Ana Commn Theory 14 Aug 2023

Course outline Fourier series
P∞
gp (t) = a0 + 2 n=1 [an cos(2πnf0 t) + bn sin(2πnf0 t)]
CompactP form/ complex form P∞

Introduction gp (t) = ∞n=−∞ [cn exp(j2πnf0 t)] = n=−∞ [cn e
(j2πnf0 t)
]
Linear modulation (AM,DSB,USB,LSB,VSB)
Another form
Exponential modulation (FM,PM) Let the P
above equation is equal to
Carrier wave systems ((de)modulators, mixer circuits) = a0 + ∞ n=1 [An cos(2πnf0 t + ϕn )]
Sampling P∞
Pulse Code modulation = a0 + n=1 [An cos(ϕn )cos(2πnf0 t) − An sin(ϕn )sin(2πnf0 t)]
Compare the coefficients

An cos(ϕn ) = an and −An sin(ϕn ) = bn then
bn
the amplitude An = an2 + bn2 and the phase angle ϕn = −tan−1 [ ]
an
Tarun Varma Analog Communication August 16, 2023 1 / 80 Tarun Varma Analog Communication August 16, 2023 2 / 80
Significance of Negative Frequencies
Also, Each real sinusoid in the general Fourier Series representation may be
−bn
sin(ϕn ) = p and written as a sum of complex exponentials,
an2 + bn2 an cos(2πnf0 t + ϕn ) = a2n [exp(+j2πnf0 t + ϕn ) + exp(−j2πnf0 t + ϕn )]
an
cos(ϕn ) = p Thus each real cosine frequency nf0 may be viewed in the domain of
an2 + bn2 complex exponentials as being composed of a positive frequency nf0
and a negative frequency −nf0 , each with an amplitude which is
(consider a right triangle with sides −bn , an , and (an2 + bn2 ) one-half of an (and corresponding phase angles ϕn and −ϕn )
P∞
∴ gp (t) = a0 + n=1 [An cos(2πnf0 t + ϕn )] We may therefore think of the Fourier spectrum for real periodic
signals (or individual real pulses) as being symmetrically placed
around the origin, with one-half the amplitudes An at both negative
and positive values of each frequency.]
A 2A
= [sin(πnf0 τ ) − sin(−πnf0 τ )] = [sin(πnf0 τ )]
πnf0 T0 πn
Periodic Rectangular Pulse Train an ’s are all constants
Finding the coefficients a0 , an and bn of the Fourier series
R T20 R T20 P∞
T0 gp (t)dt = T0 a0 +2 n=1 [an cos(2πnf0 t)+bn sin(2πnf0 t) ] dt Similarly,R
− − +τ
2 2
bn = T20 −τ Asin(2πnf0 t)dt
R τ2 R T20 2A cos(πnf0 t) +τ
Adt = a0 dt + 0 + 0 = a0 T0 =
− τ2 −
T0
2
T0 πnf0 −τ
or Aτ = a0 T0 dt A
= [cos(πnf0 τ ) − cos(−πnf0 τ )] = 0
πnf0 T0
τ
∴ a0 = A
T0 τ P 2A
Now ∴ gp (t) = A + ∞ n=1 sin(πnf0 τ )cos(2πnf0 t)
2 R +τ 2A sin(πnf0 t) +τ T0 πn
τ P
an =
T0 −τ
A cos(2πnf0 t)dt =
T0 πnf0 =A + ∞ n=1 kn cos(2πnf0 t)
−τ T0
2A
where constants kn = sin(πnf0 τ )
πn
Fourier Transform
Fourier pair R +∞
G (f ) = −∞
g (t) [cos(2πft) − j sin(2πft)] dt
R +∞
g (t) = −∞
G (f )exp(+j2πft)df R +∞ R +∞
G (f ) = −∞
g (t) cos(2πft) dt − j −∞
g (t) sin(2πft)] dt
R +∞
G (f ) = −∞
g (t)exp(−j2πft)dt
g (t) ↔ G (f )
Operation on Signals If g( t) ↔ G (f )
g1 (t) ↔ G1 (f ) and
g2 (t) ↔ G2 (f )
Need a, b, a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 , t0 , t1 , fc , f1 , f2 , f0 etc. are constants,
1 Linearity Linearity [g1 (t) + g2 (t)] ↔ [G1 (f ) + G2 (f )]

2 Time shifting or delay
3 Frequency shifting a1 g1 (t) + a2 g2 (t) ↔ a1 G1 (f ) + a2 G2 (f )
4 Time scaling or Time reversal
Time shifting or delay g (t − t0 ) ↔ exp(−j2πft0 )G (f )
5 Duality
6 Differentiation Frequency shifting exp(+j2πfc t)g (t) ↔ G (f − fc )
7 Integration
1 f
8 Convolution Time scaling g (at) ↔ G
|a| a
Fourier Pairs
Duality G (t) ↔ g (−f )
d g (t) 1. δ(t) ↔ 1
Differentiation ↔ j2πf G (f )
dt Rt
2. u(t) = −∞ δ(τ )dτ
Rt 1 1 ∴ using integration property,
Integration −∞
g (τ )dτ ↔ G (f ) + G (0)δ(f ) 1 1
j2πf 2 u(t) ↔ + δ(f )
j2πf 2
MultiplicationR in time domain 3. sgn(t) = 2u(t) − 1
+−∞
g1 (t) g2 (t) ↔ −∞ G1 (λ) G2 (f − λ)dλ 2 2 1
∴ sgn(t) ↔ + δ(f ) − δ(f ) =
j2πf 2 jπf
Rt
Convolution −∞
g1 (τ ) g2 (t − τ )dτ ↔ G1 (f ) G1 (f )
Write the other important FT pairs
Measurement devices - Time
Fourier Transform - Meaning Keysight DS090254A digital storage oscilloscope
(Courtesy: Keysight Technologies)
Fourier pair
R +∞
g (t) = −∞
G (f )exp(+j2πft)df
R +∞
G (f ) = −∞
g (t)exp(−j2πft)dt
g (t) ↔ G (f )
Block 1 Block 2
Convolution Correlation
Rt Rt
y (t) = −∞ x(τ )h(t − τ )dτ y (t) = −∞ x(τ )h(t + τ )
Measurement devices - Frequency

Keysight N9000A Signal Analyzer
(Courtesy: Keysight Technologies)
Normalized sinc function Normalized sinc function
sin(πx) See
sinc(x) =
πx 17 Equations That Changed the World by Ian Stewart
sin(πx)
sinc(x) =
πx
90.3% of the power is contained in the main lobe
Why are engineers obsessed with sine waves?
Answer: Because ...
1. A sine wave remains a sine wave of the same frequency when you
(a) multiply by a constant,
(b) add onto to another sine wave of the same frequency,
(c) differentiate or integrate or shift in time
2. Almost any function can be expressed as a sum of sine waves �

Periodic functions → Fourier Series � Aperiodic functions → Fourier
Transform
3. Many physical and electronic systems are

(a) composed entirely of constant-multiply/add/differentiate
(b) linear: u(t) → x(t) and v (t) → y (t) means that
u(t) + v (t) → x(t) + y (t)
Sinusoids through Linear Systems
Sum of sine waves → sum of sine waves
In these lectures we will use

T0 for the fundamental period and
f0 = T10 for the fundamental frequency.
Frequency Response of a Linear Transmission Technology that links the world
Channel
Media for communication
Wired
pair of wires
Coaxial cable
Optical Fibre
Wireless
Microwave
Satellite (Wireless)
Cellular (Wireless)
Each physical channel can be characterized by its available bandwidth

(the set of frequencies available for transmission, from fmin to fmax
Such bandwidth can be divided into sub-channels, and we can
associate a communications to each sub-channel
The signal related to one communication is filtered and then

modulated (hence, shifted in frequency) in order to fit exactly into
one sub-channel
Courtesy: beckmantower.com
AM radio band: 535–1605 KHz (10 KHz bands)

FM radio band: 88–108 MHz (200 KHz bands)
TV bands: VHF 54–72, 76–88, 174–216, UHF 470–806,
806–890
Frequencies can be reused in different geographical areas.
Courtesy: www.airforce-technology.com Courtesy: https://transportgeography.org
Why Use Modulation? Reasons for Using Modulation
Modulation for ease of radiation – Antennas must be greater
Most input signals, commonly created by transducers, can’t be than one-tenth of the wavelength; thus, low frequency baseband
sent directly over the communication channel. We refer to these signals would require overly large antennas
signals as baseband signals (i.e., messages or information) Modulation for frequency assignment – The FCC assigns
Instead, a carrier wave, whose properties are better suited to the frequency bands to each radio application.
transmission requirements, is modified (modulated) to represent Modulation for multiplexing – This allows for multiple signals to
the signal be carried on a single transmission medium
Modulation is the systematic alteration of the carrier wave so Modulation to overcome equipment limitations – Modulation is
that It carriers the message or information intended to be used to place signals in a portion of the spectrum where
communicated. equipment limitations are minimal or most easily met.
Modulation to reduce noise and interference – Some types of
A. Bruce Carlson, Communication Systems: An Introduction to
modulation are useful for reducing noise and interference
Signals and Noise in Electrical Communication, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill
A. Bruce Carlson, Communication Systems: An Introduction to
Book Company, New York, 1975; pp. 5-7.
Signals and Noise in Electrical Communication, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1975; pp. 5-7.
Phasor View of Amplitude Modulation AM demodulator
Envelope detector
The Envelope and No Overmodulation
e(t) = Ac |1 + ka m(t)| is called the envelope of the AM signal
When fc is large relative to the bandwidth of m(t), the envelope is a

smooth signal that passes through the positive peaks of s(t) and it
can be viewed as modulating (changing) the amplitude of the carrier
wave in a way related to m(t)
Condition for No Overmodulation
In standard AM broadcasting, the envelope should be positive, so
Example for Single Tone Modulation
e(t) = Ac [1 + ka m(t)] ≥ 0, for all t
Let m(t) = Am cos(2πfc t)
Then m(t) can be recovered from the envelope to within a scale Then
factor and constant offset. s(t) = Ac (1 + µ(2πfm t))(2πfc t)
where µ= ka Am is called the modulation index
An envelope detector is called a noncoherent demodulator because it
makes no use of the carrier phase and frequency
Modulation Index for the Single Tone Case

For 0 ≤ µ ≤ 1, the envelope has the maximum value
emax = Ac (1 + µ)
and minimum value Overmodulation
emin = Ac (1 − µ) When µ = 1 the AM signal is said to be 100% modulated and the
envelope periodically reaches 0
Taking the ratio of these two equations and solving for µ gives the
following formula for easily computing the modulation index from a The signal is said to be overmodulated when µ > 1
display of the modulated signal
emin
1− emax
µ= emin
1+ emax
Need to Modulate Components of a continuous-wave modulation
system
(a) Transmitter
(b) Receiver
Modulation is done to enable to use the media for the intended
message
The voice, music, picture (still/video) signals must be converted
to higher frequency
For transmission by radio, antenna size has to be proportional to
wavelength λ/4
(a) Carrier wave

(b) Assume, a sinusoidal modulating signal m(t) = Am cos(2πfm t) Amplitude modulation process
(c) Amplitude-modulated signal (a) For baseband signal m(t), as shown
(d) Frequency-modulated signal (b) AM wave for |ka m(t)| < 1 for all t.
(c) AM wave for |ka m(t)| > 1 for some t.
Amplitude Modulation
Let, Carrier wave

c(t) = Ac cos(2πfc t) Its Fourier transform will be
1
Assume, S(f ) = [δ(f − fc ) + δ(f + fc )+
2
m(t) = Am cos(2πfm t) Ac ka Am
[δ(f + (fc + fm )) + δ(f − (fc + fm ))+
4
δ(f + (fc − fm )) + δ(f − (fc − fm ))]
Full AM modulated wave
s(t) = Ac [1 + ka m(t)] cos(2πfc t)
= Ac [1 + ka Am cos(2πfm t)] cos(2πfc t)
= Ac cos(2πfc t) + Ac ka Am cos(2πfm t) cos(2πfc t)
Ac ka Am
= Ac cos(2πfc t) + [cos(2π(fc + fm t) + cos(2π(fc − fm t)]
2
Its Fourier transform will be

Amplitude Modulation 1 Ac ka
S(f ) = [δ(f − fc ) + δ(f + fc ) + [M(f + fc ) + M(f − fc )]
2 2
Let, Carrier wave
c(t) = Ac cos(2πfc t) (a) Spectrum M(f) of baseband signal (assumed here)
M(f) will be different for different message signals
Assume, (b) Spectrum S(f) of AM wave
m(t) ↔ M(f )

s(t) = Ac [1 + ka m(t)] cos(2πfc t)
= Ac cos(2πfc t) + Ac ka m(t) cos(2πfc t)
Ac ka m(t)
= Ac cos(2πfc t) + [exp(j2πfc t) + exp(−j2π(fc t)]
2
Ac ka m(t) Ac ka m(t)
= Ac cos(2πfc t) + exp(j2πfc t) + exp(−j2π(fc t)
2 2
Power in various components First, theRpower contained in the carrier is
T
Pc = A2c 0 cos 2 (2πfc t)dt = 12 A2c
Let us calculate it for m(t) = Am cos(2πfm t) and in the sidebands is

P(USB+LSB) = 14 (ka2 A2m A2c ) = 14 (µ2 A2c )
s(t) = Ac [1 + ka m(t)] cos(2πfc t) Efficiency
the ratio of the sideband power to the carrier power
1
s(t) = Ac [1 + ka Am cos(2πfm t)] cos(2πfc t) useful power P(USB+LSB) 4
(µ2 A2c )
η= = = 1 2 1 2 2
total power Pc + P(USB+LSB) A + 4 (µ Ac )
2 c
2
= Ac cos(2πfc t) + Ac ka Am cos(2πfm t) cos(2πfc t) µ
=
2 + µ2
Ac ka Am
= Ac cos(2πfc t)+ [cos(2π(fc +fm )t) +cos(2π(fc −fm )t)]
2 As the maximum value of µ = 1
∴ ηmax = 13
AM modulators
Square wave
Switching wave
Square wave AM modulator
Both use a diode
First case, bias it in its non-linear region to approximate the output as

v0 (t) = a1 v1 (t) + a2 v12 (t)
Second case, used as a ON-OFF switch
AM demodulator
Envelope detector
Switching wave AM modulator
Will a Half Wave Rectifier instead of the FWR shown also act as an
envelope detector?
Amplitude Modulation AM-modulation types
Advantages & Disadvantages
As with any technology there are advantages and disadvantages to be
considered
Advantages Full AM /AM
It is simple to implement s(t) = Ac [1 + ka m(t)] cos(2πfc t)
It can be demodulated using a circuit consisting of very few Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC)
components s(t) = Ac ka m(t) cos(2πfc t)
AM receivers are inexpensive Single Sideband (SSB)
Vestigial Sideband (VSB)
Disdvantages
It is not efficient with respect to power usage
It is not efficient in bandwidth - requires a bandwidth equal to
twice the highest audio frequency
It is prone to high levels of noise
DSBSC Modulator
(a) Product Modulator
(b) Baseband signal
(c) DSB-SC modulated wave
DSBSC modulator 2 DSBSC demodulator
ref: gill@ee.stanford.edu Coherent detector for demodulating DSBSC modulated wave
NL: non-linear device
Spectrum of a product modulator output with DSBSC Costas Receiver

DSBSC modulated wave as input.
Quadrature Carrier Multiplexing VSB modulator
Using the same bandwidth for two different message signals
Frequency response of a filter for producing the quadrature

VSB Spectrum component of the VSB modulated wave
(a) Idealized magnitude spectrum of a transmitted TV signal
(b) Magnitude response of VSB shaping filter in the receiver Mixer
Mixer output Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

(a) Spectrum of modulated signal at the mixer input
(b) Spectrum of the corresponding signal s ′ (t) at the output of the The idea is to combine a number of independent signals into a
product modulator in the mixer composite signal suitable for transmission over a common channel.
To transmit a number of these signals over the same channel, the

signals must be kept apart so that they do not interfere with each
other.
There are two ways to do it:

Frequency-division multiplexing, FDM where signals are separated in
frequency.
Time-division multiplexing, TDM where signal are separated in time.
FDM takes three steps:
1. high-frequency components are removed by low-pass filter
2. signal is shifted to mutually exclusive frequency intervals by
modulators
3. the band-pass filter is used to restrict the band of each modulated
wave to its prescribed range
FDM Steps Superheterodyne receiver

Making groups and supergroups
Networks
Analog signals vary continuously and their value is affected by all wide area wireless networks (GSM, AMPS*)
levels of noise
RF-LANs (802.11b Wi-Fi, HiperLAN /2)
wire-line local area networks (Ethernet LANs)
public switched telephone network (PSTN)
Advantages of Digital Over Analog Communication

1. Digital is more robust than analog to noise and interference
2. Digital hardware more flexible by using microprocessors and VLSI
3. Digital is more viable to using regenerative repeaters
Cost, power and BW efficiencies 4. Easier to multiplex several digital signals than analog signals
Limitations and improvements of AM
5. Digital is more efficient in trading off SNR for bandwidth
Different kinds of modulations
6. Digital signals are easily encrypted for security purposes
7. Digital signal storage is easier, cheaper and more efficient
8. Reproduction of digital data is more reliable without
deterioration
9. Cost is coming down in digital systems faster than in analog
systems and DSP algorithms are growing in power and flexibility
10. Can be coded to yield extremely low error rates with error
correction

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Course outline Fourier series

CompactP form/ complex form P∞

Compare the coefficients

Significance of Negative Frequencies

1 Linearity Linearity [g1 (t) + g2 (t)] ↔ [G1 (f ) + G2 (f )]

Measurement devices - Frequency

90.3% of the power is contained in the main lobe

2. Almost any function can be expressed as a sum of sine waves �

3. Many physical and electronic systems are

Sinusoids through Linear Systems

Sum of sine waves → sum of sine waves

In these lectures we will use

Each physical channel can be characterized by its available bandwidth

The signal related to one communication is filtered and then

AM radio band: 535–1605 KHz (10 KHz bands)

Courtesy: www.airforce-technology.com Courtesy: https://transportgeography.org

Phasor View of Amplitude Modulation AM demodulator

When fc is large relative to the bandwidth of m(t), the envelope is a

Modulation Index for the Single Tone Case

(a) Carrier wave

Let, Carrier wave

Its Fourier transform will be

Full AM modulated wave

Let us calculate it for m(t) = Am cos(2πfm t) and in the sidebands is

First case, bias it in its non-linear region to approximate the output as

Switching wave AM modulator

Spectrum of a product modulator output with DSBSC Costas Receiver

Frequency response of a filter for producing the quadrature

Mixer output Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

To transmit a number of these signals over the same channel, the

There are two ways to do it:

FDM Steps Superheterodyne receiver

Advantages of Digital Over Analog Communication

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