to say and ask them thoughtful questions.
I can talk to learners without raising my voice, even when I’m feeling
frustrated and stressed.
I can ask learners questions about their lives and treat their answers
respectfully.
I can talk to learners about what respect means to them so that we
have a shared understanding in the class.
I can notice when learners are being respectful to each other and
positively reinforce this behaviour. I can notice when they aren’t
showing respect and ask them questions about our shared
understanding of respect to help them understand and change their
behaviour.
I can explain to the class what I need from them in order to teach and
help them learn well.

VALUES IN AN INCLUSIVE CLASSROOM COMMUNITY

ACTIVITY 5.8
After looking at the example above, pick out three other values from Table 5.1 above
that you think are important in developing an inclusive classroom community. Copy
the blank table below, and for each value, record some ways you think you could
model this value through your behaviour in the classroom.

Examples of what I can do in the classroom to model this value

Value through my behaviour

• Build relationships with learners

Positive relationships are an integral part of a classroom community. Learners feel
cared about and valued, which improves their psychosocial wellbeing, and the
classroom runs more smoothly with a better atmosphere. As a result, learning is more
effective. Here are ten ways you can build relationships with your learners:

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FIGURE 5.8: TEN WAYS TO BUILD RELATIONSHIPS WITH KIDS
(WWW.THEPATHWAY2SUCCESS.COM)

Let’s think about how these could work in practice:

HOW YOU CAN BUILD RELATIONSHIPS WITH YOUR LEARNERS

ACTIVITY 5.9
The questions below relate to the above list. Think through each question and note
your answers.
1. How can you find out what your learners are interested in?
2. How can you encourage your learners talk to you about what they are interested
in?
3. Sharing some aspects of your life reminds learners that you are human too. What
would you be happy to share about your own life? For example, think of a hilarious
and/or embarrassing story about yourself that you would be happy to share with
your learners. Think of an inspirational story from your life that you think learners
would find helpful and you could share.
4. What “crazy things” could you do with learners? Have an “odd socks” or a “funny
hat” day? Show them a new game in the play area at break time? Whatever you
do, remember to follow the school policies so that everyone stays safe and healthy.
5. Think of three ways you could incorporate learners’ interests into your teaching.
6. Do you think it’s important to apologise to a child if you have “messed up”? How
would you go about this?
Can you think of more ways you could build relationships with your learners?

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 • Be explicit about what you are doing
This means making what you are doing clear to the class as you are doing it. If you
are explicit, there can be no confusion or doubt about your intentions and the
importance you place on the values and behaviours you are demonstrating.
You might, for example:
• Discuss with the class what community means to them and what they
want their classroom community to be like.
• Choose a “value of the week” and talk with learners about what this
means and how everyone in the class can show it through their behaviour.
Evaluate the process at the end of the week and choose the next value
together.
• Notice a learner showing pro-social behaviour and talk about what you
can see going on in a positive way to the whole class.
• Talk with children about the pro-social behaviours they are going to learn
from a particular activity or curriculum material, and the values that are
associated with it.
• Allow some time in the day to “check in” with learners and see how they
are doing. Some teachers do this verbally in circles; others use visuals,
for example a tree, on which each learner sticks a leaf with their name on
it (high up for “feeling good”, low down for “not so good”). Talk with
learners about why you are doing this and why it’s important to know how
we are feeling.
Can you think of any more ways of being explicit about building community in your
classroom?
By working on these three areas, you really can make a difference. While large
classes in overcrowded classrooms are challenging places, there is always
something positive you can do as a teacher to develop your inclusive classroom
community.

2. Promoting values and behaviours that support, and are beneficial to,
everyone
Now that you have an idea of your role, let’s turn our attention to the role of values
and learners’ behaviours in an inclusive classroom.
We have already introduced you to a number of values that are connected with
inclusive communities (Table 5.1) and asked you to reflect on them in relation to your
role as a teacher. Let’s return to these values, but look at them in the context of
learners: What can they do to put inclusive values into action?

207
Let’s take one of these values and show how it could be put into action through
learners’ behaviours. This time, we have introduced a middle column so that you can
be clearer with learners about the difference between values, general behaviours
connected with this value, and specific actions they can use to show this behaviour.

TABLE 5.3: VALUES AND LEARNERS’ BEHAVIOURS

Value (what
we think is Examples of behaviours Examples of these behaviours as actions
important) related to the value in the classroom
Safety— Respecting personal Keep your hands, arms, legs and feet to
physical space yourself, even when you are angry or
and frustrated.
emotional
Kindness Ask people how they are doing—and
really listen to their answer.
If someone is looking lonely at break
time, ask them to join you and your
friends.
Empathy When others are taking risks with their
learning (e.g., asking questions, giving a
presentation), imagine how you would
feel and how you would want other
people to treat you—so listen attentively,
show appreciation, ask thoughtful
questions.
Helpfulness If you can see someone is feeling unsafe
ask them if they are OK and if they need
some help.

Note that we have used positive language that shows what you do want everyone to
do. This is more effective than saying what you don’t want learners to do, for example,
“no fighting”, “no put-downs”.
Have a go at thinking through this process.

PUTTING VALUES INTO ACTION IN THE CLASSROOM

ACTIVITY 5.10
Choose three of the values from Table 5.1. You can stick to the ones you used in
Activity 5.7, or choose different ones.

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Use Table 5.2 as a guide for this activity.
Copy the blank table below, and write each value in the left-hand column (one per
row).
For your first value, note down some examples of behaviours related to the value in
the middle column, and then some ways everyone in the classroom can put these
behaviours into action in the right-hand column.
Then do the same for the second and third value you have chosen. You may find there
is some overlap.

Examples of behaviours Examples of behaviours as actions in the

Value related to the value classroom

With younger children, the emphasis needs to be on teaching pro-social behaviours

explicitly and using simple language to talk about values. For older children, an
effective way of putting these values, behaviours and actions in place in your
classroom is to involve the class in a similar process to the one you have just been
through.

ACTIVITIES THAT PROMOTE INCLUSIVE CLASSROOM COMMUNITIES

➢ “Getting to know you” activities that promote belonging

Often, learners spend a lot of time in the same classroom but don’t get to know each
other beyond their friendship groups. In order to promote a greater sense of
belonging, try these activities:
1. Learners can work regularly in pairs or small groups and answer questions about
aspects of their lives. Give them a short time to answer each question so you keep
the pace going. Swap the pairs or groups around so learners get to know different
people. Here are some questions to get you started:
• What kind of music do you like?
• If you could travel anywhere for free, where would you like to travel? Why?
• What place that you have visited do you like the most?
• When is your birthday?
• Where were you born?

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 • Who were you named after?
• Where do members of your family come from?
• What languages do they, and you, speak?
• If you could be any animal that you wanted, what would you pick? Why?
• If you became the principal, what is one thing you would change about this
school if you could?
(Source: https://edut.to/2W9klc5)

2. Play People Bingo or “Find someone who ...”

In this game, each learner has a sheet with a number of squares on it. A human
characteristic is written in each square, for example “Has a younger brother or sister”.
The game is to find a learner in the class who matches each square (a different
learner for each square). They write the name or initial of that learner in the relevant
square. You can change the rules to match your class, so you might say:
1) “Find five people who match any five squares.”
2) “Keep going until you complete a straight or diagonal line of squares.”
3) “Fill in as many squares as you can in two (or three, or four ...) minutes.”
The game finishes when a learner has completed the sheet according to the rules
you set. If you are using 1) or 2) above, the winner is the first person to finish and
shout “Bingo!”. With 3) the winner (if you want one) is the person who has filled in the
most squares.

Here is the start of a bingo sheet you can use with learners. Fill in the rest of
the squares, using characteristics applicable to your context.

Has an older Knows how

brother or to play a
sister musical
instrument

Knows a joke Is wearing

something
red

Knows how
to say hello in

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 a language
other than
English
Likes green Has lived in
two, or more,
different
places

Can sing a Has a

song younger
brother or
sister

Peer learning is where one learner leads another learner through a task or concept.

➢ Sharing responsibility in the classroom

Think about how you can share responsibility in the classroom for making it run
smoothly, for example:
• Giving out and collecting equipment or books
• Taking the register
• Monitoring noise levels
• Moving furniture (safely!)
• Cleaning the board
Make sure you change the learners’ tasks regularly.
This section has introduced you to the importance of developing classrooms and
communities, and some ways of doing so. It forms a solid foundation on which to
build your inclusive practice. We leave it with a final thought, from the Dalai Lama, to
hold in your mind as you continue with this learning unit:
I have always had this view about the modern education system: we pay
attention to brain development, but the development of warm-heartedness we
take for granted.
We hope that you, as teachers for the 21st century, will work to change this.

5.4.2 Planning and catering for accessibility and engagement

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This strategy refers to the environmental conditions that may need attention for
individual learners to be able to gain equitable access to learning. As a teacher, you
may need to make adjustments to:
• Classroom layout, for example, furniture, seating, seating plans
• Materials provided, for example, presenting content and tasks through
worksheets and technology, assistive technology
Remember, these adjustments are the starting point for equity. They give the learners
the means to progress at the same rate of learning as other learners, but they don’t
guarantee progress; that is dependent on how learning and teaching happen in your
classroom. Consider how this relates to Maslow's hierarchy of needs in Learning Unit
3.

Classroom layout

The physical environment of your classroom contributes greatly to your learners’

ability to learn. Even in a full class with limited resources there are creative ways to
arrange your classroom to ensure that your learners can move around, interact and
engage fully in all learning opportunities. Reflect on what you are trying to accomplish
and make your space work for you rather than against you. Also bear in mind that
learners with specific learning needs may require particular placement in the
classroom to increase visibility, improve access, or minimise distractions. For
example, in a large class, a hearing-impaired child or one who struggles to
concentrate may find it difficult to focus in a noisy class if seated at the back of the
room.
Here are some guiding questions that can be used when planning your classroom
arrangement:
Visibility: Are there areas of the classroom where learners cannot easily see the
board or screen? If so, consider using these areas for small-group work or storage.
Arrange your room so you can have eye contact with all your learners, and make
sure that each learner is able to see the board.
Proximity: Can you easily reach each learner in the room to provide extra
instructional support? Can you circulate round the classroom during whole-class
teaching? Keep proximity between learners in mind as well. Can learners easily move
into peer groups when necessary? One way of ensuring this is to arrange the desks
in two loops—an interior and exterior loop. This arrangement gives you proximity to
all learners and allows learners to move into peer groups easily.

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FIGURE 5.9: CLASSROOM LAYOUT (1) (FREY, 2011)

In a subject-specific classroom, where learners may need to share equipment and

work easily in pairs or groups, you might consider this arrangement:

FIGURE 5.10: CLASSROOM LAYOUT (2) (FREY, 2011)

Accessibility: Can learners easily reach materials they need and all areas of the
classroom, such as interest tables, different workstations, the mat? Consider patterns
of movement in high-traffic areas, for example are the waste basket and pencil
sharpener in an area of the room that is easily accessible to everyone?
Safety: Have you consulted the school’s safety requirements regarding fire
regulations? In an emergency can learners safely and quickly exit the classroom?
Are there items that may pose a threat to safety (e.g., science lab equipment). If so,
they should be placed in a secure area.
The arrangement of desks will differ, depending on the subject and grade level and
also different types of group work.

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Environment: Bear in mind that, while desks arranged in neat rows may make
movement through the class easier, this arrangement may not help to create a warm,
friendly environment. Many teachers find that using a semicircle or cluster to arrange
the desks in their classrooms encourages cooperative learning, builds a sense of
community, and makes the best use of the space. Ideal desk arrangements are an
important aspect of inclusive classrooms because they create opportunities for
learners to be actively engaged in learning and to work cooperatively when
appropriate.
Display: You can use walls and vertical space for displaying learners’ work and
learning enrichment materials. However, remember not to over-clutter.
How you arrange your room depends on what furniture you have at your disposal. It
is unlikely you will have exactly what you would like, so an important question is “If I
don’t have exactly what I want, how can I improvise?”

DESIGN YOUR CLASSROOM

ACTIVITY 5.11
Visualise a typical classroom you have been in, or are likely to teach in. Determine the
grade and subject (if applicable).
Draw the layout you think will work best to meet the following requirements:
• All learners can see you and the board
• Learners can easily move into groups for group work
• Activity or workstations are included
• Materials and resources are easily accessible
• Wall space is utilised well
• Individual learners are seated in ways that best support their learning

EXPLAIN LAYOUT CHOICES

ACTIVITY 5.12
Write a paragraph explaining why you have made the layout choices you have made
and how they meet the criteria.

Clearing clutter in the classroom

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The overarching aim for teachers who work inclusively is to have enough stimuli in
the classroom to enable all learners to engage enthusiastically in, and make meaning
from, a learning task—but not so much that it detracts from learning.
In the classroom, clutter is anything that overwhelms learners and detracts from
learning. It could be connected to:
The physical space: for example, furniture in walkways, books and paper not put
away, too many displays or displays too “busy”. Distractibility decreases with age, so
for younger children in particular, too many and/or very colourful displays can
negatively affect learning. If you are a teacher of five- to seven-year-olds, you might
like to learn more about this area of research here: http://bit.ly/2JTQAVh
Materials: Sometimes materials—for example posters, worksheets, signage,
presentations (either on chalk board or using technology)—can be too “busy” with
text, pictures, colour, or a combination of these. Material that distracts or leads to
sensory overload can negatively impact learning. If you follow this style guide, which
has been designed for people with dyslexia, you will be ensuring that the largest
number of learners in your class can access your materials: http://bit.ly/2HIUpKn

Materials provided

We refer here to the materials your learners use that make it possible for them to
access learning equitably.
Some learners may also require assistive devices and/or technology that enable
them to have equitable access to learning. These devices range from low-tech (such
as pencil grips, glasses) to high-tech (such as hearing aids, speech-to-text software).
This film gives you a good idea of the range of assistive devices some learners need:
http://y2u.be/b0udSG_OyT0
Your School-Based Support Team (SBST) will be a good source of information and
advice about assistive devices, and will be able to help you adapt your teaching
accordingly.

5.4.3 Positive discipline

Traditional discipline practices, which are still common in South African schools,
begin from a negative view of learners’ nature (and human nature). They see
behavioural problems as a problem with particular learners rather than considering
larger contextual issues such as the curriculum and teaching methods.
The use of threats, punishments and rewards might result in learners’ temporary
compliance and obedience, but these are not effective for creating a warm, caring
and respectful learning community. What is often considered to be giving learners a

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choice—either comply or suffer the consequences—is in fact another way of
pressuring them into obeying teachers’ demands and requirements, and fails to teach
them responsible behaviour. Instead it teaches them how to avoid punishment or win
rewards.
Alfie Kohn (1996) realised that the discipline problems he experienced with some of
his own classes were not a result of learners who were insufficiently controlled but of
a curriculum that was insufficiently engaging (i.e. the learners weren’t trying to make
his life miserable, they were trying to make the time pass faster.) It occurred to him
that books on discipline almost never raise the possibility that when learners don’t do
what they are told, the problem may be with what they have been told to do or learn,
rather than with the learners themselves.
Positive discipline is an alternative approach that promotes learners’ self-control,
teaches them responsibility and helps them make thoughtful choices. The more
effective teachers are at encouraging appropriate learner behaviour, the less time
and effort they will need to spend correcting learners’ misbehaviour.
➢ Positive discipline: An approach to learner behaviour that
promotes learners’ self-control, teaches them responsibility and
helps them make thoughtful choices.
Effective positive discipline focuses on the development of the learner and ensures
that the learner’s self-esteem and dignity are preserved. Actions that acknowledge a
learner’s efforts and progress, no matter how slow or small, are likely to encourage
healthy development and positive attitudes towards schooling. Respect for others,
consideration, efficiency, pride of accomplishment, and security in knowing what,
how, when, and where to do something, are all positive characteristics of learners
who learn in well-organised classrooms. Implementing strategies that address these
areas can lead to increased academic achievement and a sense of pride and
belonging.
In order to implement positive discipline effectively, here are some essential things
you need to know about working with challenging behaviour.

• Understand the underlying reason for behaviour

Very few learners have clinical behavioural disorders. There is an underlying reason
for challenging behaviour in the majority of learners, which cannot be attributed to
innate naughtiness. Use your knowledge of learners’ lives and learning backgrounds
to consider why they might be misbehaving. Find out what is causing the behaviour
and put a plan in place to address it. Sometimes poor behaviour is a direct result of
poor teaching. If learners are frustrated, bored or do not find the teaching relevant or
interesting they may misbehave.

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FIGURE 5.11: WHAT IS THE PROBLEM?

• All behaviour is learnt

Children learn how to behave and they learn how to react in certain circumstances.
They learn this from their families, friends, teachers and people around them. Second
to their parents, you as teachers have the most influence when it comes to teaching
the behaviour you want to see in children. If children have not learnt appropriate
behaviour at home you will need to teach it to them. Don’t assume a learner knows
how to behave if no one has shown them.
Think about this: If Mike got a Maths sum wrong you would not send him out of the
class and punish him. You would reteach the Maths, show him how to do it correctly
and give him more chances to practise and get it right. Teaching behaviour is no
different. Punishing inappropriate behaviour does not help a learner to get it right.
You need to reteach, demonstrate and model the appropriate behaviour, and give
the learner a chance to think about, practise and learn what is expected. Much of our
rational thinking and decision-making goes on in the brain’s frontal cortex. If you want
a child to change their behaviour for the long term, this is the part of the brain that
needs to be engaged in the change. Punishment does not engage the frontal cortex.

• Corporal punishment is illegal

Corporal punishment was declared illegal in South Africa in 1996:

Prohibition of corporal punishment

(1) No person may administer corporal punishment at a school to a learner.

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 (2) Any person who contravenes subsection (1) is guilty of an offence and
liable on conviction to a sentence which could be imposed for assault (South
African Schools Act No 84 of 1996).
Furthermore, the DBE has stated that:
Corporal Punishment has been abolished. Educators and learners have to
learn the importance of mediation and cooperation, to seek and negotiate non-
violent solutions to conflict and differences and to make use of due process of
law (Protocol to deal with incidences of corporal punishment in schools, DBE,
2017).
In spite of this legislation, research shows that corporal punishment continues to be
used as a form of discipline in many South African schools. And corporal punishment
is not just an abuse of human rights. Research shows that it is not an effective means
of changing behavioural patterns for the better. In fact, punishments do little to help
a learner to understand why their behaviour was inappropriate, leading to real
behaviour change. They may seem to work in the short term but they actually lead to
increased behaviour issues in the long term. Instead of learning appropriate
behaviour, punishment teaches avoidance, leads to aggression, humiliates learners,
forces them to take a defensive stance, and encourages an us–them mentality.

WHY PUNISHMENT IS NOT EFFECTIVE

ACTIVITY 5.13
Read the following articles and answer the questions that follow: http://bit.ly/2WXLdbg
and http://bit.ly/2QhfpMk
1. What are some of the reasons given for why punishment is not effective?
2. In your own experience at school, what was the approach to behaviour
management? What were the positive consequences? What were the negative
consequences?
3. Where punishment was used, were some learners punished more than others?
Did it change their behaviour?
4. What alternatives to punishment are suggested? Can you think of any others?

• Positive behaviour reinforcement has proven to be most effective

If you actively teach, model and reinforce positive behaviours as opposed to always
focusing on negative behaviours, your learners will learn what is expected of them,
feel more valued and connected, and learn more effectively. Let’s explore one model
that enables teachers to do this in practice.

THE PBIS MODEL

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The Positive Behavioural Interventions and Supports Programme (PBIS) developed
in the US has been effectively implemented in countries around the world, including
South Africa. This model takes into account the essential features of effective
behaviour management as discussed above, and is based on the beliefs that:
• Behaviour expectations need to be actively taught.
• Positive reinforcement is more effective than punishment.
• Behaviour interventions need to be tiered.
Go to www.pbis.org for resources to learn more about and implement a PBIS
approach.
Just as you differentiate your teaching for different learning needs, you should also
differentiate behaviour interventions for learners with different behaviour support
needs. The PBIS model is based on a three-tier system of support, as illustrated here:

FIGURE 5.12: PBIS TIERS (WWW.PBIS.ORG)

➢ Tier 1 outlines the universal, school-wide interventions for all learners.

Approximately 80–90% of learners, once they understand the behaviour
expectations, respond to Tier 1 interventions.
➢ Tier 2 looks at more targeted interventions for 5–15% of the learner population
who, from the perspective of their behaviour, might be at risk of exclusion from
learning.
➢ Tier 3 puts more intensive interventions in place for 1–5% of learners with
chronic behaviour problems.
These tiers are described in more detail in the table below:

TABLE 5.4: PBIS DESCRIPTIONS

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Tier Prevention description
Preventing the development of new cases (incidences) of problem
behaviours.
1 Primary
(Universal) How? By implementing high quality learning environments for all
learners and staff and across all settings (i.e., school-wide, classroom,
and non-classroom).
Reducing the number of existing cases (prevalence) of problem
2 behaviours that are presenting high-risk behaviours and/or not
Secondar responsive to primary intervention practices.
y
(Targeted) How? By providing more focused, intensive, and frequent small-group-
oriented responses in situations where problem behaviour is likely.
Reducing the intensity of persistent problem behaviour that have not
3 Tertiary responded to primary and secondary prevention efforts.
(Intensive) How? By providing individualised responses to situations where problem
behaviour is likely.
Source: www.pbis.org

TIER 1 AND 2 CLASSROOM STRATEGIES

1. Actively teach the behaviour you want to see in the classroom

Re-teach it when necessary. Teaching behaviour involves the following approach:

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 Define appropriate behaviour. How to model appropriate
Model appropriate behaviour. behaviour:

Teach appropriate behaviour. Use a polite, friendly tone to

Con learners, as a class and as
siste Reinforce appropriate individuals. Be firm when
ntly behaviour. necessary.
Acknowledge appropriate Follow the classroom rules and
behaviour. behave as you would like the
learners to behave.

Take time to think and calm

2. Use positive language
down before you explode with
“Don’t run” doesn’t tell me what to do, only what not to anger and criticise, belittle or
do. “Walk in the corridor” tells me what is expected. threaten a learner.
Framing rules positively helps teach appropriate
If you have lost your temper in
behaviour. For example, “Be kind”, “Use your quiet
class, reflect on what happened
voice”.
and what you could do differently
3. Develop and teach predictable classroom to avoid it happening again.
routines
Well-established and consistently applied routines help
learners to know exactly what to do and when to do it. Routines for transitioning from
one task to another are also essential. A well-structured and efficient classroom goes
a long way towards building behaviour that is helpful for learning. Increase
predictability by warning learners of approaching change.
4. Be consistent
Respond to positive and negative behaviour in a consistent way, from one situation
to the next, and from one learner to another.
5. Give positive praise
Look for examples of good behaviour to Expect the best from all learners.
acknowledge and reinforce. All too often
teachers spend their day saying “Don’t do Build learners’ image of
this … Stop doing that … This is wrong …” themselves as trustworthy,
and too little time saying, “Well done for … responsible and cooperative.
Good job on ... Thank you for ….” Help learners see how their
6. Adopt fair and predictable actions affect others.
consequences
Consequences should not be punishments in disguise. The long-term goal should be
behavioural change, and consequences should aim at achieving that goal. For
example, a detention where the learner must write out “I will not be bad” 500 times
does not change behaviour. However, a detention where there is a conversation

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between the learner and the relevant adult that leads to an agreed plan for future
improvement is meaningful. Discussing and agreeing consequences with learners is
also more effective than determining these yourself, because if they share ownership
of consequences these become meaningful rather than arbitrary.
7. Negotiate a classroom behaviour code
Establishing the behaviour expectations in your classroom is an essential element of
an inclusive classroom environment. Learners need to know how they should work
together and the values that underlie these expectations, such as mutual respect.
Norms that emphasise cooperation and collaboration are best established together
with your learners. This signals to them that learning is social and done in the
company of others and that the primary role of the teacher is to foster learning rather
than control and confine them.
Here are some that you could adapt and expand to meet the needs of your class and
grade level:
• Treat others as you want to be treated.
• Respect other people and their property.
• Be responsible for your own learning.
• Come to class and hand in work on time.
• Work quietly when others are working around you.
A general guideline is that each norm should be brief and positively stated.
Statements that begin with the words “No” or “Don’t” are not helpful because learners
are left to guess what behaviour is acceptable. Focus on the desired behaviour,
rather than the one to be avoided.
Teach these expected behaviour norms regularly. Discuss each one individually,
explaining the rationale behind it. Model them yourself, for example how learners
should speak to each other in class and on the playground.

DRAW UP NORMS FOR YOUR GRADE

ACTIVITY 5.14
1. Draw up a set of norms that might be appropriate for your grade. Consider the
developmental level and socio-cultural background of your learners and use
language that is meaningful to them. Limit the number to about five and make sure
they are positively stated.
2. Discuss your draft rules with other students to get constructive feedback.
3. At the next opportunity, draw up class norms with learners—it is ideal to do this
activity in partnership with them so that they have equal ownership of them. Use

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 ideas from Section 5.5.3 to help you think about how this activity can be done in
groups.

8. Teach and practise active listening

Listening is an important skill, for both social and educational reasons. Help learners
to feel as if they are welcome and trusted members of the class community by giving
them your complete, undivided attention when they are speaking. Active listening
involves both verbal and nonverbal behaviours. Turn your body to the learner,
maintain eye contact, nod your head, use facial expressions (e.g., smile, look
interested), and use verbal cues (e. g. "Oh …" "That’s interesting").
Teach your learners how to be active listeners. Talk to them about the importance of
being a good listener. When planning a listening activity or experience, always give
learners a reason for why they are being asked to listen. They need to understand
what they need to listen for, not simply that they need to listen.
Prepare the class for the listening activity by ending any previous activity, getting rid
of noise and distraction, and creating a comfortable environment.
Teachers have for many years been developing ideas for promoting a positive
behaviour environment that works well in their class. Ideas for teaching and
encouraging appropriate behaviour can be found on the internet on websites and
blogs, and also through discussion with teaching peers. As you grow in your own
inclusive teaching practice you will also develop strategies that work well for you.
Some will work well in certain grades and not in others; different groups of children
will respond differently to strategies. It is important, therefore, to have a wide range
of ideas to choose from and to know where to find more.
Below are two examples of positive behaviour management ideas.

➢ Create classroom rituals

Creating classroom rituals can encourage positive feelings and help learners to bond
with each other. In many instances, classroom disruptions can be minimised if
effective class rituals are in place.
For example, if a teacher has a warm-up or do-now task written on the board when
learners enter the room, this gives them a lesson-centred framework for starting the
day. Learners are expected to sit in their seats and begin working when they enter
the class. While there may be times when this does not occur, just having a warm-up
ready each day means that learners have less free time to chat and become
disruptive.
Rituals can also be used to at the end of the day to encourage learners to reflect on
what they have learnt. Examples of activities could include learners:
• Drawing a picture of something they learnt that day.

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 • Writing a reflective paragraph in their journal.
• Writing a note to their teacher stating one thing they learnt during the day and
one thing that they need to work harder on.
• As a class, writing their own song to sing or poem to recite at the end of every
day.

➢ Have regular class meetings

Teachers can foster a supportive class culture by teaching learners problem-solving
and conflict-resolution skills. The teacher assigns a time of day when learners form
a circle and work together to discuss and solve classroom issues and problems.
Meetings like this can help create a sense of belonging and trust for learners, and
also encourage learners to work together to solve problems, at the same time
practising pro-social skills.
Suggested meeting items include:
• Appreciation of one another: This component of a classroom meeting provides
teachers with the opportunity to teach learners how to give compliments or
show appreciation to classmates, as well as how to receive appreciation and
compliments. The focus should be on qualities of the learner and things they
have accomplished (e.g., “Thank you for helping me learn my spelling words
for this week”), rather than on physical appearance.

• Conflict resolution and problem solving: In these activities learners work

together to help learners who have identified that they have an individual
problem; or the class works to solve a problem they feel they are having as a
whole (e.g., getting into trouble for littering in the school yard, or increasing
cyber bullying in the school). Learners work together to develop a list of
possible solutions, evaluate those solutions, and the learners involved in the
problem then select a solution to try. Learners also share how previous
problem-solving attempts have worked. This allows for further suggestions if
the previous solution was not successful.

Conflict resolution and problem solving are important skills that have
lifelong application for learners. Some schools aim to build these through
initiatives such as peer mediation (for an introduction see:
http://y2u.be/epqhqg1bt44) and restorative practice. Restorative practice in
schools is a way of resolving conflict that places repairing harm and
relationships at its heart in order to build stronger communities. You are aware
of South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission, and may be aware of
the use of restorative justice within the criminal justice sector; school
restorative practices are based on the same philosophy, but tailored for use in
education. If you’re interested in finding out more, here is an excellent place
to start: http://bit.ly/2I8cRft.

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 • Classroom encouragement activity: This is designed to give encouragement
to the entire class. One example is the classroom teacher writing personal notes
to each learner thanking them for something they did or acknowledging specific
improvements in academic achievement or behaviour (Edwards & Mullis, 2003).

HOW TO PROMOTE A POSITIVE BEHAVIOUR ENVIRONMENT

ACTIVITY 5.15
Do some research on the internet to find different ideas and tips that you think might
be useful to promote a positive behaviour environment in your class. You can also
look at this guide form the Western Cape Education Department for ideas:
http://bit.ly/2HspOSi
Keep in mind that these ideas should follow the principle that it is more effective to
reinforce appropriate behaviour than it is to punish bad behaviour.
Think about ways you could adapt these to make them relevant to classes you will
teach.
Copy the table below, and fill in your ideas.

Positive discipline strategy How to implement in class

TIER 3 CLASSROOM STRATEGIES

Tier 3 strategies are aimed at reducing the intensity of persistent problem behaviour
that has not responded to primary and secondary prevention efforts. This is done by
providing individualised responses to situations where problem behaviour is likely.

1. Drawing up a contract with the learner

For some learners the general guidelines for behaviour are not sufficient, and they
may need more intensive, individualised support. A behaviour contract is a good
example of a Tier 3 support strategy.
A contract is a joint agreement between learner and teacher to accomplish something
specific (e.g., a desired behaviour or an academic task). The behaviours described
in the contract must be something that the learner wants to change. For the contract
to be effective, the learner must be committed to changing their behaviour, and must

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be involved in deciding how it is going to work, for example, what the consequences
will be if the contract is broken.
This is a joint agreement and you will need to be prepared to play your part in making
the change happen. An honest conversation with a learner may reveal that some of
the ways you have been trying to manage their behaviour are making things worse
rather than helping. You must therefore also be committed to changing your
behaviour if necessary.
A contract is best developed through a one-to-one conversation between the teacher
and the learner. A useful principle for this conversation is, “Never tell what you can
ask”. It’s more effective to ask questions and really listen to each other’s answers,
rather than tell a child everything they have done wrong. If you go into “telling” mode
they are likely to switch off. Below are some helpful questions.

TABLE 5.4: HELPFUL QUESTIONS FOR CONVERSATIONS ABOUT BEHAVIOUR

Question Notes
What has been This question gives both teacher and learner an opportunity
happening? to talk about what behaviours they think are getting in the
way of learning. Be prepared as a teacher to hear things
you do that the learner is finding unhelpful, as well as what
they do.
What are you thinking Repeat this question for each problematic behaviour.
when [particular Answer it from your point of view too, when you find out that
behaviour] happens? something you have been doing is unhelpful. For example,
“I feel really frustrated when we are having a class
discussion and you interrupt; that’s why I raise my voice at
you.” This is a great opportunity for the learner to
understand that you are also human and that you are
prepared to express emotions. Obviously, you will only
share what you are comfortable with, using appropriate
language.
How is this affecting Here is a good opportunity to talk about how the behaviour
both of us? is affecting learning—both of the learner and others in the
class, your ability to teach, and your teacher-learner
relationship.
What needs to happen This is the place to discuss how things can get better in the
to fix things? How can future. It’s the place where an agreement that forms the
we make sure we don't contract is negotiated. What changes need to happen, the
end up in this situation timescale for the contract and reviewing arrangements are
again? all important here. So, too, is using the actual language the
learner uses—avoid “teacher-speak”. You may need to
reframe language so that it outlines behaviours that you do

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 want, rather than describing them negatively, e.g., “Ask
before borrowing equipment” rather than “Don’t take other
people’s equipment without asking”.
The contract is likely to include changes from both the
learner and you; if they see you are also willing to make
changes they are more likely to view the contract as fair and
stick to it.
If relationships have been affected, apologies often happen
at this point, but don’t force them—an insincere apology
usually makes things worse rather than better.

You can use the questions in this table with any learner when things go wrong at a
minor level (for more serious levels of harm you will need some training to keep
everyone safe). As long as you use them calmly, with an open mind, the commitment
to really listen to the learner, and a willingness to accept you could be part of the
problem, you’re likely to be pleasantly surprised at the outcomes.
Here is an example of a contract between a learner, Patricia, in Grade 5, and her
Natural Sciences teacher, Ms Ntuli. The contract is the result of a conversation they
had using the questions in Table 5.4.
CONTRACT <<BOX>>
Agreement between Patricia Esack and Ms Ntuli
Date:
I, Patricia Esack [learner], agree that during the next two days:
1. I will listen quietly to the others in the class when they are speaking.
2. If I need help, I will remember to:
• check in my head once more that I really am stuck
• look at the board and my book again to see if I can find the answer to my
question
• use Three Before Me*
• then put my hand up if I still need help from Ms Ntuli
3. I will ask my friends before I borrow their things.

I, Ms Ntuli [teacher], agree that during the next two days:

1. I will remind Patricia about listening through eye contact whenever possible and
by putting my finger to my lips, rather than remind her using words.
2. I will let Patricia know as soon as I have seen her hand up and give her a rough
estimate of how long she will need to wait for her turn for help.
3. I will notice when Patricia is sticking to this agreement, even when she finds it
hard, and will give her a thumbs-up and a smile.

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 We will review the contract together on ………… . If Patricia has been making a
good effort, Ms Ntuli will then call Patricia’s mother after the end of school to let her
know.
Signed:
Learner: ___________________________
Teacher: ___________________________

* Three Before Me involves asking three peers for help before asking the teacher.
It is a useful strategy as it promotes perseverance and independent and
collaborative learning skills. It also means, in large classes, that your attention can
be focused on learners who need it most.

<<ENDS>>
DRAWING UP A CONTRACT
ACTIVITY 5.16
Think about a learner whose behaviour you have found challenging in the past.
If you’d had a chance to have a positive conversation with this learner, using the
questions in the table above, what agreements do you think you might come to? Draw
up a contract you think would have been helpful. Make sure your language stays
positive—avoid “don’t” and “no”.

Contracts may be made for short periods, for example a class period, a school day,
or a week. For example, for a learner who has difficulty organising their time and
structuring their own activities, it would not be helpful to make a contract for the entire
term—smaller chunks of time work better.
Consistency is vital. If you or the learner break the contract, a further reflective
conversation about what happened and how to prevent this happening again will be
needed. Behaviour habits can be hard to change, so be prepared to give learners
time to practise and to make mistakes.
You will see many examples of behaviour contracts that use rewards such as
stickers, tokens or extra time for a favourite activity. While these can be effective in
the short term for younger children, they lose their appeal and effectiveness as
learners get older. What is more likely to be effective is positive feedback from the
school to an adult the learner respects (usually a family member). Even when things
haven’t gone perfectly, if the learner has been making a real effort you as their
teacher can feed this back to an adult who matters to them. This positive feedback is
likely to motivate the learner to persevere.
As with the other strategies, care must be taken to avoid marginalising the learner by
the use of the contract. To support inclusive principles, it is best to view the contract
as a private agreement between you and the learner; it may be better—unless you
both agree otherwise—not to talk about it in front of other learners in class.

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 2. School-wide intervention strategies

The key to a successful positive behaviour management approach is consistency.

This means not only consistency in the way you manage behaviour in the classroom,
but also consistency in the way the whole school approaches
Be safe
it. The whole school should share the same values and
promote the same behaviour in all areas of the school at all Be responsible
times.
Be respectful
• Choose core values and actively promote them. Clearly
display them around the school and promote them at all
times.
• Always be on the lookout for good behaviour.

EXAMPLE
Pinelands North Primary School, Cape Town
“Caught in the act … of being good!*”
Throughout the school, teachers, staff and visitors are encouraged to acknowledge
good behaviour. To facilitate this the school has “Caught in the act … of being good!”
slips that can be filled with the learner’s name, the details and date, and handed in
at the office. Just before break the principal reads them out over the intercom and a
note is sent home. It has shifted the focus from constantly looking out for bad
behaviour to actively seeking out good behaviour. It has caught on to such an extent
that even people in the community responded.
A woman was shopping at the nearby Spar supermarket and a Pinelands North
Primary learner offered to take her grocery bags to her car. She went to the school
and filled out a “Caught in the act …. of being good!” slip!

• As well as “Caught in the act of being good!”, try “Caught in the act of being
better!” This will give an even wider scope for this positive reinforcement
strategy.
• Most incidents of bullying or fighting happen outside structured classroom
spaces, for example the corridors or playground. Strategic adult supervision
in these areas can help to minimise these. Peer mediators can also help
resolve everyday, more minor conflicts in these areas.
• On the first day of the term include behaviour expectations as part of the
orientation. Walking learners around the school and explaining the appropriate
behaviour for each area is very effective. For example, “This is how we walk
in these corridors, this is where you line up for tuck shop, and this is a quiet
area where we only whisper.”

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 5.4.4 Affirming diversity

Affirming diversity means promoting diversity as a normal and positive part of

everyday life in your classroom. Doing this increases the level of understanding we
have of each other—both in terms of the richness of our differences and the things
we share as human beings. If we don’t understand our differences, we can’t respect,
honour and celebrate them: “We can’t embrace what we don’t know” (Lesufi, 2017).
And we won’t find out unless we ask and then make sure everyone is listened to.
Hearing, and really listening to, the voices of learners on the receiving end of
intersectional inequalities that exist as a legacy of apartheid is therefore particularly
important in terms of understanding and embracing diversity in South Africa. As
Lesufi (ibid.) in his call for diversity to be taught in schools across South Africa, puts
it, “We can’t leverage the benefit of our diverse groups if we don’t allow their voices
and opinions to matter.”
What might affirming diversity look like in practice? Firstly, how does what you do
impact on whether diversity is affirmed or not in your classroom? Secondly, what
sorts of activities can you organise that enable learners to appreciate and affirm each
other’s diversity?

THE IMPORTANCE OF AFFIRMING DIVERSITY

ACTIVITY 5. 17
Watch this one-minute-long film based on research about the impact of teacher
behaviour on learners: http://bit.ly/2QwjJYc
When you have watched it once, go back and pause it at 31 seconds to look more
carefully at specific teacher behaviours and their impact. Make a note of these
behaviours as we will refer to them again later in the activity.
According to the research behind this short film, identity-based assumptions lead to
the most negative behaviour towards learners in our classrooms. We all make
assumptions and in Learning Unit 3 we explored the ways our assumptions can
damage learning and relationships in the classroom.
1. If you feel you need to revisit your assumptions, spend a couple of minutes now
asking yourself, “What are some of the identity-based assumptions I have made
about people?” Acknowledging these is the first step towards changing them.
2. At the other end of the spectrum, cultural acknowledgment appeared to be the
most helpful teacher behaviour for positively affirming learners’ identities. Watch
this example of how one teacher puts this behaviour, and others indicated in the
film, into action: http://y2u.be/I0jgcyfC2r8
3. Which of the other affirming behaviours from the previous film is the teacher
showing here?

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4. How do you think these behaviours, through the handshakes, affirm learners’
diversity in his classroom? How do you think they might feel when they enter the
classroom?
5. Using the affirming behaviours from the first film, think about and note down as
many ways through which you can affirm diversity in your classroom. If possible,
compare and contrast these to those of other learners.
6. In particular, how can you make sure that the voices and opinions of all of your
learners are heard in your classroom?

Academics from the University of Bristol worked with teachers of Religious Education
in the UK to research this area called “Shared Spaces” (Jones, Williams & Orchard,
2018). Their evidence indicates the following five broad activity areas for the
classroom:
1. Interaction between learners, and between learners and the local community
2. Learning about difference
3. Challenging stereotypes (the teacher also plays an important role here)
4. Empathising with others who are different from themselves
5. Celebrating diversity

5.4.4.1 Affirming diversity through Indigenous Knowledge Systems

Read the section headed: “Planning the integration of indigenous knowledges”

(http://bit.ly/2WI03XF: 100–104) and do the following activity.
➢ Indigenous Knowledge Systems: The complex set of knowledge,
skills and technologies existing and developed around specific
conditions of populations and communities indigenous to a particular
geographic area.

AFFIRMING DIVERSITY BY LINKING INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE (IK) TO CURRICULUM

CONTENT<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 5.18
1. Refer to the CAPS for your subject and grade level and plan a lesson integrating
IK and curriculum content.
2. Think about what kind of IK to integrate into your lesson. How will you ensure
maximum participation by all your learners in the lesson?
3. List the possible benefits learners will gain from the lesson.

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 4. Decide what teaching and learning methods you will use and explain your
choices. <<ENDS>>

5.4.5 Allowing space for the learners’ voices

Here we are concerned with the experiences of the individuals participating in

learning. Allowing appropriate time and space for learners to make connections
between learning and their own experiences, and express these, is important for
engagement and helps to make learning “stick”.
Through making space for the learners’ voices, teachers can actively encourage and
enable the sharing of responsibility in the classroom and across the school. By having
a voice in decision-making about classroom and school values, behaviours, physical
environments and routines, learners contribute to achieving a productive, purposeful
and harmonious working and learning atmosphere. This atmosphere supports, and
is supported by, a cooperative learning approach, which engenders pro-social skills
such as empathy, respect, and support for others’ learning and social needs. Peer
learning, cooperative learning and group work will be covered in detail in the following
sections.
• The amount of teacher talk
Teachers have a habit of talking too much or in the wrong ways! For example: talking
too much; talking too fast; too many instructions at once; unclear or complicated
instructions; talking too soon after questioning so learners don’t have enough thinking
time.
The following paragraph from the Visible Learning Project gives some useful
information about the optimum amount of teacher talk, and the type of teacher talk
that is particularly helpful:
The target range for you to be talking is 30–50%, with the “high” range
reaching from 51–79%, and “very high” being over 80%. It’s important not to
have too high a TTT percentage, because learners benefit from opportunities
to demonstrate their learning through engagement and discussion. Keep in
mind though, that quality of teacher talk is important! If you are giving
personalised presentation, questioning learners, engaging in natural
conversation, or providing anecdotes/stories to promote engagement and
understanding, then high teacher talk is beneficial. Always keep the context of
your class in mind (Visible Classroom Team, 2017).

THINK ABOUT TEACHER TALK

ACTIVITY 5.19

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Too much teacher talk in a classroom is extremely common. Think about your own
experience as a learner. Did you have a teacher who talked too much, or unhelpfully?
How did this affect your learning? How can teachers cut down on unnecessary teacher
talk?

• Noise level
Noise levels in the classroom can sometimes get too high for optimum concentration
or for learners to hear the teacher clearly, which will affect comprehension levels.
Some learners who are more sensitive to sensory overload may also find high noise
levels very stressful.
Some teachers find using a chart like Figure 5.13 helpful to keep noise at a good
level for learning. This will be particularly important for overcrowded classrooms with
many learners and acoustics that do not help the situation:

FIGURE 5.13: VOICE LEVELS

Through a chart like this, teachers and learners can agree on and maintain noise
levels that are right for activities in the classroom and make sure that everyone is
able to learn effectively. If, as activities progress, noise levels are rising, you can use
the chart as a reminder. During group work you can allocate a role to someone to
monitor noise.
It is also important to have a range of strategies for reducing noise levels in classes
without having to raise your own voice over your learners’ voices (which will just
make the noise level rise). The following video shows you five ways of doing this,
using both verbal and non-verbal strategies:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jOthR55now0.
This concludes the section on creating an inclusive classroom environment where all
learners feel valued as members of the classroom community and motivated to learn
and achieve to the best of their ability.

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We will now turn our attention to teaching and learning strategies that will support
you in your goal of providing quality learning opportunities for all the learners in your
class.

5.5 Using inclusive teaching and learning strategies

This section introduces you to teaching and learning strategies you can use to make
your teaching more inclusive. Once you have explored these strategies in detail, you
should then be able to plan lessons that take diverse learner needs into account and
offer rich opportunities for all learners to achieve success in learning.
The first strategy we will look at is scaffolding.

5.5.1 Scaffolding

FIGURE 5.14: SCAFFOLDING

• What is scaffolding?
In construction, a scaffold is a temporary structure that is erected around an
unfinished building, supporting the structure until it is sufficiently stable to stand on
its own. If you’ve learnt to ride a bike, you’ll remember that someone probably helped
you at first, by holding on to the bike and then letting go as you became more
confident. Scaffolding in teaching is similar to this, and to the scaffolding used in the
building construction. Instructional scaffolds are temporary support structures
teachers put in place to help learners in mastering new tasks and concepts they can’t

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master on their own. The teacher builds a support structure based on what learners
already know, as new skills or concepts are introduced. As they work on tasks,
learners become less dependent on these support structures, which can be removed
gradually. The responsibility for learning shifts from the teacher to the learner. The
scaffolding process helps guide the learners through their “zone of proximal
development”, as shown in Figure 5.15.
➢ Scaffolding: Temporary instructional support structures the
teacher puts in place to help learners to master new tasks and
concepts they cannot master on their own.

➢ Zone of proximal development: The difference between what a

learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help.
The concept was developed by Soviet psychologist and social
constructivist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934).
(www.innovativelearning.com/.../zone-of-proximal-
development.html)

FIGURE 5.15: VYGOTSKY’S ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (HTTPS://BIT.LY/2KBA5SV)

One of the main benefits of scaffolded instruction is that it provides for a supportive
learning environment. Because the learning tasks are clear and manageable, as well
as related to learners’ experiences, they interest learners and enable them to get
involved with the learning. Using scaffolds for concepts or skills that learners have
had difficulty with, or new material that is potentially difficult or abstract, will help
increase learners’ confidence, as well as reducing their frustration and anxiety levels.
More complex content might require a number of scaffolds given at different times to
help learners master the content.
Scaffolding is not about giving learners answers. At all times the focus is on learners
finding solutions themselves. Even at the beginning of the scaffolding process it is
therefore important to ask questions, rather than give the answers, if a learner gets
something wrong.

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• Implementing scaffolding strategies
A teacher using scaffolding might break down a lesson into a series of “mini-lessons”.
The first mini-lessons might contain more scaffolded support, for example:
1. Building on prior knowledge and learner experience.
2. Modelling what the learners need to do or achieve.
3. Breaking down the learning into steps (often called “chunking”).
4. Giving step-by-step instructions.
5. Providing cue cards (reminders of key information that learners need to reach
the learning outcome, including vocabulary, sentence starters, formulae,
questions for discussion).
6. Encouraging use of first language in discussion or thinking processes to
increase understanding.
7. Pre-learning vocabulary needed for later in the learning.
8. Using graphic organisers.
9. Using visual cues like gestures, pictures, diagrams.
10. Using short excerpts of a longer text as a basis for discussion—the longer text
is introduced later in the learning process.
11. Verbalising the thinking process while solving a problem (sometimes called
“think-alouds”).
12. Giving hints—suggestions and clues, for example, “Maybe add the water
before the acid”, “How about starting that sentence with ‘As a result …’?”
13. Giving time to practise chunks of learning before moving on to new chunks.
As the “mini-lessons” progress, the teacher reduces the amount of scaffolding and
gradually hands over more independence to the learners as their confidence grows.

OBSERVE SCAFFOLDING IN ACTION

ACTIVITY 5.20
Here are two short films about scaffolding in action:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hWDbSx_kdo (younger learners)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9gNjGD_W3dM (older learners)
Watch both—the first is at a slower pace and is a good introduction; the second moves
along at a faster pace so if it’s helpful to pause at points along the way, please do.
1. Watch the films with the list above in mind, and focus on the classroom practice.
How many of these strategies can you spot being used? Were there any others?

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2. These films are both from the USA, and while they are useful for highlighting
strategies, these teachers may teach in very different contexts to yours. In your
context, which scaffolding strategies would be most useful? Why?

5.5.2 Differentiated teaching and learning

• What is the difference between scaffolding and differentiation?

Scaffolding and differentiation are often seen as the same, but as we have seen,
scaffolding is an approach with its own definition and strategies. Very simply put, the
main difference is that scaffolding is what teachers do—they put support structures
in place to help learners master new tasks and concepts that they cannot master on
their own. Differentiation is what teachers and learners do. Teachers create the
conditions and environment for learners to make their differentiated choices, so
increasing their ownership of learning, agency, decision-making and independent
learning skills. The example below illustrates the difference between scaffolding and
differentiation, but also shows that scaffolding is very much a part of a differentiated
approach to teaching and learning.
“Children already come to us differentiated, it just makes sense that we would
differentiate our instruction in response” (David Rose, CAST)

EXAMPLE: DIFFERENTIATION IN THE CLASSROOM<<BOX>>

Ms Memela is working with Grade 4 learners on the following learning outcome: Learning
how the body takes in oxygen and releases carbon dioxide.
In the previous lesson the class learnt about the relevant anatomy and gases so they have
been introduced to relevant vocabulary. For this lesson, she organises the learners into
mixed-ability groups of four children in each group. The task is to find out what happens to
the lungs, ribs and diaphragm when oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is released.
In terms of differentiating the process of learning, for this task some learners find
information in books. Others search the sources from the internet that Ms Memela has
printed and brought with her to class. Others observe each other to see what happens
when they breathe in and out.
To scaffold learning, Ms Memela provides:
1. A clear list of stages in the breathing process that she wants them to focus on—
each stage has a corresponding visual image and she provides space for note-
taking for each stage.
2. Key vocabulary cards to aid discussion and note-taking.
3. Sentence starters for each stage of the process—she draws attention to these,
makes it clear that they are an accepted part of the learning process, and leaves
them in an accessible place for learners to collect if they need them. She has an
idea of who might need the sentence starters, but doesn’t want to pre-judge.
Instead, she makes sure she monitors the groups these children are part of and
suggests they use them if she sees they need them.
In the next lesson, the groups begin to produce a presentation that demonstrates their
understanding. They can choose what product they will create as the basis for their

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 presentation, for example a poster, role-play, demonstration or written summary (these are
examples of differentiation by product). All learners use their notes from the last lesson.
Some use the key vocabulary cards, but many have internalised the key vocabulary and
no longer need this piece of scaffolding.

<<ENDS>>

• What is differentiated teaching and learning?

WHAT DOES DIFFERENTIATED TEACHING AND LEARNING MEAN FOR YOU?

ACTIVITY 5.21
1. What do you understand by “differentiated teaching and learning”?
2. What questions does it raise in your mind?
3. What do you think this term means for your day-to-day teaching practice?
4. What differentiation strategies do you already know about?

As you saw from Figure 5.15, learners move through a zone of proximal development
as they are learning. They begin with knowledge, understanding and skills they are
already familiar with, and move, through a guided learning process, to master a new
piece of knowledge or a new skill. Learners may encounter a range of challenges
throughout the learning process; these might arise from: curriculum content and
language; classroom organisation; teaching methodologies; pace of teaching and
lack of time available to complete the curriculum; teaching and learning support
materials and assessment (DoE, 2001).
The South African National Curriculum Statement (CAPS) is quite clear that, while all
schools are required to offer the same curriculum to learners, in order to support all
learners fully through the learning process, they must ensure variations in modes of
delivery and assessment processes. These variations require teachers to develop
strategies for differentiating teaching and learning. These strategies are commonly
referred to as “differentiation”.
➢ Differentiation: A range of strategies used by teachers to
ensure that what and how learners learn, and how they show
their learning, matches their readiness level, interests and
ways of making meaning.
CAPS specifies the content to be taught, but it is up to teachers to plan how they will
teach it to different learners in their classroom so that all learners can access learning,
that is, how they will differentiate. The CAPS Guidelines for responding to learner
diversity in the classroom (DBE, 2011) is a tool to help teachers achieve this. This
section will expand on and explain some of the important aspects of differentiated
teaching and learning as outlined in the Guidelines.
Differentiated teaching and learning starts from the premise that “information
becomes knowledge when the learner can process and apply it” (O’Brien & Guinney,

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2001: 2). Teachers therefore need to consider the different ways learners are able to
process and apply information—the way they make meaning from it—and plan
teaching and learning with these in mind. Building on this starting point Tomlinson,
who has written extensively about this area, describes it as the process of “ensuring
that what a student learns, how he/she learns it, and how the student demonstrates
what he/she has learnt is a match for that student’s readiness level, interests, and
preferred mode of learning” (Tomlinson, 2004: 88).
In relation to the curriculum, this is a way of thinking about how we teach our learners
and how they learn, and of providing instruction that meets their needs, abilities and
interests (Global Education Digest, 2004).
Before we go any further, we want to make a few important points. Firstly,
differentiation is not about having to create individual lesson plans for each child in
your class. Nor is it about thinking about your class in a way that separates them into
groups of “all”, “most” and “some”. We have seen in Learning Unit 2 that thinking in
this way reinforces bell-curve thinking. Teaching by “sorting” learners into “more” or
“less” able groups marginalises some members of the class and denies the reality
and depth of diversity.
Inclusive pedagogy is defined not by the choice of strategy but by its use (Florian &
Black-Hawkins, 2011). In inclusive pedagogy, differentiation starts from thinking
about the class as a whole: “shaking up what goes on in the classroom, so that
students have multiple options for taking in information, making sense of ideas and
expressing what they learn” (Tomlinson, 2014). + ``
Inclusive differentiated teaching and learning involves teachers:
• Learning about practical ways of modifying, changing, adapting, extending
and varying: teaching methodologies; teaching strategies; assessment
strategies; and the content of the curriculum.
• Making decisions about which of these ways will enable all learners in a
particular class and particular learning situation to access and be fully
engaged in learning. In this way, teachers increase the choices they give
to learners about their learning, so increasing their ownership of learning,
agency, decision-making and independent learning skills.

The overall aim of differentiation is equity to ensure that everyone in the classroom
can equally take part in, and succeed in, learning. A strong inclusive approach for
differentiation that supports equity is where everyone works towards the same
learning outcome but learners are given choices about how they respond, either
within a given medium or by being able to choose from a variety of media.
Differentiation, therefore, is not simply “a variety of activities”. It is a process that is
unique to each context and is continually developing. There is no “how to” recipe for
differentiating teaching and learning. Because of our prior experiences, we all start
from different places in our understanding of it, and it can therefore be translated into
classroom practice in many ways.

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However, it is possible to identify certain underlying principles and approaches to
differentiation.
Firstly, as we can already see from the introduction to this section, differentiating
teaching and learning is about teachers being prepared to develop flexibility in their
approaches to teaching as well as learners’ approaches to learning.
Differentiated teaching and learning requires teachers to recognise that:
• All learners are different and are capable of some achievement.
• Every class is a mixed-ability group.
• It is essential to know individual learners well in order to be responsive, that is,
so that you can know which strategy to choose at which time for which
learners.
• Learners with specific learning needs, like their peers, are all on a “continuum
of learning”. This makes formative assessment even more important as we
cannot assume learners will always be operating at the same level. We will
return to formative assessment in-depth later in the unit.

Remember, the key point is to use differentiation strategies without calling attention
to difference in a way that stigmatises or marginalises some learners. The best way
to do this is to assess the range of needs of the class as a whole, and offer various
options that will meet everyone’s needs.
Let’s explore how you might do this in more detail.

5.5.2.1 Implementing differentiated teaching and learning: Tomlinson’s model

Many models of differentiation have been developed over the years, each with its
unique range of strategies. Carol Tomlinson (Tomlinson & Moon, 2013) uses this
diagram to explain the key elements of effective differentiation:

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FIGURE 5.16: TOMLINSON’S MODEL OF DIFFERENTIATION (TOMLINSON & MOON, 2013)

Let’s unpack this model in more detail by looking at the following four aspects:
1. Mindset
2. Principles of differentiation
3. Readiness, interest and learning profile
4. Components of differentiation

1. Mindset
Throughout this course you have learnt that being an inclusive teacher means making
sure every child in your class is actively engaged in and achieving some success in
learning. You know that every class is made up of a diverse group of learners and
that a “one-size-fits-all” approach to teaching excludes or marginalises some
learners. Tomlinson’s message is that teachers need the right mindset to view
differentiation as an essential approach to teaching that responds proactively to
learner needs.
The mindset she is talking about stems from the teacher’s belief that learner success
comes from effort and not from a fixed ability level. With the right instruction and
support all learners can achieve success in learning.

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Tomlinson and Moon state:
Mindset isn’t just about believing. It’s about enacting those beliefs—
living them out—hour by hour, day by day, plan by plan. Everything else
that follows about differentiation has the aim of helping us live out the
belief that every student is capable and worthy. That they can do what’s
necessary for success and that we can do what’s necessary to support
that success (Tomlinson & Moon, 2013).

“My teacher thought I was smarter than I was—so I was” (6-year-old)

A teacher with high expectations of every learner and with the mindset that they must
do everything possible to give each child the resources and support they need to
realise their potential, is a teacher who creates an enabling environment for learning
to take place. Such a teacher differentiates their teaching to give each learner what
they need to succeed.

2. Principles of differentiation
Tomlinson believes that curriculum and assessment, instruction, and classroom
leadership and management work together to create the foundation for effective
differentiation.

➢ Curriculum and assessment: what learners need to learn and how they are
progressing academically

Tomlinson believes that a quality curriculum should:

1. have clear goals for what learners should know, understand and be able to do
2. result in understanding of content as opposed to mere rote learning of content
(comprehension)
3. engage learners in the process of learning (be relevant, interesting and
enjoyable)

ANALYSE MR SINGH’S DIFFERENTIATION STRATEGIES

ACTIVITY 5.22
Refer back to the case study in Section on transformative thinking in a school context.
Consider the differentiation strategies used by Mr Singh by answering the following
questions about his learners:
1. What would their learning goals be?
2. How did Mr Singh make sure they understood the content?

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 3. What did he do to engage them in the process of learning?
4. Can you draw out any learning from this exercise that might impact on the
way you plan goals, to ensure understanding and ways of engaging your
learners?

➢ Instruction: how teachers teach and how learners experience learning

Tomlinson and Moon highlight the importance of instruction in differentiation by

stating that “Instruction is at the core of differentiation because the ultimate goal of
differentiation is to ensure that each student has the best possible learning
experiences in order to maximize academic growth” (Tomlinson & Moon, 2013).

➢ Classroom leadership and management: the way the classroom functions or is

organised to achieve maximum learning for all

Classroom management does not equal control! Tomlinson suggests that instead we
should think about creating a classroom in which teaching and learning can proceed
predictably and productively with a balance between structure and flexibility.

3. Readiness, interests and learning profile

Tomlinson argues that teachers differentiate according to learners’ readiness,
interests and learning profile. Renzulli and Renzulli (2010) support this, saying that
differentiation is about the decisions and choices teachers make about how to
differentiate the curriculum for a diverse group of learners. They state, “Differentiation
requires that teachers consider their students’ learning styles, interests, abilities, and
expression styles—and that they accept the freedom, flexibility, and creativity to
implement this process in the classroom.”
• Readiness: Tomlinson stresses that readiness does not mean ability or
capacity to learn. It simply refers to where the learner is in relation to the
learning goals, that is, what they should know, understand and be able to do.
Based on this a teacher can plan what the learner needs in order to succeed.

• Interests: Teachers should engage learners using what is appealing to them.

Learners will learn best when their passions, dreams, talents and skills are
being activated and they can connect to what is being taught through these.

• Learning profile: We all have different ways of making meaning from learning
shaped by our culture, gender, environment and make-up. These differences
need to be considered when differentiating for teaching and learning.

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To summarise: Differentiated teaching and learning means making learning
relevant, interesting, engaging and suited to the different ways in which children
learn.

4. Components of differentiation
The four components of differentiation are:
1) Content
2) Process
3) Product
4) Classroom environment
We will now explore each of these components in turn.

1) CONTENT

➢ Content is what we teach and what the learner is

expected to know, understand and do.

The curriculum must allow for learners to discover the bridges between ideas and
fields of study and the paths to new learning. In this way, flexible, needs-based
approaches are used to deliver lesson content in a manner that fits the needs of
individual learners. This is not a dilution of the content, but rather a graded process
whereby learners are taken by different routes to a similar endpoint. Some learners
require an advanced level of content, while others may be dealing with what is being
taught in the grade, or previous grades.

EXAMPLE<<BOX>>
In a Grade 4 lesson on multiplication the teacher can adjust the content available
to suit the skill levels of different learners or groups in the class. Learners could
choose from content that involves multiplying single-digit numbers or single and
double-digit numbers. Everyone is learning about multiplication, and is therefore
working towards a common learning outcome, but the content is differentiated.
Learners can also be directed, as part of the lesson, to differentiate their own
content using the DBE Rainbow Workbook to practise their skills
independently.<<ENDS>>

There are three key levels at which this variation of content can happen:
➢ Abstraction: In any curriculum we have facts, definitions, descriptions,
patterns, relationships, key concepts and generalisation. Depending on

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 learners’ readiness, they might access the content at a concrete or abstract
level.
➢ Complexity: Many concepts and skills within the curriculum can be complex
and difficult to understand for some learners.
➢ Variety: To cater for learners’ levels of functioning, their prior learning and
their interests we need to offer a variety of ways for them to access content.

VARYING THE CONTENT

ACTIVITY 5.23
Read and digest the three levels above. Think about a concept or skill that learners
need to learn in a subject you will be teaching. Give an example of something you
could do to help learners:
• access learning at a concrete level
• understand a more complex concept or skill
• offer a variety of choice in how they access content

INTRODUCING A SKILL OR CONCEPT

ACTIVITY 5.24
Think about the same concept or skill you identified for ACTIVITY 5.23.
How many ways can you think of to deliver an introductory activity for the skill or the
concept? Be as creative as you can.

2) PROCESS
➢ Process is how the learner will internalise or come to
master the facts, concepts and skills.

There are many ways to differentiate activities to ensure maximum involvement and
participation of all learners in the lesson. Offering the same activity to all will inevitably
exclude some learners from effective participation.
Teachers can differentiate process by offering learners a variety of learning materials,
activities and questions that cater for different abilities, interests and needs. Let’s look
at some examples.

TABLE 5.6: DIFFERENTIATING TEACHING AND LEARNING USING A VARIETY OF ELEMENTS

Element to be
differentiated Examples

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Materials Tactile: boxes, blocks, beans, beads, counters, modelling
clay, fruit and vegetables, household objects, seashells,
rocks, plants
Visual material: pictures, newspaper adverts, symbols and
signs
Text material including magazines, newspaper and online
articles, books
Graphic organisers: mind maps, flow charts, graphs, tables
Audio-visual: films, music, podcasts
Presentation of task Simplify a picture or diagram (without compromising the
complexity of the related question).
Supplement a picture or diagram with a written, film,
movement-based or audio explanation, or a written
explanation with a picture, diagram, model, film, audio.
Replace a picture or diagram with a real item or model, or a
film.
Activities Use a variety of individual, pair, small and whole-class
groupings.
Use a variety of processes and products that cover many
ways of meaning making, e.g., drama, dance, text, number,
music, talk—allow learners some choice.
Use a variety of settings, e.g., classroom, playground, local
community, further afield.
Questioning Within a supportive learning environment:
Use a mixture of closed and open questions.
Plan questions that include a full range of lower and higher
order thinking skills.
Tailor questions to learners so they meet the right level of
challenge (just beyond their level of comprehension or
experience is a good place to aim for).
Give learners time to think before you expect an answer—
this may even involve you giving them questions the day
before.
Scaffold questions, e.g., What did you think before? What do
you think now? Can you tell me one way that you’ve changed
your mind?

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 Paraphrase answers from learners to the class in ways that
everyone will understand and can learn from.

OTHER WAYS TO INTRODUCE A SKILL OR CONCEPT

ACTIVITY 5.25
Look back to your notes from ACTIVITY 5.24, where you thought of a number of ways
of delivering an introductory activity. Compare your notes with the suggestions above.
What new ways can you think of to deliver this introductory activity?

3) PRODUCT

➢ Product is what learners will produce in order for you to

assess their learning in relation to the learning outcome.

Differentiating by product means that learners have a choice of how they demonstrate
their learning to you. In the same way that you can use a variety of ways of introducing
learners to curriculum content, and taking them through the process of learning, what
they produce can also be varied, either within the same medium or across a range of
media. To reiterate, giving learners choice over what they produce for assessment is
likely to improve their feelings of autonomy and therefore their engagement.
One way of differentiating product is to create a choice board. It is easy and simple
to design and implement in the classroom and can help promote learning, as well as
stimulate learner motivation and engagement. It is also inexpensive to construct.

➢ Choice boards

Choice boards are graphic organisers that help learners learn or practise a concept,
while allowing them a choice. Choice boards consist of a number of squares, each of
which contains an activity to assess the learners’ level of understanding. Learners
can be instructed to choose one or more of these activities to complete. They can
progress from one activity to another, either in an organised or random order.

Here is an example of a choice board for a Grade 5 reading lesson:

Choice board for Grade 5 reading lesson
Draw a picture of the main Perform a play that shows Write a song about one of
character. the conclusion of a story. the main events in the story
or a character.

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Write a poem about two Make a poster that shows Dress up as your favourite
main events in the story. the order of events in the character and perform a
story. speech telling others who
you are.
OR
Name and draw a person
you know who is like one of
the characters in the story.
Create a Venn diagram Use a sequence cartoon or Write a new ending for the
comparing and contrasting a timeline to describe at story.
three characters in the least six events in the story.
story.
FIGURE 5.17: A CHOICE BOARD

Choice boards give learners the power to choose how they will demonstrate
understanding of a particular subject or concept. This freedom encourages them to
be more responsible, accountable and independent in their learning, and to discover
the learning for themselves. It also allows them to work on the activities at their own
pace. The boards are useful for teachers as they use learner interests and
preferences to stimulate active learning and learner engagement.

Tips for designing a choice board

• Identify the core concept or academic goal that the learners need to
understand and achieve.

• Plan the activities so that the choice board provides learners with a variety of
ways of learning the concept.

• Identify the learners’ interests, preferences and levels of readiness.

• The activities can designed to be at different levels of complexity and can be
arranged on the board in an increasing order of difficulty.
• Additional instructions for each task can be included, including whether to
complete the task individually, in pairs or in groups.
• One square can also be a “free choice” allowing learners to create and
perform an activity of their own choice.
• Include a variety of ways through which learners can make meaning—writing,
drawing, talking, acting, making music, making up a game, etc.
It may not be practical to have choice boards for every lesson, but giving learners at
least a choice between two or three options via a “learning menu” provides more

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meaningful learning opportunities for a greater number of learners. Here is a short
example of a learning menu in action:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0YMafOelxsA

CREATE A CHOICE BOARD

ACTIVITY 5.26
Create a choice board that would be effective in your classroom context.

How you assess tasks is also key to differentiation. We will explore this in more detail
in the Assessment for learning section later in the unit.

4) CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT

➢ Flexibility in the way you arrange your classroom,

manage routines and facilitate learning through a
learner-centered approach is key.

You can differentiate the classroom environment by paying attention to the social,
emotional and physical factors that shape the learning environment. The impact of
socio-emotional and physical aspects of the learning environment on learners’
classroom experiences was covered in Section 5.4.<<AUTHOR: Please check, I am
not sure exactly which section you refer to? It is not 2.1>>
Your classroom will already be set up to accommodate different learners’ needs, but
you may need to make further changes for a particular lesson. For example, you may
want to change the way desks are arranged to accommodate different kinds of group
work, or you may decide to have learners decorate the classroom to celebrate Arbor
Day.
The next activity brings together all the components of Tomlinson’s Differentiation
Model.

APPLY DIMENSIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

ACTIVITY 5.27
Look at the list of suggested Curriculum differentiation strategies (MIET Africa,
2010) below. Complete the table below by indicating which of the dimensions of
differentiation each strategy represents: Content, Process, Product, or Classroom
environment. It’s likely that some of the strategies will fall into more than one category.
If it seems obvious to you that this is the case, then identify each category; if only one
seems obvious, stick with one category.

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Strategy Dimension/s

1. Place a learner who is visually impaired close to the

teacher’s desk, where they can easily see the teacher and
the board.
2. Present information visually and aurally, as well as verbally.
3. Get to know your learners: find out their interests, observe
behaviour, reflect on emotional needs, and listen when they
are talking to you. Keep an observation book to record
formal and informal observations.
4. Separate the learner from others with similar problematic
behaviour.
5. Get learners to work in small, mixed-level groups to allow
them to benefit from peer support and tutoring opportunities.
Change the groups regularly.
6. Use activity-based lessons, games, simulations, role-plays
to facilitate participation by all learners.
7. Don’t rush a learner to prevent others from getting bored.
Give additional work to faster learners or get them to coach
others.
8. As far as possible, prevent loud noises during class time.
For example, glue cardboard or carpet pieces under chair
legs or get an old carpet for the floor.
9. Draw up a classroom code that defines how learners should
respect each other and the classroom space. Let every
learner contribute to and sign the code. Display it in the
classroom.
10. Set tasks that allow learners to express their understanding
in ways other than writing, such as telling a story; performing
a song, poem or dance; making a model; drawing a poster,
cartoon, timeline or graph.
11. Be alert to “performance anxiety”; focus the learner on a less
threatening aspect of the activity.
12. Provide a suggestion box in your classroom. Let learners
know that they can submit names of bullies and their victims
anonymously.
13. Provide clear visual stimuli such as posters, pictures and
maps, positioned carefully according to the lesson.
14. Keep your voice clear (not loud or strident) and your manner
as calm as possible.

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 15. Praise learners for effort spent on the process during
activities rather than just reserving praise for good end
products.
16. Set aside a space such as a reading and resources corner
that could be used for one-on-one time with a
teacher/assistant, or for independent work.
17. Vary the level of tasks, from simple to more complex.
18. Encourage learners to protect other learners from bullying,
and to report bullying.
19. If a learner points out that you have made a mistake, thank
them for the correction.
20. Praise caring behaviour in your class and let your own
behaviour set the standard.
21. Let learners know clearly in advance what outcomes they
should achieve in an activity. Then offer clear, detailed
instructions in stages throughout the task.
22. Find each learner’s strengths and build on these. Let
learners who face barriers use their strengths to give
support to other learners.
23. Encourage learners to ask, not only answer, questions. If
you can’t answer their questions, be ready to help them find
the answers.
24. Apply the same rules regarding behaviour to all—don’t let
learners do as they please just because they face barriers.
25. Be ready to acknowledge that a learner is genuinely bored,
and take it as a learning and teaching problem to solve
rather than a behaviour issue.

WATCH A DIFFERENTIATED LESSON

ACTIVITY 5.28
Watch the video Celebrating our differences: an introduction to differentiated lesson
planning (MIET Africa, 2010 https://youtu.be/1rOCZJ50AYs). As you watch, tick off
each of the features of differentiated lesson planning:
1. The teacher knows her learners and knows that they are all different.
2. Her aim is to help all learners reach the correct level for their grade.
3. All learners work towards the same outcomes.
4. A variety of activities is used to address different learners’ needs. The teacher
gives different tasks to different groups so that learners of different abilities and
learning styles can all participate and have opportunities to succeed.
5. Grouping changes, depending on the objectives.
6. The content of the lesson includes both concrete examples, and more abstract
concepts.

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 7. Questions range from easy (lower order) to harder (higher order), so that all
learners can answer at least some questions.
8. More advanced learners are extended in interesting ways.
9. Assessment activities are differentiated.

In most classrooms there is a broad range of abilities, from a minimum of three grade
levels to as many as seven to eight in schools serving a range of socio-economic
groups. Yet traditional instruction typically insists that all learners be at “grade level”,
thus ignoring the needs of a substantial number of learners functioning both below
and above that level.
In the next section we look at another differentiated teaching strategy that allows
learners to be challenged at multiple levels of ability.

5.5.2.2 Another differentiated teaching strategy: Multi-level teaching and learning

Planning a lesson that only allows for grade-level access to the curriculum means
that many learners in your class are excluded from meaningful participation and
learning. Multi-level teaching (MLT) is designing differentiated, scaffolded teaching
and learning for diverse learners that actively engages them in meaningful, real-world
activities at multiple levels of ability.
In an average class of 40–50 learners you can be sure that not all learners are
accessing the curriculum at grade level. There are generally four levels of access to
the curriculum that can be identified in any class:
1. Learners who have already mastered or quickly master the grade-level content.
These are gifted or high-achieving learners requiring enhanced content.
2. Learners accessing the curriculum at grade level.
3. Learners requiring scaffolding or support to access the curriculum at grade level.
4. Learners who are grade straddling or accessing the curriculum at one or more
grades below grade level.
We expect learners to function at a range of different levels. This means you should
always plan multi-level lessons. In this way each learner is supported and
encouraged to move to their next level of competence, without ability grouping or
segregation.
Note: Learners who are grade-straddling, that is, learners who have been progressed
and have not yet achieved the previous grade’s learning outcomes, should be
receiving support to learn at a grade-appropriate level and be working through an
Individual Support Plan (ISP). This will allow the teacher to formally plan work and
assessments at a lower grade level.

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 • Understanding progression in the curriculum
In order to plan a lesson that will accommodate learners accessing the curriculum at
different levels, it is essential to understand the progression of learning in the subject
you are teaching.

LOOKING AT PROGRESSION IN THE CURRICULUM

ACTIVITY 5.29
The table below is taken from the Intermediate Phase Mathematics CAPS. It shows
what learners should know about place value* by the end of each grade. Study the
table and then answer the following questions:
1. How does the content differ from grade to grade?
2. Information on what learners should know by the end of Grade 3 has also been
included in this table. Do you think it’s important for teachers to know this? Give
reasons for your answer.
3. Do you think knowing how learning progresses from grade to grade can help you
to plan a multi-level lesson? Why or why not? Explain your answer.

*Place value is the value of each digit in a number. For example, 582 is made up of
500, 80 and 2, rather than 5, 8 and 2.

Intermediate Phase overview: place value

Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6
Whole numbers— Whole numbers— Whole numbers— Whole numbers—
range range range range
Decompose three- Recognise the place Recognise the place Recognise the place
digit numbers up value of digits in value of digits in whole value of digits in whole
to 999 into whole numbers to at numbers to at least 6- numbers to at least 9-
multiples of 100, least 4-digit digit numbers. digit numbers.
multiples of 10 numbers.
Place value of decimal
and ones/units.
fractions.
Recognise the place
Identify and state value of digits to at
the value of each least two decimal
digit. places .
Calculation Calculation Calculation technique Calculation techniques
technique technique

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Building up and
breaking down
Building up and Building up and Building up and
numbers.
breaking down breaking down breaking down
numbers. numbers. numbers.

As you can see, teachers need to have a sound knowledge of:

1. The curriculum for the specific grade that they teach
2. What the learner should already know or where to meet the learner on lower
grade levels

• Assessing learners’ level of access

You will also need to gain an understanding of the level at which each learner is
accessing the curriculum. This is achieved through assessment. Assessment can be
formal or informal but the purpose of assessment should be to determine progress,
pace of learning, level of access—all necessary for planning teaching and learning.
A baseline assessment at the beginning of the year is particularly useful. CAPS can
help with this!
Note: MLT is not creating three or four lessons with different objectives. Rather, it is
designing one lesson with one lesson objective but differentiating tasks, activities and
assessment to match the learners’ level of competence. The benefit of this is that all
learners gain access to the grade level content and have the opportunity of meeting
the lesson objective at their own pace and level of learning.

• Using Bloom’s taxonomy for setting tasks

EVALUATE BLOOM’S TAXONOMY <<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 5.30

Look at the explanation and diagram of Bloom’s taxonomy below, then answer the
following questions:
1. Why do you think only the cognitive framework is used in education today?
2. Do you think the other two frameworks could be useful in an inclusive learning
environment? Explain your answer.
3. Do you think it is possible to practise these thinking skills in isolation when doing
a task? Explain your answer.

254
 4. What are the strengths and limitations of using the taxonomy in an inclusive
learning environment?
5. Suggest ways in which you can overcome the limitations in setting tasks for
your learners. Give examples.

<<ENDS>>
Bloom’s taxonomy was developed by Benjamin Bloom and a committee of university
educators in the USA in the late 1940s. It originally consisted of three frameworks for
assessing learning outcomes in the cognitive, affective and sensory domains.
However, the cognitive framework is the one that is most commonly used in
education today. It identifies six levels of cognitive outcomes, which are arranged in
ascending order from “lower order” to “higher order”. The diagram below is one
example of how Bloom’s taxonomy is represented, including suggested “task words”
intended to elicit each level of thinking.
Bloom’s taxonomy is often used by teachers to set tasks to suit learners’ levels of
proficiency. The teacher can select verbs from Bloom’s Taxonomy to differentiate
activities related to the content. At the lower levels, learners are given tasks that
require them to know, memorise, repeat and list information. At the higher levels,
learners are required to judge, criticise, resolve, invent and make recommendations.

FIGURE 5.18: BLOOM’S TAXONOMY<<AUTHOR: SOURCE?>>

https://tc2.ca/uploads/PDFs/Critical%20Discussions/unfortunate_consequences_bloom
s_taxonomy.pdf

Read Roland Case’s critique of Bloom’s taxonomy: https://bit.ly/1XbmppP

Let’s look at an example of tasks that have been differentiated using Bloom’s
taxonomy.

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Below, the topic “domesticated animals” at a primary school is used to show how
educators can differentiate activities at different levels:

LEVEL 1: REMEMBER (knowing isolated information)

know, list, recall, repeat, record, define, locate, memorise, restate, identify
Task: Identify the different breeds of dogs in your neighbourhood.

LEVEL 2: UNDERSTAND (understanding/making connections)

discuss, describe, explain, match, find, reword, review, translate, express,
report
Task: Interview people who own pets. Make a survey of people who own
pets in your street/neighbourhood.

LEVEL 3: APPLY (using the knowledge in a variety of ways)

display, simulate, apply, demonstrate, practise, compute, present, sketch,
use
Task: Draw a collage about dog care and grooming.

LEVEL 4: ANALYSE (comparing and contrasting information)

analyse, compare, contrast, probe, inquire, investigate, classify, organise,
examine, dissect
Task: Compare and contrast the physical and social characteristics of dogs
and cats.

LEVEL 5: EVALUATE (expressing personal values)

judge, infer, evaluate, advise, conclude, consider, determine, recommend
Task: Write an editorial for your local newspaper about the advantages and
disadvantages of having a pet.

LEVEL 6: CREATE (developing new information)

compose, invent, develop, construct, create, hypothesise, predict, speculate,
role-play, generalise
Task: Develop a cartoon based on the relationship between an animal and a
child.
Source: MIET Africa, 2016

256
Now you are going to use Bloom’s taxonomy to create differentiated tasks for your
learners.

USING BLOOM’S TAXONOMY TO DIFFERENTIATE TASKS<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 5.31

Copy the table below and fill it in. Choose a topic that is relevant to your subject
and grade level. Create differentiated tasks related to your chosen topic at each
level, using appropriate verbs from the list.

Grade: Subject: Topic:

LEVEL 1: REMEMBER (knowing isolated information)

know, list, recall, repeat, record, define, locate, memorise, restate, identify
Task:

LEVEL 2: UNDERSTAND (understanding/making connections)

discuss, describe, explain, match, find, reword, review, translate, express, report
Task:

LEVEL 3: APPLY (using the knowledge in a variety of ways)

display, simulate, apply, demonstrate, practise, compute, present, sketch, use
Task:

LEVEL 4: ANALYSE (comparing and contrasting information)

analyse, compare, contrast, probe, inquire, investigate, classify, organise, examine,
dissect
Task:

LEVEL 5: EVALUATE (expressing personal values)

judge, infer, evaluate, advise, conclude, consider, determine, recommend
Task:

LEVEL 6: CREATE (developing new information)

compose, invent, develop, construct, create, hypothesise, predict, speculate, role-
play, generalise

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 Task:

<<ENDS>>

Here is an example of a Grade 5 multi-level reading lesson, in which the teacher uses
Bloom’s taxonomy to differentiate tasks:
MR NTINI’S READING LESSON<<BOX>>
Mr Ntini is teaching Grade 5 reading. The reading passage is about a boy who hides on a
bus in King Williamstown and travels to Johannesburg. He is searching for his father who
went to work on the mines and has not returned.
Mr Ntini first introduces the story to the whole class. He uses scaffolding strategies, as
there are new words and more complex themes in this book. He introduces some new
vocabulary and the main character, the young boy.
He then splits the learners into mixed-level groups. They read through and discuss the
story together. Learners explain to each other what they understood and what was
happening in the story.
Mr Ntini then gets learners to complete an individual activity, which he has tiered at three
levels.
He uses the following sets of questions for learners, using Bloom’s taxonomy, to assess
their knowledge of the boy from the story. All learners must complete Tier 1 and must
attempt Tier 2 and Tier 3.

Tier 1 (lower level):

• How does the character look? (Remember)
• What does the character say? (Remember)
• What is the most important thing about the character? (Understand)
Tier 2 (middle level):
• What does the character do in the story? (Remember)
• What are the character’s goals? (Apply)
• What changes did the character go through in the story? (Apply/Analyse)
Tier 3 (higher level):
• What types of clues does the author give the reader about the main character?
(Analyse)
• Why does the author give the reader clues about the character? (Evaluate)
• What does the author want the reader to know about the main character in the story?
(Evaluate)

Mr Ntini ends the lesson with the whole class together for the application stage of the
lesson. He asks questions about their own family stories and their communities. He knows
the learners in his class and he directs different levels of questions, again applying Bloom’s
taxonomy, to learners at different levels of learning.
Some questions he asks:
• Where have you travelled to in South Africa? (Remember)
• Do all families look the same? (Understand, Apply)

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 • What impact do you think the apartheid regime had on black families in South
Africa? (Analyse, Evaluate)
• In what ways do you think the situation is different now? (Evaluate)
If you were in charge, is there anything you would do differently that would make a
difference in your community? (Evaluate, Create)<<

• ENDS>>

EVALUATE MR NTHINI’S LESSON<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 5.32
Look at Mr Nthini’s lesson, and consider:
1. Has he used Bloom’s taxonomy effectively to engage all the learners in his
class at all levels of thinking? Explain your answer.
2. What suggestions would you make to Mr Nthini on how he could make this
lesson even more inclusive? <<ENDS>>

We are now going to explore how differentiated teaching and learning can be made
more effective by using cooperative learning approaches.

5.5.3 Peer learning, cooperative learning and group work

In a traditional teacher-centred approach to learning, the teacher asserts control over

what learners learn and when, where, how, and at what pace they learn it. The
teacher tends to be the most active person in the room and do most of the talking,
while learners spend most of their time sitting at their desks, listening, taking notes,
giving brief answers to questions that the teacher asks, or completing assignments
and tests. Learners work individually and competitively.
This approach is outdated and has been shown to be ineffective in diverse 21 st
century classrooms. Instead, a learner-centred approach is favoured. A learner-
centred approach gives learners opportunities to lead learning activities, participate
more actively in discussions, design their own learning projects and explore topics
that interest them. The teacher is the facilitator of learning in the classroom (adapted
from: https://www.edglossary.org/student-centered-learning/).Thus, learning is
connected to learners’ own experience and allows space for their voices in the
process.
In this section we are going to look at peer learning, cooperative learning and group
work as strategies that can be used to achieve a more effective, learner-centred
classroom. The following short clip gives examples of each of these.

PEER TO PEER LEARNING STRATEGIES

259
ACTIVITY 5.33
Watch the video clip at https://edut.to/2JHsbmJ
1. Why do you think peer-to-peer learning can be effective?
2. What do you understand by the three strategies that were explained:
• Think-Pair-Share
• Three Before Me
• Jigsaw grouping

• Peer learning
Peer learning is where one learner leads another learner through a task or concept—
that is, where learners learn from one another as opposed to only learning from the
teacher. Peer learning benefits not only the learner who is having something
explained to them but also the peer “teacher” as teaching a concept to someone else
helps to reinforce their own learning.
Peers should take turns in the roles of learning and teaching. Peer learning promotes
interpersonal skills, collaboration, increases confidence and improves learning
outcomes.
The class teacher is still responsible for facilitating learning in the classroom. You
should be available to fill knowledge gaps and give learners the skills to effectively
tutor, encourage and correct their peers.

Cooperative learning
Cooperation is working together to accomplish shared goals. Within cooperative
situations, individuals seek outcomes that are beneficial to themselves and beneficial
to all other group members (Johnson & Johnson 2009). Cooperative learning is a
teaching arrangement that refers to small, heterogeneous groups of students working
together to achieve a common goal (Kagan, 1994). Learners work together to learn
and are responsible for their teammates’ learning as well as their own. It can be
contrasted with competitive learning, where learners work against each other to
achieve a personal academic goal such as a particular percentage grade.
Cooperative learning requires structuring learning tasks so that learners must work
together in order to be successful. There are many ways of organising cooperative
learning activities and care must be taken to ensure they enable everyone to
participate in ways that do not marginalise some.
For useful advice on using cooperative learning in your classroom, visit
http://bit.ly/2YQPy0D
Heterogeneous groups are not same-level but mixed-level groups. This means a
small group of learners at different levels of learning, who bring different skills to the
group.

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Not all groups are cooperative. Placing people in the same room, seating them
together, and telling them they are a group, does not mean they will cooperate
effectively (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). Kagan (2011) identified four basic elements
of cooperative learning. These are captured in the acronym PIES:
• Positive interdependence: Occurs when the gains of individuals or teams are
positively correlated. (Does a gain for one learner benefit another?) Success
cannot be obtained without the contribution of everyone. Do learners feel they
are on the same side? Does the task require working together? Do learners
feel they need each other?
• Individual accountability: Occurs when all learners in a group are held
accountable for doing a share of the work and for mastery of the material to be
learnt.
• Equal participation: Occurs when each member of the group is afforded equal
shares of responsibility and input. Participation should be approximately equal,
based on time or turns. All learners have the opportunity to participate.
Learners feel they have equal status.
• Simultaneous interaction: Occurs when class time is designed to allow many
learner interactions during the period, ensuring that most learners are overtly
(visually and/or audibly) engaged at one time.

Phipps and Phipps (2003) emphasise that a very important part of cooperative
learning is the ability of individuals to function well as a group—that is, to have a basic
understanding of effective group skills. Group skills include such things as setting
common goals and norms, understanding leadership roles in educational groups and
processing progress in these areas while at the same time working through the
conflicts that may arise.
Every group activity must accommodate individual learners’ needs and abilities,
ensuring that every learner can make a contribution and play a role. This gives a
message of inclusion and creates a sense of community and belonging because each
learner is viewed as a contributing member.
The benefits of cooperative learning include the following:
• It develops a number of social skills, including listening, taking turns, conflict
resolution, empathy, leadership and teamwork.
• Learners’ engagement, self-esteem and confidence increase.
• Learners take more responsibility for their learning. They make more choices,
have more input into what and how they study, and therefore feel more
accountable to each other.
• Learners learn to understand and work with others who differ from themselves.
• It leads to increased and equal participation.
• All learners benefit from peer support and peer learning.

Consider the following when implementing cooperative learning:

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 • You will need to create the will to work together, and teach relevant group and
social skills. You can do so through structured tasks focused on building team
and community, which give learners time to practise, before you move on to
academic tasks. Keep tasks tightly structured until you are confident about
groups’ functionality. Some examples of tasks to help grow cooperative
learning can be found here: https://www.theeducator.com/blog/7-excellent-
activities-encourage-collaborative-learning/
• Look out for signs of competition that need managing.
• Encourage group members to evaluate the learning experience themselves.
Enabling learners to evaluate cooperative learning is important for progress.
• Create and maintain a warm, caring classroom environment within which
cooperation can flourish.
• Involve the whole class in agreeing on group norms. (See the next section on
setting group norms below.)

There is a wide range of strategies you can use in your classroom to promote
cooperative learning. The table below outlines some starting points. You could use
the Assess–Plan–Do–Review cycle to work out which strategy will work best for your
learners for a particular piece of learning.

TABLE 5.7: EXAMPLES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES

Strategy Description
Think–Pair–Share The teacher poses a question to the class; learners think about
their response. Then they pair with a partner to discuss their
ideas. Finally, they share their ideas with the class. You can also
“snowball” Think–Pair–Share so that instead of moving from
“pair” to the whole class, learners move from a pair into a four,
then an eight, and so on.
Numbered Heads Learners in each group get a number from 1–4. The teacher
Together poses a question, and the learners discuss the answer together.
The teacher randomly calls a number and from each team the
learner with that number writes the answer on a team response
board/paper.
Showdown Each learner thinks about, or writes, or draws an answer to a
question individually. When everyone in the group is ready, the
designated group leader says "Showdown" and team members
compare and discuss their answers.
Teammates Each learner has a copy of the same worksheet or questions. A
Consult cup is placed in the centre of each team, and everyone begins
with their pencils in the cup. They discuss their answers to the
first question. When all team members are ready, they take their

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 pencils out of the cup and write their answers without talking.
They repeat this process with the remaining questions.
Team–Pair–Solo Learners work on problems, first in a team, then with a partner,
and finally on their own. Working first as a team and then with a
partner, they progress to a point where they can solve problems
alone that at first they could only do with help.
Jigsaw learning This strategy is useful when children are learning about any topic
that can be separated into different areas or text that can be
separated into chunks. Learners start in jigsaw groups, where
they choose (or are allocated) a chunk of learning. They then
move into “expert” groups with other learners who have chosen
the same chunk so that they can discuss it in depth—with
relevant stimuli and tasks to frame their learning. They then
return to their jigsaw group and teach their peers what they have
learnt. In this way everyone develops an understanding of the
whole topic, or text.
If it helps your learners to have an overview of the whole chunk
of learning before they move into “expert” groups; build in some
time for this to happen at the beginning. What matters here (and
in all these suggested activities) is that everyone understands
the learning, not that you have to slavishly follow a set method
for a piece of group work.
Here is a useful article, with a video at the end, that explains the
origins of jigsaw learning, how it works in more detail, and what
it looks like in practice: http://bit.ly/2VWcIph. If you prefer
something more visual, try this animation:
http://y2u.be/euhtXUgBEts. Jigsaw can work well with larger
groups than both these films refer to, so it is worth exploring it
further and thinking about how it can work in your context.
Remember, though, that in classes with learners who find
sequencing a challenge, you will need to scaffold jigsaw group
work well so that they feel secure.
Envoy Learners work in small groups on a particular chunk of learning.
When they are ready, one learner from each group acts as an
“envoy” and visits other groups in turn to share the learning from
their original group. Once they return to their original group, the
learners who have been visited by envoys from other groups then
teach the returning envoy what they have learnt.

USING COOPERATIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES

ACTIVITY 5.34

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 Go back to Mr Ntini’s reading lesson in Activity 5.32. Which of these cooperative
learning strategies would have suited that particular class best? What are the reasons
for your thinking?
Of these strategies, which one would you feel most confident to try in your context?
Design an activity that uses this strategy.

• Group work
Using groups flexibly, creatively and with variety will enhance the learning experience
in your classroom. Different groupings can be used for different purposes and to
achieve different learning outcomes. Apart from academic learning goals, group work
also promotes the development of problem-solving, interpersonal, social and
communication skills. Group work should not completely replace individual work as it
is essential for all learners to be able to work independently. In terms of how you
group learners, mixed-level groups bring benefits for all and are more inclusive;
however, there may be some occasions where same-level grouping is more
appropriate.
Below are some examples of different groupings, possible uses and points to
consider. You should always vary the types of groupings you use, not just rely on one
type.

TABLE 5.8: EXAMPLES OF TYPES OF GROUPS

Type of
group Possible uses Points to consider
Whole Introducing new themes, units of work and Ensure that all learners are given
class concepts through class discussions, enabling the opportunity to make a
learners to share information/experiences. contribution.
Pairs Useful for peer tutoring, paired reading, The tutor should not always be
language learning and for those with specific the strong learner.
shared interest or talents. With peer tutoring, the
role of tutor should be rotated.
Small Mixed-level (more often) or groupings of similar Use mixed-level groups more
groups ability (less often). Mixed-level groups are useful often than same-level groups to
for project work, problem-solving, revision of avoid marginalising and labelling
skills. A useful focus for same-ability groups is learners.
the development of a specific skill or developing
In mixed-level groups give each
deeper understanding of content/learning
learner a role/responsibility
processes.
consistent with their
skills/abilities.

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 Groups can be made up of three
to six learners. Larger than six
makes it hard for all learners to
participate.
Interest Learners who share an interest, e.g., when a Include as many subject-related
groups choice of differentiated products is offered. This skills as possible in tasks.
might be a group who share an interest in writing
newspaper articles, or doing role-plays.

• Setting group norms

Setting group norms and deciding how to monitor them is key to ensuring that groups
function effectively.

There are different ways to set norms, but it is essential to make sure they are set
cooperatively rather than imposed. A good way of doing this is to allow about 40
minutes for the whole class to set their own group norms during the first session.
They can ask you for clarification and further explanation of examples so that
everyone understands the norms. Your role is to ensure that it is learners’ norms and
not teacher’s rules that are adopted.
First, learners suggest norms, which are written up on the board. Then, the whole
class must agree on them. If anyone disagrees with a norm, it must be changed or
deleted. Once everyone is happy with the norms, one of the learners can write out
the list neatly, and it can be copied and distributed to everyone.
Later, if anyone wishes to change something, it is important to involve the whole class
in the change. This process of consensus builds a sense of ownership and empower
learners to take responsibility for upholding the norms.
Once the norms are agreed, hold a discussion about everyone in the class being
responsible for upholding norms and for holding each other to account if they are
broken. It can be useful to assign group roles so that each learner’s responsibility is
clear. These roles need to be rotated so everyone’s skills are developed and learners
do not get labelled as only being able to fulfil one role. Some roles that can be used
in group work include:
• Encourager: Encourages reluctant/shy learners to participate by being
friendly, warm, responsive to others, praising others and their ideas; makes
sure everyone plays an equal part.
• Coach: Helps with the academic content, explains concepts, checks the
group’s understanding; makes sure all learners’ questions are asked and
answered.
• Standard setter and keeper: States standards for the group to use when
choosing its content or procedures or when evaluating its decisions; reminds
the group to avoid decisions that conflict with group standards (and norms).

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 • Recorder: Writes down the group’s ideas, decisions, plans.
• Reflector: Keeps group aware of progress (or lack of progress).
• Quiet captain: Monitors noise level.
• Materials monitor: Makes sure that materials are put away after activities.
(Source: https://www.edutopia.org/video/60-second-strategy-cooperative-learning-
roles)
You can adapt and use this list to develop roles and functions that are relevant to
your grade level.

• Assessing group achievement

Group achievement can be assessed using peer and self-assessment. Here is an
example of a rubric that learners can use to assess their own and their group’s
participation in an activity:

Rubric for self- and group assessment of group Yes Partly No

work
Self-assessment
1. I participated fully in the activity.
2. I was able to do the task assigned to me.
Group assessment
1. Everyone in our group helped to do the activity.
2. We all shared our ideas with the rest of the group.
The most important thing I learnt from this activity was …

5.5.4 Starting from and linking to what learners already know

We have referred several times to “chunks of learning”. This concept is useful here,
as we can imagine “what is already known” as being a chunk of knowledge that
already exists. Learners add new chunks of learning by relating them to the existing
chunk.
Here’s an example, using a simple question:
“How do I get to the centre of Johannesburg from where you live?”
You will automatically start to answer by using what you already know about the
transport system in South Africa. If you haven’t been to Johannesburg you might have
to find out some more information about the details, but this learning will be related
to your existing knowledge about transport. Because it’s related to what you already
know:

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 • This task is more likely to appear achievable—you may not know the information,
but your prior knowledge means you have at least some ideas about how to find
out.
• Any new chunks of knowledge will be easily assimilated with the existing chunks.
As a teacher, you need to find out what your learners already know and think,
because:
• You can use this information to design learning experiences that help them
understand concepts through concrete examples they are familiar with. This is
likely to support learners’ motivation, engagement and working memory.
• You can help them apply the same concept to different concrete examples they
understand, so supporting transfer of knowledge.
• You can use this knowledge to help learners add new chunks of learning by
relating them to existing chunks.
• You will know at what level to pitch new learning; new learning will only “stick” if
it’s added to existing learning.
• If you discover the first chunk of learning doesn’t exist, you will know you need
to fill this gap as otherwise the subsequent chunks won’t stick either.
• If the first chunk has been learnt wrongly, the second chunk might also become
skewed. So it’s important you pick up any misconceptions and sort these out
before carrying on.

Ways of finding out what learners already know

Here are some techniques to try with one of your classes, once you start teaching:
Before you start a new topic with a class, try asking them what they already know. You
could try this with three questions:
• What do you definitely know?
• What do you think you know?
• What do you want to find out?
The answers will give you an idea of the level of learners’ existing knowledge, whether
they have any misconceptions that need addressing, and what they are interested in.
OR
At the start of a topic, use some provocative questions related to the topic to find out
about learners’ prior knowledge. These are questions that are thought provoking and
do not have a right or wrong answer. For example: “Do you think everyone can be a
leader?”

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Ask learners to move into different parts of the room to show whether they agree,
disagree, or aren’t sure. Once they have moved, ask them to form pairs or groups of
three to share their thoughts. Take some feedback—this will give you some examples
of the range of their current thinking and knowledge about the topic you can build onto,
and any disconnects between their experiences in the area out of and in school.

In the next section we look at multi-modal and multi-sensory approaches and their
impact on learning.

5.5.5 Multi-modal and multi-sensory approaches

A mode is a form of communication, for example visual, speech, audio, text,

movement, digital. A multi-modal approach is one that includes more than one mode
of communication in the way that:
• information is prepared by the teacher and learnt by the learner
• learning is presented as a product by the learner

Recent advances in technology mean that we are increasingly exposed to multi-

modal forms of communication, which have also led to shifts in communication itself,
for example through emojis and gifs. As teachers of learners who are growing up with
ever-growing exposure to increasingly more sophisticated multi-modal forms of
communication, your use of multi-modal approaches in the classroom is important,
especially as a way of maintaining learners’ interest and attention. A multi-modal
approach, however, can bring other positive benefits for learners. For example, by
combining modes, the range of ways in which learners can access information is
increased. In addition, complex concepts can often be explained more effectively by
using different modes of communication.
A multi-sensory approach means giving learners the opportunity to use more than
one of their senses in the learning process. Traditionally, teaching focuses on the use
of two senses—sight and hearing. Learners read text (sight) and listen to the teacher
(hearing). As we have seen, not all children learn best using only these two senses.
Some learners may even experience difficulties with visual or auditory processing.
Multi-sensory teaching encourages opportunities to engage more than these two
senses in learning. It gives learners more than one way to make connections and
learn concepts. If learners engage with information using more than one sense, the
information is more likely to stay with them.
Let’s look at an example of multi-modal and multi-sensory approaches in action.

EXAMPLE: MS SIGIDA’S LESSON

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Ms Sigida is teaching a lesson about the solar system. She starts her lesson by taking the
class outside. They stand with their eyes closed and she lets them feel the warmth of the sun
on their skin while she explains to them about the sun and the solar system. Next, she models
the position of the planets and their orbit around the sun, with groups of learners becoming
different planets.
They go back into class. Ms Sigida and the class talk about and reproduce their active model
visually on the board. Then the class works in groups to remember and note down the key
points they remember from her outdoor explanation. Ms Sigida then gives a choice board to
learners for a project they will work on in small groups over the next few weeks to learn more
about the solar system:

Using paper maché, clay or Write the lyrics, rehearse and Do research in the library
other available materials, perform a rap about the solar and write a report describing
build a model of the solar system. the key features.
system.

Choreograph a dance that Design a poster showing the Prepare an oral presentation
shows how the different solar system. that tells the class about the
planets move and rotate solar system.
around the sun.

Source: Adapted from Nel & Nel, 2017: 51

USING A MULTI-SENSORY APPROACH<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 5.35
Look at the example above and consider the following questions.
1. What different modes did the learners use in Ms Sigida’s lesson?
2. Identify the different senses that could be used in each of the activities on the
choice board.
3. In what ways do you think these choices allow children with different ways of
learning to be engaged in the learning process? <<ENDS>>

If you only use one mode, or one sense, in teaching, you are not likely to meet the
needs of individuals or groups of learners in your class. Both multi-modal and multi-
sensory approaches enable the use of a range of options for learners to access and
make meaning from their learning.
As with all of the approaches we are introducing you to, how you use multi-modal
and multi-sensory approaches to learning is critical for their success. Once again,
knowing your learners well—both from an academic as well as a socio-cultural
perspective—will be key to you choosing the most effective modes of communication
at the right times in the right combination, or the most effective sense for a particular
class and a particular chunk of learning. Your relationship with learners is also a factor
to consider; for example, if you want them to engage with a mode or sense they feel
less comfortable with, they need to trust you to be willing to participate effectively.

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5.5.5.1 Using ICT for teaching and learning

• Mobile phones

One example of using mobile phones for educational purposes is that of the FunDza
Literacy Trust. FunDza’s mobi library—fundza.mobi—is available to people in South
Africa and beyond through their mobile phones and indeed any device that can
connect to the Internet. It incorporates a mobile-optimised website (fundza.mobi), an
Android app (FunDzApp—downloadable from the Google Play store), and an app on
FreeBasics.com (zero-rated in South Africa by Cell C and available in other African
countries with other partner mobile operators). In addition, FunDza’s content can also
be found on third-party platforms, such as Worldreader, Vodacom’s Digital
Classroom, and The Reach Trust’s app LevelUp. In 2017, FunDza supported the
reading of more than half a million readers during the course of the year, many for
substantial periods of time.

FunDza has a growing network of beneficiary groups—under-resourced schools,

libraries, youth development groups and informal reading clubs—that reach teens
and young adults in low-income communities nationwide. It provides the groups with
exciting local content that reflects the lives and issues that many young people face.

USING MOBILE PHONES TO ENCOURAGE READING<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 5.36

Read the blog below and answer the following questions:

• Why do you think fundza.mobi has gained such popularity with young
readers?
• What differentiation strategies did the facilitator use and how effective were
they?
• Think of ways in which schools without electricity could access the site.
<<ENDS>>

The following blog gives a taste of one of the Reading for Enjoyment sessions that
FunDza runs with False Bay College students at the Khayelitsha and Fish Hoek
campuses. The campaign aims to get students excited about reading (and writing)
for pleasure. Here’s facilitator Sonja Kruse’s recounting of a session that got students
hooked on reading!

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BLOG
Reading for enjoyment session
It was the last Reading for Enjoyment session at False Bay College Khayelitsha for this term.
I had to be smart about the content because these busy students needed every
encouragement to read during the holidays!
I decided on The Village Girl by FunDza Fanz writer, Victoria Ntuli, because it is a play the
students could select parts to read out loud, perfect for getting them hooked!
We projected the mobi site in the class and students volunteered to read. Some were reluctant
whilst others were fighting to play the part they wanted! It was great. Some students decided
to read from their phones via our FunDzApp app or the fundza.mobi site on FreeBasics. Along
with doing the reading, some cast members decided to act it out—crying and laughing as the
characters required.
One person whispered the character, Xoli’s words: “Shh, you’re shouting, the other girls will
hear you. I know. I know you will come out of here no longer a virgin, but it’s better than coming
out of here being a drug addict. I beg you. Behave yourself today.”
There was an intake of breath and the students looked from the projected text to me. I could
feel them willing me to click the “next” button on the bottom right of the screen so that they
could carry on with the play reading and find out what happens next. But instead I ask them
to focus on the discussion question at the end of Chapter 3.
Tell us: Do you trust Xoli? Do you think Lizzy will ever escape?
The students answered quickly with a “no” to the first question and there was a mixture of
opinions on whether Lizzy will escape or not. But today the students were not interested in a
debate or a discussion… they were shouting out…
“Next!”
“Next, please Ms!”
I looked at my watch. There were eight minutes left in the session before the bell went. They
continued reading. We had four more lines to read before we heard the shrill interruption. The
students were impatient with having to pause during the bell, but continued as if there were
no next class to run to. They remained seated even after we reached the cliffhanging end of
Chapter 4.
“Ms, can’t we have FunDza all day?” one student asked.
Magic words! I thanked the students for their participation, wishing them happy holidays. And
I asked them what they thought my advice to them would be to make the best of their break.
“To read!”
This came from a student who was doing just that. She had started reading Chapter 5 as she
was making her way to the next class.
Yes, I mumbled to myself. I think students will be reading this holiday.
(Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OguKZMeRrQc)

• Online open source teacher resources

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Check out the video series for teachers: Bambanani. Funded by the European Union,
the series was developed by VVOB education for development South Africa, and
consists of:
Maths clips which focus on: Repeated addition, Mass, Equivalent fractions,
Numberline, 3-d objects, Data handling and Mind moves
Literacy clips which focus on: Phonics, Past tense, Reading, Scriptwriting, Reading
with comprehension, Poetry, and Singular and plural
The videos are organised in four playlists, according to the language of the subtitles,
as follows:
1. Sesotho subtitles
2. isiZulu subtitles
3. isiXhosa subtitles
4. English (no subtitles)
Can be viewed at: https://bit.ly/2wcJPFY

FIND OUT ABOUT OPEN SOURCE MATERIAL FOR TEACHERS<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 5.37
1. Conduct research on open source material that is relevant to your subject
and grade level. Write a paragraph about the resource.
2. Share your findings with other students. <<ENDS>>

5.5.6 Assessment for learning

Assessment for learning (commonly shortened to AFL) is the way that learners
demonstrate what they are learning, or have learnt, and how their learning will be
assessed.

DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO ASSESSMENT

ACTIVITY 5.38
What is the difference between assessment for learning and assessment of learning?
Write a definition for each in the boxes below.

1. Assessment of learning

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2. Assessment for learning

Compare your definitions with the definitions below. What do you notice?

Assessment of learning
Assessment of learning is the traditional way of testing a learner’s knowledge. It
involves an assessment, usually by the teacher, of what the learner has learnt so
far. It occurs at the end of the learning module, week, term, year ….
It is summative, which means the learner’s mark is taken as an evaluation of their
learning.

Assessment for learning

Assessment for learning (AFL):
• Is a collaborative process between the teacher and the learners.
• Involves the learner in identifying what they already know, and enables them
to take an active part in:
• assessing their progress and what they still need to do.
• improving against their own goals and not against the results of others.
• AFL is formative and guides learners to set their own goals.
• AFL is primarily concerned with supporting learning and therefore focuses
more on progress than “end” assessment (whether this is at the end of a
week, term or year); however, AFL can strongly contribute to developing skills
for end assessments.

• Changing the way we view assessment

A number of shifts are needed to move assessment from an activity which is
disconnected from teaching and learning to a process that accurately reflects the
curriculum and what is being taught. The table below summarises these shifts.

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TABLE 5.9: KEY SHIFTS RELATED TO ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING
To achieve assessment for learning, you need to move …
From To
Assessment that is disconnected from Assessment that reflects the curriculum and
teaching and learning. what is taught.
Assessment in one-size-fits-all formats. Flexible ways of getting the information,
knowledge, understanding and skills that show
what the learner can do.
Learners are not aware of what they are Learners know what they are expected to
being assessed on. demonstrate.
All assessments and assignments count Some count towards marks and others are for
towards marks. formative information for both teachers and
learners.
Learners are passive participants in the Learners understand assessment as part of
assessment process. their learning experience.
Learners are not aware of what they are Learners are able to identify their strengths
good at and what they need to work on until and areas for development and improvement.
they get their marks.

EVALUATE ASSESSMENT PRACTICES

ACTIVITY 5.39
Think about how assessment was done when you were at school.
Would you classify it as assessment of learning or assessment for learning? Give
examples to support your answer.
What could have been done to make assessment more inclusive?

• Why does assessment matter?

Assessment matters because it drives almost everything we do in the classroom. If
we are to implement inclusion we need to have alignment between how we teach,
how we support learning and how we assess.
Differentiated assessment will enable learners of various abilities and
with varied experience to best demonstrate what they know. It involves
rethinking the traditional practice of having all learners do the same
assessment tasks at the same time, and in the same way. The goal is
to meet learners where they are and to help them progress to the next
step in their learning. Thus it is a cyclical process: assessment and
instruction inform each other (DBE, 2011).

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ANALYSE ASSESSMENT PRACTICES IN YOUR CONTEXT
ACTIVITY 5.40
Look at the cartoon below. Do you think it accurately reflects assessment practices in
your context? Explain your answer.

FIGURE 5.19: ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING

• Designing assessment for learning

Here are some guiding questions you can ask yourself when you are designing
assessment that is an integral part of differentiated teaching and learning:
1. What forms of evidence would enable learners to show what they have learnt?
Am I excluding anybody from being able to show what they have learnt with these
forms of evidence?
2. How will I collect this evidence?
3. How will I evaluate this evidence?
4. How will I record this evidence?
5. How will I use the evidence to inform my future differentiation of teaching and
learning?
One strategy is to put yourself in the shoes of your learners. Key questions to
consider in relation to AFL from their point of view are:

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FIGURE 5.20: THREE QUESTIONS LEARNERS SHOULD ASK THEMSELVES

Another strategy is to consider “non-academic” factors that contribute to learners’

overall development, both academically and in everyday life. For example:

FIGURE 5.21: PERSONAL QUALITIES

ASSESSING LEARNER QUALITIES<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 5.41
1. Design an activity for your class that will enable learners to demonstrate some
of the above qualities.
2. How could you use your observation book to assess these
qualities?<<ENDS>>

Some strategies to differentiate assessment

1. Utilise technology, aids or other arrangements as necessary to enable all learners
to undertake assessment tasks.
2. Vary the form of assessment (e.g., printed text, visual or auditory representations;
written tasks; oral responses). NB: Visual representations of information enable
learners to use both words and pictures to make connections and increase
memory, facilitating retrieval of information.

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3. Encourage self-assessment: Learners gain skills to self-monitor, recognise their
learning needs and answer questions such as: What do I know? What do I want
to know? Where am I now? Where am I going? How can I close the gap?
4. Use peer assessment: Learners learn from their peers who generally speak a
language they can easily understand.
5. Give differentiated assessment options so that learners can choose tasks at the
right level for them, for example, incorporate a range of assessment questions that
include multiple-choice questions and those which require shorter or longer, more
in-depth answers; create multi-level or tiered assessments, for example, in
geography, locate provinces on the map, or locate provinces on the map and
identify the main city in each province.
6. Individualise the timeline for completing a task; pace learning differently for
learners (increase or decrease time allocation).

• Assessment for multi-level teaching and learning

Just as you tier activities you will also need to develop multi-level tiered assessment
to assess progress and understanding at learners’ levels. Tiered assignments make
it possible for learners with different learning needs to engage with the same ideas
and skills but at different levels of open-endedness, challenge level, complexity and
abstraction.
The CAPS documents are a useful resource when setting tiered assignments
because they clearly set out the progression from grade to grade in terms of skills,
content and concepts. Where progression is not clear the CAPS provides clarification
notes and guidelines for each concept and skill being taught. This includes specific
notes on how the skills differ from the previous grade.
<<BOX>>
Guidelines and tips for setting a tiered assignment

1. Before setting an assignment you need to decide what you want all your learners
to know, understand and be able to do.
For example: If you are planning a life orientation assignment on the topic of
healthy foods, you want your learners to:
• Know the five food groups that are the basis of a healthy diet
• Understand what foods belong in each food group and why they are
important
• Be able to create a food plate of their own representing a healthy meal using
foods from each food group. and discuss why each food is important for a
healthy diet

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 2. When you tier an assignment, you are essentially making an adjustment within
the same lesson in order to meet the needs of all your learners. Assignments can
be adjusted in many ways: by complexity, pace, number of steps to complete the
task, time allotted, or even the level of independence that is required to complete
the task.
3. When tiering assignments, bear in mind that learners who need to accomplish a
higher-level activity must be able to understand all the lower-level activities as well.
4. Once you have decided what you want your learners to know, understand and
be able to do, design your differentiated assignments. Think about your most
advanced learners and design an activity that will extend them. Next, think about
the learners who are at grade level and design a task for them. Lastly, think about
the learners who are below grade level and create a task that they will be able to
do.<<ENDS>

It is important to remember that when designing tasks for different ability levels you
need to make sure that no learners are marginalised or made to feel less "able" than
others. One way of ensuring this is to acknowledge the achievement of all learners,
using appropriate criteria.
In the next activity we will look at a multi-level assessment task.

DIFFERENTIATING BY VARYING THE PROCESS<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 5.42

Read the example of a Grade 5 English lesson below. Learners are being asked
to write an advertisement. In order to accommodate the different levels in her class,
the teacher has consulted the CAPS for Grades 4, 5 and 6.
Explain how she has varied the activities to accommodate diverse learner needs
and abilities.
Design a rubric showing the assessment criteria the teacher will use to assess each
level.
Suggest ways in which the teacher can avoid marginalising learners and making
them feel less "able".<<ENDS>>

Grade 5 English lesson: Writing an advertisement

The teacher wants the learners to:
Know that the purpose of advertisements is to persuade people to buy something or
use a service

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Understand that advertisements can take a variety of forms; that they make use of
slogans and logos; that they usually have a visual, design element; that they use
advertising techniques
Be able to design an eye-catching advertisement using a range of advertising
techniques
Preparation
The class has already read and discussed advertisements in class and understands
the concepts, for example, purpose and audience, use of graphics and layout
techniques, use of persuasive techniques. The teacher used a mixture of closed and
open questions and questions that included a full range of lower- and higher-order
thinking skills.
Activities
Below grade level: Learners work in pairs to create an advertisement. Together, they
brainstorm ideas using a mind map, and decide on appropriate visuals and text. Each
learner produces a first draft. They then help each other to revise, proofread and
present their final drafts. The teacher will assess them on: appropriate visuals and
layout; creative use of language; and presentation of a neat, legible final draft.
At grade level: Learners work in pairs to brainstorm advertising techniques and pre-
plan their advertisements. They then work individually to create an advertisement
using appropriate visuals and text. They revise it, proofread it and present a neat,
legible final draft. The teacher will assess them on: clear, logical expression of ideas;
creative use of persuasive language, appropriate visuals and layout; and presentation
of a neat, legible final draft.
Above grade level: Learners work on their own to select appropriate advertising
techniques from a range of examples. They then create an advertisement using
appropriate visuals and text, and write an explanation of the techniques selected. The
teacher will assess them on clear, logical expression of ideas, demonstrating
understanding of a wide range of advertising techniques; memorable visuals and
layout; creative use of language; and presentation of a neat, legible final draft.

DESIGN A MULTI-LEVEL ASSESSMENT TASK

ACTIVITY 5.43
Select a learning outcome from CAPS relevant to your subject. Design a small multi-
level assessment task that supports the learning of all learners in the class.
How can you ensure that the learning is demonstrated in ways that acknowledge the
achievement of every learner?
What can you do to make sure that everyone can participate and no one is
marginalised?

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 5.6 PLANNING INCLUSIVE LESSONS

THINK ABOUT LESSON PLANNING<<BOX>>

ACTIVITY 5.44
1. How have you understood lesson planning up to this point—as one lesson
planned for the majority, with additional support planned for some? Or as one
lesson where information is presented and learners are taking part in a variety
of activities that are meeting the learning needs of all? Explain your answer.

2. What are your concerns regarding lesson planning? What do you identify as
challenges? <<ENDS>>

Planning lessons is an essential skill for an effective inclusive teacher. A lesson plan
is a step-by-step guide to teaching a lesson.
A lesson plan should have three basic components: objectives of the lesson; teaching
and learning activities; and assessment to check learners’ understanding.
Your lesson plan needs to answer these questions:
1. Who am I teaching?
2. What am I teaching?
3. How will I teach it?
4. How will I know that my learners understand?
5. How will I ensure that all learners have an opportunity to participate?
6. How will I acknowledge the achievement of all learners?
Your lessons also need to be adaptable to allow you to respond to what you observe
during the class.

5.6.1 Developing clear, achievable and measurable objectives

In essence, learning objectives reflect your hopes for how a lesson will go! They help
you to clarify for yourself, and communicate to learners:
• What new knowledge and skills learners will learn. Some teachers find the
acronym WALT—We Are Learning To—helpful here, for example: “We are
learning to describe ...”; “We are learning to analyse ...”; “We are learning to
characterise ...” Note the active, concrete verbs.
• The context in which they are going to learn it, for example, the mountains; a
poem called ...; fractions; celebrations for Diwali.

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 • How they are going to show they have learnt it. Some teachers find the
acronym WILF—What I’m Looking For—helpful here, for example, oral
presentation, poster, written paragraph. It must be something that the teacher
is able to observe.

Here’s an example:
TABLE 5.10: SHARING LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning
objective Context How to show what you have learnt: success criteria
We are learning How the Show what happens when the body takes in oxygen
to recognise how lungs work and releases carbon. You can choose to create a:
the body takes in
• Poster
oxygen and
• Role-play interview
releases carbon • Practical demonstration
dioxide. • Written explanation
Work in groups of up to four with people who want
to choose the same product as you.
Remember to show:
• What happens to the diaphragm
• What happens to the lungs
• What happens to the ribs
• The direction of the oxygen and carbon
dioxide

Sharing learning objectives and developing success criteria with learners can be
useful, as it opens up a discussion about learning. These discussions are significant
because they:
• Build learners’ communication skills and increase clarity about what is
expected. Checking for clarity gives opportunities for teachers to help learners
practise receiving and interpreting language.
• Enable outcomes to be broken down into smaller chunks, which helps
concentration, focus and attention.
• Enable pathways to success criteria to be talked about, making it really clear
what is needed and the different ways of getting there. This type of discussion
helps communication skills, organisational skills, expressive language, and
also extends the different ways children can make meaning from learning.
• Give learners a clear pathway to follow through the zone of proximal
development, from “I can’t do this” to “I can’t do this ... yet” to “I can do this”.

WRITE A LESSON OBJECTIVE

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ACTIVITY 5.45
Write a lesson objective based on the structure of the example given in Table 10. Use
WALT and WILF if this helps you. Remember to:
• Use concrete, active verbs—rather than “understand”, “know about” or “learn
about”
• Separate the learning objective from the context

The following checklist will help you to plan your lessons. As you complete each stage
of your lesson plan, put a tick in the right-hand column.
Checklist for planning an inclusive lesson √
What is the topic of the lesson?
Which knowledge and skills am I focusing on?
What prior knowledge do the learners need?
How will I introduce the lesson?
What is the main activity? Will it engage all learners? Will all learners be able
to participate?
What adaptations are needed to include everyone?
What teaching aids will I use?
What learning materials will I need?
What outside help, e.g., parents, other teachers, will I use?
What activities will I use? Will I have a range of activities or use flexible
grouping?
How will the activities be assessed?
How will I ensure that every learner’s achievement is valued and
acknowledged?
How will Iearners evaluate the lesson?

Now we are going to look at an example of a lesson planned by Ms Khumalo. First,

read her class profile.

CASE STUDY: MS KHUMALO’S CLASS PROFILE

Ms Khumalo is the Grade 4 mathematics teacher at an urban school. She has 40 learners in
the class who come from diverse backgrounds. Over the first term of the year, she has
acquired an in-depth knowledge of her learners. She has become aware of the diversity

282
amongst them in terms of language proficiency, reading and writing competence, interests,
learning preferences, learning behaviours, attitudes to learning, motivational levels, prior
knowledge, and levels of achievement in numeracy. She has one learner, Yandiswa, who is
hearing impaired and wears a hearing aid. Yandiswa is doing very well academically with
support—particularly emotional support—in fact, she is one of the high achievers in
mathematics.
Three learners are new to the school. From her assessments, Ms Khumalo realises that they
are functioning below grade level in mathematics. They have not mastered a lot of the content
and skills in the Grade 2 and 3 mathematics curriculum. They are struggling with reading and
writing skills in the language of teaching and learning, English. Although they are working hard,
they need to be closely supervised especially during group work, or they become playful and
don’t focus on the task at hand.
Ms Khumalo has four learners in her class who are highly motivated and have a special liking
for, curiosity about, and interest in mathematics. Ms Khumalo tries her best to stimulate them
and provide them with a more enriching and expanded curriculum. Luyanda appears to have
developmental delays and—speaking to his previous teachers—she learns that he has made
progress but is below grade level in most subjects. In addition, she has Nicholas in her class,
a pleasant child who tries hard when Ms Khumalo works with him one on one. He enjoys
practical activities and working with manipulatives but is easily distracted. He has gaps in
maths learning and has also not mastered some of content in the Grade 2 and 3 curriculum.

Ms Khumalo has planned a lesson on fractions, and has tried to put into practice what
she has learnt from two workshops she attended on curriculum differentiation and
differentiated assessment.
Here is her multi-level lesson plan, based on CAPS mathematics for grades 3, 4 and
5.

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LESSON PLAN MATHEMATICS GRADE 4
Topic: Common fractions
Time: 1 hour 45 mins
Objectives

We are learning to:

• Solve problems in contexts involving fractions, including grouping and equal
sharing
• Describe and compare common fractions in diagram form

Background to lesson
Fractions (halves/thirds/quarters) have been introduced and illustrated by the learners with
pictures, etc. Learners placed in groups based on their classroom performance. Teacher
to consider learners who are at different levels of competence—below class level, at class
level, and exceed class level.

Resources:
Paper squares, paper circles, paper rectangles, paper triangles

Learning and teaching activities

Warm-up activity
Teacher will display a set of interlocking cubes for all learners to see.
There should be several cubes of several different colours. Learners are asked to respond
to the following questions:
• What fraction of the cubes is red?
• What fraction of the cubes is green?
• What fraction of the cubes is yellow?
Teacher has learners respond on paper and share responses.

284
Lesson development

Group 1 (learners below grade level):

1. Using paper circles (pizza) and squares (sandwich), learners in pairs work out how to
share the food equally and illustrate by folding the paper.
2. Have two pairs work out how they can share equally with four people. They can cut the
parts and stack them to see if they match.
3. Have the four learners repeat the process for sharing a pancake equally with three
peers (let the circle represent the crumpet).
4. Each learner must explain in pictures or words how they shared equally.
Group 2: (learners at grade level):
1. Using paper circles (pizza) and squares (sandwich), have learners in groups of three
work out how to share the food equally and illustrate by folding the paper.
2. Have two groups of three work out how they can share equally with six people.
3. Have the group of six repeat the process for sharing a birthday cake with 12 people.
In each case, they can cut the parts and stack to match. Have the group start with half
a cake and divide equally for 3, 6 and 12 people.
4. Each learner must explain in pictures or words how they shared equally.
Group 3: (learners above grade level):
1. Using paper rectangles (sandwiches) and triangles (slices of pie), have learners in
pairs work out how to share the food in three different ways to get two equal parts.
Have them illustrate by folding the paper.
2. Teacher gets Group 3 learners to reflect on:
• Are there other different ways to divide each shape equally?
• How many ways are there?
3. Have the pair work out which shapes (circles, squares, rectangles, triangles) are easier
to divide evenly and illustrate why with a particular food of their choice. Each learner
must explain in pictures or words how they shared equally.

285
Assessment

Oral and practical

Informal assessment: teacher observation and recording
Assessment tools: checklist; observation book
As the learners work, the teacher will circulate among the groups and note the children’s
abilities to divide materials into equal parts, and to reorganise and check for equal parts.

She will consider the following:

1. Can learners explain orally how many equal parts there are and demonstrate how
they know the parts are equal?
2. Can learners explain in writing or pictures how they know that the parts are equal?
After the lesson, she will reflect on the extent to which all learners were included and
acknowledged for their achievements.

EVALUATE MS KHUMALO’S LESSON PLAN

Activity 5.46
Evaluate Ms Khumalo’s practices of curriculum differentiation and differentiated
assessment. Consider:
• What strategies she is using to respond to the learning needs of all learners
• The strengths of the lesson
• The limitations of the lesson
• Strategies you would suggest to ensure that all learners are fully included, and
that they are not prejudged based on the way they are grouped

5.7 SUMMARY

In Learning Unit 5 we have explored the concept and practice of inclusive pedagogy.
We considered the importance of inclusive cultures, and the interdependent
relationships between policy, practice and culture, in developing inclusive schools.
We examined the shift from deterministic thinking to transformative thinking, which
sees difficulties in learning as a dilemma for teaching rather than as a problem with
learner differences and related these concepts to beliefs about learner difference and
diversity from Learning Unit 3.
A major focus of the unit was the introduction of inclusive pedagogical strategies that
can be used to extend your ability to create and inclusive classroom community, and

286
design and deliver rich learning opportunities for all learners. You were encouraged
to reflect on the use of these strategies in your own context and a range of other
relevant school contexts.
We hope that, through completing this unit, you now have a thorough grasp of the
concepts related to inclusive pedagogy and to some strategies that will help you to
provide an equitable, engaging learning experience for the diverse learners you
teach.
You have now reached the end of the learning part of the module. Congratulations!
To demonstrate what you have learnt, you are required to do a final assignment.

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Using some of the strategies you have learnt about in this unit, develop an inclusive
lesson plan that is relevant to your subject and grade. Choose strategies that you think
will best suit your lesson objectives.
Start by drawing up a class profile. You could speak to the teacher of a lesson you
have observed during teaching practice and ask if you can use her class profile to help
you create a lesson plan that is appropriate to diverse learner needs.
Here are the minimum aspects that need to be covered in your lesson plan:
1. A diagram showing the layout of your classroom
2. Information about subject, grade, lesson duration, class’s prior learning
3. Clear learning objective with success criteria
4. Inclusion of indigenous knowledge appropriate to context, class profile and
subject
5. Detailed notes for activities, showing clearly where and how you will use the
strategies you have chosen
6. Use of cooperative learning strategies and peer/group work
7. Varied use of materials
8. Key questions you will ask the learners
9. Assessment methods
When you have completed your lesson plan, check that you have covered all the
above aspects.
Explain the choices you have made by linking your lesson plan to your class profile.

287
288
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