SCP General Biology 2 Week 1 2

ST.
JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached
SIMPLIFIED COURSE PACK (SCP) FOR SELF-DIRECTED

LEARNING
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
This Simplified Course Pack (SCP) is a draft version only and may not
be used, published or redistributed without the prior written consent of
the Academic Council of SJPIICD. Contents of this SCP is only intended
for the consumption of the students who are officially enrolled in the
course/subject. Revision and modification process of this SCP are
expected.
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2| 1
ST. JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO
By 2023, a recognized professional institution providing quality,

Vision
economically accessible, and transformative education grounded on
the teachings of St. John Paul II.
Serve the nation by providing competent JPCean graduates through

quality teaching and learning, transparent governance, holistic
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student services, and meaningful community-oriented researches,
guided by the ideals of St. John Paul II.
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Core Values
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Course Code/Title SJPCSTEM6/ General Biology 2
This subject is designed to enhance the understanding of the
principles and concepts in the study of biology, particularly heredity
Course Description
and variation, and the diversity of living organisms, their structure,
function, and evolution.
Course Requirement Case Study
Time Frame 80 Hours (40 Hours for 3rd Quarter and 40 Hours for 4th Quarter)
Grading System DepEd Grading System ( Specialized Subjects)
Contact Details
Instructor Jerome Jay Villarba Galan (09063682280)
SHS Principal Roxan Rubic-Remorosa, PhD (09463328135)
Course Map
General Biology 1- Simplified Course Pack (SCP)
SCP-Topics: 3rd Quarter SCP- Topics: 2nd Quarter

Week 1-2 Organismal Biology (Plants) Week 9-11 Evolution and Origin of Biodiversity
Week 3-4 Organismal Biology (Animals) Systematics Based on Evolutionary

Week 12-15
Relationship
Week 5-7 Genetics Week 16 4th Quarter Examination
Week 8 3rd Quarter Examination
Learning Competencies
1.compare and contrast the following processes in plants and animals: reproduction, development, nutrition, gas
exchange, transport/circulation, regulation of body fluids, chemical and nervous control, immune systems, and
sensory and motor mechanisms
2. explain how some organisms maintain steady internal conditions that possess various structures and processes
3. describe examples of homeostasis (e.g., temperature regulation, osmotic balance and glucose levels) and the
major features of feedback loops that produce such homeostasis
4. predict genotypes and phenotypes of parents and offspring using the laws of inheritance
5. explain sex linkage and recombination
6. . describe modifications to Mendel’s classic ratios (gene interaction)
7. illustrate the molecular structure of DNA, RNA, and proteins
8. diagram the steps in DNA replication and protein synthesis
9. outline the processes involved in genetic engineering
10.discuss the applications of recombinant DNA
11.describe general features of the history of life on Earth, including generally accepted dates and sequence of
the geologic time scale and characteristics of major groups of organisms present during these time periods
12.explain the mechanisms that produce change in populations from generation to generation (e.g., artificial
selection, natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, recombination)
13.show patterns of descent with modification from common ancestors to produce the organismal diversity
observed today
14.trace the development of evolutionary thought
15.explain evidences of evolution (e.g., biogeography, fossil record, DNA/protein sequences, homology, and
embryology)
16.infer evolutionary relationships among organisms using the evidence of evolution
17.explain how the structural and developmental characteristics and relatedness of DNA sequences are used in
classifying living things
18.identify the unique/distinctive characteristics of a specific taxon relative to other taxa

19.describe species diversity and cladistics, including the types of evidence and procedures that can be used to
establish evolutionary relationships
Welcome Aboard! This course designed to enhance the

understanding of the principles and concepts in the study of
General Biology 2, particularly the heredity and variation, and
the diversity of living organisms, their structure, function, and
evolution. In the 3rd quarter of this course, you will learn and study
the Organismal Biology and Genetics. In the 4th quarter of this
course, Evolution and Origin of Biodiversity and Systematics Based
on Evolutionary Relationships. Good luck and enjoy your learning
journey on the significance and relevance General Biology 2 on your
life.
SCP-TOPICS: 3rd Quarter

Week 1-2 Organismal Biology (Plants)
Lesson Title Plant Organ Systems and their Functions
1. compare and contrast the following processes in plants:

reproduction, development, nutrition, gas exchange,
transport/circulation, regulation of body fluids, chemical and
Learning Competency
nervous control, immune systems, and sensory and motor
mechanisms
Time Frame TBF
At SJPIICD, I Matter!
LEARNING NTENT!I
Terms to Ponder
This section provides meaning and definition of the terminologies that are significant for
better understanding of the terms used throughout the simplified course pack of
Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction. Having you intuitively understand words
from their use in readings or in class is the best solution to learn vocabulary. By
learning and understanding these terms, you can become more adapt at properly
using the discipline specific vocabulary and through practice acquire a better
understanding of the related concepts.
Plants are multicellular organisms in the kingdom Plantae that use

photosynthesis to make their own food. There are over 300,000 species of
plants; common examples of plants include grasses, trees, and shrubs. Plants
have an important role in the world’s ecosystems. They produce most of the
world’s oxygen, and are important in the food chain, as many organisms eat
plants or eat organisms which eat plants. The study of plants is called botany
(Editors, 2017).
Botany is the scientific study of plants. It includes the study of their structure,
how they grow, how they can be effectively classified, the things that impact
their development, etc. Botany is a branch of biology, which is the study of all
living organisms (Quist, 2021).
Characteristics of Plants
Plants are autotrophs; they produce their own food. They do so via
photosynthesis, which is the process of making nutrients such as sugars from
light energy and carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis occurs in cell organelles
called chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll and carotenoids, molecules that
absorb light energy and change it into a usable form. Heterotrophs, on the
other hand, are organisms that cannot make their own food and must eat other
organisms to survive. Many heterotrophs eat plants. Other heterotrophs eat
animals that have eaten plants. Plants are primary producers in many
ecosystems, giving them a vital role in the survival of many other organisms. In
addition, oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis, and many organisms
depend on oxygen to survive. We couldn’t live without plants.
Plants are multicellular organisms with eukaryotic cells. A eukaryotic
cell is a relatively large cell with a true nucleus and other organelles that
perform specific functions. Plants, protists, fungi, and animals all have
eukaryotic cells. Plant cells are distinguished by their cell walls containing
cellulose, chloroplasts that perform photosynthesis, and a large central vacuole
that holds water and keeps the plant turgid. Prokaryotic cells, on the other
hand, are small with no true nucleus or organelles except ribosomes, which
produce proteins. Bacteria and archaea have prokaryotic cells.
Many plants have vascular tissue, such as xylem and phloem, that
carries water and nutrients throughout the plant. This is particularly
important for plants that grow upwards; water needs to travel from the roots
up the stem to the leaves. Vascular tissue is found in more “complex” plants.
Plants are believed to have evolved from algae-like ancestors. Today, most
modern-day algae are classified as bacteria, not plants. However, green algae,
which also have cellulose in their cell walls and have chloroplasts that perform
photosynthesis, are sometimes grouped with plants.
6 Processes of Plant Physiology
(by: Shagun Khandelwal, 2020)
PROCESS 1: Photosynthesis:
“Photosynthesis is a process by which chlorophyll containing organism
(green plants, algae etc.) captures energy in the form of sunlight and converts it
to chemical energy”.
Photosynthesis active radiation (PAR) occurs at 400-700 nm.
Major photosynthesis active pigments of higher plants are Chlorophyll a
and Chlorophyll b.
Photosynthesis completes in 2 phases:
1. C4/Light reaction/Hill reaction – take place in Graina of Chlorophyll
2. C3/Dark reaction/Calvin cycle – take place in Stroma of Chlorophyll
Mechanisms of photosynthesis:
1. C3 pathway:
A. Also known as reductive pentose pathway or Blackman reaction or
Calvin cycle.
B. It takes place in Rice, Wheat, Pea and Soybean etc.
C. Rubisco is the most important enzyme involved in photosynthetic CO2
fixation in C3 plants.
D. Its final product is 3 PGA.
2. C4 pathway:
A. Also known as Hatch and slack pathway or Di-carboxylic acid

pathway or B- carboxylation cycle or Cooperative photosynthesis.
B. The 1st product in C4plants is Oxalo acetic acid.
C. PEP carboxylase is the most important enzyme involved in
photosynthetic CO2 fixation in C3 plants
D. Its products are ATP and NADPH2.
E. It takes place in Maize, Sorghum and Sugarcane etc.
F. C4 plants have 2 types of photosynthetic cells with Kranz leaf anatomy
viz. mesophyll cell and bundle sheath cells causing higher photosynthetic rate.
CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) pathway is found in Pineapple and
Opuntia.
A. C3Plants: Rice, wheat, barley, pea, gram, mustard and rye, cotton,
Arhar, soybean, sunflower, lentil, sugarbeet, tomato etc.
B. C4 Plants: Maize, sorghum, Bajra, sugarcane, millets.
C. Cam Plants: Pineapple, khajur, cactus, sisal.
D. One NADH2 produces 3 ATP molecules.
E. One FADH2 produces 2 ATP molecules.
PROCESS 2: Cellular Respiration

(a). Respiration involves 2 processes:
1. Physical process – by which living organism take O2, and emit waste
CO2
2. Chemical process – by which fuel molecules i.e. sugars and fats are
broken down within a cell to liberate energy for cellular life process.
Respiration in plants consists of-
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs cycle (Citric acid or TCA-Tricarboxylic acid)
3. ETC (Electron Transport Chain)
b. Glycolysis: 1) It occurs in the cytoplasm and in anaerobic condition.
(2) Final product is Pyrubic acid/pyruyate.
c. Phases of glycolysis: 1st phase→ Consumption of ATP → Endothermic
2nd phase →Production of ATP → Exothermic
d. ATP synthesis in glycolysis,
1. Net gain ATP →2
2. Gross production→4
a. Krebs cycle and ETC occurs in Mitochondria.
b. TCA cycle starts with Acetyl co-enzymes A and Oxalo acetate.
c. ETC is present in the Cristae of Mitochondria, where ATP synthesized
during respiration.
d. From one molecule of Glucose in respiration,
a. Net gain ATP synthesis →36 ATP
b. Gross production →38 ATP
e. Products of anaerobic respiration are Ethanol and Lactic acid.
f. Cytochromes are electron carriers in the respiratory ETC.
g. One molecules of glucose yields – 686 Kcal energy
One molecule of ATP yields – 7.6 Kcal energy
One molecule of nadph2 yields – 52 Kcal energy
h. The energy currency of the cell is ATP.
PROCESS 3: Photorespiration:
“Light dependent oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide production is known
as photorespiration”.
(1) This occurs only in light.

(2) Photorespiration is high at 25°-35°C.
(3) This occurs only in chlorophyllous cells.
(4) This is distinct from mitochondria respiration.
(5) This is primarily more in C3 plants and is very rare in C4 plants.
(6) Respiratory substrate: Glycolate.
(7) Process of respiration occurs in chloroplast + Peroxisomes +
mitochondria.
(8) During this process, no ATP is produced.
PROCESS 4: Transpiration:
“The loss of water in the form of vapour from the living aerial parts of the
plant is known as transpiration”.
(1) The principle organ of transpiration is Leaf.
(2) Transpiration may be Folier (through stomata) or Lenticular (through
lenticels).
(3) Transpiration is usually occurs in day time.
(4) The loss of water occurs in the form of vapour.
(5) It is regulated and controlled by Stomatal activities.
(6) The after affect of transpiration is “cooling the leaf surface”
(7) The transpiring water is pure.
Types of transpiration:
1. Stomatal transpiration – 80-90 per cent water loss
2. Cuticular transpiration – 3-9 per cent

3. Lenticular transpiration – 0.1 per cent
Stomata:
1. Stomata are specialised epidermal cells.
2. It is found mainly on lower surface of leaves.
3. Approximately 97 per cent of transpiration takes place through
stomata.
4. Each opened stomata has two kidney shaped guard cells.
5. Inner wall of guard cell is thicker, while outer is thin.
6. Opening and closing of stomata are due to its turgidity and flaccidity
respectively.
Types of stomata:
(a) According to distribution of stomata on leaf:
1. Apple and Mulberry type – Stomata are present on only under surface
of leaf.
2. Potato type – Mostly on lower surface.
3. Oat type – Equally distributed on both surface.
4. Water lily type – Only on upper surface
5. Potamogeton type – Stomata are either absent or functionless
(b) According to daily movement of stomata:
1. Alfalfa type – Stomata open through-out day and night i.e. pea, bean,
mustard etc.
2. Potato type – Stomata open through-out day and night except for a few
hours in the evening i.e. onion, cabbage, pumpkin etc.
3. Barley type – Stomata open only for a few hours during day
Stomatal transpiration:
Water absorbed by root hairs and reaches in the xylem vessels and
tracheids through the root cortex. From the xylem of the root, it reaches in the
xylem vessels and tracheids of the leaf. This results in increase in turgor
pressure of its cell as compared to mesophyll cells.
The intercellular space in mesophyll cells are filled with air. By

transpiration, water vapour enters in the intercellular space then passes on
into atmosphere through stomata. Lenticels are the pores in the bark of fruits
and woody stems.
Guttation:
“The loss of water (contains salts and minerals) through hydathodes in
liquid form during night and regulated by root pressure”.
Bleeding:
“Loss of sap (water) from the injured parts of the plant due to root
pressure”.
PROCESS 5: Growth and Development:

A. Growth:
Growth is the irreversible change in any plant part (s) with respect to
size, form, weight, volume etc.
B. Development:
Development is the phasic change of individual cells into tissues, organs
and organisms. It is the resultant of growth.
Phases of growth:
1. Lag phase:
It is the initial growth phase, where internal changes in the cell occur,
but it is very slow or negligible.
2. Log phase:
It is the grand period of growth and occurs fast.

3. Decreasing growth rate:
Here growth rate gradually decrease.

4. Senescence phase:
In this phase, organism reaches to maturity and growth ceases.
5. Death of organism:
I. The growth rate is measured by Auxanometer and Cresco graph.
II. Growth Hormones are the organic substances which are produced
generally in meristematic cell of the plant and trans located towards the site of
action inducing a physiological process.
III. Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs) are such organic compounds
occurring naturally in the plants as well as synthetic and promote, inhibit or
modify any physiological process in small amount.
Types of PGR:
Growth promoter – Auxins, Gibberellins and Cytokinin
Growth inhibitors – Abscisic acid and Ethylene
Functions of PGRs
PROCESS 6: Photoperiodism and Vernalisation:

a. Photoperiodism:
Photoperiodism is the physiological response of plants in relation to
length of light (day) and dark (night). The term ‘Photoperiodism’ was coined by
Garner and Allard (1920).
b. Photoperiodic Effect:
Influence of crop growth by the relative length of day and night especially
for floral initiation.
1. Long day or short night plants:
Plant requires longer day length (>14 hrs.) for floral initiation (e.g..
Wheat, barley oat sugar beet and castor generally rabi crops)
2. Short day or long night plants:
Plant requires shorter day length (<10 hrs.) for floral initiation (e.g. Rice,
sorghum, soybean, generally kharif crops)
3. Day neutral plants:
Intermediate day length (12-14 hrs.) e.g. Cotton, maize, sunflower,
safflower, groundnut, buck wheat, tomato etc. Vernalisation is the cold
treatment to a plant bud or seedling in order to fulfill a specific low
temperature requirement for accelerating the flowering. Apical buds/early
stages of germination (growing point) are the sites of Vernalisation.
Reproduction of Plants
(by: ncert.nic.in, 2021)
Link: https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/gesc112.pdf
A. Asexual Reproduction
In asexual reproduction new plants are obtained without production of seeds.
a. Vegetative propagation
It is a type of asexual reproduction in which new plants are produced
from roots, stems, leaves and buds. Since reproduction is through the
vegetative parts of the plant, it is known as vegetative propagation.
1. Grafting -has long been used to produce novel varieties of
roses, citrus species, and other plants. In grafting, two plant
species are used: part of the stem of the desirable plant is
grafted onto a rooted plant called the stock. The part that is
grafted or attached is called the scion. Both are cut at an
oblique angle (any angle other than a right angle), placed in
close contact with each other, and are then held together.
Matching up these two surfaces as closely as possible is
extremely important because these will be holding the plant
together. The vascular systems of the two plants grow and fuse,
forming a graft. After a period of time, the scion starts
producing shoots, eventually bearing flowers and fruits.
Grafting is widely used in viticulture (grape growing) and the

citrus industry. Scions capable of producing a particular fruit
variety are grafted onto root stock with specific resistance to
disease.
2. Cutting- Plants such as coleus and money plant are propagated
through stem cuttings where a portion of the stem containing
nodes and internodes is placed in moist soil and allowed to root.
In some species, stems can start producing a root even when
placed only in water. For example, leaves of the African violet
will root if kept undisturbed in water for several weeks.
3. Layering -is a method in which a stem attached to the plant is
bent and covered with soil. Young stems that can be bent easily
without any injury are the preferred plant for this method.
Jasmine and bougainvillea (paper flower) can be propagated
this way. In some plants, a modified form of layering known as
air layering is employed. A portion of the bark or outermost
covering of the stem is removed and covered with moss, which
is then taped. Some gardeners also apply rooting hormone.
After some time, roots will appear; this portion of the plant can
be removed and transplanted into a separate pot.
4. Micropropagation- (also called plant tissue culture) is a
method of propagating a large number of plants from a single
plant in a short time under laboratory conditions. This method
allows propagation of rare, endangered species that may be
difficult to grow under natural conditions, are economically
important, or are in demand as disease-free plants.
B. Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves the production of
male and female gametes, the transfer of the male gametes to the female
ovules in a process called pollination. The ovary, which produced the female
gametophyte(s), then grows into a fruit, which surrounds the seed(s).
Development of Plants
(by: Nancy G. Dengler, 2021)
Plant development is an umbrella term for a broad spectrum of

processes that include: the formation of a complete embryo from a zygote ;
seed germination; the elaboration of a mature vegetative plant from the
embryo; the formation of flowers, fruits, and seeds; and many of the plant's
responses to its environment. Plant development encompasses the growth
and differentiation of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Plant
development shares many similarities with developmental processes in
animals, but the fact that plants are nonmotile, photosynthetic organisms
requires certain novel developmental processes in addition to the common
ones.
Embryo and Seed Development
Embryogenesis, the formation of a multicellular embryo from a single-celled
zygote, is one of the most dramatic and best-characterized aspects of plant
development. Four key developmental processes take place during
embryogenesis. First, the zygote expresses apical -basal polarity, meaning that
the apical and basal ends of the zygote cell differ structurally and
biochemically. When the zygote divides, it typically divides asymmetrically,
giving rise to a small apical cell with dense cytoplasm and a large basal cell
with watery cytoplasm. Although these two cells have identical nuclei, their
fates differ dramatically. The apical cell gives rise to the embryo itself, while the
basal cell gives rise to a short-lived structure called a suspensor and the tip of
the root system. The progeny of the apical cell grow and divide to form a
Embryo formation begins with cell division that establishes the apical-basal
(top-bottom) axis. Further divisions elaborate on this basic plan, finally forming
the cotyledons (seed leaves), as well as the apical meristems of root and shoot.
spherical mass of cells, the globular-stage embryo. Second, differential growth

within the globular embryo gives rise to the "heart" stage embryo, the earliest
stage when the precursors of cotyledons , root, and stem can be recognized.
This key embryogenic process is called organogenesis. Third, distinctive planes
of cell divisions bring about histogenesis , the process by which cells within
embryonic cotyledons, root, and stem acquire different shapes, forming the
precursors of the plant tissue systems. Last, the apical meristems of the shoot
and root systems are formed at the apical and basal ends of the embryo.
After an embryo has reached full size, developmental changes continue to
occur at the cellular level. Embryonic cells, particularly those of the cotyledons,
begin to synthesize and store the proteins , lipids , and starch that will
provide the energy and basic building blocks for germination and seedling
growth. Next, the embryo begins to desiccate, sometimes losing up to 80
percent of its previous water content, and enters a phase of dormancy.
Development and metabolism are arrested in dormant embryos, and seeds
containing dormant embryos can survive for many years (sometimes centuries)
and withstand extreme temperatures and drought.
Plant hormones are important regulators of embryogenesis and seed
dormancy. The hormones auxin, gibberellic acid, and cytokinin all stimulate
growth and are present in the embryo during the stages of embryogenesis. As
the embryo matures, these hormones are degraded and abscisic acid is
synthesized by the embryo. Abscisic acid provides a developmental signal for
the embryo to initiate the synthesis of storage compounds and to
undergo desiccation . Abscisic acid is present in dormant seeds and is
thought to play an important role in maintaining seed dormancy.
Germination and Seedling Development
Embryo development and metabolism resume upon seed germination. Given
the right combination of water availability, temperatures, and light, the
desiccated seed begins to take up water and the embryo begins to grow and
metabolize again. Some species have specific requirements for germination; for
instance, many temperate zone tree species require several weeks of
temperatures of 4 degrees Celsius (39.2 degrees Fahrenheit) or less in
The root is the first portion of the plant to emerge during germination. Growth
of the stem behind the cotyledons forms a "hook" that emerges from the soil,
followed by emergence of the cotyledons, which begin to photosynthesize to
feed further growth.
order to germinate. Other species require low levels of light in order to
germinate. Once germination is initiated, the embryo follows a typical pattern
of development. In many plants, the preformed embryonic root elongates first,
forcing its way out of the seed coat and into the soil. Next, the embryonic stem,
usually the part below the attachment of the cotyledons (the hypocotyl),
elongates. Once the hypocotyl has carried the cotyledons into the light, they
expand, providing a broad surface for photosynthesis.
Environmental factors and their translation into hormonal signals are
important for seedling development. For instance, germination in the dark
results in developmental events that help the seedling push its way through
the soil into the light. The hypocotyl elongates quickly and maintains a "hook"
near its tip that protects the cotyledons and shoot apical meristem region.
Cotyledon expansion is suppressed so that they are not damaged as they are
pulled through the soil. In contrast, if the same seeds germinate in the light,
the hypocotyl hardly elongates at all and does not form a hook, while the
cotyledons quickly expand. The hormone gibberellic acid plays an important
role in seed germination and early seedling growth. Gibberellic acid induces the
synthesis of enzymes required for the metabolism of stored foods, thus
providing energy for seedling growth. Gibberellic acid also induces cell division
and cell expansion in dark-grown hypocotyls, maintaining their rapid growth
through the soil.
Apical Meristems and Development
The early stages of germination simply involve the enlargement of the root,
hypocotyl, and cotyledons that were performed in the embryo. Postembryonic
development, however, is focused on the apical meristems. The shoot apical
meristem is the source of all the leaves, stems, and their component cells
formed during the lifetime of the plant. The meristem itself is composed of a
small population of perpetually embryonic (meristematic) cells. These cells
grow and divide; giving rise to new cells, but never mature themselves. Thus
there is always a source of new cells at the tip of the shoot. The root tip has a
similar population of meristematic cells that gives rise to all root tissues. Both
of these meristems are characterized by an indeterminate growth pattern: one
that is not finite, but, in theory at least, could continue throughout the lifetime
of the plant.
Apical meristems are involved in several distinct developmental processes. The
meristems are the location of cell proliferation and thus the source of all new
cells in the shoot and root systems. The regions below the meristems are the
sites of active growth, as new shoot and root tissue rapidly expands. The shoot
apical meristem plays a role in organogenesis, the formation of new leaves and
axillary buds in a precise spatial pattern. In contrast, the root apical meristem
is not involved in organogenesis; lateral roots are initiated by pericycle cells,
which are themselves derived from the meristem, usually several centimeters
away from the meristem. The apical meristems also play a role in histogenesis
by giving rise to cells that undergo distinct patterns of differentiation to form
the specialized tissue types of the shoot and root. While the embryo initially
gives rise to the precursors of dermal, ground, and vascular tissues
(protoderm, ground meristem, and procambium, respectively), these tissue
precursors continue to be formed by the apical meristems and represent the
first stages of cell and tissue differentiation.
Essential Nutrients for Plants
(by: Provin and Mcfarland, 2021)
To be able to grow, develop, and produce at their best, plants must have
specific elements or compounds called plant essential nutrients.
A plant that lacks an essential nutrient cannot complete its life cycle—the seed
may not germinate; the plant may not be able to develop roots, stems, leaves,
or flowers properly; or it may not be able to produce seeds to create new plants.
Often the plant itself will die.
However, having too much of a nutrient can harm and even kill plants.
For example, having too much nitrogen can cause a plant to grow more leaves
but less or no fruit. Too much manganese can make the leaves turn yellow and
eventually die. And excess boron can kill a plant.
You can save money and effort—and even your plants— if you know
what and how much to give your plants. The plants will be healthier and more
productive if you give them what they need—no more and no less.
Plant essential nutrients
Scientists have identified 16 essential nutrients and grouped them according to
the relative amount of each that plants need:
 Primary nutrients, also known as macronutrients, are those usually
required in the largest amounts. They are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen, phosphorus, and potassium.
 Secondary nutrients are those usually needed in moderate amounts
compared to the primary essential nutrients. The secondary nutrients are
calcium, magnesium, and sulfur.
 Micro- or trace nutrients are required in tiny amounts compared to
primary or secondary nutrients. Micronutrients are boron, chlorine,
copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, and zinc.
A very few plants need five other nutrients: cobalt, nickel, silicon, sodium,
and vanadium.
Each essential nutrient affects specific functions of plant growth and
development (Table 1). Plant growth is limited by the nutrient that is in the
shortest supply (Fig. 1).
Forms of essential plant nutrients
To be used by a plant, an essential nutrient must be broken down into
its basic form. The nutrient must be in the form of either a positively charged
ion (cation) or a negatively charged ion (anion). A plant cannot use organic
compounds, such as those in manure or dead leaves, until they are broken
down into their elemental or ionic forms.
Also, plants cannot use an element that is not in the proper form (a specific
ion) even if it is present in high concentrations in the soil. For example, the
presence of iron (Fe) in the soil will not guarantee that enough of the proper
iron ions, Fe2+ or Fe3+, will be available to the plant.
Plants take in almost all of the essential nutrients through their roots. The
exception is carbon, which is taken in through leaf pores, or stomata. Two
types of organisms living in the soil help the roots take up nutrients:
 Microorganisms, or microbes, break down organic compounds into
inorganic compounds in a process called mineralization.
 Fungi enable some plants to take up phosphorus by increasing the size of
the roots and providing more soil-to-root contact.
Determining available nutrient levels in the soil
It is hard to tell whether the soil has a nutrient problem just by looking at
the plants. Symptoms vary by nutrient and plant species. Common symptoms
include:
 Little or no growth
 Dead tissue at the leaf tips, on the leaf edges, or within the leaves
 Yellow or dead leaves on one part of the plant only
 Overall leaf yellowing, yellow streaks, or white between the leaf veins
Before spreading any fertilizer—organic or inorganic— check for other
possible causes of the problem. Similar symptoms can be caused by diseases,
insects, herbicides, compacted soil, and wide changes in soil moisture levels.
Gas Exchange in Plants

(by: S-cool , 2020)
Plants obtain the gases they need through their leaves. They
require oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
The gases diffuse into the intercellular spaces of the leaf through pores,
which are normally on the underside of the leaf - stomata. From these spaces
they will diffuse into the cells that require them.
Stomatal opening and closing depends on changes in the turgor of the

guard cells. When water flows into the guard cells by osmosis, their turgor
increases and they expand. Due to the relatively inelastic inner wall, the guard
cells bend and draw away from each other, so the pore opens. If the guard cells
loose water the opposite happens and the pore closes. The guard cells lower
their water potential to draw in water from the surrounding epidermal cells, by
actively accumulating potassium ions. This requires energy in the form of ATP
which, is supplied by the chloroplasts in the guard cells.
Respiration occurs throughout the day and night, providing the plant
with a supply of energy. Photosynthesis can only occur during sunlight hours
so it stops at night. A product of respiration is carbon dioxide.
This can be used directly by the plant in photosynthesis.
However, during the day, photosynthesis can be going 10 or even 20

times faster than respiration (depending on light intensity), so the stomata
must stay open so that the plant has enough carbon dioxide, most of which
diffuses in from the external atmosphere.
Plants Transport System

(by: Steve Johnson , 2019)
Plant Transport System

Compared to animals, most plants are less complex and require less
food and water to survive. A plant takes in water and dissolved nutrients from
the soil via the roots. These substances are then carried into specialized
tissues in the plant stem that act as a route for the water and nutrients to be
carried to various parts of the plant, such as the leaves, flowers and fruits.
Food from various sites is also distributed to different organs via another
tissue of the plant’s transport system.
Plants' Xylem
The xylem is the specialized plant tissue that is responsible for carrying
water and dissolved minerals taken in from the roots. It makes up a large part
of a plant's stem, especially in woody plants where the xylem has matured
into a tree trunk. Individual cylindrical vessels connected together make up
the xylem, resulting to a continuous duct that conducts inorganic ions
dissolved in water into various plant parts where they are needed.
Plants' Phloem
Translocation is the process of transporting food from the
leaves—the plant’s sites for photosynthesis or "food
manufacturing." The structure responsible for this process of translocation is
the phloem, which is made up of cells that control the passage of food in the
form of sugars from the leaves into different parts of the plant. The phloem is
positioned just outside the xylem.
Regulation of body fluids of plants

(by: Allison Miller , 2018)
In order for plants to produce energy and maintain cellular function,

their cells undergo the highly intricate process of photosynthesis. Critical in
this process is the stoma. Stomata (multiple stoma) are located on the
outermost cellular layer of leaves, stems, and other plant parts. An open stoma
facilitates the process of photosynthesis in three ways. First, it allows light to
enter the intercellular matter and trigger the process. Second, it allows for the
uptake of carbon dioxide, a key chemical in producing plant energy. Third, it
allows for oxygen to be expelled into the outside environment, a byproduct of
photosynthesis that is no longer needed by the cell.
While an open stoma is necessary for the plant to undergo

photosynthesis, it comes with a negative side effect: water loss. Over 95% of a
plant’s water loss occurs through the stoma via water vapor. Therefore, a
delicate balance must be maintained that allows light and gases to pass
between cells, and does not put the plant at risk for dehydration.
This problem is mitigated with guard cells. Guard cells are a pair of two
cells that surround each stoma opening. To open, the cells are triggered by one
of many possible environmental or chemical signals. These can include strong
sunlight or higher than average levels of carbon dioxide inside the cell. In
response to these signals, the guard cells take in sugars, potassium, and
chloride ions (i.e., solutes) through their membranes. An increase in solutes
induces an influx of water across the guard cell membrane. As the volume of
the guard cells increase, they “inflate” into two kidney-bean-like shapes. As
they expand, they reveal the stoma opening in the center of the two guard cells
(similar to a hole in the center of a doughnut). Once fully expanded, the stoma
is open and gases can move between the cell and external environment.
The stoma’s pore closes in the opposite manner. Excess loss of water
through the stoma, such as during a drought, triggers chemical reactions that
signal water and ions to leave the guard cells. As solutes exit the guard cells,
the pair “deflates,” subsequently closing the stoma like two flat balloons.
Plants communicate distress using their own kind of nervous system

(by: Elizabeth Pennisi , 2018)
Plants may lack brains, but they have a nervous system, of sorts. And now,
plant biologists have discovered that when a leaf gets eaten, it warns other leaves
by using some of the same signals as animals. The new work is starting to unravel
a long-standing mystery about how different parts of a plant communicate with
one another.
Animal nerve cells talk to each other with the aid of an amino acid called
glutamate, which—after being released by an excited nerve cell—helps set off a
wave of calcium ions in adjacent cells. The wave travels down the next nerve
cell, which relays a signal to the next one in line, enabling long-distance
communication.
But scientists were investigating something else when they stumbled on

their discovery: how plants react to gravity. They developed a molecular sensor
that could detect increases in calcium, which they thought might play a role.
They bred the sensor, which glows brighter as calcium levels increase, into a
mustard plant called Arabidopsis. They then cut one of its leaves to see
whether they could detect any calcium activity.
They immediately saw a glow that got brighter, then dimmer, right next
to the wound; then the glow appeared and disappeared farther away until the
wave of calcium reached the other leaves (above), they report today
in Science. Further study pinpointed glutamate as the trigger of the calcium
wave.
Although plant biologists already know that changes to one part of a

plant are sensed by the others, they had no idea how that information was
transmitted. Now that they have seen the calcium wave and the role of
glutamate, researchers can better monitor and—perhaps one day even
manipulate—the plant’s internal communications.
Plants Immune System

(by: Toshiyuki IMAI, 2020)
Recognizing (and Remembering) Self from Non-Self
Humans, along with most other vertebrates, have a multifaceted immune

system called an adaptive immune system, which is the culmination of
complex interactions at the biochemical, genetic and cellular levels.
Key parts of this adaptive system are the organism’s ability to (1) biochemically
distinguish between it’s own cells (self) and foreign (non-self) entities AND (2)
“remember” specific features of the foreigner.
All pathogens – from viruses to fungi – have so-called macromolecules on their

surfaces that distinguish them.
Adaptive immune systems (AIS) use these macromolecules as antigens. That is,
the immune system uses these characteristic surface features as a way to
specifically identify foreign (non-self) entities.
The AIS uses the antigens to generate specific antibodies, which are used to tag
the “foreigner” for destruction by specialized blood cells called lymphocytes.
These specific antibodies then allow for the rapid detection of subsequent
infections with a particular pathogen, which allows for relatively quick
defensive responses.
Although plants don’t possess such a sophisticated AIS, there are instances of
self/non-self-recognition in plants, mainly having to do with issues of self-
pollination.
Plants Have an Innate (Passive) Immune System

A more generic, non-specific response to infection characterizes a plant’s
immune system.
This type of response is called an innate immune system, in contrast to AIS.

Plants don’t have antibodies or special cells that search for and destroy
pathogens.
Plants do, however, have cell-surface receptors to identify certain patterns

characteristic of pathogens.
Such receptors, when activated, trigger the production of chemical signals,

such as methyl jasmonate (think jasmine perfume or jasmine tea) that may
elicit both local and systemic defense responses.
Local defensive responses included the so-called “hypersensitive
response” characterized by the self-destruction of the plant cells in a localized
area around the site of infection.
Plants also possess inducible systemic defense responses when locally infected
by pathogens.
Plant Sensory Systems and Responses

(by: Pressbook 2021)
Animals can respond to environmental factors by moving to a new location. Plants,

however, are rooted in place and must respond to the surrounding environmental
factors. Plants have sophisticated systems to detect and respond to light, gravity,
temperature, and physical touch. Receptors sense environmental factors and relay
the information to effector systems—often through intermediate chemical

messengers—to bring about plant responses.
Plant Responses to Light

Plants have a number of sophisticated uses for light that go far beyond their ability to
photosynthesize low-molecular-weight sugars using only carbon dioxide, light, and
water. Photomorphogenesis is the growth and development of plants in response to
light. It allows plants to optimize their use of light and space. Photoperiodism is
the ability to use light to track time. Plants can tell the time of day and time of year
by sensing and using various wavelengths of sunlight. Phototropism is a
directional response that allows plants to grow towards, or even away from, light.
The sensing of light in the environment is important to plants; it can be crucial for
competition and survival. The response of plants to light is mediated by different
photoreceptors, which are comprised of a protein covalently bonded to a light-
absorbing pigment called a chromophore. Together, the two are called a
chromoprotein.
The red/far-red and violet-blue regions of the visible light spectrum trigger structural
development in plants. Sensory photoreceptors absorb light in these particular
regions of the visible light spectrum because of the quality of light available in the
daylight spectrum. In terrestrial habitats, light absorption by chlorophylls peaks in
the blue and red regions of the spectrum. As light filters through the canopy and
the blue and red wavelengths are absorbed, the spectrum shifts to the far-red end,
shifting the plant community to those plants better adapted to respond to far-red
light. Blue-light receptors allow plants to gauge the direction and abundance of
sunlight, which is rich in blue–green emissions. Water absorbs red light, which
makes the detection of blue light essential for algae and aquatic plants.
The Blue Light Responses

Phototropism—the directional bending of a plant toward or away from
a light source—is a response to blue wavelengths of light. Positive
phototropism is growth towards a light source ([link]), while negative
phototropism (also called skototropism) is growth away from light.
The aptly-named phototropins are protein-based receptors
responsible for mediating the phototropic response. Like all plant
photoreceptors, phototropins consist of a protein portion and a light-
absorbing portion, called the chromophore. In phototropins, the
chromophore is a covalently-bound molecule of flavin; hence, phototropins
belong to a class of proteins called flavoproteins.
Other responses under the control of phototropins are leaf opening

and closing, chloroplast movement, and the opening of stomata. However, of
all responses controlled by phototropins, phototropism has been studied the
longest and is the best understood.
In their 1880 treatise The Power of Movements in Plants, Charles
Darwin and his son Francis first described phototropism as the bending of
seedlings toward light. Darwin observed that light was perceived by the tip
of the plant (the apical meristem), but that the response (bending) took
place in a different part of the plant. They concluded that the signal had to
travel from the apical meristem to the base of the plant.
Azure bluets (Houstonia caerulea) display a phototropic response by
bending toward the light. (credit: Cory Zanker)
Photo shows blue flowers all tilted in the same direction. The flowers
have four small petals and a yellow center, and each flower sits atop a
slender green stem.
In 1913, Peter Boysen-Jensen demonstrated that a chemical signal

produced in the plant tip was responsible for the bending at the base. He
cut off the tip of a seedling, covered the cut section with a layer of gelatin,
and then replaced the tip. The seedling bent toward the light when
illuminated. However, when impermeable mica flakes were inserted between
the tip and the cut base, the seedling did not bend. A refinement of the
experiment showed that the signal traveled on the shaded side of the
seedling. When the mica plate was inserted on the illuminated side, the
plant did bend towards the light. Therefore, the chemical signal was a
growth stimulant because the phototropic response involved faster cell
elongation on the shaded side than on the illuminated side. We now know
that as light passes through a plant stem, it is diffracted and generates
phototropin activation across the stem. Most activation occurs on the lit
side, causing the plant hormone indole acetic acid (IAA) to accumulate on
the shaded side. Stem cells elongate under influence of IAA.
Cryptochromes are another class of blue-light absorbing
photoreceptors that also contain a flavin-based chromophore.
Cryptochromes set the plants 24-hour activity cycle, also know as its
circadian rhythem, using blue light cues. There is some evidence that
cryptochromes work together with phototropins to mediate the phototropic
response.
Plant Responses to Gravity
Whether or not they germinate in the light or in total darkness, shoots
usually sprout up from the ground, and roots grow downward into the
ground. A plant laid on its side in the dark will send shoots upward when
given enough time. Gravitropism ensures that roots grow into the soil and
that shoots grow toward sunlight. Growth of the shoot apical tip upward is
called negative gravitropism, whereas growth of the roots downward is
called positive gravitropism.
Amyloplasts (also known as statoliths) are specialized plastids that

contain starch granules and settle downward in response to gravity.
Amyloplasts are found in shoots and in specialized cells of the root cap.
When a plant is tilted, the statoliths drop to the new bottom cell wall. A few
hours later, the shoot or root will show growth in the new vertical direction.
The mechanism that mediates gravitropism is reasonably well

understood. When amyloplasts settle to the bottom of the gravity-sensing
cells in the root or shoot, they physically contact the endoplasmic reticulum
(ER), causing the release of calcium ions from inside the ER. This calcium
signaling in the cells causes polar transport of the plant hormone IAA to the
bottom of the cell. In roots, a high concentration of IAA inhibits cell
elongation. The effect slows growth on the lower side of the root, while cells
develop normally on the upper side. IAA has the opposite effect in shoots,
where a higher concentration at the lower side of the shoot stimulates cell
expansion, causing the shoot to grow up. After the shoot or root begin to
grow vertically, the amyloplasts return to their normal position. Other
hypotheses—involving the entire cell in the gravitropism effect—have been
proposed to explain why some mutants that lack amyloplasts may still
exhibit a weak gravitropic response.
Growth Responses
A plant’s sensory response to external stimuli relies on chemical
messengers (hormones). Plant hormones affect all aspects of plant life, from
flowering to fruit setting and maturation, and from phototropism to leaf fall.
Potentially every cell in a plant can produce plant hormones. They can act
in their cell of origin or be transported to other portions of the plant body,
with many plant responses involving the synergistic or antagonistic
interaction of two or more hormones. In contrast, animal hormones are
produced in specific glands and transported to a distant site for action, and
they act alone.
Plant hormones are a group of unrelated chemical substances that
affect plant morphogenesis. Five major plant hormones are traditionally
described: auxins (particularly IAA), cytokinins, gibberellins, ethylene, and
abscisic acid. In addition, other nutrients and environmental conditions can
be characterized as growth factors.
Auxins
The term auxin is derived from the Greek word auxein, which means
“to grow.” Auxins are the main hormones responsible for cell elongation in
phototropism and gravitropism. They also control the differentiation of
meristem into vascular tissue, and promote leaf development and
arrangement. While many synthetic auxins are used as herbicides, IAA is
the only naturally occurring auxin that shows physiological activity. Apical
dominance—the inhibition of lateral bud formation—is triggered by auxins
produced in the apical meristem. Flowering, fruit setting and ripening, and
inhibition of abscission (leaf falling) are other plant responses under the
direct or indirect control of auxins. Auxins also act as a relay for the effects
of the blue light and red/far-red responses.
Commercial use of auxins is widespread in plant nurseries and for
crop production. IAA is used as a rooting hormone to promote growth of
adventitious roots on cuttings and detached leaves. Applying synthetic
auxins to tomato plants in greenhouses promotes normal fruit development.
Outdoor application of auxin promotes synchronization of fruit setting and
dropping to coordinate the harvesting season. Fruits such as seedless
cucumbers can be induced to set fruit by treating unfertilized plant flowers
with auxins.
Cytokinins
The effect of cytokinins was first reported when it was found that
adding the liquid endosperm of coconuts to developing plant embryos in
culture stimulated their growth. The stimulating growth factor was found to
be cytokinin, a hormone that promotes cytokinesis (cell division). Almost
200 naturally occurring or synthetic cytokinins are known to date.
Cytokinins are most abundant in growing tissues, such as roots, embryos,
and fruits, where cell division is occurring. Cytokinins are known to delay
senescence in leaf tissues, promote mitosis, and stimulate differentiation of
the meristem in shoots and roots. Many effects on plant development are
under the influence of cytokinins, either in conjunction with auxin or
another hormone. For example, apical dominance seems to result from a
balance between auxins that inhibit lateral buds, and cytokinins that
promote bushier growth.
Gibberellins
Gibberellins (GAs) are a group of about 125 closely related plant
hormones that stimulate shoot elongation, seed germination, and fruit and
flower maturation. GAs are synthesized in the root and stem apical
meristems, young leaves, and seed embryos. In urban areas, GA antagonists
are sometimes applied to trees under power lines to control growth and
reduce the frequency of pruning.
GAs break dormancy (a state of inhibited growth and development) in

the seeds of plants that require exposure to cold or light to germinate.
Abscisic acid is a strong antagonist of GA action. Other effects of GAs

include gender expression, seedless fruit development, and the delay of
senescence in leaves and fruit. Seedless grapes are obtained through
standard breeding methods and contain inconspicuous seeds that fail to
develop. Because GAs are produced by the seeds, and because fruit
development and stem elongation are under GA control, these varieties of
grapes would normally produce small fruit in compact clusters. Maturing
grapes are routinely treated with GA to promote larger fruit size, as well as
looser bunches (longer stems), which reduces the instance of mildew
infection ([link]).
In grapes, application of gibberellic acid increases the size of fruit and

loosens clustering. (credit: Bob Nichols, USDA)
Abscisic Acid
The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) was first discovered as the
agent that causes the abscission or dropping of cotton bolls. However, more
recent studies indicate that ABA plays only a minor role in the abscission
process. ABA accumulates as a response to stressful environmental
conditions, such as dehydration, cold temperatures, or shortened day
lengths. Its activity counters many of the growth-promoting effects of GAs
and auxins. ABA inhibits stem elongation and induces dormancy in lateral
buds.
ABA induces dormancy in seeds by blocking germination and
promoting the synthesis of storage proteins. Plants adapted to temperate
climates require a long period of cold temperature before seeds germinate.
This mechanism protects young plants from sprouting too early during
unseasonably warm weather in winter. As the hormone gradually breaks
down over winter, the seed is released from dormancy and germinates when
conditions are favorable in spring. Another effect of ABA is to promote the
development of winter buds; it mediates the conversion of the apical
meristem into a dormant bud. Low soil moisture causes an increase in ABA,
which causes stomata to close, reducing water loss in winter buds.
Ethylene
Ethylene is associated with fruit ripening, flower wilting, and leaf fall.
Ethylene is unusual because it is a volatile gas (C2H4). Hundreds of years
ago, when gas street lamps were installed in city streets, trees that grew
close to lamp posts developed twisted, thickened trunks and shed their
leaves earlier than expected. These effects were caused by ethylene
volatilizing from the lamps.
Aging tissues (especially senescing leaves) and nodes of stems
produce ethylene. The best-known effect of the hormone, however, is the
promotion of fruit ripening. Ethylene stimulates the conversion of starch
and acids to sugars. Some people store unripe fruit, such as avocadoes, in a
sealed paper bag to accelerate ripening; the gas released by the first fruit to
mature will speed up the maturation of the remaining fruit. Ethylene also
triggers leaf and fruit abscission, flower fading and dropping, and promotes
germination in some cereals and sprouting of bulbs and potatoes
Ethylene is widely used in agriculture. Commercial fruit growers
control the timing of fruit ripening with application of the gas.
Horticulturalists inhibit leaf dropping in ornamental plants by removing

ethylene from greenhouses using fans and ventilation.
Nontraditional Hormones
Recent research has discovered a number of compounds that also
influence plant development. Their roles are less understood than the effects
of the major hormones described so far.
Jasmonates play a major role in defense responses to herbivory. Their
levels increase when a plant is wounded by a predator, resulting in an
increase in toxic secondary metabolites. They contribute to the production
of volatile compounds that attract natural enemies of predators. For
example, chewing of tomato plants by caterpillars leads to an increase in
jasmonic acid levels, which in turn triggers the release of volatile
compounds that attract predators of the pest.
Oligosaccharins also play a role in plant defense against bacterial and

fungal infections. They act locally at the site of injury, and can also be
transported to other tissues. Strigolactones promote seed germination in
some species and inhibit lateral apical development in the absence of
auxins. Strigolactones also play a role in the establishment of mycorrhizae,
a mutualistic association of plant roots and fungi. Brassinosteroids are
important to many developmental and physiological processes. Signals
between these compounds and other hormones, notably auxin and GAs,
amplifies their physiological effect. Apical dominance, seed germination,
gravitropism, and resistance to freezing are all positively influenced by
hormones. Root growth and fruit dropping are inhibited by steroids.
Plant Responses to Wind and Touch
The shoot of a pea plant winds around a trellis, while a tree grows on
an angle in response to strong prevailing winds. These are examples of how
plants respond to touch or wind.
The movement of a plant subjected to constant directional pressure is
called thigmotropism, from the Greek words thigma meaning “touch,” and
tropism implying “direction.” Tendrils are one example of this. The
meristematic region of tendrils is very touch sensitive; light touch will evoke
a quick coiling response. Cells in contact with a support surface contract,
whereas cells on the opposite side of the support expand ([link]). Application
of jasmonic acid is sufficient to trigger tendril coiling without a mechanical

stimulus.
A thigmonastic response is a touch response independent of the
direction of stimulus [link]. In the Venus flytrap, two modified leaves are
joined at a hinge and lined with thin fork-like tines along the outer edges.
Tiny hairs are located inside the trap. When an insect brushes against these
trigger hairs, touching two or more of them in succession, the leaves close
quickly, trapping the prey. Glands on the leaf surface secrete enzymes that
slowly digest the insect. The released nutrients are absorbed by the leaves,
which reopen for the next meal.
Thigmomorphogenesis is a slow developmental change in the shape of
a plant subjected to continuous mechanical stress. When trees bend in the
wind, for example, growth is usually stunted and the trunk thickens.
Strengthening tissue, especially xylem, is produced to add stiffness to resist
the wind’s force. Researchers hypothesize that mechanical strain induces
growth and differentiation to strengthen the tissues. Ethylene and
jasmonate are likely involved in thigmomorphogenesis.
Plants face two types of enemies: herbivores and pathogens.
Herbivores both large and small use plants as food, and actively chew them.
Pathogens are agents of disease. These infectious microorganisms, such as
fungi, bacteria, and nematodes, live off of the plant and damage its tissues.
Plants have developed a variety of strategies to discourage or kill attackers.
The first line of defense in plants is an intact and impenetrable
barrier. Bark and the waxy cuticle can protect against predators. Other
adaptations against herbivory include thorns, which are modified branches,
and spines, which are modified leaves. They discourage animals by causing
physical damage and inducing rashes and allergic reactions. A plant’s
exterior protection can be compromised by mechanical damage, which may
provide an entry point for pathogens. If the first line of defense is breached,
the plant must resort to a different set of defense mechanisms, such as
toxins and enzymes.
Secondary metabolites are compounds that are not directly derived
from photosynthesis and are not necessary for respiration or plant growth
and development. Many metabolites are toxic, and can even be lethal to
animals that ingest them. Some metabolites are alkaloids, which discourage
predators with noxious odors (such as the volatile oils of mint and sage) or
repellent tastes (like the bitterness of quinine). Other alkaloids affect
herbivores by causing either excessive stimulation (caffeine is one example)

or the lethargy associated with opioids. Some compounds become toxic after
ingestion; for instance, glycol cyanide in the cassava root releases cyanide
only upon ingestion by the herbivore.
Mechanical wounding and predator attacks activate defense and
protection mechanisms both in the damaged tissue and at sites farther from
the injury location. Some defense reactions occur within minutes: others
over several hours. The infected and surrounding cells may die, thereby
stopping the spread of infection.
Long-distance signaling elicits a systemic response aimed at deterring
the predator. As tissue is damaged, jasmonates may promote the synthesis
of compounds that are toxic to predators. Jasmonates also elicit the
synthesis of volatile compounds that attract parasitoids, which are insects
that spend their developing stages in or on another insect, and eventually
kill their host. The plant may activate abscission of injured tissue if it is
damaged beyond repair.
SELF-SUPPORT: You can click the URL Search Indicator below to help you further understand the lessons.
Search Indicator
Becker, B. & Marin, B. (2009), "Streptophyte algae and the origin of
embryophytes", Annals of Botany, 103 (7): 999–1004, doi:10.1093/aob/mcp044,
PMC 2707909, PMID 19273476
Hassler, Michael. "Total Species Count". World Plants. Synonymic Checklist and
Distribution of the World Flora. Retrieved 26 October 2020.
Lewis, Louise A. & McCourt, R.M. (2004), "Green algae and the origin of land
plants", Am. J. Bot., 91 (10): 1535–1556, doi:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1535, PMID
21652308
Margulis, L. (1974). "Five-kingdom classification and the origin and evolution of

cells". The power of phylogenetic approaches to detect horizontally transferred
genes. Evolutionary Biology. 7. pp. 45–78. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-6944-2_2.
ISBN 978-1-4615-6946-6. PMC 1847511. PMID 17376230.
Strother, Paul K.; Battison, Leila; Brasier, Martin D.; Wellman, Charles H. (26 May
2011). "Earth's earliest non-marine eukaryotes". Nature. 473 (7348): 505–509.
Bibcode:2011Natur.473..505S. doi:10.1038/nature09943. PMID 21490597. S2CID
4418860.
Strother, Paul K.; Battison, Leila; Brasier, Martin D.; Wellman, Charles H. (26 May
2011). "Earth's earliest non-marine eukaryotes". Nature. 473 (7348): 505–509.
Bibcode:2011Natur.473..505S. doi:10.1038/nature09943. PMID 21490597. S2CID
4418860.
LET’S INITIATE!
Activity 1. Create a concept map about Organismal Biology of the Plants. Refer to the
rubrics below:
Write your answers here:
LET’S INQUIRE!
Compare and contrast the two types of reproduction of the plants. Refers to the
criteria below:
Write your answer here:
LET’S INFER!
Assignment 1. Answer the question and refer to the rubrics below.
1. Why is photosynthesis crucial to the survival of most organisms on Earth?

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ST.

JOHN PAUL II COLLEGE OF DAVAO

Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

SIMPLIFIED COURSE PACK (SCP) FOR SELF-DIRECTED

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By 2023, a recognized professional institution providing quality,

Serve the nation by providing competent JPCean graduates through

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General Biology 1- Simplified Course Pack (SCP)

SCP-Topics: 3rd Quarter SCP- Topics: 2nd Quarter

Week 3-4 Organismal Biology (Animals) Systematics Based on Evolutionary

Week 5-7 Genetics Week 16 4th Quarter Examination

Week 8 3rd Quarter Examination

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18.identify the unique/distinctive characteristics of a specific taxon relative to other taxa

Welcome Aboard! This course designed to enhance the

SCP-TOPICS: 3rd Quarter

1. compare and contrast the following processes in plants:

Time Frame TBF

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Plants are multicellular organisms in the kingdom Plantae that use

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Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

A. Also known as Hatch and slack pathway or Di-carboxylic acid

PROCESS 2: Cellular Respiration

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(1) This occurs only in light.

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2. Cuticular transpiration – 3-9 per cent

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The intercellular space in mesophyll cells are filled with air. By

PROCESS 5: Growth and Development:

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It is the grand period of growth and occurs fast.

Here growth rate gradually decrease.

PROCESS 6: Photoperiodism and Vernalisation:

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Grafting is widely used in viticulture (grape growing) and the

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Plant development is an umbrella term for a broad spectrum of

Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

spherical mass of cells, the globular-stage embryo. Second, differential growth

Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

Gas Exchange in Plants

Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

Stomatal opening and closing depends on changes in the turgor of the

This can be used directly by the plant in photosynthesis.

However, during the day, photosynthesis can be going 10 or even 20

Plants Transport System

Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

Plant Transport System

Regulation of body fluids of plants

In order for plants to produce energy and maintain cellular function,

Physically Detached Yet Academically Attached

While an open stoma is necessary for the plant to undergo

Plants communicate distress using their own kind of nervous system

But scientists were investigating something else when they stumbled on