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ANL/ECT -3 . .MASTER ANL/ECT -3
• PPENDIX E APPENDIX E
~:;;
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL IMPLICATIONS

OF GENERATING ELECTRIC POWER FROM COAL
1977 TECHNOLOGY STATUS REPORT
APPENDIX E
A REVIEW OF TECHNOLOGY FOR CONTROL
OF FLY ASH EMISSIONS FROM COAL
IN ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
(- ~~~PARED -BY SOUTHER~ R~SEA;CH IN~IT-;)j(~
--- -·
·~
-----
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL-
COAL UTILIZATION PROGRAM
ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY
I'REPARED FOR --.:--:~-=~-=--- -------::-;;-:--.. . .-

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY
piSTRlBUTION OF TillS DOCU:.Il"ENT IS UNLIMITED

DISCLAIMER
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.---------NOTICE----------,
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ANL/ECT-3, Appendix E
ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY

9700 South Cass Avenue
Argonne, Illinois 60439

OF GENERATING ELECTRIC POWER FROM COAL'
l I
Appendix E
'A Review of Technology for Control of Fly Ash
Emissions from Coal in Electric Power Generation
Prepared by
Southern Research Institute
Birmingham, Alabama
for
Argonne National Laboratory
r------NOTICE-------.
l1W '"JN•i was prtp8red as an account of work
~~~sored by the United States Government. Neither the
Uruted States nor the United States Department of
December·l977 Energy, nor any of their employees, nor anv nf thrir
~unilactun, IUhr.nntracton, or their e.~~pluy~s. makes
a_ny. ~arra~ty, expre.u \u hnpUed, or assumes an legal
habillty or responsib~ty for the accuracy, compl:tene.<t,
or Wc:ful~ess of any mformation, apparatus, product or
process diSClosed, or represents that its use uld
infringe privately Owned rights. wo not
Work sponsored by
Division nf Rnvj.rnnmpn~al Control Technology
Assistant Secretary for Environment
United States Department of Energy
_DISTRIBU:r~ON 91!' ~HIS DOCUMENT IS UNLIMIT

FOREWORD
"Environmental Control Implications of Generating Electric
Power from Coal" is. a continuing Argonne National Laboratory pro-
gram sponsored by the Division of Environmental Control Technology
of the U.S. Department of Energy. This 1977 Technology Status
Report is the third in a series of reports issued as part of the
program, and represents efforts of Argonne and several sub-
contractors. The primary emphasis is on characterizing and evalu-
ating recent developments in available and near-term control
technologies through detailed engineering and cost analyses. The
report also includes an assessment of the effect of recent regula-
tory developments, and comparative evaluations of several possible
control technology combinations.
The main volume of the report is supplemented by seven

appendices consisting of subcontractor reports that deal with
particular control technologies. Each appendix is a separate
volume, as indicated below, and is designed to be understandable
Appendix, Title Subcontractor
A* Coal Preparation and Cleaninq Assessment Bechtel Corp.

Study (Part 1), and Appendix-(Part 2)
B Assessment of Status of Technology for Air Products and
Solvent Refining of Coal Chemicals, Inc.
c Assessment of Low-Btu Gas Combined Cycle Foster Wheeler
Power Gcnerution I!!nergy Corp.
D Assessment of NOx Control Technology for KVB, Inc.
Coal Fired Utility Boilers
E A Review of Technology for Control of Fly Southern Research
Ash Emissions from Coal in Electric Institute
Power Generation
F Flue Gas Desulfurization in the United Tennessee Valley
States - 1977 Authority
G State-of-the-Art Review for Simultaneous Tennessee Valley
Removal of Nitrogen Oxides and Sulfur Authority
Oxides from Flue Gas
*Appendix A is published as two separately bound volumes. Part 1
is the main text, and Part 2 consists primarily of data generated
by merging coal washability and reserve data obtained from the
U.S. Bureau of Mines.
iii
I •
without reference to other portions of the report. The piincipal
volume of the report and the various appendices are issued-inde-
pendently as they are completed, in order to make the i~formation
available in a timely manner. Inquiries regarding the availabil-

ity of specific volumes should be directed to Technical Informa-
tion Services, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois
60439.
iv
- ~ .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Members of the staff of Southern Research Institute who

contributed to the preparation of this report are:
Kenneth M. Cushing, Research Physicist

Alan H. Dean, Associate Chemist
Edward B. Dismukes, Senior Research Adviser
Charles E. Feazel, Senior Research Adviser
Larry G. Felix, Research Physicist
John P. Gooch, Head, Control Device Section
Martin E. Judd, Senior Economist
Jack R. McDonald, Research Physicist
Richard L. Meek, Head, Chemical Process Section
Grady B. Nichols, Head, Environmental Engineering Division
Duane H. Pontius, Research Physicist
James w. Ragland, Associate Physicist
Wallace B. Smith, Head, Environmental Physics Section
The project manager at Argonne National Laboratory ~ras
Paul S. Farber of the Energy and Environmental Systems Division.
v
·. '·. '· ;, . :·. .~. i • . ! •.. '· .' .• ·... .
·...· ._~ ·.. '\ :· . ~
·.··,· . :·•· THlSi·PW.G·E·" ::.i '··.,·
WAS.lN.TENTIONALLY
LEFT BLANK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT . . . l
INTRODUCTION . l
l PARTICULATE EMISSIONS AND CONTROL . 3

l.l SOURCES OF FLY ASH . 3
1.2 PARTICULATE CONTROL REGULATIONS . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 AVAILABLE CONTROL EQUIPMENT . . . . . . 10
1.3.1 Collection Efficiency . . . . . . . 10
1.3.2 Energy Consumption . . . . . . . ll
1.3.3 Installation . . . . . . . . . . ll
1.3.4 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.5 Costs . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.6 Secondary Environmental Impact . . . . . 14
2 AVAILABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY 17

2.1 EQUIPMENT 17
2.2 ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS 17
2.2.1 Method of Collection . . . . . . . . . . 17
2. 2. 2 Theory of Electrostatic Precipitation 18
2. 2. 3 Factors Affecting Performance . . 22
2.2.4 Energy Requirements . . . . . 31
2. 2. 5 Representative Installations 31
2. 2. 6 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.7 Installation . . . . . . . . 36
2.2.8 Flue Gas Additives . . . . . . . 36
2. 2. 9 Hot Precipitators . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.10 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2.11 Secondary Environmental Impact 61
2.3 FABRIC FILTERS . 64
2.3.1 Method of Collection . . . . . . 64
2. 3. 2 Theory of Filtration . . • . . . . . . . 64
2.3.3 Factors Affecting Performance . . . . 71
2.3.4 Representative Installations .... 93
2.3.5 Energy Requirements . . . . . . . 99
2.3.6 Maintenance . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . 100
2.3.7 Installation . . . . . . 102
2.3.8 Cost.s .. . . . • • . . . . 103
2. 3. 9 Secondary Environmental Impact 106
2.4 WET SCRUBBERS 106
2 . 4. l. Method of Collection . . . . . . . . 106
2. 4. 2 Theory of Scrubbing . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2. 4. 3 Factors Affecting Performance . . . • • • 113
2.4.4 Energy Requirements . . . . . . . . . 118
2. 4. 5 Representative Installations . . . . . . 118
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)
2.4.6 Maintenance . 126

2. 4. 7 Installation . . . .. . 127
2. 4. 8 . Costs . · . 127
2.4.9 Secondary Environmental Impact 131
3 ADVANCED COLLECTION DEVICES . 132

3.1 NEED FOR DEVELOPMENT 132
3.2 PARTICLE PRECHARGING FOR ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.3 FILTERS .. 140
3. 4 SCRUBBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.5 HYBRID COLLECTION DEVICES 147
3.5.1 Charged Droplet Scrubbers 147
3.5.2 Wet Electrostatic Precipitators 153
3. 5. 3 ~ranular aed Filters . . . . . 158
3.5.4 Other Devic~s . . . . . • . . 172
3.6 PARTICULATE CONTROL DEVICES FOR HIGH TEMPERATURE
AND HIGH PRESSURE OPERATION . . . • . . . . . . 173
3.6.1 Turbine Requirements . • . . . . . . . . 174
3.6.2 High-Temperature Particulate Collection
Systems • . • . . . • . . 175
4 SAMPLING AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 183

4 .1 PARTICTJJ,ATE MASS CONCENTRA'l'ION . • • • . 103
4. 2 PAR'I'!CLE SlZ.E AND SIZE DISTRIBUTION . , . 185
4.3 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 205
4.3.1 Sampling from High Temperature-High
Pressure Gas Streams . . . • . . . . 205
4.4 LABORATORY TECHNIQUES 207
5 CONCLUSIONS 210
REFERENCE~ . • • •, . . . . . 215
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
No. Title
·1.1 Estimated size dis-tribution of fly ash particles

emitted (before collection) from: A (spreader
stoker-fired furnaces); B (cyclone-fired furnaces);
C (pulverized fuel-fired furnaces) ........•••.........•. 4
-1. 2 Particle size distribution range of fly ash particles
.<20 ~m. in diameter emitted from power plants
(before collection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Fractional collection efficiencies for a hot-side
electrostatic precipitator installed on a pulverized
cOal· boiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2 Computed performance for an electrostatic precipitator
at 10, 20, and 40 x 10- 6 ~A/ft 2 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 30
2.3 Illustration of the effects of fly ash resistivity on
precipitator size for 99.5% collection efficiency ...... 40
-2.4 Design collection efficiency vs. specific collecting
area .for hot-side electrostatic precipitators . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.5 Cost (uninstalled) per unit of collecting plate area
vs. collecting plate area for hot-side electrostatic
. . tators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
prec1p1
. . 2. 6 Cost (uninstalled) for hot-side electrostatic
precipitators, collection efficiency 99.5%,vs.gas
volume flow rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . 47
. 2. 7 Cost (uninstalled) for hot-side electrostatic
precipitators vs. gas volume flow rate at several
values of collection efficiency . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 8
2.8 Cost (erected) fornew hot-side precipitators vs. gas
vo 1 ume f 1 ow r a tc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 9
2.9 Gas volume flow rates for hot-side precipitators vs.
bo.i le r capacity . . ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.10 Collection efficiency ~s. specific collecting area for
cold-side precipitators collecting fly ash of low
and high electrical resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . :52
2.11 Cost (uninstalled) for cold-side electrostatic
precipitators collecting low, moderately high,and
very high-resistivity fly ash (99.5% collection
efficiency) vs. gas volume flow rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53·
2.12 Cost (erected) for cold-side electrostatic precipitators

collecting fly ash with low, moderately high, and very
. h reS,lStlVl..ty
h 1g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
ix
LIST OF FIGURES (Cont'd)
No. Title
2.13 Gas volume flow rate for cold-side electrostatic

precipitators vs. boiler capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . 56
2.14 Cost (erected) for hot- and cold-side electrostatic
precipitators collecting low, moderately high, and
very high resistivity fly ash (99.5% collection
efficiency) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.15 Maintenance costs for electrostatic precipitators ..•.. 60
2.16 Types of dust filtration. . . . . . . . • . . . . • • . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 6 8
2.17 Resistance changes during fly ash filtration for well-
used fabrics........................................ 70
2.18 Calculated effluent concentrations vs. time for fly
ash and ambient air dust based on measurements with
an optical particle counter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 7 4
2.19 Effluent concentration of fly ash vs. fabric loading
for used Sunbury fabric with GCA Ily ash ........•••• 75
2.20 Effluent concentration of fly ash vs. fabric loading
and particle size for used Nucla fabric with GCA
fly ash.-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.21 Penetration (with one standard deviation limits) as
a function of air-to-cloth ratio ..•...•..........•.. 77
2.22 Average outlet mass concentration (with one standard
deviation limits) as a function of air-to-cloth
ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.23 Penetration as a function of particle diameter
and load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.24 Fabric drag vs. fabric dust loading. Calculated and
expGrimcntar curves for CJ)i=IRR fiber filter •......... 86
2.25 Fabric drag vs. fabric dust loading. Calculated and
experimental curves for Dacron fabric filter ........ 86
2.26 Baghouse simulated penetration vs: time; single bag,
nonlinear drag, with pinholes .........• ~ ..•......... 88
2.27 Baghouse simulated penetration vs. time; single bag,
nonlinear drag, without pinhoies ................••.. 89
2.28 Baghouse simulated penetration vs. time; three bags,
nonlinear drag, with pinholes· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . 89
2.29 Fractional collection efficiencies of baghouses on
electric utility boilers ...•......... ~ ............•. 98
-2.30 Baghouse costs (installed) ...•.....•...•....•......... 10 i
X
LIST OF FIGURES (Cont'd)
No. Title
2.31 Efficiency· vs. particle diameter for venturi scrubbers ... 114
2. 32 Penetration calculated from a venturi scrubber model as
a function of pressure drop and particle aerodynamic
diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.33 Fractional collection efficiency of scrubbers vs.
particle size of fly ash being collected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ll7
2.34 Fractional collection efficiency of TCA scrubber vs.
particle size of fly ash in the fine particle range .... ll9
2.35 Fly ash scrubber costs (installed) . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.1 High intensity ionizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . l38
3.2 Ionizer-precipitator configuration for the John Sevier
.
p1lot test . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
·3. 3 Fractional collection efficiency of the Aronetics
scrubber (using equivalent diameters) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.4 Fractional collection efficiency of the Lone Star Steel
Steam-Hydro Scrubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . 146
- 3. 5 TRW Charged droplet scrubber • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.6 Limits of surface charge densities on water droplets
(Rayleigh limit) and columnar segments of water ........ l51
3.7 Theoretical particle charge as a function of particle
size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.8 Force acting between particle and 100 ~m droplet .•....... l54
-.3.9 Particle collection efficiency of ele~trustatic spray
droplet scrubber as a function of particle size ........ l55
3.10 Schematic drawing of Squires panel-bed filter unit ....... l60
3.11 Operation of a gravel-bed filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l61
3.'12 Combustion Power Company dry scrubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l62
3.13 Pressure drop as a fun~tlun of particulate loading for
granular-bed filters with two different granule sizes
as compared wi~h pressure drop fur glass fibers ........ lb4
3.14 Efficiency as a function of particulate loading for
granular-bed filters with two different granule sizes
as compared with pressure drop for glass fibers .. ~ ..... l64
.15 Penetration of sodium oxide aerosols as a function of
flow velocj~ t.y . .............................................. 16 6
X;L
. LIST OF FIGURES ( Cont 'd)
Title
3.16 Direct interception; path of particle center coincident

with path ·af airstream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.17 Effects of high temperature and pressure on the
collection efficiency of a h~gh-efficiency cyclone ....•. 177
3.18 Specific power requirements for a cyclone as a function
.of temperature and pressure .......•....••.........•..... 178
4.1 Schematic diagram of th:e source asl::H:!l:)l:)llL8lll sampling
::Jj,TCJtcm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! ..••••••••••••••.• ,!~·~····· 189
4.2 Southern Research Institute five series cyclone system .... 192
4.3 Laboratory calibration curves for the Southern Research
Institute five series cyclone system ....•....•...... ~··· 193
4.4 Operating principle for an optical particle counter .....•. 195
4. 5 Parallel plate diffusion battery . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .· 198
4.6 Screen type diffusion battery . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 199
4.7 Schematic diagram of the electrical aerosol analyzer ...... 203
4.8 Particle size distributions measured with optical,
diffusional, and electrical techniques at ·t:he inlet
and outlet of an operating Alec~rostatic precipitator .•. 204
4.9 System for sample extraction and dilution . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 206
xii
LIST OF TABLES
No. Title Page
1.1 Properties of Coals Producing the Fly Ash Characterized

in Figure 1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . ·.. .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Forecast 1985 Production (Million of Tons) of Coal ....... 8
1.3 Comparison of Costs for Electrostatic Precipitators and
Fabric Filters Collecting-High-Resistivity Fly Ash ..... 13
1.4 Analysis of Cost Data................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
- 2.1 Example of Electrostatic Precipitator Installations
in Electric Utility Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2 Most Common Maintenance Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.3 Power Plant Electrostatic Precipitator Maintenance
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4 Some Hot-Side Electrostatic Precipitator
Inst'allations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5 Material Costs for Large Modern Electrostatic
Precipitators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2. 6 Electrostatic Precipitator Costs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2
2.7 Use of a Flue Gas Additive by Coal-Fired Electric Power
P 1 ants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.8 Electric Utility Baghouse Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.9 Collection Efficiency Measurements on Baghouses on
Electric Utility Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.10 Power Requirements for Nucla Baghouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.11 Nucla Baghouse Maintenance Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lOl
. 2.12 Causes of Operating Problems with Fabric Filters ....•.... l02
2.13 TnR~alled Capital Cost and Operation and Maintenance
Costs, Sunbury Station •••.••...•....•.................• l04
2.14 Components of Capital Cost, Nucla Baghouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l05
2.15 Nucla Baghouse Estimated Operating Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l05
2.16 Fine Particle Control by Scrubbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ll2
2.17 Wet Scrubber Installations in Electric Utility
Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.18 Public Service Company of Colorado Scrubber
Operating Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.19 Cherokee No. 3 Scrubber Capital Cost Breakdown ........... l29
2.20 Cherokee No. 3 Scrubber Operating and Maintenance Costs .. l30
2.21 Items in Maintenance Cost, 4th Quarter, 1973, through
3rd Quarter; 1974, Cherokee No. 3 Scrubber ....•........ l31
xiii
LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd)
No. Title
3.1 Fine Particle Control by Wet Scrubbers ................... l47

3.2 Sununary of Granuiar Bed Filter Test Data .......•......... l70
4.~.
.. ':....
Instruments for Monitoring Particle-Size Distribution
of Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
xiv
OF GENERATING ELECTRIC POWER FROM COAL
Appendix E: A Review of Technology for
Control of Fly Ash Emissions from
Coal in Electric Power Generation
Prepared by
Southern Research Institute
ABSTRACT
This report is an in-depth review and an·alysis
of particulate control technologies applicable to
coal-fired utility boilers. Sources and characteris-
tics of fly ash, applicable emission regulations, and
measurement techniques are also discussed.
Available control technologies (electrostatic

precipitators, fabric filters, and wet scrubbers) are
described in detail. In each case, the theory of
operation, factors affecting performance, representa-
tive installations, costs, and secondary environmental
impacts are analyzed.
Techniques under development for improving the

performance or extending the capabilities of existing
technologies are described. Advanced alternative
technologies now in the research stage are also
evaluated.
INTRODUCTION
This report presents the results of a study to assess the
available technology for the control of particulate emissions
from electric power generation plants and discusses the needs for
additional information or research on particulate control devices
to meet present or anticipated new emission regulations. The
major emphasis in the report is on the control of fly ash emissions
from pulverized coal power boilers, since this constitutes by far
the largest source of particulate matter emitted to the atmosphere
from elec·tric power g~eneL'ati.Oll eyuif?ment.
Currently available equipment for removal of fly ash from

flue gas includes electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, and
wet scrubbers. Historically, electrostatic precipitators have been
used almost exclusively for the control of fly ash emissions from
large power boilers, primarily due to their lower operating costs.
1
However, the operation of precipitators is influenced by high
electrical resistivity of the fly ash and the size required to
achieve a given collection efficiency increases as the fly ash
resistivity increases. The resistivity of ~he fly ash produced by
the combustion of some coals is extremely high so that alternative
methods of fly ash removal have become economically competitive
with precipitators.
ThB requirement for reduction of sulfur oxide emissions has

also influenced the choice of partlculale control devices. In
some instances, wet scrubbers have been u:::H:!u feu: combined control
of particulate matter and sulfur oxides.
This report discusses the general Lheory of u~~ralion of

each of the major particulate control devices and the constraints
on the operation of each type of device in terms· of the operating
efficiency, pressure drop, reliability, and other parameters as
they are influenced by the properties of the fuel or fly ash.
Special attention is given to the control of fine particles (less
than 3 ~m in diameter) since the small particles are of the great-
est concern in terms of air pollution effects.
Research in the field of control devices is continuing under

sponsorship of the Environmental Protection Agency and the Electric
Power Research Institute in an effort to improve the performance of
existing control ~evices, to improve the reliability of the
control devices, and to investigate alternative methods of con-
trol of particulate emissions. This report covers the ongoing
research and its potential impact on control of emissions from
power generation equi~me11t.
The cost data used for this report were obtained from
government agencies, vendors, and public utilities. In order to
obtain real costs, the nominal costs were adjusted to 1976 dollars
with the Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index. Considerable
variation in the real costs of control devices is apparent from
examination of the adjusted data, and projections for new installa-
tions cannot reliably be made from the historical cost data alone.
2
/
. 1. PARTICULATK EMISSIONS AND CONTR.OL
1.1 SOURCES OF FLY ASH
Fly ash is largely produced by the combustion of coal.

The mineral matter of the coal is converted to ash, part of
which is discharged from the bottom of the furnace as a solid
or as molten slag, and part of the coal mineral content is.dis-
charged from the furnace as particles suspended in the flue gas.
The particles are mostly spherical; some are transparent or
translucent and hollow (cenospheres). However, irregularly
shaped and opaque particles may be present to a small extent
if the fusion temperature of the ash is high or if combustion
of the coal is incomplete. The sizes of· the particles vary
over a wide range from sub-micron sizes up to the large?t sizes
that can be suspended in the flue gas. The average or mass
median particle diameter is usually 10 to 20 ~m. Particles
with diameters of 1 ~m or less will typically account for 1-10%
of the weight of the fly ash.
The particle-size range and the average particle diameter

depend on the type of furnace and how it is operated. The coal-
fired boilers used in electric power plants are stoker-fired,
cyclone-fired, or pulverized-coal fired. Stoker-fired boilers
are often used in industrial or small utility systems. About
half the mineral content of the coal is emitted as fly ash from
these boilers. Pulverized-coal fired boilers are the most widely
used type in electric utility power plants. They emit 70-100%
of the coal ash in the form of fly ash. Cyclone boilers pro-
duce less fly ash (10-30% of the total coal ash) than the other
types. However, the use of cyclone boilers in electric power
plants is declining, since they produce more nitrogen oxides than
the other types.
3
Stoker-fired boilers produce a coarser fly ash than pulver-
ized-coal fired boilers, and cyclone-fired boilers t~nd to emit
a finer fly ash than pulverized-coal fired boilers. However, there
is considerable overlap in the particle-size ranges of fly ash, as
ca~ be seen in Figure 1.1. The solid lines show typical values, and
.dashed lines show the ranges of particle-size distribution reported
for each type of boiler. The data in this figure were obtained
by laboratory sizing techniques on collected fly ash samples. 1
400
A
I
~ I I
I
w' I I
N
Cii I /
w I I
...J
I I
u
j: I I
a: I
<t
Cl.
I I
40
I
I
. 20 I
I
I
10
0.01 10 .30 50 70 90 98 99.8 99.99
%BY WEIGHT LESS THAN STATED PARTICLE SIZE 3726-015
Figure 1.1 Estimated size distribution of fly ash particles

emitted (before collection) ·from: A {spreader
stoker-fired furnace~}; B (cyclone-fired furnaces);
C {pulverized fuel~fired furnaces) . 1
4
Figure 1.2 shows some recent particle-size distribution
data for the size range below 20 ~m. 2 These measurements
were. made with inertial impactors in the flue gas stream at
the inlet of an operating electrostatic precipitator. Data
were obtained from three installations. Plants 1 and 3 burn
Wyoming bituminous coal and Plant 2 eastern bituminous coal.
Properties of the coals are given in Table 1.1. These are typical
2
values, as obtained by daily analysis.
90~--------------~r-----------------r----------------.
:>@
0.
w
>
1-
<(
....1
::::>
:;E
::::>
(..')
0.01~ _______________.________________ ~--------------~
0.1 1 10 1QO
PARTICLE DIAMETER, t.tm 3726-055
Figure 1.2 Particle size distribution range of fly ash particles

. <20 ~m in diameter emitted from power plants (before
collection) . 2
5
Table 1.1 Properties of Coals Producing the
Fly Ash Characterized in Figure 1.2
Plant
1 2 3
Heating Value, Btu/lb 12,000 12,000 10,000

Moisture, % 7 7 18
Volatile Matter, % 40 30 30
Fixed Carbon, % 44 50 42
Ash, % 8 14 10
Sulfur, ~ 0.5 l 0.5
The chemical composition ot coal, specifically its contents

of sulfur and inorganic elements, has an effect on the type and
design of control equipment that is used. A prominent example
of this effect has been the shift that is under way from eastern
and midwestern coals with moderate sulfur contents to the low-
sulfur western coals. As is discussed later in this report, the
decrease in the sulfur content of the coal is usually reflected
in decreased collection efficiency for fly ash in an electro-
static precipitator.
In comparison with eastern and midwestern coals, western

coal deposits include more coals of lower rank--sub-bituminous
3 5
coals and lignites. -
Coal rank is defined by ranges of values for properties

6
such ac fixed carbon, volatile matter, and heating value. A
typical bituminous coal would have a heating value of 14,000
Btu/lb, a sub-bituminous coal 9000 Btu/~b~ and a l{gnite 8000
Btu/lb.
Although the western coals vary considerably in chemical

composition and properties of the coal and coal ash, some:
5
general statements can be made.
6
Generally, western coals are higher in volatile matter
and moisture, and 1 they are lower in fixed carbon and heat content.
Western coals may have higher or lower ash contents than other
u.s. coals.
The minor elements in coal, present in amounts of a few
percent, are those generally present in rocks: silicon, iron,
aluminum, phosphorus, sodium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur.
Calcium and magnesium contents of western coals may be

2 to 4 times higher than in other coals, and potassium is often
2-8 times lower. Sodium ranges from high (3-4%) to low (<0.8%)
in western coal (values reported for sodium as sodium oxide).
Sulfur is generally low in western coals and where it is,,

iron is generally also low. However, the sulfur content of the,
coal ash is generally higher in western coals than in other U.S.·
coals. The sulfur content of the ash (calculated as S0 3 ) ranges
from 3.6 to 20.6% in western coals, compared with 1.1-3.1% in
the interior province (roughly the midwest) and 1.6-2.1% in the
east. This difference is attributed to the higher alkalinity of
the ash from western coals.
A recent forecast of the production of bituminous and

sub-bituminous coal in 1985 is given in Table 1.2. 7
The shift from eastern coal to western low-sulfur coal

will be supplemented by an expected shift from natural gas to
coal for electric power generation, adding to the increase in
the amount of high-resistivity fly ash that must be collected.
Trace elements (including those that may produce hazardous

emissions on combustion of the coal) are present in western coals
in about the same total amounts as in other U.S. coals. However,
the amounts of individual elements can vary considerably. Barium,
strontium, and zirconium are higher in western coals. Cadmium
and selenium are present only in western coals.
7
Trace element concentrations as a whole can be correlated
only moderately with geographic location, and not at all with
coal rank. There are a few exceptions such as boron, which is
present in relatively large amounts in lignites.
Table 1. 2. Forecast 1985 Production (Million of Tons} of Coal 7
Sulfur Content, %
Region <0.7 0.7 - 1.5 >1.5 Total
East 39.2 135.9 487.8 662.9

West 209.8 94.6 9.5 313.9
Total 249.0 230.5 497.3 976.8
Trace elements are generally higher in u.s. coals than in

the earth'~ crust. 8
Changes in boiler operation made for the purpose of de-

creasing the amount of nitrogen oxides emitted (e.g., by minimiz-
ing excess air) do not appear to affect the particle size distri-
bution of fly ash. This subject was studied in full-scale boilers
representing the range of present designs used in electric
utility power plants with capacities of 1~5-BOO
MW and burning
9
coal or mixtures of coal with oil or gas. However, a sub-
stantial increase in particulate emissions has been observed in
some coal-fired industrial boilers. (<250,000 lb coal/hr) . 10
1.2 PARTICULATE CONTROL REGULATIONS
The policy under which the Environmental PrntAction A9ency

operates is based on the Clean Air Act of 1970, which defines a
comprehensive Federal-state program for achieving environmental
goals. The method.s for reaching the desired levels of ambient
air pollutants, including particulate matter, and the selection
of emission sources to be controlled, were left to the states.
Each state has developed regulations limiting emissions

from pollution sources, and hence there is some variation among
8
them, although no state is allowed to adopt requirements for
new sources that are less stringent than those set by the Federal
government.
The Clean Air ~ct also authorized the Federal government

to establish emission standards for both new and existing sources.
The Federal standards of performance for new stationary

sources state that: 11
"no owner or operator subject to the provisions of this subpart

shall cause to be discharged into the atmosphere from any affected
facility any gases which: (1) contain particulate matter in
excess of 0.18 g per million cal heat input (0.10 lb per million
Btu) derived from fossil fuel (2) exhibit greater than 20 per-
cent opacity except that a maximum of 40 percent opacity shall
be permissible for not moie than 2 minutes in any hour. Where
the presence of uncombined water is the only reason for failure .,
to meet the requirements for this paragraph, such failure will
not be a violation of this section."
In 1975 the Environmental Protection Agency issued regu-

lations requiring continuous monitoring of emissions from new
stationary sources and some existing ones. The items monitored
in power plant emissions are sulfur dioxide, and other gases
and, as a measure of particulate emissions, opacity. The informa-
tion obtained in these tests may be used ~n the future for develop-
12
ment of modified standards.
Special problems are posed by fine airborne particles,

thocc less than about 3 vm in ~iRmAtAr. These particles are
the ones that are deeply inhaled into the lungs. Fly ash parti-
cles in this size range also carry disproportionately large
concentrations of toxic chemical elements such as arsenic and
other heavy metals. This effect appears to be due to the vapori-
zation of some of the trace elements in coal during combustion
and their subsequent deposition on the surfaces of fly ash par-
ticles in the ductwork, stack, or plume. Since the smaller
9
particles of fly ash provide a larger surface area per unit
mass, they can be expected to accumulate a disproportionate
share of the deposit.
Regulations imposed by the states vary depending on their

particular requirements and control philosophy. In general,
the majority of the states adopt the same regulations for exist-
ing sources as the Federal standards for new sources. There
are, however, some notable exceptions. The state of New Mexico
has included in its regulations a specification. that the emission
of fine particulate matter, defined as particles less than 2 ~m in
diameter, shall not exceed 2% of the total. The Federal regula-
tions for particulate emissions are at present under review and
scheduled for revision in August, 1970. There has been specu-
lation that these revisions will contain a provision limiting
emission of fine particulate as well as an overall reduction
fr6m ~he present 0.10 lbs/million Btu to perhaps half that amount
in new plants. On the other hand, there is some indication
that no fine particulate limitation will be imposed as such,
but that limits may be imposed on the emission of specific pollu-
tant specicn if they nrc found. to constitute a health hazard.
Such regulations 1t issued may require the control of fine parti-
culate in some instances even though the regulation may not
specify it.
Since the study supporting any change in particulate

emi?sion regulations is not complete, the impact of such regula-
tions cannot be predicted at this time.
1.3 AVAILABLE CONTROL EQUIPMENT
1.3.1 CoZleotion Effioienoy
Electrostatic precipitators, fabric filter baghouses,

and wet scrubbers all can be designed and operated to be highly
efficient in collecting fly ash, 99-99.9% on an overall mass
basis.
. 10.
When compared on the basis of fractional collection effi-
ciency, specifically for the collection of fly ash particles
below 1 ~m in diameter, electrostatic precipitators ~nd fabric
filter baghouses have been shown to be capable of a high collec-
tion efficiency (>99%). Definitive data are not yet available
from which the.collection efficiency of wet scrubbers for sub-
micron particles can be reliably estimated.
Non-uniform gas flow distribution, changes in dust loading

of the gas, and the chemical and electrical properties of the
fly ash have less effect on the collection efficiencies of a
fabric filter or a wet scrubber than on the efficiency of an
electrostatic precipitator.
1.3.2 Energy Consumption
The power requirements for electrostatic precipitators,

which include the requirements for energization and for over-
coming the pressure drop of 0.5 in. WG through the precipitator,
are about 0.3% of the total plant output.
Power requirements of fabric filter baghouses are about 0.5%
of the plant output, on the basis of· a 4-in. WG pressure drop·
Wet scrubbers have a much higher pressure drop and a
correspondingly high power requirement, estimated as 2% of the
plant capacity for a 20-in.WG pressure drop.
To these values must be added power requirements for
other auxiliary equipment and for fly ash disposal.
1.3.3 InataZZation
Scrubbers are more compact than precipitators, which

in turn are more compact than fabric filter baghouses. Very
roughly, for treating 10 6 acfm of flue gas, a wet scrubber would
occupy less than 100,000 ft 3 of space, and electrostatic precipitator
would require 200,000 ft 3 of space or more, for high-resistivity
ash, and a fabric filter baghouse would need 800,000 ft 3 •
This effect of equipment size is retlected in the ease
of retrofitting the installatidn iri an existing ~lant.
11
1.3.4 Maintenance
Overall experience of users of electrostatic precipitators

. appears to be satisfactory. The most common maintenance problems
are mechanical failure of the discharge electrode, due mostly
to arcing and corrosion, and rapper malfunction.
User experience with fabric filter baghouses has also

been satisfactory, although experience in power plants is limited.
However, fabric filters have been used successfully in a large
number of metallurgical and other applications. Maintenance
problems during operation are mostly due to the occasional de-
velopment ot a h1gh pressure drop, usually due to tailure ot
a fan or timer. Frequency of bag replacement is not considered
to be a problem.
Use~ experience with wet scrubbers has not been as satis-

factory. Scale formation and solids buildup have reduced the
availability of the equipment to levels that in some plants
ar~ marginally acceptable.
l.J.~ Costs
A compar1son of the investment and annual costs of

a fabric filter baghouse with the corresponding costs of 3
types of electrostatic precipitators is shown in Table 1.3.
The comparison was made for collectors removing a high-resistivity
fly ash with 99.5% collection efficiency from the flue gas of
a 750-MW plant burning coal with 0.5% sulfur content. The
volume of flue gas treated was 2.5 x 10 6 acfm at 300°F or 3.9
x 10 6 acfm at 750°F for the hot-side precipitator being com-
pared. The gas volumes correspond to a 750-MW boiler operating
at rated capacity. It is common practice to design for the in-
creased gas volume associated with a 25% overload.
The values in Table 1.3 were calculated on an uninstalled

base cost of $6,000,000 for a 750-MW electric power plant preci-
pitator from information provided by equipment vendors, as de-
12
Table 1.3 Comparison of Costs for Electrostatic Precipitators
and Fabric Filters Collecting High-Resistivity Fly Asha
Electrostatic Precipitatbrs
Flue
Hot- Cold- Gas Bag-
side side Cond. house
Design Factors
Gas Volume, 10~ acfm 3,640 2,500 2,500 2,500
Temperature, °F 750 300 300 300
Migration Velocity; em/sec 8.5 4.75 8
Collecting Area, 10 3 ft 2 1,169 1,411 848. 1,200
(468 bags)
Specific Collecting Area,
ft 2 /10 3 acfm 321 564 339
Filter Air/Cloth Ratio ft/min 2.08
Plant Area Required for
Installation, 10 3 ft 2 28 35 19 32
3
Costs, 10 $
1. Un1nstalled
Base, Accessories,
and Plenum 6,000 6,000 4,000 6,000
Flues 982 370 344 395
Support Structure 662 787 466 701
Subtotal 7,644 7,157 4,810 7,096
2. ·Erection 5,744 6,554 4,021 3,210
Subtotal 13,388 13,711 8,831 10,306
(Uninstalled and
Erection)
3. Installation
Insulation 2,622 2,101 1,297 1,126
Gas Conditioning .11 7 50
Ash Handling @
$5,000/hopper 240 270 180 140
Capacity Charge·
( $ 800/kW) b . 1,878 2,782 2,159 2,.337
·Land @ $10,000/acre 6 8 4 7
Subtotal 4,746 5,161 5,390 3,610
'(Installation costs)
Total Investment 18,134 18,872 14,221 13,916
Annual Costs, 10 3 $
Fixed Charges @ 18% investment 3,286 3,763 2,641 2,462
Heat Loss@ $1.75/10 6 Btu 286
Energy Loss @ $0.02/kWh 284 264 343 511
Bag Replacement @ $55/bag/2 yr 361
Sulfur Trioxide 500
Maintenance 77 84 97 24
Total Annual Cost 3,933. 4,111 3,581 3,358
a
Adapted from reference 13.
The capacity charge is the additional plant cost to furnish power
to the control system.
13
scribed in Section 2.2.10 of this report. The other costs were
calculated from the base costs by using rations developed from
13
a recent publication in which these costs were estimated.
A further analysis of the costs is given in Table 1.4,

which also includes cost data for a TCA wet scrubber. 1 ~
Information obtained from equipment vendors indicates that

electrostatic precipitators, tabric tilters, and wet scrubbers,
in the sizes used in electric power plants, involve about the
same length of time between placing the order and completing the
installation: 18 months to two years. An even longer time can
be involved if unusually complex ductwork is required in a retro-
fit installation; completing the installation may involve delays
until other plant construction is scheduled. New installations
have often been completed 2~3 years aft~r the contract for the
equipment was signed. Here also the delay is usually due to
scheduling of other construction in the plant.
1.3.6 Secondary Environmental Impact
The disposal of collected fly ash presents an environ-

mental impact problem regardless of the collection technique.
Very little fly ash is used for any purpose other than land fill;
attempts continue to be made to find uses for it in applications
such as construction concrete or road surfacing.
Fly ash is collected dry in the hoppers of fabric filter

baghouses or electrostatic precipitators and can be transported
in the dry state by pneumatic {pressure or va~uum) or mechanical
conveyors. Dry fly ash from baghouses is bulkier than that from
precipitators.
However, fly ash is usually slurried with water for easier

handling. The slurried fly ash can be pumped to a settling basin,
if suitable land areas are available near the plant.
14
Table 1.4 Analysis of Cost Dataa
Capital Annual
Capital Cost Cost
Cost, Annual
1000$ $/kW $/acfm Cost, 1000$ mills/kWhb $/acfm
Hot-Side
Electrostatic
Precipitator
(750 MW) 18,134 24 4.98 3,933 0.75 1.08
Cold-Side
Electrostatic
Precipitator
(750 MW) 18,872 25 7.55 4,111 0.78 l. 64
Cold-Side
Electrostatic
Precipitator
with Flue Gas
Conditioning
(750 MW) 14,221 19 5.69 3,581 0.68 1.43
Fabric Filter
Baghouse
(750 MW) 13,916 19 5.57 3,358 0.64 l. 34
TCA Wet
Scrubber
(150 MW) 6,128 41 9.94 2,7llc 2.6 4.44
a
Data are for 99.5% collection efficiency of a high-resistiv~ty dust.
b
Based on 7008 hours operation (0.80 duty factor).
cFixed charges 18% of $6,128,000 investment.
15
/
If this method is not practical, the dry fly ash can be

conveyed to storage silos, from which it is discharged through
wetting equipment to motor trucks for transport to disposal sites.
The moisture content is adjusted to 15-20%. This reduces dusting
and aids in compaction of the ash a.t the disposal site.
Fly ash from wet scrubbers is in a suspension in the

scrubbing liquor and is deposited in the clarifier or settling
basin from which the liquor in some installations is recycled to
the scrubber and the sludge dried. The sludge also includes
inorganic salts that have precipitated from the liquor. Partially
soluble salts which can be leached into the groundwater can pre-
sent more of an environmental impact problem than the fly ash itself.
A wet scrubber on a lUO-MW boileL must be provided with

200 gallons per minute or more of water for make-up of the
scrubbing liquor. This is a much larger amount of water than
is needed for the occasional cleaning of equipment associated
wjth precipitators or filters.
16
2. AVAILABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
2.1 EQUIPMENT
Devices that are used at present for the control of parti-

culate emissions (primarily fly ash) from electric power plants
burning coal are electrostatic precipitators, of wire-plate
design; fabric filters, in the form of baghouses; and wet scrub-
bers, which are of several designs (e.g., venturis, turbulent
contact absorbers, or spray impingement scrubbers) and which may
also be used to remove sulfur oxides from flue gas. The gas-
cleaning installation also may include a mechanical collector,
such as a cyclone, upstream to remove the coarser particles
of fly ash from the flue gas before it enters the final collector.
Electrostatic precipitators are by far the most widely used
control devices in the utility industry.
2.2 ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
2.2.1 Method of Collection

The separation of particulate matter from a gas stream
requires the application of a fore~ to cause the particles to
move relative to the gas stream. In electrostatic precipitators
this force is that resulting from an electric charge on the
particles in the presence of an electric field. The fundamental
factors influencing precipitator operation are those governing
the magnitudes of the particle charge and the electric field.
In all commercial electrost?tic precipitators, charging

of the dust takes place by the uttachment of ions generated
by an electrical corona. The process of corona generation
involves the application of a high de voltage to a small-radius
electrode and a plate electrode .. In the electric field between
the wires and plates, the charged dust particles move to the
plates, where they are deposited.
17
2.2.2 Theory of Electrostatic Precipitation
The theory underlying the process of electrostatic precipi-

tation may conveniently be considered according to the concepts
of ionization of the gas, the particle charging, the electric
field, and the collection of the particles.
The electric field near the small-radius electrodes is

high nnd when sufficient voltage is applied to initiate the
cor.ona process, electrons in the vicinity of the wires are
accelerated_to sufficient velocity to remove other electrons
from the ox·ygen atoms in thP. ,gns. The process· continues in
what is termed an avalanche, producing large quantities of
electrons and positive ions. The small-radius electrodes
are usually negatively charged, and the positive ions move toward
them. The electrons are rapidly swept away toward the grounded
positive plates, and since the electric field diminishes, the
velocity of the electrons is reduced below that necessary to
ionize the neutral gas molecules. The electrons moving at re-
duced velocity are captured by the electronegative gases to
form negative ions. These negative ions move toward the <:Jr·uuuded
plate and in the process collide with the suspended particles,
where they are held by image-chaige forces.
The particle charging mechanism depends upon the size

of the particle~ being charged. Large particles distort the
electric field lines by virtue o£ their different dielectric
properties. The electric field lines intercept the particles,
and ion~ which travel nlong these field lines are driven onto
the particles until the charge on the particles creates an elec-
tric field in opposition to the applied field of such magnitude
that the electric field lines are diverted. The particle charge
at which this occurs is termed the saturation charge, and no
further charging takes place by this process, which is called
field dependent or field charging.
18
Ions are also subject to random thermal motion and can
collide with particles even though they_are not driven by elec-
trical forces. Charging by this process is termed diffusion
charging, and is the predominant charging mode for particles
smaller than about 0.2 ~m in diameter. Field charging predom-
inates for particles larger than about 1 ~m in diameter, and
both mechanisms contribute to the charging of particles in the
intermediate size range.
Detailed descriptions of the charging process and the equa-

tions relating particle charges and charging rate have been
published. 15 ' 16 ' 17 The charging rate is primarily related
to the number density of ions present in the interelectrode region,
which in turn is related to the precipitator current. When
current is not limited by other factors, charging of large
particles takes place rapidly, reaching 90% of the saturation
charge within a fraction of a second. Smaller particles gener-
ally charge at a slower rate, as do the large particles if cur-
rent (free ion density) is lower. Recent studies of particle
charging have provided expressions for combinations of field and
diffusion charging. 16 ' 18 ' 19 In the most accurate model, charging
is treated as a diffusion process in which the supply of gas ions,
hence the charging rate, is limited by the rate at which the
electric field can supply the ions to the vicinity of the par-
ticles.16 This model predicted values of accumulated charge in
particles within approximately 30% of experimentally measured
values for particles between 0.15 and 1.4 ~m.
The second important factor in precipitator operation is

the magnitude of the electric field. The field is high near
the small-diameter· el~ctrode and diminishes with distance toward
the plate or cylindrical electrode. The electric field is deter-
mined by two components, one related to the geometry of the
electrode system and applied voltage and the other related to
19
the total charge contained within the interelectrode region.
The electric field influences precipitation in two respects.
The magnitude of the particle saturation charge is determined
by the electric field in the immediate vicinity of the particle.
The force acting on a charged particle is determined by the
electric field near the collection electrode. The field near
the collection electrode is influenced by the charge contained
within the interelectrode region (space charge) as well as the
applied voltage. The magnitude of the space charge is governed
by the number of elemental charges within the space, which is
governed by tl1e current and relative number of ions att~ched
to particles and the number of free or unattached ions. Practi-
cally, the space charge is re~ateo to the partir.lP ~i7.e of th~
inlet dust. Heavy concentrations of fine dust tend to result in

high space charge, which suppresses the current in the inlet
precipitator sections. A more complete description of the rela-
tion of the field to operating parameters and electrode geometry
20
has been reported to the Environmental Protection Agency.
Collection of dust in industrial precipitators is governed

by the combination of forces acting on the particles~ In practi-
cal precipitators, the gas is well within the turbulent flow
regime, which tends to keep the particles distributed uniformly
within the interelectrode region. The electrical forces, on the
other hand, tend to cause the particles to move toward the collec-
tion electro~e. In.the boUndary layer adjacent to the col-
lection electrode, the gas flow is laminar and the electrical
forces are large compare~ with the ae,odynamic fnrr.~s- Parti-
cles within the boundary of the laminar flow region are collected.
The collection of dust in a precipitator is therefore
related to the probability that a particle would enter the
boundary region. Equations relating collection efficiency to
21
operating parameters have been derived by Deutsch. The Deutsch
equat~on relates the collection efficiency to the quantity of gas
20
to be treated, the collection surface area, and a parameter
called the migration velocity. The migration velocity as theore-
tically derived is
w = qE/6najJ
and is the terminal velocity reached when the electrical forces
equal the aerodynamic drag forces on a particle. The parameters
are the total particle charge (q), the electric field at the
collection electrode (E), the particle diameter (a), and the
gas viscosity (JJ). The collection efficiency (n) is given by
n = l - exp(~ ~ w)
where:
A = collection plate area

v = gas flow rate
w = migration velocity. All are in consistent units.
The Deutsch equation applies strictly to a single particle

size and has been shown to predict collection efficiency rather
precisely when properly applied. It has become somewhat common
practice to use the Deutsch equation empirically to predict
the collection efficiency of a polydisperse dust when gas volume
and plate areq are varied, by using an empirical migration
velocity derived from experimental data. Such an approach is
not strictly correct and can lead to invalid conclusions.
The Deutsch equation assumes thorough mixing of the gas

d~e to turbulent flow, a uniform concentration of dust particles,
and a constant migration velocity for all particles .. These
assumptions or conditions hold true only for particles of nearly
the same size and only for short lengths through the precipitator.
For the most precise use of the Deutsch equation (as, e.g.,
the construction of a computerized mathematical model of the elec-
trostatic precipitation process), it is applied to consecutive
21
short segments of length through the precipitator, and the amount
of fly ash collected from the gas stream as it moves through the
precipitator is calculated for each incremental length.
In an analogous manner, the variation in collection effi-

ciency for different particle sizes is taken into account by con-
sidering the suspended dust to be composed of a mixture of particles
in a set of size ranges, a histogram, that fits the curve of parti~
cle size distribution. A value for migration velocity is

calculated for each ~article-size range in each increment of
length through the precipitator.
Once collected, the dust must be removed from the collec-

tion surface. In some applications such as collecting liquid
aerosol mists, removal is accomplished by coalescence of the
particles and subsequent draining. In wet precipitators used
to collec~ metallurgical dusts, the collection surface is irrigated
by water flowing down the collection surface or sprayed into
the interelectrode region. The most common system, however, is
the dry collection of dust and the subsequent removal by rapping
the collection electrodes. The dust falls in sheets or agglome-
rates into hoppers below the collection surfaces. The impctcl
or rapping intensity required varies depending on the properties
of the dust and the dust layer thickness. The rapping process
and the subsequent falling of the dust into the hoppers_ result
in some reentrainm~nt of the dust and the system must be properly
desiqned to prevent this reentrainment from becoming excessive.
Dust deposited in the hoppers is removed by either a pneu-

matic or a hydraulic system through valves or other means to pre-
vent air inflow or gas discharge to the removal system.
2.2.3 Factors Affecting Pe~fo~mance
From a practical as well as a theoretical standpoint the

factors governing precipitator performance are (1) particle
size and concentration of the entering dust, (2) electrical
2.2
conditions within the precipitator (current and voltage), (3) re-
entrainment of the dust, and (4) uniformity of the gas flow.
The particl~ size of the fly ash produced from electric
power boilers varies with the type of boiler and the fuel being
burned. The mechanism of formation of fly .ash within a boiler
is not completely understood. Evidence indicates that indi-
vidual coal particles are probably fractured during the combus-
tion process and the residual mineral matter agglomerates into
spheres comprised of silicates of principally aluminum, iron,
and calcium if the temperature in the combustion zone is suf-
ficiently high (>2000°F). Some fly ash is not formed into spheres
·but has the appearance of irregularly shaped particles with
no evidence of having been fused. This type of fly ash is pro-
duced from lignites with high percentages of water at low com-
bustion temperatures (<1900°F). This type of ash is, however,
unusual in the United States.
Precipitators used for fly ash removal are generally installed
following the air preheater, at which point the flue gas tempera-
ture is typically 300°F. Some precipitators (hot-side) are
installed ahead of the air preheater, where the flue gas tempera-
ture is 600-800°F. Hot-side precipitators are discussed in
Section 2.2.9. If a mechanical collector such as a cyclone
is installed ahead of the precipitator, the particle size of
the fly ash is altered, since the mechanical collector removes
the large size fraction of the fly ash.
The effect of particle size on collection efficiency can
be seen from Figure 2.1, which shows the fractional collection
efficiency for fly ash of different particle sizes.2 2 The
data are taken from field tests on a full-size precipitator.
It is apparent that a larger fraction of smaller fly ash par-
ticl~s would result in a lower overall migration velocity and would
give a lower overall efficiency unless a larger collection area
ic used.
23
,-·
Another effect of particle size on precipitator perform-

ance is that,as higher efficiencies are required, a larger per-
centage of the finer size fraction must be collected. This
has the effect of requiring a proportionately larger precipitator
size to go from, say, 99 to 99.9% than to go from 90 to 99%.
A second factor influencing precipitator performance is

its electrical characteristics. They are, in turn, related
to the electrode geometry and the physical and electrical char-
acteristics of the fly ash being collected.
The physical arrangement of the electrodes requires that

the corona current pass through the collected dust layer. The
voltage drop across this dust layer is determined by the resis-
tivity of, the dust, the current density, and the thickness of
~li! 99.5
>'
u
:.::
w
u
LL
LL
w
z
0
t=
u
!)J
..J
...1
0
U' MEASUREMENT METHOD:
60 6CASCADE IMPACTOR
0 OPTICAL PARTICLE COUNTER
e DIFFUSIONAL
0.1 0.6 1.0 5.0 10.0

PARTICLE DIAMETER, J.Lm 3726-018
Figure 2.1 Fractional collection efficiency for a hot-side

electrostatic precipitator installed on a pulverized-
coal boiler. The measured overall efficiency was
99.5%.?. 2
24
the dust layer .. If the dust resistivity is high (> 5 x 10 10
ohm-em) the current will be limited-by electrical breakdown
within the dust layer. For moderate resistivity dust; the break-
down will result in a spark being propagated across the elec-
trodes.
When precipitating dust with low electrical resistivity,

the current is limited only by electrical breakdown-of the gases
within the interelectrode region. Current densities of 50 -
60 x 10- 6 A/ft 2 or perhaps higher are possible if the electrical
resistivity of the dust is low.
If the resistivity of the dust is moderately high (around

5 x 10 10 ohm-em) the electric field within the dust layer can
exceed the electrical breakdown conditions for currents in the
range of 20- 30 x 10- 6 A/ft 2 • When breakdown occurs 1n the
dust layer, a spark is propagated to the corona electrode.
Precipitator operation is usually limited to spark rates of around
50-100/min in each electrical section. The maximum current is so
related to the dust resistivity that current densities as low as
5 x 10- 6 A/ft 2 are found in precipitators collecting dust with
resistivities above about 1 x 10 12 ohm-em.
Voltages in a precipitator are governed principally by

eleclrode geometry, the particle size and concentration of the
dust, the dust resistivity, and the composition and properties
of the gas. Large voltage drops across the dust layer can alter
.the applied voltage but ·have little influence on total perform-
ance. Fine dust at the inlet can also influence the voltage
by a space charge ~ffect.
Fly ash resistivity is determined principally by the

composition of the coal. Combustion of coal containing sulfur
results in sulfur oxides, principally sulfur dioxide (SO),
.2 .
in the flue gases. Except perhaps for that in the form of metal
sulfates, all of the sulfur in the coal appears in the flue gases.
25
About 1% of the S0 2 is oxidized to 50 3 , which combines with
the moisture present in the flue gas to form sulfuric acid vapor.
At the temperatures at which most precipitators operate (around
300°F or lower), some of the sulfuric acid vapor present is con-
densed or is adsorbed on the fly ash surface. The presence of
this sulfuric acid on the fly ash reduces the electrical resistiv-
ity of the ash in relation to the quantity of sulfuric acid present
nnn the temperature of the flue gases. In general, coals con-
taining s11lfur in quantities greater than about 1.5% produce
fly ash with reasonably low resistivities at temp~Lalures below
300°F. Coals with sulfur in quantities less than 1% generally
produce ash with moderate to high resistivities. The absolute
value of the resistivity of the fly ash can vary, depending
on other factors, mainly moisture content of the flue gases
and mineral composition of the ash.
The important mineral constituents of fly ash as they
influence resistivity are the alkali metals (sodium, lithium,
and potassium), iron, and calcium. The alkali metals appear
to be the primary charge carriers and these metal ions affect
th~ P.lP.ctrical tesistivity in relation to their concentration.
I
For low-sulfur coals, resistivity is pred~ctable
from the composition of the ash. The presence of iron appears
to modify the availability or in some instances th~ species
of ion participating in the conduction process. Details of
metl1u~s for predicting rceistivity of ~sh from low sulfur coals
have been published. 23
Calcium appears to affect the resi~tlvily ot fly ash

as a result of its reaction with the available sulfuric acid,
thus requiring a larger quantity of H2 S0 4 to achieve a given
reduction in resi~tivity thah for an ash low in calcium.
The mechanism by which sulfuric acid acts to reduce re-
sistivity is not clearly understood. It might chemically attack.
the fly ash surface to release additional alkali ions to partici-
26
pate in the conduction process. It might also directly partici-
pate in the conduction process. Whatever the mechanism, it
is obvious that sulfur in the coal plays an important role in
determining fly ash resistivity and precipitator current density.
Shifts from high to low sulfur coals to meet sulfur oxide emission
standards have often created high resistivity problems that re-
duce the effectiveness of electrostatic precipitation.
Laboratory studies on fly ash resistivity are being car-
ried out by the Environmental Protection Agency and by the Elec-
tric Power Research Institute. 24 Measurements are made in
environments of water and sulfur dioxide in concentrations in
the ranges normally encountered in the emissions from electric
power boilers. Efforts are being made to obtain correlations
of fly ash resistivity with coal composition which can then
be used to develop quantitative relationships between coal com-
position and maximum useful precipitator current density. The
relationships are used to estimate the theoretical migration
velocities for the range of fly ash particle sizes encountered
in power boilers.
The parameters measured also include the amounts of
additives adsorbed onto the surface of the ash particle and
their effect on resistivity as a function of temperature,
moisture content, and changes in the total gas corona character-
istics.
A third factor influencing precipitator performance is
reentrainment of collected dust, or bypassing of the dust-laden
gases around the electrified regions. Reentrainment can take
place in a variety of ways. Dust being precipitated can strike
the dust layer with sufficient velocity to dislodge additional
particles. Rapping of the plates can cause dust to be propelled
into the gas stream and falling of dust into the hoppers can
result in reentrainment of dust already removed. Gas sneakage
resulting from the necessity for maintaining electrical clear-
ance above and below the electrodes as well as gas sweepage
through the hoppers constitute other factors influencing per-
formance.
27
The influence of gas sneakage and reentrainment are
reduced considerably by proper baffling and by proper design
of rapping gear. Reentrained dust is generally not dispersed
as individual particles, so the redispersed dust is more readily
collected than would be indicated by the sizes of the discrete
particles. Dust reentrained from the first field is readily
collected in the subsequent fields. The reentrained dust appear-
ing at a precipitator outlet is principally that resulting from
reentrainment of dust collected in the last field~
Recent studies of reentrainment indicate that between 25
and 40% of the total emissions from a.precipitatnr is reentraincd
dust. More complete descriptions of these studies have been
26
published. 25 '
A fundamental analysis 6f the structural mechanics of
collector plate impaction and vibration in precipitators is
the subject of research at Princeton University. 27
Basic studies on agglomeration 'of fine particles and
on the use of advanced electrical and boundary layer gas-flow
techniques in the collection of high-resistivity fly ash are
being made at Stanford University. 27
NOnuniform gas flow is another factor in precipitator
performance. The size of the flue gas ducts and space limita-
tions make it difficult to achieve good uniformity of gas flow.
As a standard, the Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute has recom-
mended that the gas entering a precipitator should be such that
85% of the local velocities should be within 25% of the mean
and no single point should differ more than ±40%. 20
Sizing
Precipitator sizing is based on the quantity of gas flow,
the properties of the gas, the collection efficiency, the electrical
properties of the dust, and the particle size of the fly ash.
Present practice is to base the size on that of an existing
precipitator collecting ash from similar coal, on pilot plant
28
tests, and on empirical relationships. Figure 2.2 shows the
relationship between the size of precipitator required and col-
lection efficiency for three values of current density. The
currents selected cover the rangi of values for high, medium,
and low resistivity ashes. The data are typical for well de-
signed and maintained precipitators, operating at temperatures
below about 300°F.
One of the unknown factors in design is the allowable
current density. Selection of the design current density in-
volves a prediction of the resistivity based on coal or ash
composition or the measurement of the resistivity in plants
burning the same or comparable coal. The art of precipitator
design is based to a great extent on being able to recognize
the relevant factors influencing the resistivity and the allow-
able current density.
Many types of empirical relationships have been developed
to permit the selection of design parameters from coal composi-
tion. Most of these were developed on the basis of precipita-
tors operating at relatively low collection efficiencies and
the same parameters are not appropriate for some of the high
efficiency precipitators currently being installed.
Studies of fundamental relationships in the electrostatic
precipitation process and the development ot a computer model
of the process have resulted in a method for basing a design
on engineering methods. This approach has been presented in
·detail. 29
Research is being carried out at Washington State ·uni ver-
sity on the determination of particle migration velocities in
electro~tatic precipitators, to obtain information usable in
the design of precipitators. 27
29
'#
>.
u INCREASING
z
w RESISTIVITY
u
~
u.
w
z
0
i=
u
w
..J
..J
0
u
90.~---------'----....L.----.,..,_ ____.....
., 00 200 .300 400 500 600
SPECIFIC COLLECTING AREA, ft2/(1000 ft3/min)
:112e-o14
Figure 2.2 .Computed performance for an electrostatic

precipitator at 10, 20, and 40 x l0- 6 ~A/ft 2 •
30
2.2.4 Energy Requirements
Precipitator power requirements are associated with the

efficiency level and dust properties. The current densities
vary among precipitators collecting dusts of varying resistivity;
however, a larger collecting surface area is required when col-.
lecting a high resistivity dust.
The bases for computing power costs for energization of
precipitators are the current density, secondary voltage, and.
the plate area. Power densities range from around 0.3 to 1.5
watts/ft 2 , depending upon the dust resistivity. Energy required
for a precipitator is determined from the power density, plate
area, and operating time.
In addition to that required for electrical energization,
fan power is also required due to the pressure drop through the
precipitator. Fan power can be computed_from the equation
_ 746 rp
P - 6356 n
where:
P =power, watts
r = gas flow, acfm
p = pressure drop, in. water gauge (assumed to be 0.5)
n = combined fan and motor efficiency (assumed to be 0.40)
The sum of the power requirements for energization and
for overcoming the pressure drop is about 0.3% of the ·power
plant output.
The costs of energy for precipitator operation are dis-

cussed in Section 2.2.10.
2.2.5 Representative Installations
Table 2.1 lists a number of installations that represent

the variety used in electric utility power plants that burn coal.
31
Table 2.1 Examples of Electrostatic Precip:tator Installations
in Electric Utility Power Plants
I:esign Specific Precipit:a- Unin- Purchase Uninstalled Uninstalled

Boiler Co]lection Coal Collecting Fl"e Gas Collecting tion Rate Temper- staile:l Erected or Cost, $/ft 2 Cost, $/kW
No. of Capacity, Efficiency, Ty;oe of Sulfur, Plate Area, V:>lume,. a Area, ft 2 / Parameter, ature, Cost~ Ccst, on Line Collecting Boile>: b
ur,its MW % Precipitator % ft 2 a 100~ acfm LOOO ft 3 /min em/sec "F 1000 s~:=l00J.$a,b Date Areab Capacity
2 100 ea 98.C Cold Retrofft 0.9 73, 72E- 385 191 10.4 285 345 2/75 4.68 3.45
1 250 99.0 Hot ~etr·lfit 0. 7-5 331, 72L 1.274 260 8.98 7211 2, 44E·c 1<, 640 2/76 3.55 4.89
2 125 ea 99.0 Hot l:etr·lfU 0. 7-5 173,750 714 250 8.91 6551
1 660 99.5 Cold New· 1.1-5.1 663,552 2,120 ::.13 8.63 300 1,63? 7/77 2.47 2.48
1 550 99.5 Cole Retrof~t 1.5-5 654,431! 2,000 327 8.23 300 2,55< 1!>,080 6/76 3.90 4.64
1 450 99.8 Cole New 2.4-4 442,36E 1,520 291 10.82 275 2, 38E- 7/76 5.40 5.31
1 30 99.3 Hot Retrofit 1.2-1.37 48,15:! 1'63 295 8.58 705 25L 10/75 5.28 8.47
1 100 99.3 Hot ~etrofi~ 1.2-1.37 126, 72(•, 440 288 8.78 775 94!; 12/75 7.46 9.45
1 550 99.5 Hot New 0.6 806,096- 2,474 325 8.26 650 3,87; 7/74 4.81 7.05
1 350 99.1 Hot 3.etx:ofi·: 0. 4 512,25€> L,700 301 7.94 7{)0 2,138 2/77 4.17 6.ll
4 800 ea 99.5 Hot :-lew 0.2-0.8 1,902,18! 5,142 369 8.94 815 8,66~ 8/77 4.56 10.83
w 1 550 99.5 Hot ·~ew 0.25 832,20~ 2,314 359 7.8 820 4,995 9/78 6.00 9.08
N
3 - ea 97 Cold Retroflt 2.2-9 42,166. 202 208 8.54 306 55·' 6/76 12.94
6 150 ea 99.6 Cold. Retroflt 0,7 322,56( 575 560 5.0 320 1,642 1978 5.09 10.95
1 750 99.56 Cold New 0.36-1.8 1,376,25~ 3,400 404 8.2 335 5,27) 7/77 3.83 7.03
2 750 ea 98.6 Col·i New 0. 2-0.5 1,179,64::. ~.sao 420 5.7 283 4,373 -1/77 3. 71 5.84
1 200 99.8 CoU Ne" 1.5 255,89i 684 374 8.45 311 2,045 1/77 7.99 10.23
1 85 99.0 Col~ Retrofit 0.6 89,92:. 286 314 6.6 300 753 1/77 8.38 8.86
1 125 99.0 Co~ Retrofit 0.6 147,45~ 415 355 6.6 300 1,000 1/77 6.80 8.02
1 180 99.0 Co~ Retrofit 0.6 2ll, 9ES 597 355 ,6.6 300 1,125 1/77 5.31 6.25
1 90 96.3 Cole Re~rofit 1.9 47,6~ 300 158 10.5 400 569 2/77 11.94 6.32
4 818 ea 99.32 Hot New 1,804,03.2 5,104 353 7.06 820 7,521 13,180 4/76 4.17 9.19
2 500 ea 99.5 Hot New 967,680 3,000 322 8.21 720 4,440 8,804 1975 4.59 8.88
3 660 ea 99.33 Hot New 1,036,800 3,888 266 9.3~· 700 4,612 9,110 1973 4.45 6.99
1 900 99.67 CoLd Retrofit 0.6 1,472,652 3,000 490 275 8,434 1975 5.73 9.37
1 600 99.6 Cold New 0.4-0.6 1,636,9E'2 1,000 818 300 8,157 1975 4.98 13.60
1 500 99.33 1,136,255 2,331 488
8
The I1gures listed are for single units.
bl976 dollars.
cFor the total of 3 units.
2.2.6 Maintenance
A satisfactory precipitator installation is one that not

only meets the initial start-up guaranteed performance but that
continues to operate satisfactorily for extended periods between
plant outages for routine servicing. Many such installations
are in operation and provide a minimum of operational difficulty.
Some installations, on the other hand, have an exception-

ally high incidence of problems. Most of these problems are
mechanical in nature and can be traced to inadequate design
of the structural members, poor installation practice, or poor
maintenance.
Several surveys have been conducted in an effort to identify

the major sources of problems. A survey conducted by the Indus-
trial Gas Cleaning Institute in 1969 identified .problems in
the order listed in Table 2.2. The numbers identified with
each problem are p~rcentages of the respondents identifying
the particular component as a maintenance problem. 30
Table 2.2 Most Common Maintenance Problems
Component % of Respondents
Discharge Electrode Failure 68

Rapper Malfunction 40
Insulator Failure 2B
General Dust ~uild~up Causing Short 28
Hopper Plugging 24
Transformer Rectifier Failure 20
33
The results of a similar survey conducted by the Air
31 32
Pollution Control Association in 1974 are shown in Table 2.3. '
Table 2.3 Power Plant Electrostatic Precipitator

Maintenance Problems
Major ComEonent~Failure Fresuenc:t, %

Maintenance Very
Problem, % Frequent Infrequent Seldom
Discharge Electrodes 35.2 29.5 38.6 28.4

Dust Removal Systems 31.8 36.4 42.0 20.5
Rappers or Vibrators 5.7 9.1 38.6 47.7
Collecting Plates 13.6 4.5 7.9 68.2
Inculatorc 1.1 8.0 34.1 48.9
This survey was based on replies to a questionnaire from

the TC-1 Committee of the Air Pollution Control Association
and involved the utility, cement, paper, and metallurgical in-
dustries. Only data pertaining to the utility industry is in-
cluded in '!'able 2. 3. Table 2. 3 shows the most commonly encountered
component problems, along with the frequencies of ~omponent failure.
Discharge electrode failures are typically caused by elec-

trical arcing, corrosion, and fatigue, in descending frequency.
The collecting electrode problems are most commonly caused by
fatigue at the point of suspension, follow~d by corrosion as
th~ next most common cause. Those rapping systems usinq vibra-
tors, either pneumatic or electric, appear to require more main-
tenance than impulse-type systems. Failures of support insulators
are caused primarily by arc-overs from accumulations of dust or
moisture on the surface of the insulator. Problems with the
dust removal systems are caused primarily by hopper plugging,
followed by screw conveyor and dust valve deficiencies.
34
Other problems which cause difficulty, but to a lesser
extent, are
Dust buildup on the upper outside corners of hoppers.
Corrosion in the less accessible parts of the_precipitator,

e.g.~ around the access doors and frames, box girders,
and housing.
Rapping system drives, wear of rappers and bushings,
and·movement of the point of impact.
Plugging of gas distribution plates.
Another point of inquiry in the Air Pollution Control As-

sociation survey had to do with overall experience with the
equipment from an operation and maintenance viewpoint. The
utilitico' respou::;es were:
Utilities - Operation of Precipitators

Excellent Good Fair Poor
14.8% 45.5% 29.5% 10.2%
Utilities - Precipitator Maintenance

Excellent Good Fair Poor
13.6% 52.3% 13.6% 20.5%
Some of the data reported represent precipitator installa-

tions that have been in service for many years and often these
installations have not received proper maintenance attention.
Problems of excessive corrosion due to improper insulation,
plate buckling due to inadequate design, and other mechanical
problems can be overcome by proper attention to engineering
details during design and erection of the system.
35
2.2.( Installation
Retrofitting an installation with an electrostatic preci-

pitator can present problems because of the physical size of
the precipitator. The problem is most severe if the precipitator
is installed ahead of the air heater, where there is generally
less space available. Very few such installations ·have been
made.
Even in a cold-side installation, it. is sometimes neces-

sary to de~ign the ~L~cipi~nto~ with taller plates than usual,
or to use a chevron configuration or a stacked ~tecipitutor
arrangement ..
2. P-.8 Flue Gas Additives
One approach to improving the performance of electro-

static precipitators on existing plants is through the.use of
flue gas additives, which can serve several purposes. One of
the most common difficulties with electrostatic precipitators
is high resistivity ash tesulting from a change in fuel (from
high sulfur to low sulfur coal, for example) or from failure to
properly assess the resistivity characteristics of the ash in
the design phase. Sucl1 problems cun h~ overcome through the
use of flue gas additives to reduce the ash resistivity, or
to reduce reentrainment. 33 '34
A consequence of burning a low-sulfur coal to avoid exces-

sive emissions of sulfur dioxide is that the concentration of
.sulfur trioxide as well as that of sulfur dioxide in the flue gas
is loweted, and the prnhlem of excessive ash resistivity is
incurred. One way to overcome this problem is to add sulfur
trioxide from an external source (vapor from anhydrous sulfur
Lrioxide or sulfuric acid). Alternative sources more frequently
used at the present are sulfur dioxide (which is vaporized and
passed over a catalytic oxidizer in the presence of air) or
elemental sulfur (which is burned to sulfur dioxide and then
finally converted to sulfur trioxide in a catalytic oxidizer).
36
Although ammonia is not a naturally occurring component
of flue gas, .it is sometimes added in place of sulfur trioxide
to treat ash from low-sulfur coal. The role of ammonia in this
connection is not clearly understood. There are theoretical
reasons for discounting.the value of ammonia for adjusting resis-
tivity, and there is no consistent experimental evidence that
the compound has this effect. These statements not withstanding,
there is clear proof that ammonia injection can improve the
efficiency of precipitation, but it probably does so through
other mechanisms.3~, 3 s
One useful effect from ammonia addition is an improvement

in the electrical properties of the gas stream within a precipi-
tator. After addition, ammonia reacts with normally occurring
sulfur trioxide and water vapor to form a fume of ammonium
sulfate. The fume particles are then electrically charged,
and the added quantity of charged particulate increases the
electrical field through a space-charge effect.
Another useful effect of ammonia addition is to lower

reentrainment losses of collected ash. This effect is probably
the consequence of increased cohesive forces between the ash
particles, which lead to larger aggregates that are less likely
to be reentrained. 36
Although flue-gas conditioning with chemical additives

remains primarily a technique for modifying_electrical resistiv-
ity (as typified by the use of sulfur trioxide), it is gradually
becoming more important for the other purposes described in
connection with ammonia.
There is another mechanism that is claimed for triethyl-

amine as an additive: increased agglomeration of ash particles
before they are collected. However, there is no definitive
experimental data to support the claim. There is still another
mechanism by which other additives are intended to be effective:
catalytic oxidation of naturally occurring sulfur dioxide to
sulfur trioxide.
37
Additives that are on the market are being continually
diversified. Much needs to be learned about both the chemical
compositions of the proprietary formulations and the mechanisms
of this operation, not only to predict when the different addi-
tives can be used effectively, but to obtain a broaqer under-
standing of precipitator problems that can be solved with chemi-
cal additives.
The amount that flue gas additives contribute to operating

costs is discussed in Section 2.2.10.
2.2.9 Hot Precipitat6~S
The increasing use of low-sulfur coal and the accompany-

ing high ash resi~tivity at normal precipitator operating tem-
peratures has led to the use of so-called hot precipitators
located upstream of the air heater. The flue gases ahead of
the air heater are generally in the range of 600 to 900°F and
th~ resistivity of most fly ash is sufficiently low at these
temperatures so current is not limited by fly ash resistivity.
There are ~~v~r.al disadvantages to the use of hot precip-

itators and the choice of hut-si~e or cold-side precipitators
will generally favor cold-side operation unless the ash resis-
tivity is exceptionally high.
The properties of the flue gas become important in hot-

side precipitators because of the reduced gas density. The
corona onset voltage.and the sparkover voltage are both reduced
anH the difference between the two is also reduced. The effect
is a greater problem of control of the voltage due to the steep-
ness of the voltage-current curve. The problem may be further
aggravated in the case of precipitators installed at high alti-
tudes.
38
The incre~se in gas volume at elevated temperatuies is
a further disadvantage. The increased gas volume reduces the
specific collection area (plate area to gas volume), which for a
given size boiler results in lower efficiency or a requirement
for a larger plate area. This is off set by the increase in the
migration velocity. The gas viscosity is also increased at ele-
vated temperatures and this further reduces the precipitator per-
formance. Mechanical problems are also more severe with hot-side
precipitators since expansion is greater. Provision f6r the in-
creased expansion must be made to prevent buckling, warping, or
failure of the shell and internal members. It is sometimes nec-
essary to change the materials of units operating at high tempera-
tures; the most common materials change is the use of stainless
steel rather than mild steel wire.
In spite of these shortcomings, the use of hot precipi-

tators does have advantages, especially when the fly ash and
flue gas composition result in a resistivity at cold-side tem-
peratures of around 1 x 10 12 ohm-em or higher. At such resis-
tivities, the current density would be severely reduced and
the size of the precipitator required would be so large that
a hot-side precipitator would be indicated.
Figure 2.3 illustrates the relationship between the sizes

of a hot side precipitator and a cold side precipitator for
the same efficiency, as the dust resistivity varies.
ThPrP have been many hot side precipitators installed

1n various geographical areas as indicated in Table 2.4. The
table lists the various design parameters for the hot side units.
Practically, hot side precipitators are often difficult

to retrofit to existing installations because of the more com-
plex ductwork. The flue gases go from the boiler to the preci-
pitator, back to the air heate~, and then to the stack. The
additional ductwork adds to the cost of a hot system as a result
of the added ducting as well as the insulation requirements.
Some difficulties have been experienced with mechanical

detai~s of hot side preci~itators due to structural failure
39
-
0
E
u
m
0
0
.,._
---
N
<{
w
....
a:
<{
HOT SIDE
z
0
1-
u
w
...J
...J
0
C•.)
u
u.
u 200
w
~
(I)
100
0~~~~~--------~~--------------~----------------~----------------J
1 X 109 1 X 1010 1 x 1o11 1 x 1o12 1 X 1013
3726-019
FlY ASH RESISTIVITY, ohm-em at 300°F
Figure 2.3 Illustration of the effects of fly ash resistivity on

precipitator size for 99.5% collection efficiency.
Curves are plotted bn the basis of actual cubic feet
per minute of gas flow. For 700°F hot~side and 300°F
cold-side temperature, the ratio of gas flow for the
same size boiler would be about 1.5. Hot-side resistivity
is assumed to be not limiting.
40
Table 2.4 Some Hot-Side Electrostatic Precipitator Installations
Effective Specific
Collection Migration Collecting Temper- Volume Outlet Date Generat-
Efficiency, Velocity, Area, ft 2 / ature, Flow Rate, Loading, Opera- ing Rate,
3
Company Station % em/ sec 1000 ft /min °F 1000 acfm gr/acf tional MW
Duke Power Allen 99.2 9.03 270 650 1,250 1972-73 870
Duke Power Buck 99.0 9.75 240 800 337
Duke Power Buck 99.08 10.0 238 690 640
Duke Power Cliffside 99.0 9.75 240 800 340
Duke Power Cliffside 99.0 10.65 220 690 400 72 132
Wisconsin Pcwer and Light Columbia 99.5 810 2, 770 74 486
Public Service of Colorado Comanche 99.5 8.7 310 828 1,322 73 350
Duke Power Dan River 99.0 10.8 215 690 402 71 150
·Sego Gaston 99.73 ll.S 250 650 1,160 0.0163 72 250
Iowa Power George Neal 99.0 10.65 220 650 690 72 147
Alabama Powe.: Gc·rgas 99.0 8.5 270 650 1,000 750
Dayton Power and Light Hutchings 99.83 10.0 324 . 640 313 0.005 72 412
Duke Po~oo·er Lee 99.15 ll.3 215 672 1,118 0.018 70 210
Duke Power Lee 99.0 690 825
Wisconsin Power and Light Nelson Dewey 99.5 550 487 73 200
Consolidated Edison RaiTenswood 99.57 11.1 245 520 4,079 0.005 67 1000
Duke Power · Riverbend 99.0 10.1 235 690 600
Cedar Falls Streeter 99.0 809 250 73 52
Commonwealth Ediso~ Will County 98.5 9.15 235 675 1,425 73 300
Carolina Power and Light 625 670 72 ll4
Salt River Na•1ajo 99.5 800 4,000 750
Public Sen•ice of :>lew Mexico San Juan 99.5 310 700 470 73 350
Alabama Po~oo•er Barry 99.0 8.91 250 655 1,428 76 250

Alabama Poloo'er Barry 99.0 8.98 260 721 1,274 76 125
Alabama Electric Cooperative McWilliams 99.3 8.58 295 705 163 75 30
Alabama .Electric Cooperative Tombi5bee 99.3 8.78 288 775 440 75 100
Northern Indiana Public Service Sctaf~r 99.5 8.26 325 660 2,474 76 550
Commonwealth Edison Waukegan 99.1 7.94 301 700 1 '700 77a 350
Arkansas Power and Light White., luff 99.5 8.94 369 815 5,142 77a 800 ea.
Dairyland Power Cooperative Alma 99.6 7.8 359 820 2,314 78a 550
South CaroliTia Pubiic Service 99.32 7.06 353 820 5,104 76 818 ea.
Gulf Power Ellis 99.5 8.21 322 720 3,000 75 500 ea.
Alabama Power Miller 99.3J 9.39 366 700 3,888 73 660 ea.
aExpected date.
of the shells or insulators. These difficulties can be over-
·come by proper attention to the requirements for thermal expan-
sion and conventional structural design methods.
2.2.10 Costs
For purposes of comparison or generalization, costs that
are usually considered are capital equipment costs, maintenance
costs, and operating costs.
Comparison of capital equipment costs may be made on

an uninstalled, erected, or installed basis. It is useful
to define the erected cost as the cost of the erected precipi-
tator only, with the term installed cost reserved for the cost
of the total installation, including the additional ductwork
and ash-handling equipment.
Precipitator capital costs vary widely, depending upon

the collection efficiency, the electrical and physical proper-
ties of the dust, the design details of the precipitator, and
the nature of the installation itself. Installed costs of
precipitators vary so widely that it is difficult to derive
exact ielationships between cost and precipita~or capacity.
The installation cost often includes the dismantling of an
'existing precipitator, the addition of supporting steel, varying
amounts of ductwork, the location of the precipitator (piggy
back on an existing unit, or on the roof of the plant, for
example). The costs of precipitators depend primarily upon the
size of the precipitator, whether the installation is to be made
in an area of high wind or snow loads, or in an earthquake area,
and the location of the installation relative to the supply of
structural steel. These and other variables cause erected costs to
vary by a considerable amount. A representative list of in-
stallations is given in Table 2.1, above.
The methodology used in developing rational cost data

for electrostatic precipi~ators was to obtain from vendors or
users typical uninstalled costs of precipitators, both hot-side
and cold-side units. These costs were adjusted to 1976 costs
by the following procedure. It was assumed that the year in
42
which the equipment was contracted for was two years prior to
the year in which the installation came on line. The cost of
the uninstalled equipment was then calculated in 1976 dollars
by adjusting the cost by.an inflation factor, which was the
37
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index for the interval be-
. tween the contract year and 1976. The factors used were: 1975-
1976, 1.06; 1974-1976, 1.16; 1973-1976, 1.33. Table 2.1 summar-
izes the data for a group of both hot- and cold-side installa-
tions.
The collection plate area required to achieve a given

collection efficiency was then det~rmined for both hot-side
and cold-side units from mathematical model projections. The
uninstalled precipitator cost was then calculated for a given
gas volume from the projected plate area and the unit plate
area co13t.
The erected cost was estimated to be approximately twice

the uninstalled cost, on the basis of experience of vendors, for
new installations.
Costs of ductwork and ancill.ary equipment were determined

38
from relationships developed by the Tennessee Valley Authority.
Details of the methodology and the assumptions made in

arriving at the cost data are discussed in the followinq section~.
Ilot-S·ide Precipitator Co'sts

Hot-side precipitators are relatively insensitive to
the sulfur content of the fuel and generally so to the composition
of·the ~sh, since at the usual temperature preceding the air
heater the resistivity of fly ash is sufficiently low that current
is not limited by dust resistivity. Consequently, in contrast
to cold-side precipitators, the size is governed primarily by the
collection efficiency required and the gas volume.
43
Figure 2.4 shows the relationship between collection
efficiency and specific collecting area (the ratio of plate
area to gas volume) for hot-side precipitators collecting fly
ash. There will be some variation in the relationship, depending
upon the particle size of the ash, the uniformity of the gas
flow, and the gas temperature. However, the scatter of the
data is not large and the plate area required to achieve a given
efficiency for a specified gas flow can be determined from data
of this type.
The cost per unit of collection plate .:trea was rlP.terrniu~u
from Figure 2.5. Figure 2.6 shows the uninstalled precipitator

cost as related to the gas volume as projected for hot-side
precipitators with collection efficiency of 99.5%. The figures
also include uninstalled precipitator co3ts for eight installa-
tions for which data are available. The collection efficiencies
for the installations are noted on the figure. The scatter
of the data indicates the degree of uncertainty associated with
the different manufacturers and the circumstances.peculiar to
each installation.
Figure 2.7 shows the estimated variation in uninst~lled
hot-side preci~ilator co8ts for various gas flows based on col-

lection efficiencies ranging from 99 to 99.6%. The curves in
Figure 2.7, like that in Figure 2.6, are based on data from
Figures 2.4 and 2.5.
F.igure 2.8 shows thP P.rected precipitator costs fo.r hot-

side units, based on the assumption that erected costs are twice
the llnl.nstallen precipitator costs.
Figures 2.6 through 2.8 show costs based on the gas flow
rate. In order to relate precipitator size to boiler capacity,
Figure 2.9 shows a plot of gas flow in actual cubic foot per
minute (acfm) at the temperature of the flue gas (600 to 800°F)
relative to the boiler capacity in megawatts (MW). The curve is
based on design gas flows for hot-side precipitators for which
data are available.
44·
~
>' 99.5
u
2
w
u
u..
u..
w
2
0
1-
u
w
...J
...J
0
u
2
(!I
Cii
w
c
0 500
SPECIFIC COLLECTING AREA, ft2/1000.acfm 3726-ooa
Figure 2.4 Design collection efficiency vs. sp~cific collecting

area for hot-side electrostatic precipitators.
45
•
•
..- .- ----.
6
-._-.
•
- ·----- •
N
..... ---~-~-----
•
..."'<0
• ••
0
"C·
1-
• •• •
(1)
0
u
•
0 oL---~--~2L---L---~4----~--sL---~--~---L---1~o~~~~1~2--~--~14~~~~1~6~_.--~18
COLLECTING PLATE AREA, 103 tt2

3726-003
Figure 2.5 Cost (uninstalled) per unit of collecting plate area

vs. collecting plate area for hot-side electrostatic
pr-e·cipi tators.
46
BASED ON 99.5% COLLECTION EFFICIENCY
350 SCA ""-
8
.
"'
0"'
"C
co
....0
t-"
Cl) 0 0
0
u
GAS FLOW, 1o6 acfm

3726·004
Figure 2. 6 Cost (uninstalled·) for hot-side electrostatic precipitators,

collection efficiency 99.5%, vs. gas volume flow rate.
47
99.6% COL.:LECTION EFFICIENCY
8 _ / 99.5% ·cOLLECTION EFFICIENCY
99.3% COLLECTION EFFICIENCY
~·
(/)
0
(..)
GAS FLOW, 106 acfm

3726·005
Figure 2.7 Costs (uninstalled) of hot-side electrostatic

precipitators "vs. gas volume flow rate at several
values of collection efficiency.
48
l'j
12
~
"'
0
"'C
co
0
.....
t-'
.CI)
0
(.)
GAS FLOW, 106 acfm

. 3726-006
Figure 2.8 Cost (erected) for new hot-side precipitatois

vs. gas volume flow rate.
·. 49
'..J
..
'iii
"'"'
Cl)
u
X
Cl)
V1
0 *'0
E•
....u
Ill
(g
...
0 2
s:·
0
...J
LL.
(I)
<(
(!'
RATED BOILER C~PACITY, MW 3726·007
Figure 2 .. 9 Gas volume flo·w =3.tes for hot-sije precipitators ·vs.

boiler capacity .. \
·cold-Side Precipitator Costs
The cost of a precipitator installed downstream of the

air heater is influenced by the electrical resistivity of the
dust, in addition to those factors that determine the cost of
hot-side units .. Dust resistivity can vary .widely, depending
upon the sulfur content of the fuel and the chemical composi-
. ·..
tion of the ash. In general, coal with a sulfur content of
around 1.5% or greater produces ash with sufficiently low resis-
tivity that the operating current for the precipitator is not
limited. Coal with a sulfur content of less than 1.5% generally
produces ash with a resistivity that limits the precipitator
current. The degree to which current is limited depends upon
the quantity of sodium in the.ash as well as the sulfur in the
coal. Thus, there are all degrees of resistivity, which deter-
mines the magnitude of the current and hence the size and cost
of a precipitator to achieve a given collection efficiency.
Figure 2.10 shows the relationship between the specific

collecting area and efficiency for the range of fly ash resis-
tivity that has been encountered. The curve for low resistivity
would correspond to average current densities of around 30-40
x 10- 6 A/ft 2 . The curve for a very high resistivity ash corresponds
to current densities of 5-10 x 10- 6 A/ft 2 . The ash that would
limit current density to these low values wouid typically result
from coal of less than 0.5% sulfur and the ash would contain less
than around 0.2% sodium as Na20.
On the basis of data such,as those in Figure 2.10,
the uninstalled precipitator costs for low, moderately high,
and very high-resistivity fly ash (99.5% collection efficiency)
were calculated and are shown in Figure 2.11.
Figure 2.12 shows the erected costs for precipitators

collecting ash of three different resistivities. The erected
cosls were computed as twice the uninstalled costs.
' 51
LOW RESISTIVITY
99.8 FLY ASH
i)~
>.
(.J
99.5
zw
(.J
u:::
LL
LLi
z 99
0
....r.J
IJJ
..I
..J
0 FLY ASH
(.J
98
96
0 1UU ZUO 3UU 400 bOO

SPECIFIC COLLECTING AREA, tt2/1000 acfm
3726·009
Figure 2.10 Collection efficiency vs. specific collecting area

for cold-side precipjtitors collecting fly ash of
low and high electrical resistivity .
.52
12~------~------~--------~------~----------------
MODERATELY
HIGH RESISTIVITY
FLY ASH-SCA 475
VERY HIGH
8 ......- - - - RESISTIVITY .,__ _ _+---...JC.~----+------t
FLY ASH-
"'.... SCA 800
..!!!
0
"t:l
~
..... 6~------~--~--~~~~~~------~~----~~~-~
t-'
en
0
u
1 2 3 4 5 6
GAS FLOW, 1o6 acfm 3726-011
Figure 2.11 Cost (uninstalled) for cold-side electrostatic

precipitators collecting low, moderately high,
and very high resistivity fly ash (99.5% collection
efficiency) vs. gas volume flow rate.
53
VERY HIGH RESISTIVITY
FLY ASH- SCA 800 FOR
16 99.5% COLLECTION
EFFICIENCY HIGH RESISTIVITY FLY
1
ASH -, S~A 475 FOR 99.5%
COLLECTION EFFICIENCY
~ 10
0
-c
U)
....0
~--·
en
0 LOW RESISTIVITY FLY ASH -
(,)
SCA 275 FOR 99.5% COLLECTION
EFFICIENCY
1 2 3 4 5 3726·056
GAS FLOW, 106 acfm ·
Figure 2.12 Cost {erected} for cold-side electrostatic precipitators

collecting fly ash with low, moderately high, and ver
high resistivity.
54
The relationship between gas flow and boiler capacity
for cold-side precipitators is shown in Figure 2.13. The data
points co~respond to design gas flow for cold-side precipitators
for which data are available.
A comparison of the erected costs of hot- and cold-side

precipitators on boilers of different capacities is shown in
Figure 2.14 for three different ash resistivities. For a low
resistivity ash, the cost clearly favors a cold-side unit.
For a moderate resistivity ash, the erected costs of hot- and
cold-side precipitators are comparable. For a very high
resistivity ash, the erected cost of a hot-side unit would be
considerably less •
. AnciZZary Equipment and Construction Costs
Costs for control of particulate emissions also include

ash handling equipment, ductwork, and pipes, pumps, and other
ancillary equipment. Many of these items are common to all
types of dust control equipment, so tha~ cost comparisons could
be made equally well on the basis of either the installed or
erected cost of the control device. However, some installa-
tions, notably hot precipitators, require more ductwork than
others. Installed ductwork is estimated at about ~30/ft 2 , and
depending on the particular plant layout, the incremental cost
for the additional ductwork could be included in the estimate.
For cold-side precipitators, the total cost of the duct-

work, ash handling system, and I.D. fans is about 43% of the erected
precipitator cost. A breakdown of the cost of these items is
38
given in Table 2.5.
Maintenance Costs
Maintenance costs can vary among precipitator installa-

tions for a variety of reasons. The quality and age of the
55
'\
0
....uE
"'
<0
0
.-
s:0
....I
I.L
,
VJ
<(
0o~------,~o~o~----~~----~~------4~o~o------~~----~~----~7~oo~-----s~oo
RATED BOILER CAPACITY, MW

3726-002
Figure 2.13 Gas volume flow rate for cold-side electrostatic

precipitators vs. boiler capacity.
56
MODERATELY HIGH
,!
RESISTIVITY FLY ASH
VERY HIGH
SCA 475
RESISTIVITY FLY ASH
SCA 800 "-....
\ HOT-SIDE ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATOR )
.."'
..!!
SCA 350
0
"'C
CD
V1 ...
c
-:-.1 .en:
0
u
c
w
1-
\ LOW RESISTIVITY
u
w FLY ASH
a: SCA 275
w
RATED BOILER CAPACITY, MW 3726-020
Figure 2.14 Cost (erected) for hot- and cold-side electrostatic

precipitators collecting low, moderately high, and
very high resistivity fly ash (99.5% collection
efficiency) .
Table 2.5. Material Costs for Large38 Modern
Electrostatic Precipitators
Items % of Total Cost
TR Sets 8.26
Control Panels 6.88
External High Voltage System 2~03
Elet;!trieal Deviues 0.03

Casing 15.83
HoppPr:-:> 10.20
Collecting Plptes 13.80
High Voltage System 5.78
Rapper System 8.47
Inlet Plenum 2.79
Outlet Plenum 2.61
Internal Access 0.55
Externu.l l\cces:a 1. 20
Superstructure 3.51
Ventilation Equipment Suppur·t 0.23
Operating Floor Insulation 0.75
Hopper Dust Control 0.74
Safety Interlocks 0.80
Support Structure 10.61
Access Facilities 4.93
-
Total 100.00
-58
installation, the type of fuel, and the operating conditions,
for example, can cause precipitator components to fail for the
causes discussed elsewhere in this report.
Figure 2.15 is a histogram showing the average costs

per year per 1000 ft 2 of collecting surface for a group of 24
precipitators. The average maintenance cost for the group of
precipitators for which records are available from one utility
is $55.60/1000 ft 2 per year. For 18 of the precipitators, the
maintenance cost was below the average. For 3 of the precipita-
tors, the cost was very high, in one case over 3 times the average
cost.
Maintenance costs for a given installation can be in-

fluenced by the period covered by a study. Costs can be very
high if a major overhaul, such as wire or plate replacement,
is involved.
The average annual cost of $55.60/1000 ft 2 agrees reasonably

I ..1 • ••
well with data reported in 1969, 39 taking into account the

increase in labor and material costs since then.
Operating Costs
Accurate data on operating costs is not available from

most utilities, since operating labor costs for precipitators
are not kept as a separate item. Generally, no operating per-
sonnel are required, except for periodic recording of electrical
data and log keeping, which can be done on a part-time basis.
Precipitator power requirements are discussed in Section
2.2.4.
Energy.costs for a precipitator are computed from the

power density, collecting plate area, operating time, and unit
energy cost. In addition,· the power required due to the pres-
sure drop through the precipitator must be calculated.
.. -
180-----------------------------------------------------,
170
<1: 160
w
cc
<1:
(!J
2
i= 140
()
w .....
...I
..J
0
(.)
N 120 r-
1-
u.
0
-
0
0
C2
>
100 ~
--
1-
en
8 1-
w
()
80 -
z
...:(
2
w
1-
2 60
~ AVERAGE
~ -- ------ f--------------:
.....
w
(!J
<1:
ffi 40
~ .....
I"" -
20
r~
n·
OIL1~-2LL3~4~5~6~~-~8~~9LL10~1~1~1~2~1~3~14~1~5~16~1~7*1 1~8~1~9~20~:=21~:=22~2~3~24
7 UNIT NUMBER
3726-001
Figure 2.15 Maintenance costs for electrostatic precipitators.
-60
Table 2.6 lists the operating labor costs and energy
costs for hot- and cold-side precipitators collecting fly ash
with different resistivities.
The costs of flue gas additives that are used in some in-
stallations to improve the collection efficiency for fly ash are
listed .in Table 2. 7. A TVA study showed that the cost of sulfuric
acid injection at the Widows Creek Steam Plant in 1968 was
$80,000 per boiler, or about 0.18 mills/kWh based on a 90% load
factor. 40 Some cost data on the use of one proprietary additive
were obtained from a 1977 survey of utility companies. 24 Table
2.7 shows the range of the data • . The actual cost for the con-
ditioning agent is dependent on the number of tons of coal burned
as well as plant output related to capacity.
Even though fly ash is ·collected in a dry state in the

hoppers of an electrostatic precipitator, it is usually disposed
of as a slurry for convenience in handling. The slurry is pumped
to the disposal site. If this method is not practical, dry fly
ash can be conveyed to a storage silo, from which it is discharged
through wetting equipment to motor trucks for transport to dis-
posal sites. The moisture content can be adjusted to 15-20% to
reduce dusting and aid in compaction of the ash at the disposal
site.
There is some concern that the amount of sulfur trioxide

or sulfuric acid that is added to the flue gas as a conditioning
agent may be enough to contribute to the air pollution burden
under some conditions; however, there is not enough information
on this question to indicate whether the concern is justified.
Sulfur trioxide is used in concentrations up to 20 ppm

of stack gas. If as much as 5 ppm escapes being absorbed by
the fly ash and is emitted as sulfuric acid, it would add 0.01
grains/ft 3 to the emissions.
61
Table 2.6 Electros~atic Precipitator Cos~s
Specific
Collect-
Fly ash ing Area,
Bo:.ler Size, MW
Temper- Res is- ft2/l000
Item 300 400 500 600 700 BOO ature tivity acfm
.....~ Precipitator 94 ,·600 119,800 131 .. 400 214,400 24:6,(00 Hot-side 350
182,900
energy cost, 88,,000 123,200 158_.400 193; 600, 220,000 264,(00 Cold-side Low 275
$h•ra 66,'500 93,100 1:..9,700 H6,300 166,200 19.9, 500 Cold-side High 475
28,'500 39,900 51,300 62,700 71,300 85,500 Cold-side Very High 800
ran power cost, 29,600 39,500 ;;;9,400 59,200 69,100 79,000 Hot-side
$/yr 19,700 27,600 35,500 39,500 49,400 59,200 Cold-side
0'\
N Operating labor ll, 000 il.2,300 l3,200
9,800 l3, 800 1.4,700 Hot-side
cost, $/yrb 6,500 ·7,400 8,200 18,800 9,200 "9,800 Cold-side
Maintenance 29,200 55,500 :'0,.100 84,600 99,200 11.3,800 Hot-side 350

cost, $/yr 15,300 21,400 26,000 32,100 38,200 44,300 Cold-side Low 275
26,400. 37,000 H,900 55,400 66,000 ·76,EOO Cold-side High 475
33,-400 46,500 56,500 69,800 83,200 96,400 Cold-side Very High. 800
Capital cost,. 5,300 7,000 8,500 10,100 11,800 D,4oo· Hot-side 350
erected, 10 3 $ 3,::..oo 4,200 5,2()0 6,100 7,100 8,300 Cold-side Low 27 5
5,000 6,700 8,400 10,000 11,700 l3,600 Cold-side High 475
.. 8,300 11, 60'0 il4,000 16,000 17,700 1.9,400 Cold-side Very High 800
a .
Basis: 8760 hr/yr, 0.8 duty factor, power at 50.02/_kWh, pov:er supply efficiency· 70%, collection· efficiency 99.5%
bReference 38.
Table 2.7 Use of a Flue Gas Additive by
Coal-?ired Electric Power Plants
Cost
Plant Equipment Chemical,
Capacity, MW Installed, 10 3 $ $/ton coal
Proprietary
Additivea 200 73 0.84
600 60 0.62
Sulfur
m Burner 200 710b 0.10
w
600 1,560b 0.10
Sulfuric Acid
Injection~+ 0
115 o.aoc
aData ·obtained in a 1977 survey of utility power plants. 2 ~+
bValues in 1976 dollars, calculated from a base cost obtained from

a vendor, by the pcwer rule:
~
cos.t = base cost size, MW )O. 7
x ba~e plant
s1ze, MW
cValue estimated as twice the value quoted in Reference 40.
\
2.3 FABRIC FILTERS
2.3.1 Method of Coll~ction
Fabric filte~s have been used for many years to remove

dusts from industrial process gases, notably from cement kilns
and metallurgical operations. They have also been installed
on a number of small power boilers; but it is only within the
p~st few y~~rR thnt they have been considered for removing fly
ash from large electric utility boilers burning coal.
In most of the_baghouse de~igns used at present for fil-

tration of stack gases, as in many other fabric filter appli-
cations, the fabric is formed into a vertically hung tube or
sleeve closed at the top. · The stack gas is drawn through the
bag from inside it, and the collected dust forms a loosely de-
posited cake inside the tube. In mo~t baghouses, ·the flue gas
flow is periodically turned off and the dust removed from the
fabric by agitation, partial bag collapse, air back flow, a
combination of these methods, or by reverse air pulse. The
filt~r is thus regenerated and prepared to resume tiltering.
The collected ~ust fall~ lnlo a hopper, from which it is carri~d
away for disposal.
2.J.2 Theory of Filtration
Fabric filters collect particles by the mechanisms of im-

paction, interception, and diffusion. In addition, electro-
Rtntic forces can be important in fabric filtration. However,
after a new fabric collector has been in operation for several
minutes, collection mechanisms are different from those of
classical filter theory. The reason for this change is that,
after an initiaL phase of collection, the cake of filtered
material that builds up on the fabric surface and the interstices
of the fabric provides most of the filtration until it is removed
in the part of the filtering cycle in which the filter is
cleaned and regenerated.
As the cake grows thicker with time, the pressure drop
across the filter increases. When a preset pressure drop across
a compartment containing filter bags is reached, or when a preset
time has expired, the compartment is isolated from the gas flow for
bag cleaning. The method of cleaning depends on the fabric struc-
ture. Woven bags are cleaned by shaking or reverse air flow or both.
Felted bags are sturdier and can be cleaned with a p~lsed jet of
air, which creates a disturbance which is propagated along the
bag, removing the dust cake as it travels from the top to bottom.
After the dust is removed, the isolated compartment is reexposed
to the gas flow. A collection process now occurs which is
similar to that of initial cleaning by an unused bag. But now
the interstices of the filter material are still loaded with
particulate matter which is not dislodged by cleaning. After
a number of cleanings, bags build up an interstitial accumu-
lation to a constant level, in which condition the bag is considered
to be broken in. Because of this residual dust loading, the filter
cake is more quickly reestablished when filtration commences. The
pressure drop-versus-time relationship for a freshly cleaned
bag is nonlinear until the filter cake is reestablished; this
often takes several minutes and has important consequences for
modeling studies of fly ash collection by woven bags.
The collection m~chanism of woven fabric filters differs

in some details from that of nonwoven filters when fly ash is
41
being collected. These differences can be traced to the basic
fabric structure and the method of cleaning. Woven materials
do not have as many interstitial voids as do felted materials
and after cleaning require a longer time to reestablish the
filter cake. In laboratory studies with redispersed fly ash
the time-average outlet dust concentration was nearly independent
of the inlet dust concentration. By contrast, for felt bags,
cleaned with pulsed jet.s of air, the emissions depended on the
inlet dust concentration. Thus, woven fabrics offer better
filtration characteristics when inlet dust loadings can change
65
and outlet emissions must be held a·t or below some specified
value. A 1976 summary of fabric filter installations for flue
gas control of coal-fired boilers· noted that of 8 existing or
planned 'utility boile.rs' with fabric' control devices, all use
woven fabrics, and of 28 industrial intermediate-siie boilers
with fabric filters, 24 use woven· bags. 42 Hence, the preponder-
ance of fabric filter control devices used on coal-fired boilers
are made from woven fabrics. This, coupled wllh the relative
insensitivity ot woven filters to inlet rlnst loadiug, indicates
that in future fabric filter installations on coal-fired boilers,
woven filter bags will probably be used. Therefore, in the
following discussion of fabric filtration, attention will be
focused on woven fiLLers.
Fabric Structure
A fabric is a porous, flexible textile material made

by weaving or felting. For a woven fabric the yarn is formed
by twisting fine fiber strands of individual filaments. De-
pending on the particular material from which the yarn is made,
individual fibrous filaments may or may not occur within the
interyarn (interstitial) spaces.
Filter fabrics made from spun staple yarns of twisted,

relatively short fibers will show many more interstitial filaments
than fabrics of fiberglass and synthetic continuous filament
yarns. These filaments should be beneficial in high efficiency
filtration, since they help in maintainin·g a moderate residual
dust load and in supporting the filter cake. On the other hand,
the more rounded fibers of fiberglass and other synthetic contin-
uous filament materials also have good filtration character-
istics. In a study of fabric structure and the related filtra-
tion performan~e~ it was concluded that ·there were several fac-
tors which influenced the ~fficiency of a fabric filter. The
ultimate performance of a fabric filter was linked to the inter-
66
yarn spacing or pore-size distribution of a fabrtc in that
the presence o( a significant number of pores with a· characteristic
dimension roughly ten times the mass median particle diameter
of the dust being filtered leads to bleeding or leaking of dust,
i.e., increased penetration due to the inability of the dust
to bridge these pores. 43
·Collection of Dust
Three types of dust filtration with fabric filters can

be identified. 44 Type I, the initial phase, begins with the
unused fabric and ends with the first cleaning of the fabric.
Type II, the middle phase, begins when a bag is cleaned-the
first time and ends when the residual fabric dust load remains
constant after each cleaning cycle. Type III, the last phase,
is characterized by the fabric being fully filled with dust
and having a stabilized value of pressure drop and residual
dust load immediately after cleaning. Figure 2.16 illustrates
the three types of dust filtration. During the initial phase
of cleaning, the mechanisms of impaction, interception, and
diffusion operate, and filtration can be described with classic
filtration theory: 5 ' 4 6 Fabrics constructed from staple yarns
begin this initial phase with the. capture of individual par-
ticles by single projecting fibers within the flow field, pre-
sumably in interyarn space. Smooth-surface yarns (fiberglass
and synthetic fibers) form deep channel-like pores with few,
if any, projecting fibers. Deposition occurs in these pores
under velocity conditions which are at least an order of magnitude
greater than the dVerage fdCe velocity O[ the fabric. 41
Particuldte matter coll~cted by the fabric filter builds

up first in the vicinity of the pores. As it builds, a cake
is formed through which most of the flow must pass. Particles
entrained in the flow stream are captured by the cake. The
cake-capture filtration continues until the pressure drop across
the bag face reaches the point where filter cleaning is initiated
and the initial phase of filtration ends.
67
RCGCNI!RATION
DUST DUST
FILTRATION FILTRATION
TYPE I TYPE II
ll.
0
a:
0 J-1---
w
a:
::::>
II)
iiI'
C/)·
w
a:;
ll.
j.
'1---
1
-- ----- li'I STABILIZED VALUE

OF PRESSURE DROP
---
----~INCREASED PRESSURE DROP
...-- AFTER REGENERATION
TIME 3726-021
Figure 2.16 Types of dust filtration.~~
68
In the second phase of filtration, the residual dust
load on the fabric filter accumulates. After cleaning, the
filter is never returned to the unused state since particulate
matter will coat· the filter in at least a mono-layer. Mechanical
shaking followed by or in conjunctior with reverse air flow
can never overcome the Van der Waals forces of adhesion between
the fly ash and, for example, fiberglass filter bag fabric.
After each cleaning more particulate matter is left "embedded"
in the filter than in the last cleaning until some constant
residual dust loading is left. The time required for this dust
load to build up is a function of many variables. These vari-
ables include w·eave, pore size, air-to-:cloth ratio (air flow
divided by filter area), frequency of cleaning, method of clean-
ing, and mass median diameter of the dust.
When the_filter bag is seasoned, Type ,III filtration

commences. At the beginning of a filtering cycle, the pores
or interstices are loaded with dust and this residual dust layer
plays an important part in the formation of the filter cake.
Filtration begins with the capture of individual particles by
other particles of the residual dust layer. These deposited
particles then act as additional obstacles for future capture
of other particles. A series of loose chain-like aggregates
form which project into the flow. Further accumulation occurs
until the fabric pores are bridged and the filter cake is formed.
During the formation of the filter cake, the pressure drop in-
creases non-linearly with increasing dust deposit, or time if
inlet dust concentration and filtration velocity are constant.
When the cake is formed, pressure dro~ across the filter in-
creases linearly with increasing dust deposit or time until
cleaning. Figure 2.17 shows this type of behavior for four
different fabrics~ 49
Experiments on the deposition of fly ash (spherical parti-
cles) and talc (flat particles) in woven bags and the regeneration
of the bags show differences in behavior of the particles in the
filter fabri6. The shape of the talc particles apparently facilitated
the closure of pores and retarded the seepage of the particles
through the fabric.
69
4----------~--------~--------~~--------r---------,---~----~
t:l
3:
-~
-...1
w· .
..-----o ~
------0.-------0
(.J
0 z
<(
1-
(I)
u;
w
a:
D. NAPPED COTTON
0 UNNAPPED COTTON
e CROWFOOT DACRON
0 PLAIN WEAVE DACRON
5 10 15 . 20 25 30
3'?26·022
TIME, min
Figure 2ol7 Resistance changes during fly ash filtration for

vlell-used fabrics o Inlet ·loadin•::J: 3 o5 gr./ft ~;
filter velocity: 3 ft/rnin, 30 mi~ filter cycleo~ 6
The overall mechanism of particle collection involves
some combination of impaction, interception, and diffusion on
and within the filter cake. There is conjecture as to the exact
collection mechanisms that act in the filter cake, but Cooper
and Hampl47 in their model studies "Of fabric :filter collection
assume that the flow and collection by the filter cake are
similar to those in nuclepore and membrane filters with low
porosity. The model also assumes that some of the interyarn
spaces or pores stay open during the filtration cycle. A study
of the penetration mechanisms of fly ash through needled felt
fabric filter material indicated three mechanisms of penetra-
tion: direct penetration, gradual seepage of the dust, and
the breakage and penetration of plugs of material in the vicinity
of pinholes. Althou~h this work was done on felted materials,
some of ' the penetration mechanisms may be similar for woven
filters, especially when they are viewed as arrays of evenly
sized and spaced pores with a filter cake layer that almost
covers them.
2.3.3 Factors Affecting Performance
Factors which can influence fabric filter performance

with fly ash include the fabric structure, air-to-cloth ratio,
maximum pressure drop before cleaning, method of cleaning,
cleaning frequency, intensity of cleaning, and flue gas tem-
perature and humidity. These factors can be broken down broadly
·into two categories: factors whic~ are basic to the design
of a fabric filter system for optimum performance and factors
which relate to the behavior of the system as installed. During
the design of a baghouse, questions of fabric, method of cleaning,
air-to-cloth ratio, operating temperature, and humidity need
to be considered. Once the baghouse is operating, cleaning
rate, duration and intensity of cleaning, and other variables
rel~ted to the operation of the collector are adjusted to keep
pressure drop before the cleaning below the maximum allowable.
71
Other occurrences can influence the 6ollection efficiency
of the baghouse. Bags can be blinded, or clogged, during boiler
start-up. Temperature excursions through acid dew points may
corrode the baghouse structure and adversely affect the life and
performance of the bags. Another potential problem is air preheater
failure, which can drive temperatures above safe operating limits
for the bags.
Fabric filter performance is not influenced by some of
the factors which are considered critical in electrostatic preci-
pitator nnd scrubber operation. Woven fabric filters are rela-
tively insensitive to.inlet dust loading. Also, fly ash resis-
tivity is of little consequence for fabric coilectors since
collection does not depend on electrootatic attraction. In
contrast to the operation of a scrubber, fabric filter collec-
tion efficiency is not a function of particle wettability or
pressure drop.
The insensitivity of fabric filters to inlet dust loading
is well known~ 6 A laboratory study by Dennis and Wilder 41 showed
.for a specified dust/tabric cumbination and a fi')CP.d up~rating
mode for the collector that the average mass emission ~nd its
related size properties may be nearly independent of the con-
CP.ntration and size of the inlet dust. These results led the
authors to conclude that no simple relationship exists uelween
typical outlet and inlet concentrations for most fabric filters.
The insensitivity of outlet emission rate to inlet ~ust con-
centration is understandable if considerable penetration arises
from l.eakage. If so, emissions consist primarily of previously
collected dust deposited within the fabric.
Electrostatic effects in fabric filters may not be entirely
negligible, since 'it has been observed that collection of dust
by a fabric filter is enhanced if it has a static charge,
especially in the presence of an electric field. 48 On the other
hand, fabric filters are obviously quite efficient in fly ash
collection when no attempt at static electrification is made.
72
Studies on electrostatic effects in fabric filters are
conducted under a grant from the EPA to Carnegie Mellon Univer-
sity. This program involves research on the determination of·
the electrostatic characteristics of different fabrics and their
effects on filtration performance. The possibility of control-
ling filter cake porosity through the use of electrostatics
49
is be~ng stadied.
The pressure drop across a baghouse is a factor in per-

formance. An operating pressure drop of 3-4 inches (water gauge) is
typical for fly ash collection, but some industrial baghouses operate
substantially above 10 inches water gauge. Pressure figures
such as these are values averaged over the filtering cycle.
When filtration begins, the pressure drop increases nonlinearly
until a filter cake is built and then increases linearly there-
after. Figure 2.17 shows this behavior as well as the fact that
fabric filters can operate for substantial lengths of time at
pressure drops less than four inches of water.
Figure 2.18 shows 41 that directly after cleaning the
penetration drops quickly to levels characteristic of precipitator
operation (0.01-0.001). The results shown in Figure 2.18 are for
unnapped cotton sateen bags. Penetration may either increase or
decrease with time after cleaning, depending on the filter material,
construction, and material being collected. Figure 2.18 sho~s that
for unnapped cotton sateen bags collecting fly ash the penetration
decreases with time. On the other hand, Figures 2.19 and 2.20 show
how penetration can level off and remain constant with loading of
50
seasoned fiberglass bags.
Penetration increases rapidly with increasing face velocity

(air-to-cloth ratio). Figures 2.21 through 2.23 illustrate this
effect for a utility boiler baghouse. 51
Figure 2.21 s~ows pene-
, '
tration as a function of particle diameter and boiler load (air-

to-cloth ratio) . Here the penetration of particles larger than
73
1o-1
1000 A= ROOM AIR FILTRATION

<1o-4 GRAINS/FT3
8"' FLY ASH FILTRATION AT
3.5 GRAINS/FT3 AND 10"2
~-
U)
3.0 FT/MIN VELOCITY
....
0
lJNNAPPED COTTON SATEEN
)(
100 10 FT x 6 IN BAG
-
M
.::: CLEANING CYCLE - 360 SHAKES,
"1:'
\\
·n; 7.2 CPS, 1 IN AMPLITUDE 1o·3
...
Cl "*-
2 ~
0
10.0
··.~
2
i= 0
<t
cc
1- 10"4 ~
2 a:
w 1-
t.) w
2 :z
0 0 w
u 1.0 Q.
F
2
6 .
w 1o·S
:::>
...J
u. "'6 .
u.
~ \\
w
0.1
1o·6
6s
0.01.
0 1 2 3 4 !i
FILTRATION TIME, min. 3726-023
Figure 2.18 Calculated effluent concentration VB. time for fly

ash and ambient air dust based on measur.emP.nts with
an optical particle counter. ~ 1
74
105r---------------------~----------------------~--------
MEASUREMENTS BY CONDENSATION
NUCLEI COUNTER
ID
b
.....
X
-
M
E
0
104
c:
xx
2
0
1-
>x X
X
~
a:
1- X
2
w
(.)
2
0
(.) X
w 103
....1
(.)
:::>
2
-99.12% AVERAGE WEIGHT COLLECTION EFFICIENCY -1
1o2.L-------------..L...-----------'-------~
·o 0.1 0.2
FABRIC LOADING, W, lb/ft2 3726-024
Figure 2.19 Effluent concentration of fly ash ~s. fabric

loadin~ fur used Sunbury fabric with GCA
fly ash. 50
75
MEASUREMENTS l:fY
BAUSCH & LOMB
SINGLE PARTICLE.COUNTER
101
~.~.
·-·
Ill
...
c
~
·X
M
E
..._
• • •• ·•·: •
SYMBOL SIZE, Jlm
c:i
-
••
t::
2 >0.3
0
1-
<t 100 • >0.5
a:
1-
7.
Ill
(.1
• X
0
>1.0
>2.0
2
0
(,1
w
• •
...J
u
1- X
a:
<t
0...
1o·1 X
........, 0
---~
0
00~--------------~----~---
0.1
FABRIC LOADING, W, lb/ft2 372G-025
Figure 2.20 Effluent concentration of fly ash vs. fabric loading

and particle size for used Nuc.:la fabric with GCA
fly ash. 50
'76
. ~ ·.
vi 14 99.86
a:
0
1- PRESSURE
u DROP 99.87
<t BETWEEN
Q,
':2! LOAD CLEANING CLEANING
SYMBQL Mw FREQUENCY IN H 0
2
:I:
1-
11 99.89
::.: 0 6 NONE 3.0
Q
w 0 11 HOURLY 3-4.5
z 6 12 HOURLY-CONTINUOUS 3-4.5
2 9
a:
<fl.
~·
w >'
Q u
w z
(I) w
:::> u
0 LL
:I: 99.94 LL
(!) w
<t
Ill
5
:I:
(!)
:::>
0
a:
:I: 3
1-
z
0
1-
~ 1 DESIGN SIX COMPARTMENTS
1-
w
~ 0 0~------~--------~--------~--------L-------~--------~3.0
AIR-TO-CLOTH RATIO BETWEEN COMPARTMENT CLEANING, acfm/ft2

~7?6-0?.fi'
Figure 2.21 Penetration (with one standard deviation limits) as

a function of air-tq-cloth ratio. 51
·.77
16
SYMBOL LOAD INLET GRAIN

MW LOADING, gr/ft3
() 6 0.939
D 11 ::$. 1!::1
6 12 1.35
-...
"'
"C
1A
c·
-~
Cl
<:1'
b
....
. z· 9
0
i=,
l <(.
,,..
~
1-
2
w
u
2
•0
u
V)
(I)
<(
~
1- 5
w
...J
1-
::>
0
1.0 2.0 3.0

AIR-TO-CLOTH RATIO, ft/min 3726-027
Figure 2.22 Average outlet mass concentration (with one standard

5
deviation limits) as a function of air-to-cloth ratio.
~
. '
7
:
M SYMBOL LOAD AIR-TO-CLOTH RATIO

...0 MW tt3/min/ft2
w
Cl)
::::>
0
:::c
(!)
<{
0
0 ,.
6 1.87
2.47
Cll 12 2.74
0
:::c
(!)
::::>
0
a:
:::c
I-
2
0
i= 3
<{
a:
I-
w
2
w
Q..
2
...J
o::(
2
0
i=
(.)
<{
1
a:
LL.
0
0.1 1.0 10.0
PARTICLE DIAMETER, specific gravity = 2.0 g/cm3 , Jlm :3720-028
Figure 2.23 Penetration as a function of particle

diameter and load. 5 1
79
~.0 ~m diameter increases with increasing air-to-cloth ratio.
This indicates that the increase in ~enetration may be tied
to an increased seepage of larger agglomerated particles. Such
an increase in penetration by large particles was found in
measurements made at the Sunbury station of Pennsylvania Power
and Light. 52 Figure 2.22 shows typical outlet mass concentrations
as a function of boiler load (air-to-cloth ratio) . At lower air-
to-cloth ratios, particles with larger diameters show reduced
penetration.
F~btic fil~rr is deqrR~P~ hy the presence of
p~rformanG~
pinhole inclusions in the filter cake. These pinholes can be

seen on the surface of a fabric upon which dust is collected,
and occur with both woven and felted fabrics. 50 ' 53 In one test
the number density of such holes on a woven fabric was
250/m 2 • 5 ° Calculations which consider the size and number
density of these pinholes indicate that 8% of the total gas flow
through the fabric is through these pinholes. 50 It has been
conjectured that the increase in penetration in the 2 to 5 ~m
range of particle sizes is mainly the result of pinhole leaks
which allow relatively more coarse particles to pass through. 50
The number of pinholes increases as the air-to-cloth ratio
• 5 4
1 nr.rP.=IRP.Fi.
There is some agreement, then, that emissions from fabric

filters are the result of indirect fault processes such as
sePpnge or pinhole leaks or both, rather than the result of a
failure to collect these particles in the first place. If so,
the following penetration characteristics can be explained:
(1) Incr~ased penetration due to increased face
velocity can be understood to result from the
increased prevalence of pinholes at high ve~ocity,
and from increased pressure drop which may
lead to increased seepage.
80
{2) Constant penetration as the dust cake thickens can
be understood because of the inability of an estab-
lished pinhole to seal once formed. The high gas
velocity through the pinhole. may preclude effective·
hole blocking, except by very large particles.
{3) Continuously decreasing penetration as the dust

cake thickens can be understood if the fabric and
dust do not interact to form pinholes.
{4) Constant penetration for particles of all sizes

is explained if particles get through pinholes.
A hole has no size fractionating capability.
{5) The insensitivity of outlet emission rate to inlet

concentration is explained if considerable pene-
tration arises from seepage. In this case, emis-
sions are primarily of previously collected dust
deposited within the fabric, and dust which is
currently collecting may not have a major influence.
Fabric Filter Modeling Studies
The goal of any fabric filter modeling study is to develop

techniques for predicting and analyzing fabric filter drag {pres-
sure drop per unit face area) and fabric filter collection effici-
ency as a function of particle size.~ 7
Although much information
55
is available on dust filtration, little effort has been de-
voted to the characterization of fabric filters for model
studies. 5 6 - 59
Most atte~pts at modelirig have made two significant re-

stricting assumptions:~ 6 ' 55 - 57 {1) fabric drag is a linear func-
tion of time or dust loading and {2) collection efficiency models
are based on the collection properties of arrays of cylindQrs.
Figure 2.17 shows that the linear drag assumption is a poor
81
approximation immediately after cleaning. This is especiaily
important in that the highest emission rate occurs during this
period of non-linear drag.
As a result of the second assumption, the model uses

ap equation for_the cdllection efficiency of clean,·very small
'
diameter fibers collecting dust by impaction, diffusion, and
60
interception mechanisms. it is doubtful that the equation
can be applied to the conditions typical of filtration by fab~lc
4 7
filters. . If these conditions are assumed to be an air-to-cloth
ratio of 2 em/sec (4 ft/min), fly ash particles 10 ~m in di-
ameter, fibers .800 ~min diameter (a typical yarn diameter)t
and a filter packing density of 0.3, the Stokes number is 0.02,
lower than the critical Stokes number, below which thP impaction
mechanism does not contribute to collection. Diffusional col-
lection is also negligible. Even allowing for the effect of
nearby fibers, particle penetration is 0.99 or 99%.
Models for Fabric Drag
Two convenient parameters for characterizing fabric filter

systems are the fabric drag and filter cake resistivity. Fabric
drag, S, is defined by the following relationship between the
volume flow rate Q, the fabric face area A, and the pressure
drop across the filter, ~P:
AP
S = .(Q/A)
The quantity Q/A is the air-to-cloth ratio. The filter cake
recistivity can hp predicted with the Kozeny-Carman equation
(or its variants). 6 1 One version of this equation is: 61 ' 62
where:
K2 = filter cake resistivity, sec- 1

~ = gas viscosity, poise
E = filt~r cake porosity (fractional void volume)
Sp = surface to volume ratio of particulate material,
cm- 1
Pp =particle density, g/cm 3 •
K2 is quite dependent upon particle size (increasing for smaller

particles) and the porosity of the cake deposit.
Since drag is proportional to pressure drop, models of

fabric drag must take into account the nonlinear behavior of
pressure drop (drag) with time after cleaning. Approaches which
take into account the nonlinear behavior of the drag, S, vs
the weight of particulate collected, w, have been made, ~ 7
' 63
63
e.g., by fitting equations of the form
s = awb
to data obtained for the nonlinear part of the drag vs weight

curve. In this approach correlation coefficients >0.90 were
found for 104 of 106 data sets. Both a ~nd b could be correlated
with filter cake resistance to flow. Unfortunately, this model
rP.lies on empirical correlations and ic not dcoigned to allow
calculation of specific filter parameters.
7
Although the more recent approach of Cooper and Hampl~
attempts to start from a fundamental consideration of the flow
through filter fabric and dust cake, it also relies on empirical
correlations to fit parameters described by their theory.
The filter is viewed as a collection of pores which are

either unclogged (open) or caked with particulate matter. Re-
sistance to flow by open and caked pores is different because
the air velocity through the open pores is much higher than
through the cake. Values of these resistances are dependent
83
on velocity gradients for open pores and dust packing effects
for clogged pores. If the pores are either caked or open and
if the decrease in ·population of open pores is proportional
to the number of pores still open as well as an increase in
fabric dust loading, dW, then
N·
dN = - W* dW
where:
N =number of open pores per face area of filter,
W* = fabric loading characteristic of pore-caking.
Integration yi~lds the.fraction of pores open at a given dust
lo.:1ding W:
N = e-W/~*
No
where:
No is the number of pores per unit area of fabric when
w= 0.
If the caked and open pores contribute to the fabric

drag in proportion to their resistances to flow and. nu~bers,
then
ds
dw = Kof (W) + K2g (W)
where:
s = fabric drag
w= tabric ttust loa.d
Ko = open pore resistance to flow
K2 = clogged pore resistance to flow (filter cake resistivity)
and f (W) = e -W/W* (fraction of open pores)
g (W) = 1-f(W) (fraction of caked pores) .
84
Integration of this equation yields an expression for the drag
S as a function of fabric dust loading:
where:
W' = W - WR
is the difference between the fabric dust loading, W, and the

residual dust loading of a seasoned fabric, WR. Residual load-
ing is not normally known, although it can be determined in
the laboratory. SR is the drag of this seasoned fabric, which
must be determined empirically, and KR is resistance to flow
by the seasoned fabric after cleaning. Figures 2.24 and 2.25
show the results obtained by fitting the four unknown parameters
in the above nonlinear equation to data obtained from actual
fabrics filtering mica dust. WI is the dust loading above which
the fabric drag vs. dust loading curve is linear.
Figures 2.24 and 2.25 show that constants can be evaluated

so as to fit experimental data with the nonlinear expression.
The parameters in the model may be theoretically predictable,
but until they are, such correlations must be used. Such a
model promises to be an improvement on the linear drag model
because it can describe that part of the filter performance
for which flow and emissions are greatest, the low-loading,
nonlinear part.
Models for Fabric Filter Efficiency
As mentioned previously, theories of particle collecti'on

by clean cylindrical fibers for the evaluation of collection
efficiency have shortcomings, and some investigators have con-
. eluded that there is no adequate theory for predicting the pene-
tration of fabric filters by fly ash. 64 While it is true that
there are no proven models for collection efficiency calculation
in fabric filtration, Cooper and Hampl 47 have presented the first
85
2.0 . . . , x.-W* = 0.33 w1
' ~~W*=0.22WI
~~··w·=o.2ow 1
~x~x GLASSFIBER .
/x ...... x~
;x,~x~x
X~')(
EXPERIMENTAL - ;_--
CALCULATED
o~------L-------~~=-~----
0 0.01 0.02 0.03
I
0.04 0.05
FABRIC DUST LOADING, W', lb/ft2 3726-029
Figure 2.24 Fabric drag· vs. fabric dust loading. Calculated and
experimental curves for glass fiber filter.~7
DACRON
r:::
~
<(
a:
c
(.)
a:
Cll
<(
LL
0.1
0~--------~~------~~--------~~--------~
0 0.01 0.02 0.03
. FABRIC DUST LOADING, W', ;lb/ft2 3726-030
Figure 2.25 Fabric drag vs. fabric dust loading. Calculated anc
experimental curves for Dacron fabric filter.~ 7
I
. 86
comprehensive attempt at modeling the collection efficiencf
of woven fabric filte~s. Since the fabric produces a flow which
is directed through the interstices of the weave at and near
the intersections of the yarns, flow through the filter was
modeled as that through an array of apertures. This model is
designed to calculate the fraction of incoming particles cap-
tured in the filter cake, in the fabric, and in pinholes which
go through both cake and. fabric. The collection mechanisms
modeled are impaction, interception, and diffusion.
C~ke collection is modeled only approximately since the

cake structure is uncertain when polydisperse aerosols are
collected. The same basic scheme is employed for analyzing
cake capture by impaction, interception, and diffu~ion.
Figures 2.26 through 2.28 show some of the results of

single and multiple bag penetration calculations assuming the
nonlinear drag model. The inlet size distribution was log nor-
mal with a mass median aerodynamic (i.e., particle density
1 g/cm 3 ) diameter of 6.0 ~m and a geometric standard deviation
of 3.0. This size distribution approximates that of fly ash
from a coal-fired boiler equipped with a baghouse (Sunbury Sta-
tion of Pennsylvania Power and Light Co.). An initial fabric
drag was used that was roughly that of the Sunbury fabric and
correlations were used to obtain the flow resistances KR and K2.
Figure 2.26 shows penetration vs. time curves for a single bag
with nonlinear drag and pinhole penetration effects included.
T~e major features include the maximum penetration by 0.3 ~m
diameter particles and the initial exponential decrease for

those particles being filtered out primarily by the cake. Fig-
ure 2.27 ohows the same situaLion with no pinholes, so that all
flow is through the fabric pores or filter cake. The most
marked difference is that collection efficiency for all particle
sizes continues to increase as the cake thickens, a result which
conflicts with data collected in the field. This again indicates
that emissions through pinholes play an important role in
limiting the efficiency of the filtering process.
87
1n-1
210-2
0
1-
<(
a:
1-
w 00.10J,Jm
2
~ ,o-3 0 0.3 JJm
• 1.0 urn
' • 3.0 J,IM
D 10.0pm
6 ALL
10-4
60
TIME, min 3726·031
Figure 2.26 Baghouse simulated penetration vs. time; single

bag, non lineaL· drag·, wi t.h pinholes. 4 7
88
.:S/2o-OS?
TIME, min
Figure 2.27 Baghouse simulated penetration vs. time; single bag;
nonlinear drag, without pinholes. 47
z 1o-2
0 CLEANING CLEANING
j::
<(
a:
1-
w
z
w 10.:...3
0..
: o 0.10 JJm
I D. 0.3 J,Jm
j • 1_0J,Jm
10~ 4
• 3.0 J,Jm
c 10.0 J.Jm
&.ALL
1o-5
0 15 30 45 60
TIME, min 37::.!6-0b!l
Figure 2.28 Baghouse simulated penetration vs. time; three bags,

nonlinear drag, with pinholes -:r' 7 .
89
Figure 2.28 shows the calculated penetration versus time
behavior of a three bag system with nonlinear drag and .pinhole
emissions considered. Initially, all the bags have the same
flowrate. After one bag is cleaned, only two have the same
flowrate and the third is much higher in flow. Finally, all
three have been cleaned once and a repetitive pattern develops.
This figure shows the changing pattern for particle penetration
versus time with particle s1ze as a parameter. The rel8tive
order of penetration with respect to pa~ti~le size ie the ~~mP.
as is shown in Figure 2.26 and the asymptotic behavior caused

by the pinhole emissions is evident.
The pressure drop aspect of the model correlates well

with field data after appropriate ~urve fitting pro~ennres have
b~en used. The collection efficiency aspect of the model is
at an earlier stage of development. It is entirely theoretical.
and has not been compared with experimental data. Hence the
model must be used with caution. However, the model is a useful
first step for describing filter performance.
Fabrics of different construction (e.g., woven, felted,

or knittP.o) from a variety of yarn sizes and twists and with
various fabric finishes are available for filter applications.
ThP natural fibers cotton and wool have long been used in bag-
houses for collecting industrial and metallurgical duSts. Syn-
thetic fibers, such as the acrylics, polyesters, polyamides,
and the flurocarbon polymers (e.g., Teflon} are also used in
these applications.
At present, only woven glass fiber bags have demonstrated

the capability of withstanding the combined action of sulfur
oxides and heat (~50°F} in full-scale baghouses on electric
utility power boilers burning coal. Glass fiber with the E
chemical composition, the type most widely used for glass fiber
fabrics, is used.
90
Because glass fibers are relatively brittle, they are
unusually subject to breakage initiated by yarn-t~-yarn abra-
sion. To reduce the abrasion, glass fiber filter fabrics are
coated with finishes that provide lubrication. Various com-
binations of silicones, graphite, and fluorocarbons are used.
Most baghouses on electric utility boilers use fabrics

woven from combinations of filament and texturized yarns, in
"
an attempt to combine bag strength with bulk and porosity of
the fabric.
Methods of Regeneration
The operation of a baghouse involves periodic cleaning

of the bag fabric to remove the deposited dust and to regenerate
the filtering surface. In the process, the deposit must be
removed quickly and uniformly without removing too much of it,
since the collection efficiency of the next cycle is improved
if a certain minimum of dust is retained on the filter after
regeneration. With some fabrics, notably those made of glass
fibers, the fabric may be damaged if the cleaning action is
too vigorous.
The methods that are used for cleaning are mechanical

shaking (woven fabrics), a reverse air pulse or jet (felted
fabrics), and reverse_ air flow causing bag collapse (woven and
felted fabrics).
The bags in baghouses used for collection of fly ash

from electric utility power boilers are cleaned by reverse air,
pulse jet, mechanic~! shaking, ot a combination of these. The
low pressure and gentle action of reverse air flow regeneration
of the filter fabric is used in some installations. Bags used
with reverse flow regeneration are often equipped with anti-
deflation rings to prevent complete collapse of the bags, which
may lead to reduced bag life. Other systems combine gentle
mechanical shaking and reverse flow to achieve a higher degree
of cleaning than reverse flow alone. The principal effect of
91
.·.;
reverse air flow appears to be that it inhibits the propulsion
of dust particles into the cleaned gas during the shaking.
In cleaning by mechanical action, a baghouse compartment

must usually be taken out of service and the filtering process
interrupted. As a result, the capacity of the baghouse must
be somewhat higher than would otherwise be required. A general
problem in the use of mechanical shaking is that the fabric
may bP flexed excessively at the bottom, which is fastened,
and fiber ~hrnsion mav result.
In pulse-jet cleaning, a sharp pulse of compressed air

is released, typically at the end of the filter bag, producing
a combined effect of gas flow reversal in the bag and fabric
deformation. The dust deposit can be dislodged with only d
brief interruptio~ of the filte~ing process in the bag. The

time involved is only about 0.1 sec. The fabric receives a
minimum of flexing.
An extension ot the con~epl of puloc-jet cleaning is

reverse jet cleaning, in which a ring of jets of moderately
compressed air is continuously moved up u.nd down the hng, usu-
ally at a rate ot a few feet per minulc:. Abru.~ion, fabric wear,
and deposition of dust on the cleaning mechanism have
presented problems in the use of this method.
Pulse-jet cleaning is better applied to felted than to

woven.fabrics, which tend to be overly ~ledned by the proc~ss
.and then to leak dust excessively in the next filtering cycle
while the filter cake is being repaired.
For the same volume of gas cleaned, felted baghouse
filters regenerated with pulsed jets of air can be operated at -
filtration velocities 3~4 times those used in baghouses
equipped with woven filters cleaned by reverse air flow
and mechanical shaking. On the other hand, a felted filter
baghouse can have a pressure drop somewhat greater than that
of a baghouse with woven bags. The power for compressing the
. 92
pulsed air can also be significant, e.g., as much as that for
the primary fan. A~though some filters for collecting fly ash
from power boilers have felted bags, an overall comparison has
not yet been made.
2.3.4 Representative Installations
The two most important baghouse installations for assess-

ing the present status of fabric filter technology are the
Sunbury Station of Pennsylvania Power and Light Company and
the Nucla Station of Colorado Ute Association. They are the
only installations for which any appreciable amount of data
on fractional collection efficiency has been obtained. Both
plants burn low sulfur fuels, and both are relatively small
plants (4 baghouses on 4 boilers totaling 170 MW at Sunbury
and 3 units of 13 MW each at Nucla).
65
At the Sunbury Station, the fuel burned is a mixture.
of anthracite silt, bituminous coal, and petroleum coke; the
mixture has a high ash content and a low sulfur content. The
normal mix is 751 anthracite silt (typical analysis: heating
value on wet basis, 8,680 Btu/lb, 28.0% ash, 16.4% moisture,
~.4% volatile matter, 0.8% sulfur), 5% bituminous coal (typical
analysis: heating value, wet basis, 12,159 Btu/lb, 15.3% ash,
5.3% moisture, 27.1% volatile matter, 2.6% sulfur), and 20%
petroleum coke (typical analysis: heating value, wet basis,
14,054 Btu/lb, 1.7% ash, 6.4% moisture, 13.3% volatile matter,
5.3% sulfur).
Electrostatic precipitators which were installed origi-

nally were inefficient in cleaning the gas, probably because
of the high electrical resistivity of the fly ash.
Four identical pulverized coal boilers provide steam for

two turbines, with each turbine rated at 87.5 MW. Each boiler
produces about 225,000 cfm of flue gas at 325°F and has a separate
baghou~e. Thus there are 4 baghouses, each with 1,260 bags 11.5.
inches in diameter and 30 feet, 4 inches in length. The bags
93
are made of woven glas·s fiber with a Teflon-base finish. The
2
active air-to-cloth filter ratio is 2.067:1 cfm/ft , and the
filtering velocity is 2 ft/min. Bags are taken off stream for
cleaning which is accomplished by reverse gas flow with no
mechanical shaking. The pressure drop through the baghouse is
about 2.5 in. water gauge.
At the Nucla Station, 51 ' 66 there are three 13-MW gene-

rators, each with a stoker-fired travelling-grate boiler with
fly ash reinjection. The fuel is a western coal containiny, 011
average, 14% ash and 0.7% sulfur.
A separate baghouse is used for each boiler. The design

gas flow is 86,240 acfm. Each baghouse contains 672 graphite-
silicone-coated glass fiber bags 8 inches in diameter and 22
feet in length, with a total cloth area of 30,964 ft 2 /baghouse.
The design air-to-cloth ratio is 2.79:1. Bags are taken off
stream for cleaning and are cleaned by a combination of gentle
mechanical shaking and reverse air flow. The pressure drop
through the baghouse is about 4.5 in. water gauge.
Some characteristics of thcce installations are 11 ~t.P.rl

in Table 2.8. The table also provides some information on other
65 67 68
installations at electric power plants. r r In addition
to the Sunbury and Nucla plants, baghouses are in operation
at the Holtwood Station of Pennsylvania Power and Light Company
and at th~ Crisp County plant at Cordele, Georgia.
Baghouses are being installed at the Kramer Station of

Nebraska Public Power, alld Lh~y are on order for 6 plants; Jim
Bullock Station of Colorado Ute: Monticello Station of Texas
Utilities: Harrington Station Unit 2 of Southwestern Public
Service: Cameo Station of Public Service of Colorado: North
Daomy Station of Sierra Pacific Power: and the Ray D. Nixon
Station of the City of Colorado Springs.
94
/
Table 2.8 Electric Utility Baghouse Installations
Boiler Instal-
Capacity, lation
Utility Station Location MW Date Boiler Fuel S, % Ash, %
A:~~r.t acite}
Pennsylvania Power Sunbury Shamokin Dam, Pa. 2x87.5 1971-3 Pulverized
and Light coal fired
Bituminous _
1 8 22.1
coal
Petroleum
coke
Pennsylvania Power Holtwood Holtwood, Pa. 73 1975 Pulverized Anthracite

and Light coal fired silt
Bituminous
coal
Petroleum
coke
Colorado-Ute Elec- Nucla Nucla, Co. 3x13 1973 Stoker 0.7 12

tric Association fired
Crisp County Cordele, Ga. 1975 Bituminous 1, 10

Power Comm. coal
Nebraska Public Kramer Bellvue, Ne. 113 1976 Pulverized Bituminous r . 11

Power System (4 units) coal fired coal
Southwestern Har~ington Amarjlln, Tx. 318 1978 Pulverized Su,bbitum-

Public Service No. 2 coal fired inous coal
Texas Power & Monticello Mt. Pleasani, Tx. 1150 1977 Pulverized Lignite
Light Co. (2x575) coal fired
Colorado REA Montrose, Co. 12 (2x6) Stoker
Public Service Co. Cameo Grand Junction, 22 1977

of Colorado Co.
Department of Ray D. Colorado Springs, 175 1977

Public Utilities Nixon Co.
Co1.orado-Ute Elec- Bullnrk 2x6 a

tric Association
Sierra Pacific North 250 a

Power Valmy
-Continued-
aPlanned, not yet installed
95
Table 2.8 Electric Utility Bag house Installations (Continued)
Flue Gas Air/ Pressure

Tempera- Flue Gas Cloth, Drop,
. Ut iJ i ty Station ture, OF Vol, acfm acfm/ft 2 in. WG Fabric Regeneration
PPnnsylvania Power Sunbury 325 900,000 2 2.5 Woven glass Reverse flow
and Light (4x270,000) fiber, 10 oz
Pennsylvania Power Holtwood 360 200,000 2.4 4.5 \~ovenglass Reverse flow
and Light fiber, 10 oz and shake
Color ad o-Ut<>. Elec- Nucla 360 £)8,UU0 2.8 4.5 Wuven glass llevcrsc t low
tric Association (3x86, 000) fiber, 10 oz and shake
Crisp County 325 60,000 4 2.8 Woven glass Reverse .flow

Power Comm. fib or
Nebraska Public Kramer 550,000 2 Woven glass Reverse flow

Power System fiber
Southwestern Harrington 1,500,000 3 Woven glass Reverse flow

Public Service No. 2 fiber and shake
\
Texas Power & Monticello 3,800,000 2.4 Woven glass Rcvcn::e flow
Llt~ILL Cu. fiber
Colorado REA
Public Service Co. Cameo

of Colorado
Department of Ray D
Public Utilities Nixon
Colorado-Ute Elec- Bullock

tric.Association
Sierra Pacific North

Power Valmy
96
Performance
Tests conducted on the fabric filter installations at the

Sunbury Plant of Pennsylavania Power and Ligh~ Company ~nd.
52 67
'
51 66
the Nucla Station of Colorado Ute ' include both the total
mass collection efficiency and.the fractional collection effi-
ciency. Typical data on total mass collection efficiency are
summarized in Table 2.9.
Fractional collection efficiencies were measured at the

Nucla Station with impactors and with an Electrical Aerosol
Size, Analyzer (EASA). The impactor data covered a range of
particle sizes from about 0.5 to 10 ~m and the EASA data covered
sizes from about 0.04 to 1 ~m. Because of instrumentation limita-
tions, the EASA data were taken during the interval between
bag cleanings and there is a discontinuity between the impactor
data and the EASA data.
Figure 2.29 is a plot of the fractional collection efficiency

data from two series of tests at the Nucla Station and one series
of tests at the Sunbury Station. Collection efficiencies were
higher than 99% for all particle sizes between 1 and 10 ~m.
The data indicates that the collection efficiency may increase

for ultrafine submicron particles, but the data is inconclusive,
since it does not include the losses during bag cleaning.
Table 2.9. Collection Efficiency Measurements on

Baghouses on Electric Utility Boilers
Inlet Outlet Collection

Loading, Loading, Efficiency, Air:Cloth,
Plant gr/ft 3 gr/ft 3 % ft/min
Sunbury 52 2.54 0.00195 99.9 2.07

66 2.7
Nucla 1.35 0.0011 99.9
Nucla 5 1 2.005 0.0035 99~8 2.79
. 97
90r---------..,.,---------"T,------------;10.0
0 NUt.;LA PLAi\IT, MIDWEST RESEARCH INSTITUTI! IMPACTOR

e NUCLA PLANT, ELECTRICAL AEROSOL SIZE ANALYZER
(ADJUSTED TO MATCH IMPACTOR DATA)
6 NUCLA PLANT, GCA IMPACTOR
0 SUNBURY PLANT, GCA IMPACTOR
~
99 ~ 0 - 1.0
>'
(.J
z
w
~·
99.5 -
\60~ -
1:
0
"+::
u
co
.::
Ll..
Ll..
w 0~ ~·06-:: 2
0
1-
--o-~-1~ t5g
2
0
I= -
u
w
99.8
• w
"·~-·
..J
..J 'CI..
0
-
--·
(.J
99.~9 - 0.1
99.99...__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.....1__________.1_ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____...0.01

0.01 0.'1 1.0 10.0
PARTICLE DIAMETER, J.Lm •·· 3726·032·
Figure 2.29 Fractional, coJ),.eptiop eff~ci_enpies of baghouses on

electric utility boilers. 51 r 52 r56
The Environmental Protection Agency and the Electric
Power Research Institute have plans for evaluating the collec-
tion efficiency and costs of fabric filters at some of the new
installations. The Tennessee Valley Authority is considering
the installation of a prototype baghouse collecting fly ash
from 10,000 to 20,000 acfm of flue gas at one of the TVA plants,
in order to compare performance with electrostatic precipitators
in plants burning low-sulfur coal.
The power required for operation of a baghouse is prin-

cipally that needed for operating the I.D. fans against a pres-
sure drop of about 5 in. water gauge and for reverse air fans
and compressed air for regenerating the filter.
Table 2.10 shows the power requirements for the Nucla

baghouses. 51 The total of 212 kW is 0.5% of the power pla~t
output.
Table 2.10. Power Requirements for Nucla Ba9housesa
Operating Time and Average

Power, l Capacity Power,
I<W Factor kW
I.D. Fans 52 0.55 29
Compressor 76 1.00 76
Air Dryer 6.5 0.43 3
Reverse Air Fans 56 1. 00 56
Hopper Heaters 72 0~16 12
Baghouse Preheat Systems 162 0.15 24
Ash Conveyor (net increase) 22 0.50 11
Total 212
aThe data in the table is from Reference 51, except that the
power required·for the I.D. fans is taken to be 52 kW, corre-
·sponding to the normal pressure drop of 4.5 in. WG in the
baghouse.
.· ·99
The power consumption of the Sunbury baghouse may be esti-
mated from the costs given in pec.tion-2.3.8. The pow~r consumed
by the I.D. fans can be estimated by the equation in ~ectipn
2.2.4 as 660 kW on the basis of a 2.5 in. WG pressure_ drop.
To this may be added an estimated 165 kW for the power require-
ments of the coll~pse fan and compressor for a total of 825 kW
or 0.5% of the plant output.
2.s.e Maintenanaa.
Maintenance records for the Nucla baghouse for the first

two years of its operation were surveyed in 1976 and are sum-
marized in Table 2.11. The maintenance times, in manhours, and
number of occurrences are given for four t1me periods uf ·d~p(ox
imately six months each. During the first three periods, bag
replacement was the highest maintenance item. This problem
may have been solved by the installation of thimble gas flow
str~ighteners to reduce severe erosion at the inlet of the gas
bag that began soon after start-up. Of the total 2,016 bags,
18% were replaced during the first two_years ot operation, muslly
beforP. the installation of the gas flow straighteners.
After this experience, the maintenance requirements appear

to be leveling off at· about 8 man-hours/1000 baghouse hours
of operation. Other items of equipment requiring mainLt!iHU1ce
are listed in Table 2.11.
The major problem at the Sunbury Station is reported to

be the occasional development of high differential pressures,
usually caused by failure of the collapse fan or a gas inlet
or collapse air damper, or a cleaning cycle timer. The problem
is usually corrected within 30 minutes without effect on boiler
operation. 6 5 ' 6 7
100
Table 2.11 Nucla Baghouse Maintenance Summary 51
·:,• .
Maintenance Dec '73- Aug '75- Feb '75- Aug '75-

Category July 74 Jan -75 Ju.ly 75 Dec 75 Total
Bag replacement 106/24 99/19 46/7 13/4 264/54

Control system 67/15 66/11 22/4 42/10 197/40
Dampers and 19/6 35/9 20/6 26/7 100/28
actuators
Reverse air fans 40/7 80/10 10/2 2/1 132/20
Pressure taps 2/1 23/6 4/1 2/1 31/9
Hopper heaters 1/1 16/3 14/4 0/0 31/8
Miscellaneous 12/4 7/2 0/0 9/1 28/7
Subtotal 247/58 326/60 116/24 94/24 783/166
Routine 6/2 6/2 6/2 6/2 24/8
Total 253/60 332/62 122/26 100/26 807/174
aUnits: manhours/occurrences. The four periods have the same

amount of baghouse operating time.
Bag failures have been few (37 as of May 1, 1976). The

bags in three of the baghouses were replaced after two years
of service, but those in the fourth baghouse are the original
ones. Abrasion of the collapse fans by fly ash particles has
been a troublesome problem.
Information on the more general operating problems encountered

in a variety of industrial applications for fabric filters was
obtained in ~ survey made in 1970.
46
The problems listed by
the respondents are shown in Table .2.12. They are .grouped int9
five casuality categories. The largest cat~gory of ~roblems
reported was the first: 60 fabric-dust related problems. Of
these the most frequent type was blinding: 14 problems of blinding
of the fabric by the dust. Over 25% of all problems reported
were from blinding, flexure wear, and interstitial abrasion .
.·101
.. -
Blinding can be caused by water leaks in the boiler,

and it is also ca·used by oily particles from fuel oi 1 used in
start-up.
In some installations the bags are precoated with powdered

limestone to prevent damage to the fab·r ic from sulfuric acid
in the gases from the fuel oil used in start-up comb~stion.
A recPnt study of bag failures on industrial power boilers

showed that they intreased from about 0.1%/yr at ah air:cluth
ratio of 2 ft/min to about 10%/yr at an air-to-cloth ratio of
68
6 ft/min.
2. 3.? Installation
Retrofitting baghouses in utility' installations can be

expected to present some problems because of the volume or space
required. At the Sunbury Station, the baghouses were installed
on top of electrostatic precipitators that had been used pre-
viously. The precipitators were gutted and used as structural
supports for the baghouses.
46
Table 2.12~ Causes of Operating Problems with Fabric Filters
Fabric-dust interactions 9 types of 60 problems

problems reported
Filter element difficulties 2 types of 6 problems
problems reported
Filter element-hardware interactions 5 types of 12 problems
problems reported
Collector design problems 5 types of 27 problems
problems reported
System design problems 2 types of 7 problems
:eroblems re:eorted
23 types of 112 problems
problems reported
102
2.3.8 Costs
Capital costs and operating and maintenance costs for the

Sunbury plant are shown in Table 2.13. Similar data for the Nucla
plant are given in Tables 2.14 and 2.15. In order to facilitate
comparison, the costs have been converted to 1976 dollars by the
37
use of the Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index.
The operating costs shown in Table 2.13 should be increased

by an allowance for the power consumed by the I.D. fans.
The pressure drop across the Sunbury baghouse and the bag-
house duct work was designed to be less than 6 in. WG, which was
65 67
dictated by the capacity of the existing I.D. fans. ' There-
fore, a more exact comparative value for the operating cost should
allow the cost of, e.g.~ 1180 kW for a 4.5-in. WG pressure drop
(Section 2.3.5). At $0.02/kWh, this would add $95,000/yr to the
operating cost, increasing the annualized cost to 1.5 mills/kWh
at 73% capacity. Also, the capital cost should reflect an allow-
ance for fan cost, of perhaps several thousand dollars, for the
increased fan power.
The higher costs for the Nucla plant, compared to those

for the Sunbury plant,_ are explained as being due to the small.
size of the plant and its remo~e location, with, for instance, a
limited supply of local skilled labor.
It was not necessary to install additional I.D. fans at the

Nucla plant, either, since the four already installed provided
sufficient draft. The power requirements for this plant are listed
in Table 2.10; with the assumption that the pressure drop is 4.5
in. WG. Again, the capital cost should strictly be increased
by ceveral thousarid dollars to corre~t fur the fan cost.
103.
/
·I
Table 2.13 Installed Capital Cost and Operating and

Maintenance Costs, Sunbury Station 65 ' 67
Bag Filter Installation Costs Total Cost, 1000$

/
western Precipitator Contract (1000$)
4 Baghouses
Materials $1,685
Labor 1,357 $3,042
Vacuum cleaning system

Mctl~rials $ 10
Labor 58 98
A~sociat~u $Lructures
Materials $ 126
Labor 28 154
Baghouse, design and engineering G:iG

Hopper e~closures, design and engineering . 93
Supplements and contingencies 214
$4257
Structures and improvements 495
Land and land rights 2
Boiler plant equipment l,!J83.
Ash removal equipment
Precipitator modifications
Accessory electrical equipment 96
Ovetbc:ad 882
Total construction cost $7,315
Estimated Operating & Maintenance Cost
(@ $12/manhour) Cost $
~9st DescriEtion 1975 1974 1975
Collapse ·fan power consumption $24,700 $ 21,600 $ 19,100
Air compressor power consumption 4,000 3,500 3,200
Instrument department labor 1,300 1,100 1,900
Mechanical maintenance labor 2,800 6,800 16,600
Electrical maintenance labor 9,900 4,400 6,400
Construction department labor 5,300 2,700 2,100
Complete bag ·replacement
Material 55,700 101,800
Labor 12,800 23,300
Total $48,000 $108,600 $175,000
104
•'
'·
.
Table 2.14 Components of Capital Cost, Nucla Baghouse 51
Item Cost, 1000$ % of Total
Equipment and installation

Baghouse and general 2,088 66
Ash conveyor system 300 10
·Retrofit items 252 8
Total field cost 2,640 84
Indirect costs to Colorado-Ute 144 5
Engineering and fee 360 11
Installed cost 3,144 100
Unit factors: $87/kW,
$13/acfm, $36/ft 2 filter area,
51
. Table 2.15 Nucla Baghouse Estimated Operating Co~ts
$/yr % inills/kWhb
'
Direct costs
a
Operation labor $(9,500) ( 3. 3) (0.05)
Maintenance labor 2,500 0.9 0.01
Maintenance material . 8, 500 3.0 0.05
Utilities 31,000 10.8 0 •. 16
Ash handling 11,000 3.8 0.06
Subtotal, direct costs $53,000 ·18.5 0.28
Indirect costs
Depreciation 127,000 44.3 0.• 68
Interest 81,000 28.2 0.43
Insurance 3,000 1.0 0.02
Taxes 23,000 ·8.o 0.12
Subtotal, indirect $234,000 81.5 1. 25
costs
Total $287,000 1. 53
aNot added since no new costs were incurred.

bBased on 188 x 10 6 kWh/yr, 55% capacity
105
The indirect costs to Golo~ado-U~e in Table 2.14 included
administrative and supervisory costs, risk insurance,· interest
~urin~ construction, an~-~ravei ~rid office costs. The engineer-
ing costs in Table 2.14 included 20% for retrofit items and 7%
for the ash conveyor system, the remainder being attributable
to ductwork, foundations, and other items related to the
installation.
Figure 2.30_~hows the range of installed costs, per kilo-

watt of boiler capacity (in 1976 dollars), for baghouses collec-
ting fly ash. This range was estimated from information obtained
from manufacturers. Also plotted in Figure 2.32 are the in-
stalled costs of the Nucla, Cameo, and Sunbury baghouses, show-
ing the higher unit costs associated·with smaller installations.
Fabric ~ilters present nn sp~cial problems of secondary

environmental impact other than the disposal of the 6ollected fly
ash, which is bulkier (20-3U lb/fta) than th~ fly ash collected
in an electrostatic precipitator (40 lb/ft 3 ) . The disposal
methods described in Section 2.2.11 apply also to fly ash from
baghouses.
2.4 WET SCRUBBERS
2.4.1 Method of Collection
A wet scrubber removes a material (a gas or suspended

liquid or solid particles) from a gas stream by exposing the
stream to droplets, films, or foams of water or aqueous solu-
tions. Scrubbers have been used for many years in the chemical
industry for absorbing gaseous components, products, or impuri-
ties from process streams. They have also been used since about
1900 for removing dusts from process off-gases in metallurgical
. ~·
plants.
106
e NUCLA
CAMEO
--~..."'
...!!!
0
"'C
l-
en
0
(.)
c
w
...1
...1
<1:
l-
en
2
0 ~0----~~--~~-----L----~~--~~--~.6~00
. 300
BOILER CAPACITY, MW 372fi-O!'i9
Figure 2.30 Baghouse costs (installed)~
:107
Over the past several years, wet scrubbers have been
introduced into the electrical utility industry for removing
sulfur oxides from flue gas from the combustion of coal. Within
the past 10 years, several scrubber installations have been
designed primarily for the r-emoval of fly ash ..
Types of Scrubbers
A wide variety of scrubber designs are used in chemical
and met r'l lltlrCJ h;~l ln!stl\ll.::tt1uHb.,; q
The simplest scrubbers are hollow spray towers, which
are used for gas absurplion. Thcee scrubbetA will remove solid
particles to some extent, but they are not effective in rP.moving
particles less than a few microns in diameter unless high pres-
sure sprays are used, as in an injector venturi design, in which
the pressurized liquid is sprayed axially into a venturi and
a high relative velocity is maintained between the droplets
and the co-cur~ent gas flow. Particles larger than 1-2 urn can
be collected effectively in such a scrubber.
This concept cf high r:elati ve veioci ty of U.quid uroplets
is used more effectively in the-more usual venturi design, in
which the gas flowing through the venturi atomizes the liquid
introduced at the venturi throat. Efficient collection of sub-
micron particles can be obtained at relatively high pressure
drops (10-100 in. WG} in this type of scrubber. -
Impingement scrubbers, in which the gas flow with entrained
liquid dropletg is directed through orifices to impinge on plates,
also can achieve good coliection of small particles.
Other scrubber designs are generally based on the use
of a flowing liquid film spread out over a large surface
area made by packing the scrubber with shaped elements or fibers.
The types of scrubbers used for removing fly ash from
flue gas in electric utility power plants are the moving-bed
'; 1,08
s6rubber· and the venturi scrubber. The specific design of
moving bed scrubber that is used is the Turbulent Contact Ab-
sorber, in which a low-density packing (hollow plastic spheres)
is kept in motion by the gas and flooded by the scrubber liqui~.
Some of the venturi scrubbers that are used are designed with
variable throats. One installation is based on a spray impingement
scrubber.·· All scrubbers used for this application are equipped with
entrainment separators, to collect liquid droplets in the gas
emerging from the scrubber. The entrainment separator (or mist
eliminator) contains wetted packing or sprayed baffles.
2.4.2 Theory of Scrubbing

As with other fly ash collectors, the operating mechanisms
in wet scrubbers depend on the particle size of the fly ash.
There are ·also some differences in mechanism between a scrubber
in which the fly ash is collected by a liquid film, as on a
wetted wall, and a scrubber in which the ash is collected by
dispersed droplets.
Taking the process of collection by droplets as the ex-

ample, the mechanism involves inertial impaction of fly ash
particles on the liquid droplets for particles above about 0.5
~m in diameter; diffusion of particles to the droplets, for
particles smaller than about 0.1 ~m; and interception (a modifi-
cation of impaction to allow for particle diameter) for particles
with diameters that are of the same order of magnitude as those
of the droplets.
for c;::ons:tr~ctfPc.:J ~ roechan~~m tq~ ine.r~i~l ~Jllpqct:~oq, tile

collecting droplet can be assumed to be a rigid sphere. A
particle will impact on the droplet if .the inertial force of the
particle is sufficient to carry it through the boundary layer
of the air flowing around the drop.
The factors that determine the collection efficiency

by impaction are (1) the velocity distribution of the gas flow-
ing by the droplet, the nature of the gas flow being described
109
in· terms of the Reynolds.number; (2) the trajectory of the.
particle, which depends ori the mass of the particle, its-air_
resistance, the flow rate of the gas, and the size of the drop-
let; and (3) the adhesion of the. particle to the droplet, which
is assumed to be 100%.
69
The equation of motion of the pa~ticles can be derived
in terms of a dimensionless factor Kp
C'p d 2 u
p p 0
K
p 91-IGdc
in which
C' is the Cunningham correction factor

Pp is the particle density
dp is the particle diameter
uo is the undisturbed gas velocity·, relative to the collector
J..IG is the gas viscosity
.d·c is the droplet diameter
Vnrious empirical or semi-empirical relationships can

be used to correlate K_ with collection efficiency. For example,
p
in a venturi scrubber, the·peuetrdlion
Pt =·l _%collection efficiency

100
i~ given b~ th~ ~ollowinq se~i-empirical relation (for the
collection of particles by impaction) . 69
Pt exp
in which
Kpt is the parameter Kp evaluated at the velocity ot

the gas in the throat, uG .
,. 110
=[a. KP t, f _+ 0. 7) 0.49
F(K t'f)
p '
7 + Kpt'f- 1.4 ln ( 0 7
-
0.7 + Kpt
QL/QG is the volumetric ratio of liquid·to gas

PL is the liquid density
J.1G is the gas viscosity
dd is the diameter of the droplet
f is a paramete~ that basically represents the ratio
of droplet velocity to gas velocity, but is
determined empirically and includes some other
design parameters.
In the Turbulent Contact Absorber, impaction of particles

on the liquid film is considered to be the predominant mechanism
of collection.
As with the venturi scrubber, the collection of particles~
in the Turbulent Contact Absorber can be expressed 69 in terms

of the dimensionless factor Kp.
In this instance,
K
p
in which
1
VGb is the interstitial gas velocity = VG (E Hd)
VG is the superficial gas velocity
E is the void fraction of the bed
Hd is the fraction of the total bed volume taken up
by liquid
dpa is the aerodynamic particle diameter - dp(ppC')~
dp is the particle diameter
pp is the particle density
C' is the Cunningham correction factor
UG is the gas viscos-ity
de is the diameter of the packing
111
Although these equations are useful in showing the relation- .
. -·
ships among funda~ental fact6is,·a simpier appro~th can be used
for the design of scrubbers in practice. This approach involves
specifying the cut diameter, the particle diameter in the size
distribution (which typically follows·a log-normal distribution
curve) which must be collected with 50% efficiency if the scrub-
ber is to met the required overall collection efficiency. The
cut diameter is then used to select a scrubber design on the
basis of design equat.ions that have. been developed empirically
for different scrUbber types.
Because of the emphas1~ no~ being ·pl~ced un Lhe capability
of air pollution control equipment for removing the fine.frac-
tions of fly ash (S2 ~m) , the Environmental Protection Agency
has conducted comparative evaluations of several scrubber types
over the past few years.. Some of the results of these evalua-
tions are shown in Table 2.16. 70
. . 70
Table 2.16. Fine Particle Control by Sctubbers
Smallest Diameter Collected

Pressure Drop. at Stated Efti~i~ncy, ~m
Name in.WG 80% 50%
Vale tray (Koch 12 1.6 1.0

Flexitray)
Vaned centrifugal 3 1.6 1.3
(Ducon)
Mobile bed 12 0.7 0.35
(UOP TCA)
Venturi (Chemica) lb 0 .·9· 0.7
Wetted fiber 7 1.1 0.6
(Encort Corp.)
Impingement plate 12 1.7 1.3
(Sly Impinjet)
Venturi rod 107. 0 •. 5 0.3
(Environeering
Hydro-Filter)
\'
;112
2.4.3 Factors Affecting Performance
The principal factors that affect the performance of

scrubbers in the collection of fly ash are (1) the power input
to the scrubber, and (2) the particle size distribution of the
fly ash.
The power input is reflected in the ratio of the droplet

velocity to the gas velocity (parameter f or vG in the above
equations). It has also been shown that collection efficiency,
expressed in terms of transfer units N
N = ln ( 1 1_n)
in which
n is the collection efficiency, which is correlated with
the total power consumption of the scrubber by
N = a.PS
in which
P is the total power used
and a and S are correlation parameters that are characteristic
of the particulate matter being collected. 71
The correlation is independent of the type of
scrubber used.
The effect of pressure-drop on collection efficiency is seen
from the data in Table 2.16. The effect is also shown by the
data in Figure 2.31. This shows fractional collection efficiency
curves for two venturi scrubbers as measured with impactors.
One scrubber is being operated at a pressure drop of 10 in.
water gauge in collecting fly ash from a coal-burning power
plant. The collection efficiency is 90% for 1 ~m particles
and drops to <50% for 0.5 ~m particles. The other is being
operated at 100 in. water gauge in collecting fume from an iron
'melting cupola. It has a collection efficiency of 99.9% for
1 ~m and 95% for 0.5 ~m particles.
Figure 2.32 shows values of penetration, and the corres-
ponding collection efficiency, calculated from a mathematical
113
99.99~------------------~----~--------------------------------
IRON MELTING
CUPOLA 1'00 IN.
WG
POWER PLANT
>-' 10 IN. WG
u
z
Uol
C)
LL.
.....
w
z
0
i=
u
w
..J
..J
0
u
0.01~----------------~------------------~----------------~
0.01 0.1 1.00 10.00
AERODYNAMIC PARTICLE DIAMETER, Jlm 3726-060
70
Figure 2.31 Efficiency vs. particle diameter for venturi scrubbers.
-114
1.0~-r~r--r--r--r~r--r~r--r-,--~-,~~-,
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
>'
(.)
2 z
0 w
(.)
1-
<t u.
a: u.
1- w
w 2
2 0
w
Q. ;::::
w (.)
..J w
(.) ..J
0 ..J
;:::: 1.0 0
a: c:i (.)
<
Q.
...
E':::!. ~0 '
N II
u; ....
N
0 e :::!.
('I)
....
e:::!.
od"
0.001
PRESSURE DROP, in. water gauge 3726-061
Figure 2. 32 Penetration calculated from a venturi scrubber model

as a function of pressure drop and particle aerodynamic
diameter. 69
,.,115
model of a venturi sc~ubber 69 to show the dependence of collec-
tion efficiency on pressure drop, for several values of particle
size and f, the empirical ratio of droplet velocity to gas velocity.
It is apparent from Figure 2.32 that with a venturi scrubber the
pressure drop necessary for high collection efficiency can become
large enough to be an obstacle to the use of a scrubber for col-
lecting the fine particles of fly ash.
Data such as these, and the relatively few measurements

that have been made on the fractional collection efficiencies
of scrubbers collecting sub-micron-size particles, have led to
the conclusion that not much turther improvement can be obtained
in the collection efficiency of scrubbers operating by the
mechanism of impaction only. Thus, attention is be~ng
paid to other collection mechanisms that can take place in

scrubbers. These mechanisms are disbussed in Section 3.
With regard t~ the effect of particle size distribution
of fly ash on performances, the collection mechanism-for· the
larger particles (~0.5 ~m in diameter) is predominantly impac-
tion, as previously mentioned. Theory and experiment agree
that collection efficiency will decrease as the particle size
decreases. This effect is shown in Figure 2.33, in which the
collection efficiency (down to the limit of measurement for
impactors, about 0.3 ~m) is plotted against particle size. 70
As was also mentioned, for the collection of very small

.particles, those less than about 0.1 ~min diameter, the pre-
dominant mechanism becomes diffusion of the particle to the
droplet, due to random bombardment of the particle by gas mole-
cules (Brownian motion). Calculation of particle deposition
rates and the resulting collection efficiency for the diffusion
mechanism shows that the collection efficiency should increase
with decreasing particle size 5o.5 ~m.
A plot of collection eff~ciency vs. diameter of fly ash

particles for a scrubber would therefore be expected to show
a minimum value for collection efficiency at -0.1 - 1 ~~- This
.116
99.99r--------------------,---------------------.--------------------,
- - - - - - - T.C.A.
,
-·-VENTURI
WETTED FIBROUS
. .... ,_'
,,
,
I
I ,
?fl.
, ,'
,_
>'
u ,,
z
w ,,'
u ,,''
LL
LL
w 50
I
,,
z ,' I
0 I I
i=
u
,~ I
w I ~
''./
.J
.J
0 }
u
5 /
0.1
0.01
0.01 0.1 1.0 io.o
AERODYNAMIC PARTICLE, JJ.m 3726-033
Figure 2.33 -Fractional collec.tion efficiency of scrubbers vs.

particle size of fly ash being collected. 70
117
prediction appears to have been confirmed, at least in general
form, by the few measurements that have been made on full-scale
installations. An example is Figure 2.34, which shows the frac-
tional collection efficiencies measured on a full-scale TCA
scrubber collecting fly ash. 1 ~ 172
Power requirements for a wet scrubber include the power

needed to overcome the relatively high pressure drop of 10-30
in. water gauge through the scrubber as well as the power for
pumping and iu some inotallations stnr:k gas reheat. For Cherokee
No. 3 scrubber for which detaile~ data is giveri in Section 2.4.5,
the prcccure drop is 10-18 in. water gauge.
The power required to overcome this pressure drop may

be estimated by the following calculation.
The power used for scrubbing (not including liquid pump~
ing costs} is estimated· to be 6 watts/acfm gas flow for
a high efficiency unit. For the gas flow in a scrubber of
520,000 acfm, the power consumption is 3 MW, or about half the
total pnwPr. consumption of tQe scrubber (6.39 MW). 1 ~r 72 The
example used is the Cherokee No. 3 scrubber of the Public Ser-
vice Company of Colorado, further discussed in Section 2.4.5.
2. 4. 5 Re'presentative Instal lations
There are about 20 electric utility puw~L boilero in

the United States on which wet scrubbers have been inst~lled for
coilection of fly ash. Most of Lhe installations are rPtro-
fitted, the scrubbers having been installed in series with
mechanical collectors or electrostatic precipitators. Typically,
the power boilers are at .pr.esent burning· low-sulfur (e. g., 1%}
coal, and the electrostatic precipitators that had originally
been installed were not collecting the high resistivity fly
ash with the expected efficiency.
·118
t::
0
·.;:;
u
....~
z
>'
u
0 z
i= w
<t u
a: u..
1- 0.1 90 u..
w w
z
w z
0.. 0
w i=
..J
u u
w
..J
i= ..J
a: 0
<t u
0..
Y DIFFUSION BATTERY
• IMPACTOR
PARTICLE DIAMETER, pm 3726-015
Figure 2.34 Fractional collection efficiency of TCA scrubber vs.

particle size of fly a~h in the fine particle range.
Overall collection efficiency 95%. 1 ~, 7 2
119
Pertinent data on most of these installations are listed
in Table 2.17.73 - 78 There are as many or more scrubbers installed
for control of sulfur dioxide emissions (e.g., limestone and
alkali scrubbing systems) , in which some fly ash is also re-
moved.78
The following are some additional features of some of

the installations listed in Table 2.17.
Publio B~rviaa C9mpany of Colorado

The Public Service Company o.f Colorado has equipped 5
boilers (Arapahoe Unit 4, Cherokee Units 1, 3, nnd .4, and Valmont
Unit 5) with Universal Oil Ptoducts TCA (Turbulent Contract
Absorber) scrubbers ior the removal of fly ash. At the Valmont
Station, the scrubber is installed i~ parallel with an electro-
static precipitator and preceded by a mechanical collector. At
the Arapahoe and Cherokee Stations, the scrubbers are in series
with previously existing mechanical c6llectors and electrostatic
precipitators, with a scrubber bypass. The Arapahoe, the Cherokee
Unit 1, and the Valmont scrubbers each have 2 modules, the
Cherokee Unit 3 has 3 modules, and the Che~okee Unit 4 has 4
modriles. All we~e retrofitted to previously existing units.
Some details of these installations are given in Table 2.18. 75
The coal burned at the Valmont station is a Wyoming low-

sulfur (0.6% S) sub-bituminous coal with an ash content of a 5.2%.
The ash is alkaline, with a CaO content of 20%. Because of the
alkalinity of the fly ash-liquor slurry~ the scrubber removes 45%
of the sulfllr dioxide in the flue gas. The other plants burn a
Colorado bituminous coal.
The major cause of down time on the Valmont scrubber has

been scale formation. I~ accumulates at the wet-dry interface
immediately downstream of the presaturating quench nozzles and on

the underside of the first layer of grid bars that support the packing.
In an attempt to alleviate the scaling problem, one of

the Valmont scrubbers has been converted into a combined fly
'12,0
Table 2.17 Wet Scrubber Installations in Electric Utility Power Plants
Efficie~- Annual
Operdt:ilti..J
Pa~ticu-
late L/G, Installed and
Boiler Availa- Maintenance
Capacity, Scrubber, No. of bility. marter. so2. Gal/1000 Pressure, Gas Flow Starting Cost,
% acf in. WG (Total) Date 1000 sa Cost, 1000 $a
Plant ~IW Type scrubbers % %
Pennsylvania Power & Light 209,000 scfm 1970

Holtwood Station 80 Venturi 1 90-95 99 20 12.5 5-6
Kansas Power & Ligtt

Lawrence Station Marble
1968
Unit 4 125 bed
Unit 5 430 Marble
1971
bed
1,658,000
Arizona Public Service acfm/340°F 1971 43,800 600
Four Corners Station 575 Venturi 6 75 99.2 :;o 9 28
Commonwealth Edison Venturi/ 20,800 1,700

TCA 40 98 90 770,000 1972
Will County No. 1 175 2
Pacific Power & Light 1,500,000

Dave J_ohns ton Station acfm/270"F 1972 11,000
330 Venturi 3 99 40 13 15
Unit 4
Detroit Edison co. 1974

St. Clair No. 6 180 Ventu::i
19,000
Montana Power Co. 1975 (Unit l;
....... Colstrip Units 1 & 2 660 Venturi
360 MW)
N
....... Northern States Power Co. Marble
bed 1976
Sherburne County No. 1 & 2. 1360
Public Service Co,

Colorado 302,000 scfm 1973 5100
Cherokee Station No. 1 110 TCA 2 55
97 20 55.9 10-18 360,000 scfm 1972 6200 660
3 150 Tr.A 3 95
4 82 897,000 scfm 1974 14,700
4 350 TCA 5300 910
TCA 2 76 96 45 58.3 10-18 299,000 scfm 1971
Valmont Station 180
2 96 45 54.2 10-18 299,000 scfm 1973 !'ilOO 950
Arapahoe Station 100 TCA 86
Kansas City Power -~ Light 2,760,000 1973 43,000 3,000

La Cygne Station 820 Venturi 7 84 98 80
acfm/285"F
Duquesne Light Co. 1973 41,000
Phillips Station 400 Venturi
1974 46,500
Elrama Statior., 500 Venturi
Nevada Power Co.

Reid Gardner Station 1974 5500 (for
Units No. 1 & 2 250 Venturi each 125 MW
Venturi 1976 unit)
Unit No. 3 125
Philadelphia Elect::ic Co. 1973

Eddystone Station 100 Venturi
Minnesota Power & L~ght 1,300,000

Clay Boswell Station 350 High 1 . 99 20 8 4 acfm/340°F 1973
!\urora Station 116 Pressure 2 98 20 8 4 291,160
Spray_ acfm/340°F 1971
8
Values are in 1976 doll at s.
7 5
Table 2.18 Public Service Compar.y of Colorate Scrubber Opera:.ing Data 3 '
Araphahoe Cherokee Cherokee Cherokee Valmont

Unit No. 4 Unit No. 1 Unit No. 3 Unit N:J 4 IJni t No. 5
Boiler Size 100 MW 100 MW 1:-0 MW 350 MW 180 MW
Air Quality Mechanicai collec- Mechanical ool:ec- Mechanical collec- Mechanical oo_lec- Wet scrubber in
Control Equipment tor electrostatic tor, electrostatic tor, electrostatic tor. electrcs-:atic parallel with
precipitator, precipitator, precipitator, precipitator_, mechanical collector
wet scrubber, wet scrubber, wet scrubber, wet scrubber., and electrostatic
in series with in series with in se:ries with in series with. precipi-:ator
scrubber bypass scrubber bypass scrubber bypass scrubber bypass
Scrubber Type Particula-:e TCA Particulate TC;\ Particulate TCA Particulate ·rc!\ TCA 1/2 particulate,
manufactt::::er UOP nanufacturer UOP manufacturer UOP manufactuere li:JP l/2 lime/limestone
scrubbing; manufacturer
UOP
Flue Gas Treated 299,000 scfm 302,000 scfm 360,JoJO scfm 897.000 scfrn 299,000 scfm
520,000 acfm 520,000 acfm 610,000 acfrn 1,520,000 acfn: 463,000 acfm
€ 300°F a:1d @ 295°F and @ 280°F and @ 275°F ·and @ 260°F and
24.7 in. :nercury 24. 8 in. rnercu:::y 24.7 in. mercury 24.7 in. merc·.1ry 26.3 in. mercury
Total Recirculated 2.8, 200 gal/min 30,000 gal/rni:t 33,400 gal/min 84,000 gal/mi:l 2 7, 000 gal/min
Liquor Flow
......
1\J L/G, gal/1000 acf 54.2 57.7 54.7 55.3 58.3
1\J Pressure D.rop 10-18 in. WG 10-18 in. WG 10-18 in. WG 10-18 in. W(- 1_0-18 in. WG
Across Scrubber (depends upon (depends upc-n (depends upon (depends upc·n (depends upon
operating- operating operating operating operating·
conditions) conditions) conditions) conditions) conditions)
Total Make-up 203 gal/nin (witt 203 gal/min (·Nith 380 gal/min (with 744 gal/min (with Particulate 210 gal/min
Water Required, occasiona1 mist occasional nist occasional mist occasional mist S02 removal 70 gal/min
gal/min eliminator wash) eliminator ~ash) elirr.inator wash) eliminator vash)
Number of Scrubber 2 2 3 4 2
Modules 1-67% fl<Y.-l 1-6 7% flow 1-60% flow 4-25% flow 2-50% flow
1-33% flew 1-33% flow 2-20% flow
Scrubbing Medium 981,000 r;:lastic 977,500 plastic 1,177,500 plastic 3,071,680 p:asti-:: 870,000 plastic
spheres, 3 stages spheres, 3 stages spheres, 3 stages spheres, 3 stages spheres, 3 stages
Mist Eliminator 316 stainless steel Fiberglass - Fiberglass 316 stainless steel 316 stainless steel
Chevron-2 stages, Chevron-2 stages, Chevron-2 stages, C~evron-2 stages, Chevron-2 stages,
7 passes 7 passes 7 passes 7 passes 7 passes
Reheater Design Direct; steam co~l Direct; steam coil Direct; Stearn coil Incirect; sidestrearn Direct; steam coil
reheat reheat reheat air reheate::: reheat
60,000 lbs/hr 50,000 lbs/hr 4.1,200 lbs/hr 135,000 lbs/hr 50,000 lbs/hr
auxiliary steam auxiliary steam auxiliary steam auxiliary steam auxiliary steam
Electric Power 5.20 MW 5.14 MW 6.39 MW 14.40 MW 5.30 MW
Requirements
Slurry Disposal Pumped to ash Pumped to Pumped to Pumped to Pumped to ash
dis_posal ponds clarifier cla:::ifier clarifier disposal pond
open loop open loop open loop open loop l/2 closed loop
l/2 open loop
Type .n Dry boos<::er fan Dry boqster fan Dry booster fan Dry booster :E.an Dry booster fan
ash-sulfur dioxide scrubber by retrofitting a lime scrubber to
it. This combination is now being tested.
All the scrubbers are operated in a basic open loop con-

figuration; the scrubber blowdown is discharged to an ash set-
tling pond. Makeup water is added .to the scrubber as needed.
Pacific Power and Light Company Dave Johnston Plant

This scrubber system includes three Chemico venturi scrub-
bers connected to a single stack. The boiler burns a western
low-sulfur sub-bituminous coal containing 0.5% sulfur and 12%
.ash, with a heating value of 7400 Btu/lb. The ash is alkaline,
with a high calcium content (20% CaO).
The scrubber liquor is recycled via settling ponds.

The liquor is made alkaline by the suspended fly ash and hence
removes some (about 50%) of the sulfur dioxide present in the
flue gas. Problems of scale formation and deposition of solids
in the scrubber are made worse by the formation of calcium sul-
fate in the liquor. These problems have been alleviated by
the addition of lime and other chemicals to the liquor, but
the added lime causes the absorption of further amounts of
sulfur dioxide. The problem of solids deposition is most severe
at the wet~dry interfaces-in the scrubber.
Arizona Public Service Company Four Corners Plant
This plant has 3 boilers (175, 17~, and 225 MW), each
equipped with two Chemico venturi scrubbers. The boilers burn a
sub-bituminous coal with a low sulfur content (0.68%) and an
unusually high ash content (22%) with a low CaO content (4%)
in the fly ash. Each scrubber is preceded by a mechanical col-
lector. 1\bout 30% of Llie sulfur- dioxide in the flue gas is re-
moved in the scrubbers.
The blowdown liquor from the scrubbers is sent to thick-

eners and settling ponds, with overflow returned to the scrubbers,
and with makeup water added.
Problems are encountered with solids buildup and scaling.

The addition of lime has helped by creating a softer scale.
123 .
Pennsylvania Power and Light Company·Holtwood Station
The Holtwood scrubber is a retrofit installation consist-

ing of a Chemica single stage fixed venturi, in which water
is added through a plumb bob shape in the center at the throat
and tangentially around the upper section. The scrubber is
in parallel with an existing electrostatic precipitator that
treats a part of the flue gas which is re~ixed in order to pro-
vide heaf for the gas leaving the scrubber.
The coal burned is anthracite mine tailings fr:om the
Susquehanna River. The coal contains 16-17% ash, 0.5-0.75%
sulfur, and 18-20% moisture. About 20% of the sulfur dioxide
in the flue gas is removed in the scrubber. The scrubber liquor
(pH 2.5) is sent to a thickener from which the overflow is re-
circulated. Lime is added to the thickener underflow fly ash
slurry to neutralize it.
The principal operating problem has been plugging of
the mist eliminator.
Minnesota Power and Light Company Clay BooweZZ and

AuroPa Btat·z.'.ons
Krebs-Elbair spray impingement scrubbers have been retro-

fitted on two units at the Aurora Station and installed on a
new unit at the Clay Boswell Station.
This scrub~ec is d box in which high prcaourc oprays
are directed against an impingement plate that incorporates
louvered openings to produce rapidly moving liquid drops. There
are also sprays in the inlet duct. This design uses less water
than other scrubbers, but requires more power. The gas from
the scrubber passes through a Chevron mist eliminator followed
by additional sprays for further quenching.
The coai burned is a Montana sub-bituminous coal contain-
ing low sulfur (0.8%) an~ 9% ash. The fly ash contains 9-13%
CaO.
124
The impingement plates are designed so that they can
be partly pulled out of the scrubber and washed with a high
pressure water jet to ·remove scale, without having to shut down
the scrubber. Nevertheless, it is necessary to manually clean
the scale from the wet-dry interface in the inlet duct.
The Aurora units are operated as open loop or once through,
with clear scrubbing liquor returned to the scrubber from the
ash ponds. The Boswell units are also open-loop, but the liquor
goes through clarifiers, the overflow from which is mixed with
clear makeup water and recycled to the scrubber. The liquor
has a pH of about 4; no additives are used. From 15 to 30%
of the sulfur dioxide in the flue gas is removed in the scrubber.
Performance
The information available on these scrubbers indicates

that in general they remove fly ash efficiently on an overall
mass basis~ There is not much ex~erimental data o~ the fraG-
tionai collection efficiency of these or other wet scrubbers.
Some of the most definitive data was obtained on the TCA scrub-
ber at the Cherokee Power Plant of the Public Service Company
of Colorado. 1 ~ 172
Figure 2.34 is representative of the data obtained.
It indicates that the collection efficiency reaches a minimum
at a particle diameter of about 0.5 ~m, i.a., in the same par-
ticle size range in which fabric filters and electrostatic
precipitators also show the lowest collection efficiency. On
an overall mass basis, the scrubber was.operating at the design
particulate removal efficiency of 95%.
In making the particle-size measurements on this installa-
tion, interference was encountered from the entrainment of
liquid droplets in the gas emerging from the scrubber, even
though the scrubber was equipped with an entrainment separator.
This has been a common problem in sampling fly ash scrubber
effluents. As a consequence, it is difficult to compare the
data obtained with similar data on other installations.
125
2.4.6 Maintenance·
TCA mobile-bed scrubbers for removing fly ash have been

plagued by a variety of maintenance problems, including breakage
of the plastic spheres used as contactors. The most serious
problems have been with scale and solids formation.
Heavy formation of. calcium sulfate scale has been noted
as the chief cause of down time on one TCA installation. The
~r.nlP. accumulates and ha~dens in regions of low flow rates.
Scale formation is alsu a problem with venturi s~ruhhP.tS, in
which it builds up in the venturi throat, is broken off, and
plugs lines.
There ~as been some success in controlling solids deposi-
tion (as distinct from scale formation) by water treatment,
e.g., by the addition of lime, as noted above. The chemical
co~position of the water used also plays a part in the scale
formation, which should therefore'be less of a problem "if softer
water is used~ ·However,_ some scaling has been observed in
.one plant using an acid water.
Operating problems such as those caused uy scaling und
plugging have reduced th~ availability of the equipment (the
proportion of time that the equipment is operating) to levels
that in some instances are marginally acceptable (70-80%) •
Studies by EPA and utilities that have been evaluating scrubbers
for fly nsh collection indicate that the utilities are switching
to fabric filters or electrostatic precipitators for fly ash
collection in new installations. If sulfur dioxide must also
be removed from the flue gas, the trend is to in$tall qn effi--
cient dry collector for particulate matter ahead of a sulfur
dioxide scrubber.
126
2.4.? Installation
Retrofitting scrubbers in utility installations has
presented few proble~s: scrubbers are more compa~t than electro-
static precipitators or baghouses.
2.4.8 Costs
Capital costs and operating and maintenance costs are

given in Table 2.17 for some of the .scrubbers listed. The values
for installed cost are plotted against boiler capacity in Fig-
ure 2.35. The curve is drawn to represent the plot of costs for
scrubbers installed for fly ash collection. Other values from
Table 2.17 that are plotted in Figure 2.35 are for scrubbers de-
78
signed for collection of both fly ash and sulfur oxides.
The installed ~ost of the No. 3 scrubber at the Cherokee

Station of the Public Service Company of Colorado includes the
14
items listed in Table 2.19. In 1976 dollars, the cost is
$6,128,300, which is $41/kW at 99% collection efficiency and
$9.94/1000 acfm.
Table 2.20 summarizes the operating and maintenance costs

for the scrubber. The table does not include indirect costs
such as general plant overhead or capital charges. The total
direct operating costs are approximately $1,608,200/yr in 1976
dollnrs. The costs in Table 2.20 were calculated from published
data on the installation, which were modified as noted in order
to make the costs comparable with the other data in this report.
The power consumption of the scrubber is taken at 6.39 MW, which
is the amount used for operation at its full rated electrical
load. Table 2.21 lists the items included in the maintenance
costs.
The value of $41/kW for the Cherokee scrubber may be

compared with an average value of $85/kW and a range of $50 to
$137/kW for scrubbers installed for removal of sulfur oxides,
or sulfur oxides and fly ash, as found in a 1975 survey of elec-
78
trical utility power plants.
127
,.··.
!lO
' .
..
en
.!!
lO
0
"'C
co
....
0
1-.
en
0 10
(,)
c
w
....I
...J
<(
~
2 5
0 FLY ASH
SCRUBBERS
e OTHERS
2
'I '----"'---'---"L
0 100 300 400
I -- L.
500 600
I
700 900
BOILER CAPACITY, 111W 3726-03'1
Figure 2. 35 .f'ly ash Bt:rubber cost::; (installed)
128
\'
l
'I
Table 2 .19 Cher·okee No. 3 Scrubber Capital Cost Breakdown
Account Installed Costa %
Excavation and Earthwork $ 26,700 0.4

Concrete 141,100 2.3
Structural Steel and Buildings 454,000 7.4
Process Equipment
Scrubber Vessel $649,500
Ductwork 314,400
Presaturator 91,800
Scrubber Fans and Motors "272,900
Sootblowers 71,000
Sootblo~ing Air Compressors 78,500
Reheater 59,100
Dampers and Isolation Gates 74,800
Recirculation Pumps and Motors 68,500
Miscellaneous Pumps and Motors 9,100
Stack Lining 121,700
Ins-trument Air Compressors 15,000
Monitoring Equipment 23,000
Miscellaneous Equipment 23,100 1,872,400 30.6
Piping 329,000 5.4
Electrical 622,000 10.2
Painting 39,200 0.6
Instrumentation 369,500 6.0
Insulation 155,000 2.5
Indirect Field Costs (includes: Field
Supervision and Payr_oll Expenses;
Construction Supplies; Temporary
Facilities; Demolition; Construc-
tion Equipment) 539,000 8.8
PSCC Overhead Costs 104,400 1.7
Engineering 566,200 9.2
Pre Start-up and Revisions 94,900 l.G
Post Start-up and Maintenance 201,300 3.3
Contractor Fee 516,600 8.4
Interest During Construction 97,000 1.6
Total $fi,l28,100 100.0
a
Data are from References 14 and 72. Costs are updated to 1976.
129
Table 2.20 Cherokee No. 3 Scrubber Operating
and Maintenance Costs
% of Total
Total· Annual
Annual Operating
Cost, $a Cost
Operating Labor
Control Operator 6,700 0.42
Auxiliary Tender 12,900 0.80
Operating Supervision 3,200 0.20

Utilitiesb
Electricity.@ $0.02:/kWh 894,690 55.63
Stearn@ $1.75/lOb Btu 426,400 26.51
Water 5 '200. 0.32
Air 21,700 1. 35
Maintenance
LdUUL' 49,GOO J.OO
Instrument Repair Labor 6,200 0.39
Material 17,200 1.07
Operating supplies
Lime 75,600 4.70
Polyethylene Balls 60,900 3.79
Miscella.neous
Increase in Ash Handling 28,000 1.74
Total 1,608,200 100.0
aData are from References 14 and 72. Costs are updated to

1976 by the use of the Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Inde
except for the costs of electricity and steam, which were
calculated as shown. An 0.80 duty factor was used.
130··
Table 2.21. Items in Maintenance Cost, 4th Quarter,
1973, through 3rd Quarter, 1974,
Cherokee No. 3 Scrubbera
Labor Expense
Scrubber Tower and Reheater $ 5,872 $ 8,419

Fans 2,848 718
Duct and Breeching 7,269 738
Pumps 10,134 2,363
Piping, Valves 13,501 1,387
Soot Blowers 654 328
Instruments and Controls 311 274
High Pressure Steam 448 70
Total $41,037 $14,297
acosts updated to 1976 by the Chemical Engineering Plant Cost

Index. Data are from References 14 and 72.
Fly ash is removed from the scrubbing liquor in a clarifier

or settling basin. Problems of secondary environmental impact
may result from the presence of soluble and partly soluble in-
organic salts in the liquor, especially leaching and contamina-
tion of groundwater. There is not enough. information with which
to judge the importance of ~his problem.
131
J. ADVANCED COLLECTION DEVICES
3.1 NEED FOR DEVELOPMENT
Improvement in.existing control device technology and the

development of-potentially advanced techniques are needed (1) to
improve the capabilities for the control of fine particle emis-
sions, (2) to overcome limitations due to the properties of the
effluent gases and p~rticulate matter, (3) to extend the capabili-
ties to higher temperatures and pressures, and (4) to reduce the
cost of the control devices. Research in the area of advanced
control devices· includes modifications or· ddu{Lions to existing
systems as well as the development of new approaches.
Each ot the existing control devices has certain limita-

tions. Precipitators, for example~ are limited by the magnitude
of the charge 6n the dust particle~ the electric field, and the
reenttainment 6f the dust. Improvements that are possible in
precipitator technology are those that improve one or more of
these functions. Since resistivity of fly ash adversely affects
both particle charge and electric field, advances are needed to
overcome these detrimental effects in addition to extending the
performance of precipitators not limited by resistivity~
Fabric filters achieve substantial collection efficiencies

but the physical size is a problem in applic~tion to large power
boilers. Also, pressure dr?p and bag life are areas th~t need
attention. Some sacrifices in efficiency might be tolerated if
h~gher air/cloth ratios could be achieved without reducing bag
life. Improvements in fabric filtration may also be possible by
enhancing the electrostatic effects that contribute to the rapid
formation of a filter cake after cleaning.
132
Scrubber technology needs considerable study to control
scaling and foulin~ and improve overall reliability. The collec-
tion of fine particles through the use of supplementary forces
acting on particles to cause them to grow or otherwise be more
easily collected is an area that has received considerable study.
use of alternative systems to the three conventional control

devices has also been investigated in an effort to achieve better
efficiencies at lower costs. The difficulty has been that the
removal of particulate matter from a gas stream requires that
a force be applied to the particles and methods for application
of this force are limited. So far, alternative forces, such as
sonic agglomeration, have not proven very successful.
Finally, the development of alternative combustion systems

for improved fuel efficiency and for control of gaseous pollu-
tants requires extension of the operating range of particulate
control devices to higher temperatures and pressures than are
now used. ·This requires either the use of alternative materials
or the development of alternative systems.
This section describes some of the studies of alternative

particulate control systems and advances in existing systems.
3.2 PARTICLE PRECHARGING FOR ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
The concept of precharging the particles prior to their

ehtering a pollution control device is, at present, of most in-
terest in its use for improving the collection efficien~y of
electrostatic precipitators, especially those that may be mar-
ginally below ~he performance required to meet present air pollu-
tion standards. Although some improvement in the collection
efficiency of fabric filters and scrubbers is possible by pre-
charging the particles to be collected, the extent of improve-
ment does not yet appear to justify the additional complexity
of a precharging system.
133
A precharger at the inlet of an electrostatic precipitator
offers the possibility of obtaining conditions nearer to the
optimum.for .charging the particles and a more uniform distri-
bution of electric field strength and ion number density.
At present, the only practical method for charging the

particles is by means of an electrical corona. Since particle
char9in0 takP.s place rapidly in a high density ion field, pre-
charging devices must provide a copious supply of ions. A
ceoond requirement for a high charqe is a. high electric field.
If both these conditions are met, a significant charge can be
achieved on the particles entering a control device·, and collec-
tion efficiency can be improved.
In a well-designed precharger, the electric field strength

and ion density can be much higher than in a conventional electro-
static precipitator. Since a prech~rger is smaller in physical
size than a precipitator, special materials and engineering
techniques which would be prohibitively expensive for a full-
scale precipitator can be used in a precharger.
A precharger can improve the performance of an electro-

static precipitator in collecting a high resistivity dust be-
cause the dust can be charged faster and to a higher value.
In a conventional precipitator, a par~icle of a high resistivity
.dust can travel a considerable distance through the precipitator
befor.e b_ccom_~n9 charged. With r:~ precharger ahea.d. of the pre-
cipitator, the dust particle entering th~ precipitator will
have reached its charge when it enters.· In addition, the larger
dust pArticles can reach a higher saturation charge if a high
average field can be maintained in the precharger.
134
The physical. mechanisms by which particles are charged
in a precharger are the same as in a conventional electrostatic
precipitator (Section 2.2.2).
The dominant charging mechanism depends on the particle

size. In the field-charging process, by which most of the
relatively large particles (those above 1 ~m or so in diameter)
are charged, the particle intercepts a gas ion which is moving
along electric field lines of force until it is attracted by its
image charge on the particle. The charging rate and saturation
value of the charge are thus affected by the magnitude of the
applied electric field.
Particles smaller than about 0.2 ~m are mostly charged

by a diffusion process, in which a gas ion will collide with.
a particle if the thermal kinetic energy of the gas ion is large
enough to overcome the repulsive force of the partially charged
particle.
The thermal energy of the ions is relatively independent

of the applied electric field, but depends strongly on the tem-
perature of the gas.
The factors that affect particle charging rate include

·the ion density, the ion mobility, the strength of the electric
field in the charging region, .the temperature of the gas, and
the molecular velocity. The particle size and its dielectric
constant also affect the charging rate.
Unfortunately, ihe problem of back corona which arises

in the collection of a high resistivity dust is even more severe
in the precharger itself when it is operated at a higher current
density than a conventional pr~cipitator, to the extent that
dust particles wil.l bP deposited on the pacoivc electrode in
the pre6harger.
135
If these electrodes could be maintained free of accumu-
lated particles, the back corona problem would not arise. How-
ever, ·there are formidable engineering problems associated with
the design of clean electrodes. Mechanical wiping systems usually
can not withstand the harsh environmental conditions normally
encountered in industrial electrostatic precipitators.
The techniques of chemical conditioning and increasing

the temperature of operation, which are applied to electrostatic
precipitators to alleviate the problem of collecting high resis-
tivity dust, can also be considered for alleviating the problem
in chargers.
Another problem with the use of chargers is the accumula-

tion of charged particles in the region through which. the corona
current is conducted. The effects of this space charge on
electrical. performance are observed most frequently when a large
number density of fine particles is provided. The ratio of
charge to mass, under a given set of charging conditions, in-
creases as the particle diameter decreases. Thus, for a given
total mass concentration in a gas stream, th~ number of ions
attached to particles, under steady-state operating conditions,
is greatest for the particle size distribution having the
smallest mean diameter.
Since the space charge depends only upon the relative num-
.b~r densities of ions and particles, it can be alleviated only
by designing·the corona discharge syste1u lo provide a sufflul•
ently high ion density or by diluting the number density of
the particles before the gas stream enters the charging region.
Another problem is that the dust that is collected and

subsequently reentrained in the conventional electrostatic pre-
~ipitat6r will not be affected by the presence of the precharger.
Hence, even though the entering dust can be charged to a higher
136
value than in a conventional precipitator electrode system, the
collection efficiency would not be proportionally increased
unless a precharger were iocated ah~ad of each field.
Research on prechargers at present is limited to a project

sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute on a high
27
intensity ionizer and fundamental studies of the charging
79
process sponsored by the Environmental Protection Agency.
The high intensity ionizer is being developed by Air Pollu-

tion Systems, Seattle, washington. Some of the details of the
system are proprietary and have not been released. However,
information that has been released indicates that the ionizer
is comprised of a venturi section as the grounded electrode
and a disc as the corona electrode with a configuration ~uch
as that shown in Figure 3.1. The gas velocity in the venturi
section is about 50 ft/sec and is maintained sufficiently high
to prevent excessive dust accumulation on the venturi wall.
In addition, purge air is periodically puffed through the ven-
turi to remove accumulated dust.
The ion density in the APS ionizer is reported to be

10 10
ions/cm 3 and the average applied electric -field 10-20
kV/cm. The system is reported to function with these conditions
even when the dust has a high electrical resistivity. Tests
on a 3-field pilot-scale (2000 cfm) precipitator are reported
to show substantial increases in efficiency with the ionizer
80
operating. _Figure 3.2 is a schematic drawing of the installatjon. ·
Further tests are planned with larger precipitators, by the

Tennessee Valley Authority and by the Electric Power Research
Institute at the Arapahoe Station of the Public Service Company
of Colorado.
137
HIGH ii\JTENSITY IONIZER
HOLLOW
H.V.BU\
GAS FLOW ~~----------~~----------~
HHENSE
CORONA
FIELD SHAPING
ELECTRODE
CATHODE
SUPPORT ANODE
SUPPORT
80 :!726-062
Figure 3.1 High ~ntensity ionizer.
\
--POWER
8
8
RECIRCULATING-
FLUE GAS
DETAIL A I . VIEW B-B
~PLANT WALL STACK
UNIT 2 IONIZER, SEE DETAIL A

ELECTROSTATIC
. PRECIPITATOR ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATOR TEST STACK
I RECIRCULATING
FLUE GAS\
I
3726-035
Figure 3.2 Ionizer-precipitator configuration for the John Sevier

pilot test. 8 0 ·
\
EPA studies of the precharging concept have been of a more
fundamental nature, but still directed toward an optimized pre-
charger. Studies have been made of the parameters influencing
both diffusion and field dependent charging. Studies are also
being carried out to indicate the limitations on precharger
current d~e to electrical resistivity of the dust and means
for overcoming the resistivity in the precharging section.
The aclvanLages to the precharging 0f dunt in a pr~cipitatc:>,;

will probably be resolved during the current research programs
when further data are available.
3.3 FILTERS
Attempts are being made by manufctclurers, with assistance

from the EPA, to develop fabric filters that have longer life
and greater resistance to degradation at high temperatures
{500-1000°F).
Several organic fibers that are almost as stable to heat

as glass fibers are potential competitors in filter fabrics
in utility boiler baghouses. These fibers would be expected
to be less brittle than glass £iber. On~ ~xample is Teflon,
the fluorocarbon polymer usable to 500°F.
Teflon also has excellent resistance to chemical attack.

It is several times as expensive as glass and presents problems
due to yarn slippage and creep. However, Teflon fibers in a
laminated fabric such as Gortex 81 should be more mechanically
stable. The heat-resistant polyamide fiber Nomex has been tried
in full-sciile baghouses, where it has·been fbund to be stable for
varying lengths of time, which so far have been generally judged
insufficient.
Acrylic fibers {usable. to 260°F) .and polyester fibers

{usabie to 270°F) have been used in pilot- plant on flue gas
82
in Australia, where the flue gas temperature is only 240°F.
140
Bench-scale studies on spun-bonded non-woven polyester fabric
83
filters have been made by the EPA.
Non-woven fabrics made of fine fibers (diameters in the

micron range) deposited on a porous backing are being developed
by the Donaldson Company and the EPA. 8 ~ The backing, made
of fibers with conventional diameters (20-50 ~m) provides strength
for the fine fiber layer.
This application of fine fibers makes use of the expecta-

tion from filtration theory that collection efficiency increases
as the fiber diameter decreases. Test results indicate that
in some configurations such as a cartridge of pleated fabric,
the collection efficiency is improved (or the size reduced or
the air-to-cloth ratio increased) to the extent that performance
is as good as or better than that of conventional filter bags.
The pressure drop across the double mat filter is about the
same as that across a polyester felt. The dust cake appears to
build up on the fabric surface so that it is removed satisfactorily
by conventional means of regeneration.
Research on the influence of fiber characteristics on

filtration is being studied under a grant from the EPA to the
Textile Research Institute. An attempt is being made to obtain
quantitative relationships between air filtration efficiency
and five fiber properties: surface roughness, cross-sectional
shape, linear density, crimp, and staple length. Filter fabrics
are being made from non-woven random web polyester fibers for
which these characteristics are known.~ 9
A study is being made under a grant to Harvard University

on mechanisms of dust penetration through filters, including
direct penetration, slippage of particles through the filter
after capture, and penetration by plugs breaking from the filter
cake. 1The objective is to increase air-to-cloth ratio while
minimizing penetration and pressure drop.~ 9 In addition,
studies on needle-punched fabrics are being conducted under
83
a grant t6 North Ca~olina State University.
141
Several ceramic, inorganic, or metal fibers are possibili-
ties for filters, especially for hot-side operation at tempera-
tures around 700°F. Some inorganics that have been considered
are asbestos, alumina-boria-silica, zirconia-silica, carbon,
and boron nitride.
Felts of metal fibers are being developed by the Brunswick

Corporation. The present efforts are directed toward operation
at 200-700°F in competition with glass fiber baghouses. Labora-
tory tests at room temperature suggest that such filters can
operate at flow rates of 100 ft/min with collection efficiencies
greater than 99.5% for particles 0.3-l.~ ~m in diameter. Plans
are being made for a test installation at the Arapahoe Station
85
of Colorado Public Service.
Granular bed filters also represent an advanced filtra-

tion device. They are discussed in Section 3.5.3.
3. 4 SCRUBBER·s
The use of various techniques to increase the collection

ot small particles is being investigated by the Environmental
Protection Agency. This approach has resulted from realization
of the effect illustrated in Figure ~~34, namely the limitation
on collection efficiency imposed by a high pressure drop. Various
auxiliary techniques are being considered for improving collec-
tion. If, for example, the particle size could be doubled by
some sort of treatment, the penetration could be decreased by
two orders of magnitude (e.g., from 0.3 to·o.003).
Coagulation and agglomeration are p6ssible mechanisms

for increasing the particle size. These effects might be pro-
86
duced by heat, sonic or ultrasonic vibration, or chemical
reaction. Condensation of water vapor on the particles ·is
another possibility for increasing their size. Other techniques
that might also be used take advantage of gradients· between
the particle and the collection surface, e.g., diffusiophoresis,
142
the movement of the particle due to the vapor gradient toward-
. a liquid surface during vapor condensation, or thermophoresis,
particle movement in the temperature gradient due to the greater
transfer of· momentum from the gas on the warmer side of a particle
than on the cooler side. Thermophoresis is such a weak effect,
under conditions of practical use, that it is not of great
interest; but diffusiophoresis can have a signific~nt effect in
scrubbers under some operating conditions. The effect is also
enhanced when it is accompanied by condensation produced by
the injection of steam into conventional scrubbers.
The diffusiophoretic force, and hence the collection

efficiency of a scrubber operating in a regime in which this
force is effective, are relatively independent of the size of
the particles being collected. This force might be used for
improving the collection efficiency of a wet scrubber for sub-
micron -particles. 87 - 93
The injection of steam into a scrubber and its condensa-

tion on the particles also improves the collection efficiency
by increasing the siz~ of the particles and thus increasing the
likelihood of their being captured by impact. The Environmental
Protection Agency has evaluated several scrubbers modified by
steam injection designed to improve collection efficiency. The
most effective of .these modified scrubbers are the Aronetic$
ADTEC Scrubber and the Steam-Hydro Scrubber (Lone Star Steel) .
The ADTEC scrubber is designed to use heat from waste gas

to heat a pressurized flow of hot water, which then is sprayed
in a-jet scrubber. The spray. droplets and the particulate matter
collected by them are recovered in a cyclone. The draft induced
by the operation greatly reduces fan power requirements, and
can in some applications provide sufficient draft for the
entire system.
143
!
In tests conducted on ferro-alloy furnace emissions,
the total mass collection efficiency averaged 95.1% on a dust
having a.mass mean diameter of about 3 ~m and a mass mean aero-
dynamic diameter of.about 6 ~m. The geometric standard deviation
was about 10, indicating that about 30% of the particulate mass
was in particles less than 0.5 ~m, an unusually fine dust. 89
The fractional efficiency of the scrubber for collecting

this dust is shown in Figure 3.3. For particles above 0.5 ~rn,
the collection efficiency is 99% or 9reater.
The Steam-Hydro ~crubber also operates on heat from the

waste gas. High pressure steam generated by the heat is injected
by a nozzle into a mixing tube in which the steam and particulate
matter are mixed. A shock wave is created which enhances the
scrubbing action. The particula~e matter is then separated
in a cyclone. The system creates enough draft so that fans are
89
not needed.
Tests of collec~ion efficiency were made on an installa-

tion operating on an open hearth furnace. The average collec-
tion efficiency was 99.86%. The fractional efficiency is shown
in Figure 3.4.
Table 3.1 shows a comparison of these modified scrubbers

with conventional highly efficient venturi scrubbers. The ADTEC
and Steam-Hydro scrubbers are more efficient than a venturi
with an extremely high pressure drop. However, the calculated
amounts of energy required by the devices are in line with those
of the·venturi~. 70
144
99.8
<fi.
>-'
e IMPACTORS o~cer--•---.---
,.~
(.) 0 OPTICAL COUNTERS
2 0 DIFFUSION BATTERIES
w
(.)
LL
LL ..
w
2 0
0
1-
(.)
w
..J
..J
0
(.)
20
0.01 1.0 10.0
PARTICLE DIAMETER, Jlrri ::1726-036
Figure 3.3 Fractional collection efficiency of the Aronetics

scrubber (using equivalent diameters). Overall
collection efficiency 95.9%. 89
145
-----00.99
99.9
1 99
95 ?/?.
>'
(.)
z
z w
0 (.)
1- u..
<( u..
a: w
1-
w ;;:
z 0
w i=
c.. (.)
w
...J
...J
90 0
~
· 0 DIFFUSION BATTERIES
C OPl'ICAL PARTICLES COUNTERS
e IMPACTORS
99.~9 ......_ _ _ _ _ _ _....;.._-'----------~---------____.l· 0.01

0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0
PARTIC:LE DIAMETER; J.(m 3726-037
Figure 3~4 Fractional collection efficiency of the Lone Star

Steel Steam-Hydro Scrubber. Overall collection
efficiency 99.9%. 89
. 146
·Table 3.1. Fine Particle Control by Wet Scrubbers 70
Power
Consumption, Smallest·oiameter Collected at
Scrubber hp/1000 acfm 50% Efficiency, ~m
Venturi (10 in. WG) 1.6 0.7

Venturi (108 in. WG) 17 0.3
2.4a
ADTEC 0.13
400 b
Steam-Hydro 2oo-3oob <0.1
aWater pumps plus motors, assumed 60% overall power efficiency.
bwaste heat.
Thus, the modified wet scrubbers that have been,evaluated so far

do not appear to offer any advantage over conventional high
energy venturi scrubbers except under certain conditions, e.g.,
when w.aste heat is available.
3.5 HYBRID COLLECTION DEVICES
These are control devices that use combinations of tech-

niques for collecting particulate matter.
The hybrid devices that are the furthest developed are:

(1) charged-droplet scrubbers; (2) wet electrostatic precipi-
tators; and (3) granular-bed filters. These devices are dis-
cussed in detail in this section. Some other devices are noted
at the end of this section.
3.5.1 Charged Droplet Scrubbers

The concept of charged droplet scrubbing is based on im-
proving the probability of capture of particulate matter by using. the
electrostatic forces developed between oppositely charged parti-
cles on liquid droplets (Figure 3.5) . 9 ~ As discussed above in
Section 2.4, the particle capture mechanisms active in parti-
culate removal by scrubbing are impaction and diffusion, both
involving the relative motion of the particles to be removed
and the liquid droplets. Large particles (above .1-2 ~m) are
relatively massive and the inertial forces brought about by
147
ElE:::TRODE
5CRUE.E.ED GAS COLLECTOR PLATE· + (4: kV)
HIGH VOLTAGE OISCH.OJRGE TO
LEAKAGE CURRENT L~.TIDN TUBING P..TMOSI?H ERE
( -15% OF ELECTRODE
CURRENT)
t
FEED WATER INLET
(- 0.2 GPM/METER OF
ELECTRODE LENGTH)
. '
FEED THROUGH WATER/DUST
INSULATOR SLURRY
x
0.8 10·3 G.A.S FLOW CARRY-OFF
AMP/METER
OF ELECTRODE v"'- INSULATOR HOUSING
, •
.
PPOHT IWSULATOR
SCRUBBING WATER
SLURRY DISCHARGE
TO SETTING POND
DC POWER SUPPLY . DUST LADEN
( -130 WATTS/1000 SCFM) GAS FLOW
(-6FT/SEC)
94
Figure 3.5 TRW charged droplet scrubber.
aerodynamic turbulence are.sufficient for high collection ef-
ficiency. The efficiency is dependent on the degree of tur-
bulence and can be related to the total energy supplied to the
system, either through the gas or the liquid droplets. At the
smaller end of the particle size spectrum, particles have un-
favorable inertial characteristics, and so they tend to f6llow
the streamlines of the gas flow around a liqtiid· droplet and
do not impinge on it by inertial forces. Particles below about
0.1 ~m are subject to random Brownian motion and diffuse readily
to the water droplets. In the size range between 1.0 and 0.1
~m, both inertial and diffusion forces are relatively small
and collection efficiencies for scrubbers are lowest for par-
ticles in this size range. Charged droplet scrubbers are in-
tended to augment collection within this size range by increas-
ing the probability of contact between the droplet and particle.
The electrostatic force between particles charged with
opposite polarities is well defined by theory. The force
F ~ ~ where q1 and q 2 are the charges on the dust and spray
r
droplet particles, respectively, and r is the distance between
them.
Liquid droplets can be electrically charged by several

means; the methods that have received most attention are mechani-
cal spraying followed by corona charging and electrohydrodynamic
spraying. The latter technique provides the highest charge
density on the particle surface. As is shown in Figure 3.5,
water is raised from ground potential to about 40 kV by passage
through a long electrical resistance path in the form of in-
·sulaling tu~ing. It is then introduced into a hollow electrode
which contains a series of hollow, elongated spray tubes, from
which it issues into a grounded scrubber vessel. Droplets are
formed by the action of electrical force and surface tension.
The charge density is limited only by corona breakdown or by the
Rayleigh li~it, which for liquid droplets is the limit determined
by surface tension and electrostatic forces. For water the charge
limit Eb is given by
149
where E 0 =permittivity of free space = 8.854 x 10- 12 coul/Vm
~ = surface tension of liquid, N/m.
S = electrode radius, m
Figure 3. 6 shows the relationships between maximu~ charge for

water droplets and the droplet size in micrometers. 95
Dust charging is accomplished by an electrical corona in

the same manner as in conventional electrostatic precipitation.
The charging of very small particles is by diffusion and is
related to the free ion density and time. Since the system
is wet, there would be no limitation due to back corona.
The charge on very fine particles depends upon many factors.

However, in a practical situation the charge would be limited
to values in the range given in Figure 3.7.
The forces acting between a 100 ~m particle and dusts of

different particle sizes are shown in Figure 3.8. It is apparent
that the force decreases rapidly ~s the distance between particles
increases. When the electrostatic·forces become small compared
with the. aerodynamic forces, ihey can be neglected.
The overall effect therefore on the charged droplets

is that when the particles come·into close proximity, the elec-
trostatic forces will cause the particles .to _be captured by the
droplets. This has the effect of improving the collection ef-
ficiency of particles in the range between the larger ones that
would be captured by inertial forces and the very small ones
that would be captured as a result of diffusional forces.
Studies of charged droplet scrubbing, both theoretical

and experimental, have been, conducted by Hanson, Eyraud, Sparks,
Kraemer, Pilat, 95
-
99
Penney, 1
~ 0
' 101
_Lear, 9
~' 102
' 103
Melcher, 10
~
.150
N
E
::::-
:J
0
(,)
"f.
0
>.
~
en
2
........ /RAYLEIGH LIMIT CHARGE DENSITY
w ...........
0 ..........
w
(.!) ............................
ex:
<( .................
:I:
u ......
w
u
<(
LL.
ex:
::l
..................
. . . . . . 7. . . . _ ............
. ...._
.
-
en
~ COLUMNAR FORMATION CHARGE DENSITY ...._.._""".
w
...J .
a..
.0
ex:
0
DROPLET RADIUS, pm 3726-038
Figure 3.6 Limits of surface charge densities on water droolets

(Rayleigh limit} and columnar segments of water. 94
151
8
:;
0
,...u 6
.-
b.
w
0
a:
<(
J:
0 4
0~----._----------------~------------._
0.2 0.6 1.0
__________ 10.0
~
PARTICLE SIZE, [.tm :372G·OO:l
Figure 3.7 Theoretical particle charge as a function of particle size.
152
and others. Pilot-scale studies sponsored by the EPA have shown
that collection efficiencies of wet scrubbers can be sub-
stantially improved by electrostatic augmentation, as indicated
in Figure 3.9. The data shows the expected decrease in effi-
ciency with decreasing particle size for the scrubber with no
electrostatic augmentation and the increased collection efficiency
when particle and droplet are oppositely charged.
The future of charged droplet scrubbing for fly ash collec-
tion does not appear promising. The collection efficiency for
particles in the 0.1 to 1 ~m range is not so high that it would
be economically attractive in view of the alternative conven-
tional electrostatic precipitator or fabric filter control
devices.
3.5.2 Wet Electrostatic Precipitators
Wet electrostatic precipitators, which have been used for

many years for the collection of the fine particles from metal-
lurgical furnaces, are now being considered for control of fly
ash and sulfur dioxide emissions from coal-fired power plants. 105 - 108
In a wet precipitator, the wire-plate or wire-cylinder

design of a conventional dry electrostatic precipitator is
modified by the addition of spray nozzles or weirs that provides
a means for irrigating the collection elect~odes (either plate
or cylinder}. Solid particles deposited on the collection elec-
trodes are washed into hoppers. If liquid particles are to
be collected, irrigation of the collection electrodes may·not
be needed, or the amount of irrigation may be reduced.
In the iron and steel industry, wet electrostatic precipi-

tators have been used since about 1930 to remove dust, contain-
ing iron oxide, silica, carbon, and other matter, from the blast
furnace exhaust gas so that the gas can be burned to recover
its fuel value. Wet electrostatic precipitators are preferred
tu dry precipitators because the exhaust gas is already saturated
with water when it enters the collector.
153
DIAMETER UF PAHTI(;LI::, p.m
Cl 1o-s
E
1 10 10'~
DISTANCE BETWEEN PARTICLE AND nROPLET, p.m
3726-064
Figure 3. 8 Force acting between particle and 100 llffi droplet.
154
\
100
"'
"'
"'
E 80
>
.c
DROPLETS AND
~
PARTICLES CHARGED
>' OPPOSITELY NO CHARGE
u
z
w
u 60
u.
u.
w
z 0
0
i=
u
w
....I 40
....I LIO/GAS = 15.7 GAL/1000 ACF
0
u
w
....I
u
i= MEAN DROP DIAMETER BY
a:
.:
Cl..
20
• NUMBER= 50)..tm
DROP GEOMETRIC
STANDARD DEVIATION= 1.9
PARTICLE DIAMETER, J,tm 3726-039
Figure 3.9 Particle collection efficiency of electrostatic spray

droplet scrubb~r as a function of particle size. 9~
155
/
However, the use of wet precipitators on blast furnaces

is decreasing. In the blast furnaces that are being built,
the gas is under pressure (15~20 psi), which allows the use
of a high-energy venturi scrubber for cleaning the gas. With
the energy available from expansion of the gas in t~e venturi
throat, a_scrubber can clean the gas with less added cost for
operation and maintenance and with less capital cost than an
electrostatic precipitator.
Wet electrostatic precipitators are used on other metal-

lurgical furnaces, suQh as basic oxygen turnaces, electric arc
furnaces, and cupolas. They are especially useful when the
dust contains water~soluble components. However, these com-
ponents are frequently materials that introduce corrosion prob-
. lems, and wet scrubbers, having a simpler construction, may
be preferred for these ·applications also.
Wet electrostatic precipitators are used in collecting

the grit produced in the scarfing of steel slabs to remove sur-
face bloom. A wet collection system is appropriate in this
application because a high-pressure water jet is needed for
dislodging and granulating the bloom.
Wet electrostatic precipitators are also used to collect

tar and oil in coke oven and ~etrochemical emissions. Since
I
the materials collected are liquids, irrigation of the collec-

tion electrodes is often not required. Similarly, acid· mists
from the production of sulfuric and phosphoric acids are col-
lected in wet electrostatic precipitators.
The application that has created the -most interest recently

is the collection of fumes from aluminum pot lines. Aluminum
is produced by electrolysis of alumina dissolved in a bath of
molten cryolite with carbon electrodes. A wet collector is
preferred because of fouling by condensed tars from the hot
156
/
electrodes. Sulfur oxides and hydrogen fluoride are also pre-
sent in the effluent, and they are removed along with the par-
ticulate matter in the wet electrostatic precipitator.
Although wet electrostatic precipitators have not yet been
installed in electric power plants, pilot scale tests are being
made by equipment manufacturers on their use for the simultaneous
removal of fly ash ·and sulfur oxides. 106 Wash liquors containing
lime or other alkalies are used, and scale formation or solids
deposition, similar to that encountered in wet scrubbers, is
106
encountered.
Experiments and calculations were carried out at Southern

Research Institute on a laboratory-size wet electrostatic preci-
pitator to develop methods for calculating performance and to
investigate its suitability for simultaneous removal of fly
ash and sulfur oxides from flue gas in coal-burning electric
105
power plants.
Measurements of collection efficiency for various sizes
of liquid aerosol particles (dioctyl phthalate) from 0.5 to
2 ~m in diameter agreed with values calculated for a dry electro-
static precipitator in a computerized mathematical model with
the same values of operating parameters. Electrification of
the system did not enhance the removal of sulfur dioxide with
~ither a water or alkaline (sodium hydroxide) solution irrigating
the precipitator.
Calculations of the removal of sulfur dioxide indicate
that the gas-liquid interfacial area on the wetted walls of
a wet electrostatic precipitator is not large enough for effec-
tive removal of sulfur dioxide. The contact area can be in-
creased by the introduction of sprays, which would be~t be
located in an inexpensive low pressure spray tower preceding
the precipitator itself, in order to reduce interference with
the electrical operating conditions of the precipitator.
157
Cost calculations show that a wet electrostatic precipi-
tator, despite the lower energy costs due to its low pressure
drop, costs about twice as much as a Turbulent Contact Absorber
scrubber, for both capital and operating costs. 105 Solids deposi-
tion observed in a wet scrubber would also be encountered in a wet
precipitator and because of the more complex structure of the
precipitator would be more troublesome than in a wet scrubber.
In comparison with a dry electrostatic precipitator collecting
fly ash from low sulfur coal, a w~t electroslatic.precipitator
would allow the collection plate area to be d~~t~dS8cl by n
factor of two or more, but the increased materials cost required
by wet operation would partially or completely off~et lhe cost
savings.
3.5.3 Granular Bed Filters
Granular bed filters have been used in industrial installa-

tions for the removal of particulate matter from the effluents
from waste heat boilers in tl1e fo~est products industry, in
the. cleaning of gases from clinker coolers in the cement in-
dustry, and in the cleaning of lime kiln effluents. Experi-
mental studies have also been conducted for a wide variety of
potential _applications, including the removal of radioactive
p~rticles from the air in ventilation systems, the cleaning
of waste gases from open hearth furnaces, and the simultaneous
desulfurization and part~culate removal from the gas from coal-
fired boilers.
Granular bed filters consi~t of closely packed g~anules

of river stone, alumina, or other materials that are c~pable
of withstanding the environment of the flue·gases to be cleaned.

The sizes of the granules vary with the applicatibn, the usual
sizes ranging from around 1/16-in: diameter -to l/4~in. diameter.
158
The physical arrangements of granular bed filters include
a wide range of designs that permit the gas to -flow through
the filter medium and provide a means for removing th~ collected
dust. Two basic methods of cleaning the filter medium are used.
Fixed bed filters generally employ back flushing or mechanical
agitation to disiodge the collected particulate matter and permit
it to fall into .a hopper for removal. Examples of the fixed bed
109 112
concept are the Squires Panel-Bed Filter, - and the Ducon
113
Granular Bed Filter. Figure 3.10 shows one design of the
Squires filter. 11
'-~ The Electric Power Research Institute is
supporting research on the Squires Panel-Bed Filter at the City
University of New York (RP 257).
In one design of the Ducon filter, dust-laden gas passes

downward through horizontal filter beds. When the accumulated
dust causes the pressure drop to reach a specified value, the
individual filter element is isolated from the clean gas outlet
by means of a shut-off valve and is cleaned by a reverse upward
flow of air or gas.
A third type of granular bed filter is the modular unit

marketed by Rexnord (Figure 3.11). Filtering is accomplished
by a granular bed through which the gas flows. Periodically,
one of the modules is taken off line and hack flushed with
heated ambient air accompanied by mechanical raking of the dirty
granules. 1
~ 5
In moving bed filters, the filter medium and the collected

dust are removed from the filter and the dust separated from
the medium externally. An example of a moving bed filter is
the dry scrubber, marketed by Combustion Power, Inc. 116 Fig-
ure 3.12 is a schem~tic of the filter system. The filter medium
159
DIRTY~AS
....
;:
SAND BED
.;
EAN ~
iJf
.·.:···
<.;HOSS-SECTION
OF COLUMN
f!
.
)
~CLEAN GAS
~..,...,..~
CROSS-SECTION
OF Fl L TER BED
~-SAND REMOV.AI. r.HIJTE
3726-040
Figure 3.10 Schematic drawing of Squires panel-bed filter unit. 1·
,160
OPERATING PHASE BACKFLUSH PHASE
11
~~~-8
~mrr.:~~~1""'--S
RAWGAS + r---T""'"" 4
1-----
2
1. INLET CHAMBER
2. PRIMARY COLLECTOR (CYCLONE)
3. DOUBLE TIPPING GATE (DUST DISCHARGE)
4. VORTEX TUBE
5. FILTER CHAMBER
6. GRAVEL BED
7. SCREEN SUPPORT FOR BED
8. CLEAN GAS COLLECTION CHAMBER
9. EXHAUST PORT
10. BACKWASH CONTROL VAI..VE
11. BACKWASH CONTROL VALVE
12. VALVE CYLINDER
13. STIRRING RAKE
14. STIRRING RAKE MOTOR/REDUCERS
3726-041
Figure 3.11 Operation of a gravel-bed filter. 115
161
CLEAN MEDIA
·GAS FLOW + ELC::VATOn
A.
.L
UE:"IAIL A
3726-042
Figure 3.12 Combustion Power Company dry scrubbP.r. 116
162
is cleaned by vibration of the granules to separate the dust,
which falls into an ash hopper. The medium in the Combustion
Power Dry Scrubber is contained in the annular space between
two cylinders, which are louvered to permit entrance and exit
of gases. The medium continuously moves downward past the louver
openings to keep them from plugging and to prevent formation
of a filter cake. The particulate-laden medium is removed from
the bottom of the filter, cleaned, and recycled by means of
an elevator to the top of the filter.
_Mechanisms of Filtration
The mechanisms by whi6h granular bed filters remove parti-

culates from gas streams depend on the operating parameters.
The filtering action can approach that of fabric filters under
some conditions, in that a filter cake can form on the outer
layers of the granules. However, the accompanying pressure
drop across the filter bed can be large and the energy required
119
for a reasonable gas flow will be high. 117 -
Figure 3.13 shows the pressure drop across a laboratory-

scale granular-bed filter plotted against particulate loading
for two sizes of granules, 3 mm and 1.5 mm. Also plotted on
the same figure are the pressure drops for two glass-fiber filters.
Figure 3.14 shows the corresponding collection efficiencies.
It is apparent from these data that fabric filters give lower
pressure drop when operated under conditions where a
filter cake is allowed to f9rm. At 4.5 in. WG, typical for
fabric filters, this is true for the 1.5 mm granular bed
but not for the JO mm. granula:r:- Lt!Ll. For most industrial .installa-
tions, granule size, inlet dust b~rdens, and cleaning cycles
I .
163
0 GLASS FIBER Hi E 60g
(,:, 6 GLASS FIBER Hi 40g ·
~
r:: 0 GRAVEL D = 1.5 mm
c.:. X GRAVEL D = 3.0 mm
0
a:
c
w
a:
:::>
en
Ut
w
a:
c..
0.04
.. .
P6~TICULATE LOAD W, lb/tt2
3726-044
Figure 3.13 Pressure drop as a function of particulate loading

for granular-bed filters with two different granule
118
sizes as compared with pressure drop for glass fibers.
i
\
1.0
\
c
\ u
·;;
......"'
(,) 0.8
\ >'
u
z 0.6
w
u
u. 0 GLASS FIBER Hi E 60g
u.
w 6 GLASS FIBER Hi 40g
2
0 0 GRAVEL D"" 1.5 mm
i=
0 X GRAVEL D ·=:: 3.0 mm
w
..J
..J
0 0.2
u
PARTICULATE LOAD W, lb/ft2

3726-043
Figure 3.14 Efficiency as a function of particulate loading for

granular-bed filters with two· different granule sizes
as compared with glass fibers. 118
164
are selected to minimize the pressure drop so that a filter
cake in the sense of conventional f~bric filter performance
does not form.
The collection mechanisms active in granular bed filtration

are primarily diffusion, interception, and impaction. The con-
tribution to the overall efficiency by each of these mechanisms
depends upon the particle size of the dust being collected and
the operating parameters of the filte( ..
Diffusion
Diffusion to the granules is governed by the Brownian motion

of the particles, the dimensions of the intergranule space,
and the residence time. The difficulty in theoretically predict-
ing diffusional collection lies primarily in determining the
dimensions of the intergranular spaces and the flow rates in
these regions. Several attempts have been made' to model the
collection efficiency by diffusion for monodisperse aerosols.
One of the most successful models for collection in a granular
bed that includes diffusion, sedimentation, and impaction was
119
developed by Bohn and Jordan. Experimental studies were
conducted of the collection of sodium oxide aerosols in a filte~
bed with varying granule sizes. Fig~re 3.15 shows experimental

data and predicted values of penetration of 1.4 ~m diameter
particles as a function of flow velocity. The data show that
diffusional collection decreases with increased flow velocity
and becomes insignificant for velocities above 1 in./sec. Since
most commercial filters operate in the vicinity of 20 in./sec
gas flow, collection of particles of 1.4 ~m by diffusion could
be neglected. However, for much smaller particles diffusion
could still be significant.
165
z 10"5
0
1-
~
a:
1-
w
2
w
c.. 10"6
A EXPERIMENTAL VALUES
I FOR PACKING I .
I EXPERIMENTAL VALUES
I FOR PACKING II
FLOW VELOCITY, ft/min 3726-065
Figure 3.15 Penetration of sodium oxide aerosols as a function of

flow velocity; packing I is a ~elatively more permeable
packing of sand layers for flow velocities of 1~2 in./sec
(32-80 ft 3 /min); packing I I is a less permeable packing
obtained by adding a thin layer of very fine graded sand
for flow velocities of 0-1 in./sec (32 ft 3 /min). 119
. 166
Impaction
Inertial impaction is one of the primary mechanisms for

collection of particles in granular bed filters. The spaces
between granules present a tortuous path for the dust-laden
gas which the larger particles cannot follow. They are there-
fore separated from the gas stream)and impinge on the filter
medium. Within the filter bed, the gas flow through the inter-
granular spaces reaches much higher velocities than the average.
Also particles downstream divert the gas stream, so that the
larger particles impinge upon the granules and are held by
molecular or mechanical forces. As particles are deposited,
the spacing is reduced so that the gas velocities are higher.
Consequently, smaller particles are collected by impaction:
The process continues until the dust is removed from~·the filter
medium.
The separation of particles from a gas stream by impinge-
ment is dependent upon the size and density of the particles,
the velocity of th~ gas stream, and the properties and flow
pattern of the gas. These parameters determine the probability
of collection within each layer of the filter. With a multi-
plicity of layers, the overall collection efficiency is increased
by the number of opportunities for impact and hence the collec-
tion efficiency increases with increasing thickness of the filter
bed.
Interception
The collection of dust by interception is also related

to gas flow. Figure 3.16 illustrates particle capture by
interception. In this mode, particles follow the streamlines
around a granule. However, if the particle passes within a
distance equal to its radius, it will impinge on the granule
drld be collected. The major difference between the two modes
D/2 ·
-~1
l--
0 - - ---~--==~ Dgranule
l_._
~---1 .
3726-066
Figure 3.16 Direct interception; path of particle center coincident

with path of airstream.
of collection is in the behavior of the particles; whether they
follow the streamlines of the gas flow or as the result of their
inertia do not follow it.
Many studies have been conducted on the fundamental rela-

tionships of particle capture by the mechanisms of inertial
impaction, interception, diffusion and combinations of these
mechanisms. However, verification of the various theories has
not included work with full-scale granular bed filters. The
theoretical studies do indicate the important parameters and
are useful in showing trends, even though they cannot predict
absolute efficiencies in full scale- systems. In practical
granular-bed system~, design is a compromise between the various
parameters. To achieve a reasonable compromise between size
and capacity, velocities in the vicinity of 100 ft/min
are used in full-sized filters.
·Test Results
Test data for granular-bed filters is limited because of

the small number. of installations relative to the number of
the more conventional particulate control devices. However,
data are available for several installations collecting dust
from bark boilers in the forest products industry, ·lime kilns,
and clinker cool~rs. Table 3.2 is a compilation of the data
available from·the literature.
Quantitative relationships derived from the field test

data available on full-scale units do not confirm the effects
of gas velocity, pressure drop or other parameters on collection
efficiency su~gested by theory. This is probably due to
variations in other factors, such as particle size of
169
Table 3.2 s t:.mm3.ry . 0 f Granular Bed Filter
Test Data
Inlet Outlet
Pressu:re dust dust Collection
Granule drop, load:..ng, loading, efficiency,
size in. WGa gr/dscf gr/dscf % ··Notes
Co'rnbustion Power Cr:t Scrubberc.

B,ark Bo.ili=r 1/4 X 1/8 in. 7.6 0.74 a·. oa 89 Av of 2 tests
1-'
Bark Boiler 6-8 mesh 10.7 0.71 0.05 93 Av of 2 tests
"
0 .
Linie Kiln
,.
6-8 mesh 7.4 3.89 0·.17 96
Bark Boiler 6-8 mesh ·ll.4 0.15 0.02 86 Av of 2 tests
Bark Boiler 1/4 X 1/8 in. 3.6 0.201 0.038 81 Av of 4 tests
b 5.2 0.14 0.008 94 Av of 8 tests
Bark Boiler
b Av of 3 tests
Bark Boiler 9.6 0.41 0.06 85
b 0.33 0.05 87 Av of 4 tests ·
Bark Bo'iler 13
...
Rexnord Pilterd
Clinker Cooler '6 rne:sh 10 1.13 0.029 97 Av of 5 tests
a. design value
b. not reported
c. reference 116
d. -reference 115, 9as flow 8342 acfm per module; l:ed depth 4.5 in.
the dust, concentration, or other parameters .in the various
l tests. Laboratory tests, on .the other. hand, do indicate the
'
change in efficiency with changes in the factors that influence
diffusion in very low velocity systems or impaction in high
velocity systems.
Field test data do show an extreme dependence of efficiency

on particle size of the inlet dust. Systems that include mechan-
ical collectors preceding a granular-bed filter operate in an ef-
ficiency range of 80-90%~ The particle size of the inlet dust in
such systems is probably around 5 ~m mass mean. diameter. Systems
such as clinker coolers that produce dust in the range of 50 to
100 ~m mass mean diameter have collection efficiencies of around 99%.
Fractional collection·efficiency measurement~ on a fixed-

bed filter have included some ~no~alous results, indicating that
the filter generates dust in th~ small particle-size range by
mechanical abr~sion of th~ filter mediu~~
Granular bed filters appear to offer few advantages over

fabric filters for collection of small particles such as fly
ash from coal or oil-fired boilers. For larger particles, where
inertial forces are significant, granular bed.filters can be
effectively utlll~ed. The principle advantage of granular bed
filters is their potential for ~ithstanding a high-temperafure,
high pressure environment. The filter would be capable of op-
. eration at flue-gas temperatures abov.e the present capabilities
of fabric filters and would not be damaged by brief high-tempera-
ture excursions.
Some applications of granular filters to removal of very

small particles have been studied where the length of the filter
wo~ld offer advantages in diffusional collection of hazardous
materials.
/ 171
A systems study of granular bed filters, sponsored by the
EPA, is being performed at present, as·is the evaluation of a
venturi design for a dry scrubber~with·a·moving granular bed. 120
3.5.4 Other Devices
The· ELECTRO-TUBE, developed by Air Pollution Systems,
is an electrostatic particle collector which combines a wetted
wall electrostatic precipitator with precharging of the particles.
Evaluation of a pilot-scale ELECTRO-TUBE in the collection
of titanium dioxide as a test aerosol indicates that the device
may have the same collection efficiency as a conventional wet
electrostatic precipitator, but with somewhat less power con-
s.umption. 1 2 1
The API'I'RON (American Precision Indu:::;tr iel::i, Inc.) combines

electrostatic charging and fabric filtration. One form that is
being tested is a vertical concentric cylindrical design, with
the dust-laden gas entering the center of the cylinder, in which
there is an axial wire corona electrode, negatively charged.
The gas flo~s through a concentric coarse screen that is posi-
tively charged and then through a filter bag, on which the dust
is deposited and from which it is recovered by mechanical means. 114
A recent exploratory investigation of high-gradient mag-

netic separation on a laboratory scale indicates that it. is worth
further study for cleaning m~tallurglcal exhaust gases. The
experiments were conducted with a·laboratory apparatus containing
a filter bed of steel wool 8 in. in ·le.ngth and 3.5 in. in diam-
et;er. Dust that had been collecteq by an electrostatic precipi-
tater from the exhaust gas of a basic oxygen furnace wa.s re-
dispersed in air for use as the test dust. The dust~laden air
was passe.d through the steel wool filter to which a magnetic
field (3 kilogauss) was ~pplied.
The gas velocity was 1000-~000 ft/min and the pressure

drop across the filter was 2-12 in. WG; these values are within
122
the limits considered competitive with other collectors.
172
The Environmental Protection Agency supports research at
Battelle Northwest on the collection of electrically charged
sub-micron water droplets {also charged solid particles) on un-
. 1 ess s t ee 1) f'b
charged {polypropylene or sta1n 1 ers. 123tl24
More information is needed on the effect of electric

fields on fabric filters under industrial conditions of high
dust loadings before any conclusion can be drawn about the
feasibility of using electric fields for gas cleaning.
3.6 PARTICULATE CONTROL DEVICES FOR HIGH TEMPERATURE AND

HIGH PRESSURE OPERATION
The need for removal of particulates from gas streams at

high temperatures and pressures stems from the interest in com-
bined cycle systems which utilize both gas and steam turbines.
Such combined cycle systems have the potential of considerable
improvement in the efficiency of fuel utilization.
Combined cycle systems are currently under investigation

·in two areas: {1). a fluidized bed combustion system in which
the fuel is completely burned and the hot gases used to drive
a gas turbine and to generate steam to drive a steam turbine;
{2) a high temperature-high pressure gasifier that produces
a clean fuel to power a gas turbine followed by a heat recovery
steam generator and steam turbine.
Both the fluidized bed combustors and fluidized bed gasifiers

have the potential of sulfur oxide removal as a part of the process
to eliminate problems of flue gas desulfurization that are in-
herent in present power generating practice.
The potential efficiency obtainable coupled with the possi-

bility of sulfur oxide removal are the major reasons for the
interest in combined cycle systems.
173
·The major problems with combined cycle systems are asso-
ciated with corrosiori or erosion of the· gas turbine. Limits
must be placed on the concentrations of sodium, potassium,
vanadi~m, and lead in the flue gases to preveht excessive rates
of hot corrosion or fouling of the turbine components. The

limits of alkali metal compounds to insure reasonable tur-
bine life are reported to be extremely stringent (40 parts per
billion). 125 These maximum concentrations impose limits of tem-
perature and fuel processing to insure that the alkali metals
are retained in the particulate matter.
Particulate matter must be removed to prevent erosion of
the turbine components. Erosion is primarily due to the impact
of particles in the high velocity region of the turbine. The
kinet1c energy due to,the 1mpact.ot large particles can cause
mechanical failure of the turbine components or rupture of the
surface of coatings.
3.6.1 Turbine Requirements
In order to establish the requirements of the hot gas

·clean-up system, limits should be established for the maximum
allowable dust concentration entering the turbine. This con-
centration should also be related to the particle size of the
inlet dust, since it is well established that the turbine
tolerance to particulate matter is greater for fine particles
than for large ones.
A review of the literature shows that there is a lack of
definitive data on the maximum permissible dust loading. The
maximum concentration in the various particle size bands varies
with flow conditions and velocities within the turbine, which
can vary with turbine design. Based on·a theoretical analysis,
a maximum concentration of 0.001 to 0.002 gr/scf has been pro-
jected for particles within the 2-5 ~m diameter size range.12s
Essentially no particles larger than 5 ~m should be allowable,
but relatively low collection efficiencies would be permitted
for removal of particles below around 2 ~m.
174 -
The inlet dust loadings and size distributions in the ef-
fluents from various fluid-bed combustion and gasification sys-
tems have likewise not been firmly established. Therefore, only
approximate requirements can be made in terms of dust control
equipment collection efficiencies. One estimate of the particu-
late emissions from a multiple fluid-bed gasifier indicates that
8% of the total emissions of 20 gr/scf is projected to be within
the 2-5 ~m size range. Assuming an outlet concentration of 0.001
gr/scf, the efficiency of removal of particles in this size band
would be 99.94%.
3.6.2 High-Temperature Particulate Collection Systems
Processes for removal of particulates from hot gas streams

have been reviewed in a study sponsored by the Environmental
126
Protection A~ency. Particulate removal systems investigated
inciuded cyclones, granular bed filters, ·electrostatic precipi-
tators, molten salt scrubbers, and metal fabric filters. Studies
of the effects of temperature on the mechanisms of particle col-
127 133
lection have been made by a number of investigators. -
The following sections describe the influence of temperature

and pressure on the collection mechanisms as they relate to the
various control devices.
Cyclones
cyclones, which ar~ widely used for removing dusts from
industrial gases, operate by imparting a centrifugal force to
a dust-laden gas stream. Typically, a cyclone is constructed
of a vertical cylinder with a conical lower section. The gas
str·eam enters the upper part of the cylinder tangentially and
forms a vortex. The gas stream.flows in a spiral down the wall
of· the cone; near the bottom it reverses direction and flows up
a central exit duct, ~ith the dust falling to the bottom of the
cone.
Cyclones are relativel~ simple devices with no moving
parts, their performance is well established, and they are
relatively trouble-free in operation~
175
The efficiency of cyclorie· collectors is dependent upon
the cyclone dimensions and the ~as and particle characteristics.
The cr i t'ical parameter as far as temperature and pressure ef-
fects are concerned is gas viscosity. Equations developed by
Leith and Mehta 1 3 '+ ·show that the inertial parameter ':1' in the
efficiency equation n = 1 - exp [-2C':I'( ~n! )] is inversely propor-
2
tional to the gas viscosity. Since increasing temperature and
pressure increase g~s viscosity, the effect would be a decrease
in collection efficiency.
Figure 3.17 Shows the collection efficiency as a function

of particle size tor a cyclone ope~~ting at 20°C and ~t 1100°C
at 1 atmosphere and at 15 atmospheres pressure and the same
inlet velocity. The data were computed on the basis of the
efficiency equations developed by Leith and Licht 135 with gas
127
viscosities corresponding to the temperature and pressure shown.
Power requirements for a cyclone also increase with increas-

ing temperature and pressure, as shown ·in Figure 3. lA. The curve
shows the specific power ratio required for a given collection
efficiency a~ a function of temperature for various particle
7
.sizes at pressur·es of 1 and 10 atmospheres. 12
Referring to Figure 3.17, it is apparent that the collec-

tion efficiency of a cyclone decreases rapidly for particles
below around 10 pm in diameter and is much lower than would be
required in a primary gas clean-up system. However, in com-
bination with other devices, cyclones are proposed to reduce the
inlet dust loading to the primary clean-up system, if it is
sensitive to inlet dust concentration.
'
The effect of temperature and pressure on electrostatic
precipitator performance is twofold. First, the voltage-current
176
*>'
(.)
2
w
(.)
60
u..
u..
w
2 50
0
i=
(.)
w 40
..J
..J
0
(.) 30 NO. CONDITIONS
1 20°c, 1 ATM
20 2 1,100°C, 1 ATM
3 1,100°C, 15 ATM
10
0
u 30
PARTICLE DIAMETER, pm 3726-045
Figure 3.17 Effects of high temperature and pressure on

the collection efficiency of a high-efficiency
cyclone. 127
177
0
i=
~ 3
a:
w.
s:0
Q..
(...) 2
u..
0
w
Q..
~
1.0
- 1 ATI\/!
----10ATM
05
" 300 5_00 . 1000 2000
AIR TEMPERATURE, °K 3726-046
Figure 3.18 Specific power requirements for a cyclone as a function

of Lemperature ancl pr:essu:r.·e. 1 2 7
178
characteristics are altered by virtue of a change in gas density.
Increasin·g temperatures reduce gas densities, whereas increasing
pres$ures increase gas densities, so that the effects of increas-
ing both temperature and pressure tend to be off-setting. A
reduced gas density reduces the corona threshold voltage,
because the increased mean free path permits electrons to achieve
a higher velocity between collisions for a given electric field
strength. A second effect of reduced gas density is an increase
in the apparent mobility of the charge carriers. Because of the
decreased density, electrons from the corona penetrate further
into the interelectrode region before attachment to form ions and
ions penetrate further prior to attachment to dust particles.
Since the mobilities of electrons and ions are orders of magni-
tude higher than the mobilities of charged particles, the average
mobilities will be effectively increased. This mobility change
will cause an increased slope of the voltage-current curve. The·
result is a narrower range between the corona onset and spark-
over voltages so that control is more difficult~ A third effect
of reduced gas density is a reduction of the sparkover voltage,
so a precipitator would operate at a lower electric field for
charging and collection.
The effects of reduced gas density can be partially over-

come by reversing the polarity and utilizing a positive rather
than a negative corona.
Increases in gas temp~rature and pressure influence preci-

pitator performance also by reducing the migration or drift
velocity. The increase in gas viscosity associated with in-
creases in both temperature and pr~ssure cause the aerodynamic
drag forces to increase. The migration velocity is inversely
proportional to the gas viscosity so that an increase of from
500°K to 800°K in gas temperature would cause about a 40% de-
crease in migration velocity.
Studies of precipitators for the cleaning of high tempera-

ture and. pressure gases were conducted by snale 132 ' 133
and
17-9
Brown and Walker. 129 Shale reported an efficiency of 99.9% at
650°F and 65 psig ~ith an iniet ~ust ~onc~nt~ation of 1.5 gr/ft 3 ,
in a pilot scale wire-tube typ~ pt~~ipii~tdr·. Brown and Walker

showed efficiencies of ar6und 90% for ~ pilot ~ire-pipe type
precipitator with a plate area/gas volume r~tio of'l34 ft 2 /1UOO
cfm at 1650°F and 115 psia.
The status of electrostatic precipit?tors for clean-up of

hot gases is still unknown, since all of the wo~k to date. has
been on small pilot-scale un~ts~\ Scale-up to sizes required
for large-size power generation equipment would result in poorer
performance than in pilot-size units. The major problems
in full-size units would perhaps be mechanical. The physical
size of a precipitator to operate at temperatures of 1500°F
or over and efficiencies of 99.5% or above would be quite large.
The design of the shell to withstand the pressure at that tem-
perature and to maintain electrode alignment is a problem that
has not yet been solved.
Research in the area of hot gas clean-up with electro-

static precipitators is continuing under sponsorship of the
Environmental Protection Agency.
Granular Bed Filters
'The efficiency of collectio~ of particles by granular bed

filters is influenced by the temperature and pressure of the
gases as they alter the collection mechanisms. Inertial impac-
tion depends upon the particle separation from a gas stream which
is diverted around a colle~ting body. The efficiency of collec-
tion by impaction is a function of the _particle mass, velocity,
the resistance.of the gas to particle motion, and the frontal
diameter of the collecting body. T~e resistance of the gas to
particle motion increases with increasing temperature for.rela-
tively large particles due to the increase ~n_.gas yiscosity.
Increases in pressure would have a similar influence on viscosity
and hence a reduction in collection efficiency of large particles
would be expected with incre?se in pressure.
180
Collection of small particles, on the other hand, would
be enhanced by increasing temperature, as a result of the in-
creased Brownian motion.
Data on the performance of granular bed filters for opera-
tion at temperatures usable for clean-up of gases to turbines in
combined cycles is very limited. Combustion Power Company has
operated a granular bed "filter on a pilot-scale combined-cycle
116
system for a short period. The program involves fluidized
bed combustion of refuse supplemented with coal. Initial trials
resulted in a build up of material on the turbine blades. Cata-
strophic failure of the internal support members was experienced
during the only trial at l800°F. This resulted in delays and
reevaluations of the program and no efficiency data are available ·'
at the elevated temperatures. The fluidized bed system has been
modified and the program resumed.
The Combustion Power granular bed system for high-tempera-

ture operation is similar in overall concept to that used for low-
temperature particulate collection except for the design of the
louvers; the granules, and the materials of construction. The
granules used in the Combustion Power System are aluminum spheres
about l/16 in. in diameter, which are available at a cost of
around $1.00/lb. The louvers are arranged so that the granules
clear them of dust as the granules migrate toward the bottom of
the system.
Results of the evaluation of the Combustion Power granular

bed filter will not be available until completion of the present
program.
The Squires Panel Bed Filter has had limited trials at

900°F. The filter unit was a 3 in. x 1 ft section installed on
a pilot fluidized bed cqmbustor. Test data were highly variable
and the results of the test program were inconclusive.
181
The concept of the Squires filter is tha~ a filter cake
is allowed to form much the same as in a fabric filter. The
filtering action is therefore dependent on the filter cake,
which is supported by the granules, and not on the granules
themselves. The concept should permit high collection effi-
ciencies, but at the expense of relatively high pressure drops.
At the 300°F test temperature, pressure drops of around 8 in.
136
water gauge were measured.
The future of panel bed filters for high temperature (above

1500°F) application remains uncertain. For combined cycle opera-
tion, the evidence is that efficiencies must be very high in order
to prevent damage to turbine blades.· On the other hand, th~
pressure drop must be kept sufficiently low to prevent energy
losses in the gas clean-up system from canceling the efficiency
advantage of the combined cycle approach.
A fourth concept for hot gas clean-up is the use of high-

temperature filtration by either a metal fabric or a ceramic
medium. Limited test data have been reported on a Brunsmet metal
fabric developed by Brunswick Corporation. Plans have been made
for further tests of the Brunsmet filter in the EPRI facility at
the Arapahoe Station of Public Service Company of Colorado in
Denver, but the temperature available in the test facility will
be no higher than about 900°F~ 85
182
4. SAMPLING AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
The data required for determining the efficiency of control

devices in collecting fly ash is obtained by sampling flue gas
and measuring the physical and chemical properties of the ash.
Only within the past few years have adequate sampling and analyt~
ical techniques become available, and even these techniques
are continually being evaluated and improved. There is still
no complete agreement among those who use the techniques with
regard to the interpretation of some of the results.
The relevant techniques are those used to measure the mass

and particle-size distribution of fly ash collected by sampling
the flue gas upstream and downstream of the pollution control
device. In the methods used at present, mass is measured by
weighing. The particle-sizing techniques employ inertial impac-
tion, light scattering, diffusion, and electrical mobility of
137
the particles for their characterization. The applicability
of these techniques and some of the problems involved in their
use on the effluent gas streams from industrial processes are
discussed below, as are some improved techniques under develop-
ment by the Environmental Protection Agency and others.
4.1 PARTICULATE MASB CONCENTRATION
Mass concentrations of particulate matter in flue gas are

measured by drawing a sample of gas through a probe and filter
and weighing the collected material. This is the basis of EPA
183
Method 5, the manual test method that is used in determining
compliance with Federal regulations. 138 There is some difference
of opinion as to how the results should be interpreted, especially
with regard to condensation of vapors in the probe and filter
box. Some investigators making performance ·tests of control
devices on emission sources prefer to use a sampling train that
differs from that used in Method 5 in that the filter for trapping
particulate m~tter is located in the stack instead of outside
the stack at the end of the sampling probe (proposed Method
139
17) . Thus, condensation of vapors in the probe and filter
box is avoided. Another advantage of the alternative system is.
that the particles are trapped before they enter the probe, from
which they may not be adequately recovered despite the probe
washing procedure specified in Method 5.·
There is a need for improved techniques for sampling parti-

culate matter in flue gas downstream from wet scrubbers. Prob-
lems are encountered due to the presence of acid mist and the
water-saturated condition of the flue gas.· 1 ~ 0
The only inotrumcntal method that i~ regularly used for

con~inuous measurement or monitoring of mass emissions is the
opacity monitor or light transmissometer, which is commercially
available, and which has been demonstrated to be usable in
power plant stacks. Opacity is only an indirect measure of
mass and must be related to it empirically for any specific
installation. 1 ~ 1
'
14 2
...
Other methods that are being considered for monitoring

mass emissions include the following, which are mostly still
in the development stage:. 1 '' 3
'
1 1
' ~
Light scattering by suspended particles.

Designs
for measuring forward scattering that have been investigated
so far require rather complicated optics. Instrumentation that
184
measures back-scattered light in-stack is already commercially
available. The light source is a light-emitting diode incorporated
into a probe inserted into the stack.
Deposition of electric charge on an electrometer sensor

by impinging particles (the triboelectric effect). This technique
has been used both in-stack and on extracted samples. Better
results are obtained on sources that emit particles relatively
uniform in size and charge. Probe losses have been a problem.
Some instruments using this approach are already on the market.
Attenuation of beta radiation by deposited particulate

matter. This technique requires an extractive system in which
some kind of filter is used to collect the sample. The equip-
ment that has been used so far for interfacing with the flue
gas is mechanically complicated and requires excessive main-
tenance. Probe losses have also been a problem.
Change in vibrational frequency of a quartz crystal

on deposition of particles (piezoelectric microbalance). This
method is subject to probe losses and loss of sample by particles
not adhering to the surface after deposition. It is subject
to interference from gas and moisture. Commercial devices based
on this method have been used for monitoring low concentrations
of particles in ambient air, but the applicability of the method
for monitoring stack gases remains to be demonstrated.
4.2 PARTICLE SIZE AND SIZE DISTRIBUTION
These techniques may be classed according to the physical

mechanism that is used to obtain the data: inertial, optical,
diffusional, and electrical. In their present state of develop-
ment, instruments employing these techniques are used to comple-
ment each other in covering the particle-size range below 10 ~m.
Inertial devices are used for the larger particle sizes (>0.5 ~m).
They include cascade impactors and cyclones.

185
Diffusional and electrical instruments are best suited for the
smaller sizes (<0.3 ~m), and optical counting equipment is appli-
cable for intermediate sizes. 1 ~ 5 - 1 ~ 7
Cascade Impactors
The particle-size distribution of a suspended dust can

be determined by utilizing its inertial properties in a cascade
impactor, with which particles can be classified by size over
the range from about 0.5 to 10 ~m in diameter. In a cascade
impactor, the gas stream passes through a series of impactor
jet-impingement plate combinations. Material passing the last
impaction stage is caught on an after-filter. After sampling
for an appropriate length of time, the catch of material on
each stage is weighed.
In order to use a cascade impactor for measuring particulate

size distributions, the cut point (the aerodynamic particle
diameter for which half the particles passing the stage will
be collected and half will pass on to the next stage) is deter-
mined by calibration for each stage in the impactor.
A wide variety of cascade impactors has been developed.

for use in industrial source sampling. To accommodate high
and low mass loading situations, these units range in flow rate
from 1 ft 3 /min to 0.03 ft 3 /min. The high flow rate impactors
have up to 264 holes per stage, which permit reasonably low
jet velocities. Other units, such as the 0.03 ftJ/min impactor,
have only a single hole per stage. Some impactor~ use slot
jets. Commercially available impactors have from ten to two
stages. Some are ·designed so that stages can be removed or
interchanged to allow for better resolution of a specific particle
size distribution.
186
Some cascade impactors have been designed for use with
precollector cyclones attached after the nozzle and prior to
the first impactor stage. These cyclones remove the particles
greater than about 10 ~m in diameter and permit longer sampling
times to be used by removing particles which would normally
be caught on the upper impaction stages.
In most sampling situations the cascade impactor can be

inserted directly into the duct or stack. This practice elimi-
nates the probe losses that occur with mass sampling trains
(e.g., EPA Method 5). However, nozzle losses and internal losses
of particulate mass can still lead to inaccurate mass loading
calculations.
Probably the most serious problem associated with cascade

impactors is the uncertainty of the weight of collected dust
because of unstable collection substrates. The bare metal plate·
cannot be used as a collection surface because of poor particle
retention due to particle bounce and reentrainment. The reentrain~
. ment of large particles will bias the size distribution toward
the fine particle sizes. Two collection substrates are used
to reduce this effect: a glass fiber mat or a thin film of
grease. Neither is completely satisfactory, but the errors
in weight can hA reduced to tolerable levels by conditioning
the substrate for several hours in the flue gas before use. 1 ~ 8
Efforts are unoer way to develop inertial sizing devices

with extended size ranges and automatic; real time, readouts
of the particle size. information; but to date, no such device
has been used successfully in an industriul flue gas atmosphere.
It is possible to extend the sizing capability of a cascade

impactor to sub-micron particles by operating the device at pres-
sures of about 0.01 to 0.1 atm. Such an impactor has been de-
signed for source sampling. 1 ~9, 150
187
l lil·
I.
Table 4.1 gives specifications for some. ins.truments being
considered for monitoring the particle-size distribution of
emissions. 151
The Environmental Protection Agency is supporting the develop-

ment of a low pressure cascade virtual impactor (impaction into
a dead air space) with a beta gauge readout. Another. automatic
readout mechanism which has been used with cascade impactors
for real-time data analysis is the piezoelectric microbalance.
However, beta gauges seem to be the most practical for readout
because they do not have problems with overioading or electrical
contact, and they need not be exposed directly to the hot gas
stre~m. A prototype impactor with beta gauge readout has been
completed and a miniaturized version is being developed for
.in-stack use. 151 ·
Cyclones
Small cyclone collectors are practical alternatives to

cascade impactors for measuring particle-size distribution in
gas streams. They have the advantage of being able to collect
relatively large samples segre~ated by particle size. They
are reliable devices which may be operated for long periods
of time and over a wide range of flow rates without particle
reentrainment. Unlike impactors, they do not use collection
substrates that can interfere in the measurements. However,
they are somewhat bulky and for in-stack measurements may require
larger sampling ports than impactors.
The Environmental Protection A~ency has developed a "Source

Assessment Sampling System" ~or semiquantitative "level one"
analyses of particulate effluents from stationary sources. 15
~
. .
A schematic drawing of the train is shown in Figure 4.1. Because
of the large sizes of cyclones required to achieve the desired
188
..
!
J.
HEATER
CONTROLLER
GAS
TEMPERATURE
THERMOCOUPLE
/·L-.....-....1
IMP/COOLER
TRACE ELEMENT IMPINGER
COLLECTOR THERMOCOUPLE
DRY GAS METER

ORIFICE METER
......,.,_,__ CENTRALIZED TEMPERATURE
AND PRESSURE READOUT
CONTROL MODULE
10 CFM VACUUM PUMP
3726-049
Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram of the source assessment sampling system. 1 5 2
'·
Table 4 .1. . Instruments for Mon: tor ing Particle-Size Distribution of Emissions 1 51
Size Range, Number Mass Concen- Instrument

Operating vm of Size tration Range Flowrate Data
Instrument Principle (unit density) Intervals ·(g/m=) (liters/min) Rate
Brink Manual impactor

Impactor with cyclone · <0.4 to >14. 9 0.1 to 6 1.4 manual
Andersen Manual impactor <0.? to >8.3 10 0.02 to 3 20 manual

Impactor with cyclone
Southern Manual . 'cyclone.
Research
Institute <0.3 to >7.0 4 20 manual
Series
Cyclone
Environmental Single particle
Systems Corp •. dual angle light 0.3 to 3.0. 10 NA batch
PILLS IV scatte·r ing 5-15
min
GCA Beta Impactor with 0.3 to >6.5 0.3 to 20
Impactor beta detection 7 9 real
of me:ss time
Celesco Impactor with 50 X 10- 6 batch

Piezo- piezoelectric
electric 0.09 to >35 10 to 0.08 0.2 10-15
detection of
Impactor mass min
Environmente:l Impactor with 0.)7 to 10 arn::ient to 0.15 283 real

5
Research Corp. beta ~etection
Impactor of mass time
aparticles/cm 3
cut points of 1, 3, and 10 llm at 400°F and at a flow rate of
4 ft 3 /min, the cyclones are operated out of stack in an oven. 1 52
A recent example of a cyclone system is the cluster of

5 cyclones operated in series, shown in Figure 4.2. The measured
cut points under laboratory conditions are 0.32, 0.6, 1.3, 2.6,
and 7.5 llm. The set is made of titanium for in-stack measure-
ments.147 Although design equations are available for cyclones
in the sizes used for air pollution control, the design of the
much smaller cyclones that are used for sampling gas streams
is not a straightforward procedure. An adequate theory is not
yet developed for predicting the cut points over the wide ranges
of temperature, pressure, and gas flow rate that are encountered
in sampling flue gas and other industrial effluents.
The design of the system shown in Figure 4.2 involved the

com~iried use of theoretical equations, 135 comparison with pre-
viously calibrated prototypes, and extrapolation of dimensions
from cyclones that had similar cut points. Figure 4.3 shows
the calibration curves fo~ the system. 153
Optical Counter>s
Optical counters have not been used extensively in stack

sampling. They carinot be applied directly to the effluent
gas stream. The sample must be extracted, cooled, and diluted.
The main advantage of optical counters is that with them emis-
sion fluctuations can be observed in real time. After extrac-
tion, the useful particle size range is approximately 0.3 to
1.5 llm. This size range overlaps the usable range of impaction,
which presents fewer problems. In an optical counter, light
is scattered by individual particles as they pass through a
small viewing volume, the intensity of the scattered light
being measured by a photodetector. The sizes of the particles
determine the amplitude o~ the scattered light pulses, and-
the rate at which the pulses occur is related to the particle
191
CYCLONE 1
INLET NOZZLE
CYCLONE 3
CYCLONE 5 - - - - - -
3726-048
Southern·Research Institute five series cyclone system.·~

7
Figure 4.2
192
>"
u
z
w
u
u..
u..
w
z
0 0
~
u
w
..J
..J I
I
0
u
PARTICLE DIAMETER, iJm
e FIRST STAGE CYCLONE

• SECOND STAGE GYr.I.ONF
0 THIRD STAGE CYCLONE
9 FOU.RTH STAGE .CYCLONE
0 FIFTH STAGE CYCLONE
3726-047'
Figure 4.3 Laboratory calibration curves for the Southern Research

Institute five series cyclone system. (Flow rate
1.0 ft 3 /min; particle-density 1.0 g/om 3 )153
193
concentration. Thus, a counter of this type gives both size
and concentration information. The simultaneous presence of
more than one particle in the viewing volume is interpreted
by the counter as a larger single particle. To avoid errors
arising from this effect, dilution to about 300 particles/cm 3
is generally necessary. Errors in co~nting rate also occur
as a result of electronics deadtime and from statistical effects
res~lting from the presence of high concentrations of sub-
countable (diameter < 0.3 ~m) particles in the sample gas stream. 1 ~
The intensity of the scattered light depends upon the viewing
angle, particle index of refraction, particle optical absorp-
tivity, and particle shape, in addition to particle size.
The schematic drawing in Figure 4.4 shows a system which utilizes
"integrated near forward" scattering. Different viewing angles
might be chosen to optimize some aspect of the counter perform-
ance. For example, near forward scattering minimizes apparent
variations in the indicated particle size which are actually
due to changes in the index of refraction of the particle,
but for this geometry, there is a severe loss of resolution
for particle diameters near 1 ~m. Right angle, or 90°, scatter-
ing smooths out the response curve, but the intensity is more
depend~nt on the particle index of refraction.
Available geometries are:
Bausch & Lomb 40-1 Near forward scattering

Royco 220 Right angle scattering
Royco.245, 225 Near forward scattering
. Climet CI-201, 208 Integrated near forward scattering
Single particle counters used with dilutors have been com-

pared with impactors for making fractional efficiency measure-
ments on particulate control devices. In general, agreement
between the inertial and optical instruments is within about
a factor of two in concentration for a given particle size.
194
.INLET
VIEW VOLUME·
PHOTOMULTIPLIER LAMP
CALIBRATOR
Figure 4.4 Operating principle for an optical particle counter

{courtesy of Clime~ Instruments) .
195
Current research is aimed at extending the concentration
limits of optical particle counters, at minimizing problems
due to the variation in the particulate index of refraction,
and at improving the technique of using these devices for stack
testing.
A suggested method for minimizing the effects of particle

index of refraction in optical sizing measurements resulted
from a study of the Fraunhofer diffraction formulation at small
forward scattering angles. 155 The basis of this method involves
measuring the intensity of light scattered by a single particle
at two small scatter1ng angles and the calculation uf tli~ tctlio
of these two intensities.
Prototype systems for particle sizing which are based on

this concept have been developed. 156 '
157
One of these, the
156
PILLS-IV instrument, is-commercially available. The intensities
of scattered laser pulses at two small angles are normalized
to a reference pulse for synchronization and to allow tor
fluctuations in intensity of the laser source.
The laser used in this system is a semiconductor junction

diode (A = 0.9 ~m). The PILLS-IV can be used over the range
of particle sizes of 0.2 to 3.0 ~m. The view volume is stated
to be approximately 2xl0- 7 cm 3 • The upper concentration limit
for single particle counters is determined by the requirement
that the probability of more than one particle appearing in
the view volume at a given time be much less than unity. For
the PILLS-IV, this would set the concentration limit at approxi-
mately 10 6 particles/cm 3 _, a value much higher than those for
conventional single particle counters.
Diffusion Batteries
The most widely used device for measuring the particle-

size distribution of sub-micron aerosol particles is the diffu-
196
/
sion battery, together with a condensation nuclei counter for
measuring ·the concentrations of p·articles ·entering and· leaving
the diffusion battery·. 158 ·- 16 1t·
Diffusion batteries may be comprised of a number of
1 .. 7 .
long, narrow, parallel channels (Figure 4.5), a cluster of
small-bore tubes, or a series of screens (Figure 4.6) . 161
Variations in the length and number of channels (tubes

or screens) and the gas flow·rate are used as the m~ans of
measuring _the number of particles in a selected size range.
As the gas moves in streamline flow through the channels,
the particles diffuse.
to the walls at ' a predictable rate, depending
on the particle size and the diffusion battery geometry. It
is assumed that every particle which reaches the battery wall
will adhere; therefore, only a fraction of the influent particles
will appear in the effluent of a battery. It is only necessary
to measure the total number concentration of particles at the·
inlet and outlet of the diffusion battery under a number of
conditions in order to calculate the particle-size distribution.
Mathematical expressions in series form for the extent

of penetration by a monodisperse aerosol through a diffusion
battery made with rectangular slots or parallel plates are
available·. 16 3
When the Stokes diameter is used to describe particle size,

the penetration of diffusion batteries is virtually independent
of physical properties of the individual particles. The theory
for diffusional sizing and data.analysis is adequate, although
the size resolution for the system is poor relative to other
methods.
The parallel plate geometry is convenient because of ease

of fabrication and the availability of suitable materials, and
also because sedimentation can be ignored if the slots are ver-
tical, while additional information can be gained through settling,
if the slots are horizontal.
197
1•' \.,
·.
• 0
. '
3726-052
Figure 4·. 5, Para-l'lel plate diffusion battery.
198
/
' • "t : ...
SECTION CONTAINING·
SCREENS
3726-054
Figure 4.6 Screen type diffusion battery.
199
. I
Disadvantages of this equipment are bulk arid the long trans-
port time through the battery required to measure a particle-size
distribution.
When calculating the fraction of the particles which penetrate

a series of diffusion batteries, the transport time for batteries
must be taken into account .. A complete measurement of a particle-
size distribution may require 2-4 hours; thus, diffusional measure-
ments are most applicable to stable sources where the particle-
size distribution is constant in time.
Tube and screen arrangements, which are more compact

than plate batteries, have been found to be suitable in labora-
161 162
tory studies, ' Although the screen-type diffusion battery
must be calibrated empirically, it offers convenience in cleaning
and operation. Figure 4.6 shows the geometry. This apparatus
is commercially available. The diffusion of aerosols in a battery
165
with cylindrical tube geometry has recently been investigated.
The particle-$ize distribution may be calculated from the

data by means of a nomograph prepared using the theoretical
penetration for each diffusion battery geometry and flow rate
for a large number of monodisperse particle sizes and comparison of
this nomograph with experimental penetration values. 160 Alter-
natively, it is sometimes convenient to use a cut point technique
like that used for reduction of ·cascade impactor data. 147 Other
methods have been described. lGG-l&B
Condensation Nuc1ei Counters
Condensation nuclei counters utilize the action of particles

as nuclei for the condensation of water from a supersaturated
vapor. This procedure is used for measurement of particles·
200
in the 0.002 to 0.3 ~m range (condensation or Aitken nuclei).
In most condensation nuclei counters, a sample is withdrawn
from the gas stream, humidified, and brought to supersaturation
by reducing the pressure. In this condition, condensation will
be initiated on all particles larger than a certain critical
size. The process forms a.homogeneous aerosol, predominantly
composed of the condensed vapor containing one drop for each
original particle (condensation nucleus) w.ith a size greater
than the critical size appropriate to the degree of supersatura-
tion obtained; a greater degree of supersatura~ion is used to
initiate growth on smaller particles~ The number of particles
that are formed is estimated from the optical characteristics ·
of the final aerosol.
Both manually operated and automated condensation nuclei

counters are commercially available. 169 - 172 Condens~tion nuclei
counters, like other aerosol sampling instruments, are designed
for laboratory conditions. Minor modifications are usually
required in the application of these instruments to sources
when the particle concentration, or gas temperature and pressure,
may not be within the normal operating ranges.
Elect~ical Mobility Analyze~s
The electrical mobility analyzer is based on the concept

that there is a unique charging rate for each particle size
if the charging region is homogeneous with respect to space
charge density and electric field.
Thus, if the particle charge and mobility are measured,

the particle size can be calculated. These measurements can
be made in the Electrical Aerosol Analyzer, which has recently
201
173 17
become commercially available. ' - A schematic drawing of
the analyzer is shown in Figure 4.7. It is used primarily on
sub-micron partic~es, in the same range covered by condensation
nuclei counters (0.002 to 0.3 ~m).
The Electrical Aerosol Analyzer is being evaluated at present

in field tests on industrial emission sources, which so far
h~ve includ~d an asphalt plant, a clinker cooler. for a Portland
c~ment plant, a kraft paper mill recovery boiler, and one oil-
fired and four .co~l-fired power. boilers. The instrument per-
formed with varying degrees of success, the main difficulty
being a susceptibility to interferences in a high vibration
environment.
The use of electrical mobility as a measure of particle

size is sound in principle. If calibration studies and field
tests show this technique to be accurate and reliable, it could
become the most widely used method for measuring ultrafine part-
icle sizes. It has the distinct advantage of very rapid data
acquisition compared to diffusion,batteries and condensation
nuclei counters (two minutes as opposed to two hours· for a single
174 176
determination of particle-size distribution). -
Disadvantages of the_ electrical mobility technique are

the difficulty ~f predicting the particle charge and the fraction
of the particles bearing a charge. with sufficient accuracy:
and the requirement for sample dilution when making particle-
size distribution measurements in flue gases.
Figure 4.8 shows the agreement between particle-size dis-

tribution values measured simultaneously in the field with dif-
fusional and electrical apparatus. 141
20.2
CONTROL MODULE
ANALYZER 'lUTPUT SIGNAL------
DATA READ COMMAND - · - - - -- DATA
CYCLE START COMMAND- - - - - - ACQUI$1 TION:
CYCLE RESE.T COMM.O.NO------ SYSTEM
AEP.0$01_
CHARGEJI
1..---- ... .J
·AEROSOL fLOWMETER READOUT
._-----f · · · · -· -
CHAA..iEA CURRENT READOUT
.-----f-- ·-·-·CHARGER VOLTAGE READOUT
AUTOMATIC HtGH VOLTAGE CONTROL AND READOuT
ELECTROI<ETER !ANALYZER CURRENT l REArOUT
AEROSOL IN-;~~;;;:~=:!J
SHEATH CK&RGER
AIR .. SEATH
AIR
COOITAOL
\oAUIE
IV
0
w
CHARGER
fii.TER SHEATH AI~
fLOWMETER
ELECTRICAL fo
MOBILITY ji;
ANALYZER
~Jlll !UI.JW
'••CLI:CTAOSTATIC '0RCE.
le~•AI:RODYNMIIC DRAG
TJI&,lCTOR'I' r:11
INDIVIDUAL ltARTICLE.--
I~---..__..
AEROSOL AND
CURRENT
COLLECTING
l
FILTER
IINALYlER SHEATH AlA
3726·067
Figure 4.7 Schematic diagram of the electrical aerosol analyzer. 175
107
INLET OUTLET
•• 0 ELt:CTniCAL
n DIFFUSIONAL
M
• ~-OPTiCAL
1:
...
......,
0
I:
z
0
i=
<(
~
zw
u
z
0
u
w 105
..J
u
....a:
~
c..
w
>
j:
<(
..J
::J
:2
::J
() 104
10 1~.0-1------------~o·.,~-------------1~.0~------------.~,o~.o
PARTICLE DIAMETER, J.lm 3726·053
Figure 4.8 Particle size distributions measured with optical,

·diffusional, and electrical techniques at the inlet
and outlet of an operating electrostatic precipitator. 147
. 204
4.3 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
When possible, in-stack sampling is preferred because it

avoids problems of condensation and sample loss which occur
when probes are used for extractive sampling. Unfortunately,
the existing sub-micron sizing techniques (diffusional mobility
analysis and electrical mobility analysis) do not lend them-
selves to in-stack sampling. Particulate concentrations are
extremely high in an industrial flue gas and vary by orders of
magnitude from one industrial process to another and from the
inlet of a control device to the outlet of the same device.
Temperature, pressure, moisture content, and the physical proper-
ties of the particulate also vary widely from one industrial
process to another. Because of the wide variations in particle
concentration and operating conditions in boiler stacks and
the limited usable concentration range for sizing techniques,
extensive dilution and conditioning of the sample are required.
The temperature of the gas sample must be reduced to the

level at which the measuring instruments can be operated. A
dilution system must be used to reduce the particle concentra-
tion to levels at which the instruments function properly.
Various orifice designs can be used for dilution. Samples with
high moisture content must be dried. A suitable system for
extracting, conditioning, and diluting gas samples is shown
in Figure 4.9. 147 ' 158
Problems involved in sampling include loss of particles
in sample lines and condensation of materials such as sulfuric
acid. Electrostatic charges on fly ash particles can inter-
fere with ruedsur~ments but can be neutralized by exposure of
the sample to a radioactiv~ source.
4.3.1 Sampling f~om High Temperature-High Pressure Gas Streams
Two approaches to the problem of characterizing the parti-

culate emissions in high temperature-high pressure gas streams are
205
SIZING
INSTRUMENT PRESSURE
I BALANCING ..
DILUTION DEVICE '
' LINE ·
DRYER
I\.)
0
--
!
m
·PROCESS EXHAUST LLNE
·. CHARGE NEUTflAUIZER
CYCLONE -- BLEED NO.1
ORIFICE WITH BALL AND SOCKET ORUFICE

JOINTS FOR QUICK RELEASE
SO,._ ABSORBERS (OPTIONAL) t CONDENSER
HEATED INSULATED BOX

RECIRCULATED CLEAN, DR~·.
/r
DILUTION AIR
0 MANOMETER FILTER COOLING COIL

BLEED NO.2.
3726·0~1
Figure- 4.9 System for sample extraction and dilution~lsa
possible: (1) the instruments·may be placed inside the duct
to take samples under typical gas conditions, or (2) a probe
may be employed to cool the sample and reduce the pressure.
Each method has disadvantages. Presumably filters would be
adequate means for measuring mass concentration for in-~
sampling, but there are no particle sizing instruments for which

performance under conditions of high temperature anq pressure
has been established. If a probe is used, it is likely that
the nature of the aerosol will change when the gas stream is
cooled and the pressure reduced, for example, by the condensation
of high boiling point organic substances.
Sampling efforts thus far have involved the use of a probe

to reduce the gas temperature and pressure. 177
4.4 LABaRATORY TECHNIQUES
Several laboratory techniques are used for determining the

particle-size distribution of dusts. They are not as suitable for
analysis of micron and sub-micron particle-size dusts as the
field test methods discussed above. The size distribution of a
flue gas aerosol is continually changing as the resu~t of agglo-
meration, settling, and condensation. It is impossible to re-
disperse the particulate matter exactly as it was in the gas or
to calculate the original size distribution from laboratory
data.
Methods that are used for the measurement of particle size

are optical and electron microscopy, sedimentation, centrifuga-
tion, elutriation, and electrical conductivity.
A commercially available centrifugal particle classifier

(Bahco) is routinely used to measure the size distribution of
powders down to a particle diametei of about 2 ~m. It is the
instrument specified in the American Society of Mechanical En~
gineers Standard Method for determining the particle-size distri-

bution of powders.
207
Various spiral centrifuges that are more sensitive to smaller ·
particles (down to 0.05 ~m) have been developed, but none is
178 181
commercially available yet. -
Air elutriation is the basis of the Roller particle-size

analyzer, which is used for particles down to 5 ~m in diameter.
A sedimentation device is available which measures particle

size by the rate at which the particles settle from a liquid
suspension.
The size distribution of a powder that can be suspended

in a solution of an electrolyt~ can be measured by electrical
conductivity modulation (Coulter Counter).
In spite of their limitations, laboratory methods are the

only methods available for determining particle shape and sur-
face features, particle density and chemical composition, and
the extent of particle agglomeration.
Research on sampling and measurement techniques by the
Environmental Protection Agency is described in the preceding
pages. Other research programs on these topics include the fol-
2 7
lowing, ·supported by the Electric Power Research Institute.
The Denver Research Institute·is developing laboratory

apparatus and procedures for the measurement of electrical resis-
tivity of fine particulate matter (RP 464).
Instrumentation for use with low-pressure cascad~ impactors

in measuring the size distribution of particles in the range
of 0.03 to 30 ~m emitted from coal-fired utility boilers is being
developed at the University o( Washington (RP 414).
An impactor-precipitator for in-stack measurement·of the

particle-size distribution of fly ash in the 0.03-30 ~m size
range is being developed by Meteorology Research, Inc. (RP 463) •
Auger electron spectroscopy is used for measuring the

concentrations of elements on the surface of fly ash particles
208
that may.be responsible for the electrical resistivity character-
istics of fly ash, in a project at Stanford University (RP 631).
A portable instrument containing a novel diffusion battery

for measurement of size distribution of sub-micron particles is
being developed by Air Pollution Technology. The diffusion
battery uses wire screens instead of the customary parallel
channels (RP 723).
A comparison of techniques for measurements of fine

particulate matter is being made in order to provide the utility
industry with procedures to use in emission source testing
(RP 781) .
209
5. CONCLUSIONS
The types of equipment used at present for control of

f~y ash emissions from power plants that burn coal are electro-
static precipitators, ·fabric filter baghouses, and wet scrubbers.
Mechanical collectors (cyclones) are installed in some power
plants ahead of these collectors for removal of the larger ash
particles.
Elcctroctatic precipitators are by far the most widely
used device for fly ash control; they were introduced in this
application in 1930. Fabric filter baghouses and wet scrubbers
were introduced in electrical utility power plants only within
the past several years.
Two environmental problems faced by the electric utility

industry are resulting in changes in the technology of control-
ling fly ash emissions. The amount of western low-sulfur coal
used in the production of electricity is increasing; by 1985,
according to a recent estimate, low-sulfur coal from western
sources will account for about 1/4 of the total production of
coal in the United States. The fly ash from low-sulfur coal
usually has a high electrical resistivity that causes problems
ih collecting it in an electrostatic precipitator.
Also, there is general concern about the possibility

of fine particle emissions of fly ash ·and othei industrial dusts
with particle diameters below about 3 ~m. These particles
contribute little to the total mass of the emissions, but they
add disproportionately to atmospheric haze. They are also poten-
tially hazardous to human health because of their high respira-
bility. Control of fine particle emissions will require improved
performance of all types of collection equipment.
210
In electrostatic precipitators, increased control has
been obtained by designing the equipment to have a larger unit
capacity or to operate at a higher temperature than usual, or
in some existing installations, by adding chemical agents to
the coal or flue gas to increase collectability.
The effects of the fine particle problem on the techniques

of fabric filtration or wet scrubbing have not yet been well
defined. Only within the last few years have measurements been
made that show the collection efficiency of fabric filters for
sub-micron particles to be adequate. As for wet scrubbers,
their overall collection efficiencies are also satisfactory, but,
because of the problems inherent in obtaining valid samples from
the scrubber outlet, fractional collection efficiencies for sub-
micron particles have not yet been measured with sufficient
accuracy.
It is not practical to make precise statements regarding

the comparative costs of the collection devices. The available
data indicate tha·t installed fabric filter baghouses are the most
expensive. However, electrostatic precipitators designed for
efficient collection of fly ash from low-sulfur coal can cost
considerably more than precipitators used in collecting fly as~
from coal containing moderate sulfur contents. The high cost

can be enough that fabric filt~rs become competitive. The paucity
of data on the costs of wet scrubbers for fly ash removal (as
distinct from sulfur dioxide removal) does not permit direct
comparison.
The power requirements of equipment for collecting fly

ash vary from 0.3 to 6% of the output of the electric power
plant. Electrostatic precipitators require about 0.3% of
the plant output, depending on the properties of the fly ash.
Energization of the precipitator uses about 3/4 of this power.
Fabric filter baghouses require 0.5% of the plant output. Wet
scrubbers use the largest amount of power, 5-6% of the plant
output, with half of the power being required to overcome the
relatively high pressure drop in the scrubber.
211
The most common maintenance problems in electrostatic
precipitators are mechanical failure of the discharge electrodes,
due mostly to arcing and corrosion, and rapper malfunction. In
fabric filter baghouses, limited experience with installations
collecting fly ash indicates that the chief maintenance problem
is bag failure due to the occasional development of a high pres-
sure drop, usually due to'failure of timers and other equipment.
Wet scrubbers have problems of scaling and deposition of solids
(mainly calcium sulfate) that accumulate in pipe lines or regions
of low flow rates.
High-energy wet scrubbers have some advantages over the

other devices used for collecting fly ash, e.g., they can be
used to collect sulfur dioxide simultaneously. However, the pro-
blems with scaling and build-up of solids have almost removed
them from competition for fly ash collection only. The pr~valent
attitude in electric utilities appears to favor electrostatic

precipitators and fabric filter baghouses, with scrubbers down-
stream if needed for removing sulfur dioxide.
Research and development efforts aimed at increasing

the effectiveness of fly ash control equipment have produced
several modifications that appear to be useful. In electro-
static precipitators, these modified processes include precharg-
ing th~ fly ash suspended in the .flue gas before it enter.s the
precipitator. This is an attempt to separate the components
of the electrostatic precipitation process so that particle
charging and collection can be carried out separately under
conditions most favorable for each.
In fabric filtration, new developments include fabrics

of metal fibers for high~temperature service and non-woven sup-
ported fabrics with fine fibers designed for improved collection
of fine particles and higher filtration velocities.
212
The limitations of conventional collection devices have
also resulted in new devices or techniques that combine two or
more mechanisms of particle collection. Devices based on hybrid
techniques that appear worth further study and development are
charged-droplet scrubbers, wet electrostatic precipitators, and
granular bed filters.
Charged-droplet scrubbers do not yet appear to have a high
enough collection efficiency for the fine particle fractions
of fly ash to make them economically competitive with conven-
tional collection devices. Wet electrostatic precipitators
can ope_rate with a collection plate area lower than that of
a dry precipitator, but the resulting savings would be largely
used in an increased materials cost.
Granular-bed filters, including fixed-bed filters and
dry scrubbers, can be effectively used for the collection of
particles large enough to be captured by impaction, but they
are less efficient in collecting sub-micron particles. They
can be operated effectively at high temperatures, but whether
the pressure drops involved in the efficient collection of fine_
particles will be prohibitively high remains to be determined.
Adequate sampling and measurement techniques for deter-
mining the concentration of fly ash and its particle-size distri-
bution in flue gases have become available only in the past
few y~ars, and there is still no complete agreement among those
who use the techniques on how to interpret some of the results.
Overall particulate mass concentrations of fly ash are
determined by weighing samples extracted from flue ducts, al-
though in-stack opacity measurements can be used to a limited
extent.
213
Particle size and'size distribution are measured in the
stack by an impactor for particles 0~5-1 ~m in diameter: by
an optical particle counter on an extracted gas sample for par-
ticles 0.3 - 1.5 ~m in diameter: and by diffusion batteries
coupled with condensation nuclei counters operating on an ex-
tracted gas sample for particles 0.002-0.3 ~m in diameter.
Electrical mobility measurement is a new technique that may
displace diffusion measurements for sizing fine particles.
IHli:JLUvt!u scmrpling techniques are copcoially needed tor·

measurements downstream from wet scrubbers.
Cascade impactors and cyclones designed in various com-

binations for collecting spe6ific particle-size fractions are
in an active stage of development.
New instruments being developed for continuous measure-

ment of particle-size distribution and particulate mass con-
centration are based on light scattering or attenuation, beta
radiation attenuation, and electrical charge effects, operated
in-stack or on extracted flue gas samples.
214
REFERENCES
l. Smith, W.S., and c.w. Gruber. Atmospheric Emissions from

Coal Combustion--An Inventory Guide. Public Health Ser-
vice Publication 999-AP-24, Cincinnati, OH, 1966. 112 pp.
2. McCain~ J.D. (Southern Research Institute), unpublished

data.
3. Green, George P. Problems and Control Options Using Low

Sulfur Coal in Utility Boilers. In: Proc. Sympos.
Particulate Control Energy Processes. EPA-600/7-76-010,
u.s. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC, 1976. pp. 53-74.
4. Selle, Stanley J. Factors Affecting ESP Performance on

Western Coals and Experience with North Dakota Lignites.
In: Proc. Sympos. Particulate Control Energy Processes.
EPA-600/7-76-010, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC, 1976. pp. 105-125.
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5. ASTM Standard Specification for Classification of Coals

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8. Magee, E.M., H;J. Hall, and G.M. Varga. Potential Pol-

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PB 225,033.
215
9. Crawford, A.R., E.H. Manny, M.W. Gregory, and w.Bartok.
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for the Charging of Particles by Unipolar Ions. J. Aerosol
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216
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Acoustic Agglomerators in Particulate Emission Control.
Workshop Novel Concepts, Methods Advanced Technol.
Particulate-Gas Separation. Notre Dame, IN, 1977.
284. Scholz, P.D. Effects of Electric and Acoustic Fields on

Particle C~llision Rates in Aerocolloidal Suspensions.
Workshop Novel Concepts, Methods Advanced Technol.
Particulate-Gas Separation. Notre Dame, IN, 1977.
243
285. Hinds, w., E.F. Mallove, and M.W. First. Acoustic and
Turbulent Agglomeration of Sodium Aerosols. workshop
Novel Concepts, Methods Advanced Technol. Particulate-
Gas Separation. NOtre Dame, In, 1977.
286. Thompson, J.K., R.C. Clark, and G.H. Fielding. Dielectro-

phoretic Air Filtration: Progress and Problems. Workshop
Novel Concepts, Methods Advanced Techno!. Particulate-
Gas Separation. Notre Dame, IN, 1977.
287. Leffler, F. The Influence of Electrostatic Forces and or

the Probability of Adhesion for Particle Collection in
Fibrous Filters. Workshop Novel Concepts, Methods Advanced
Technol. Particulate-Gas Separation. Notre Dame., In, 1977.
288. Melcher, J.R. Electrofluidized Beds for Industrial Scale

Air Pollution Control. Workshop Novel Concepts, Methods
Advanced Techno!. Particulate-Gas Separation. Notre Dame,
In, 1977.
289. Helfcitcll, D.J., and T. Ariman. Electrostatic Filtration

and the APITRON/Design and Field Performance. Workshop
·Novel Concepts, Methods Advanced Technol. Particulate-Gas
Separation. Notre Dame, IN, 1977.
290. Edmisten, N.G., and F.L. Bunyard. A Systematic Pro-

cedure for Determining the Cost of Controlling Particulate
Emissions from Industrial Sources. J. Air Pollut. Control
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291. Witz, w., and R.D. MacPhee. Effect of Diffe~ent Types of

Glass Filters on Total Suspended Particulates and Their
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27 ( 3) :239-241, 1977.
292. Dzubay, E.G., L.E. Hines, and R.K. Stevens. Particle

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10(3) :229-234, 1976. .
244
293. Hamil, H.F., and R.E. Thomas. Collaborative Testing of
EPA Methods for Emission Measurements from Fossil Fuel-
Fired Stearn Generators. In: Proc. Workshop Sampling,
Analysis, Monitoring Stack Emissions, Report No. 41,
pp . 18 5-2 0 1.
294. McCain, J.D., J.P. Gooch, and W.B. Smith. Results of

Field Measurements of Industrial Particulate Sources
and Electrostatic Precipitator Performance. In: Proc.
Syrnpos. Electrostatic Precipitators Control Fine Particles.
Research Triangle Park, 1975. pp. 79-99.
295. McCain, J.D., J.P. Gooch, and W.B. Smith. Results of

Field Measurements of Industrial Particulate Sources and
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296. Smith, W.B., K.M. Cushing, and J.D. McCain. Particulate

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Research Triangle Park, NC, October 1974, 60 pp.
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With Emphasis on Sub-Micron Aerosols. In: .Proc. Syrnpos.
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298. Chang, H.C. A Parallel Multicyclone Size Selective
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75(9) :538-545, 1974.
299. Pilat, M.J. Subrnicron Particle Sampling with Cascade

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245
DISTRIBUTION OF ANL/ECT-3, Appendix E
Internal:
E. M. Bohn N. M. O'Fallon
w. L. Buck E. G. Pewitt
E. L. Carls w. F. Podolski
E. J. Croke G. N. Reddy
P. s. Farber ( 7) N. F. Sather
B. L. Graves w. K. Sinclair
H .. s. Huang w. M. Swift
R. o. Ivins s. Vogler
A. A. Janke K. E. Wilzbach (51)
A. B. Krisciunas s. H. Wong
G. Leppert ANL Contract Copy
c. D. Livengood ANL Libraries (5)
R. G. Matlock TIS Files ( 6)
'External:
DOE-TIC (27)
Manager, Chicago Operations Office
Chief, Chicago Patent Group
President, Argonne Universities Association
Energy and Environmental Systems Division Review Committee:
T. G. Frangos, Madison, Wis.
J. H:Gibbons, U. Tennessee
R. E. Gordon, U. Notre Dame
W. Hynan, National Coal Association
D. E. Kash, U. Oklahoma
D. M. McAllister, U. California, Los Angeles
L. R. Pomeroy, U. Georgia
G. A. Rohlich, U. Texas at Austin
R. A. Schmidt, Electric Power Research Inst.
E. E. Angina, U. Kansas
H. Halzhiser, Electric Power Research lnst.
A. J. Buonicore, Entoleter, Inc.
E. R. Frederick, Air Pollution ·control.Association, Pittsburgh
M. Gottlieb, u.s. Department of Energy (25)
D. H. Leith, Harvard University
W. Licht, U. Cincinnati
S. Oglesby, Southern Research Institute (10)
L. W. Rogers, U. Illinois Chicago
E. S. Rubin, Carnegie-Mellon University
A. Squires, Virginia Polytech Inst.
L. Theo4ore, Manhattan College
246

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~g

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL IMPLICATIONS

1977 TECHNOLOGY STATUS REPORT

ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY

I'REPARED FOR --.:--:~-=~-=--- -------::-;;-:--.. . .-

piSTRlBUTION OF TillS DOCU:.Il"ENT IS UNLIMITED

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an

Portions of this document may be illegible in

MEMBERS OF ARGONNE UNIVERSITIES ASSOCIATION

Printed in the United States of America

ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL IMPLICATIONS

1977 TECHNOLOGY STATUS REPORT

_DISTRIBU:r~ON 91!' ~HIS DOCUMENT IS UNLIMIT

The main volume of the report is supplemented by seven

Appendix, Title Subcontractor

A* Coal Preparation and Cleaninq Assessment Bechtel Corp.

available in a timely manner. Inquiries regarding the availabil-

Members of the staff of Southern Research Institute who

Kenneth M. Cushing, Research Physicist

The project manager at Argonne National Laboratory ~ras

Paul S. Farber of the Energy and Environmental Systems Division.

·.··,· . :·•· THlSi·PW.G·E·" ::.i '··.,·

l PARTICULATE EMISSIONS AND CONTROL . 3

2 AVAILABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY 17

2.4.6 Maintenance . 126

3 ADVANCED COLLECTION DEVICES . 132

4 SAMPLING AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 183

·1.1 Estimated size dis-tribution of fly ash particles

2.12 Cost (erected) for cold-side electrostatic precipitators

2.13 Gas volume flow rate for cold-side electrostatic

3.16 Direct interception; path of particle center coincident

No. Title Page

1.1 Properties of Coals Producing the Fly Ash Characterized

2.2 Most Common Maintenance Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.1 Fine Particle Control by Wet Scrubbers ................... l47

Available control technologies (electrostatic

Techniques under development for improving the

Currently available equipment for removal of fly ash from

ThB requirement for reduction of sulfur oxide emissions has

This report discusses the general Lheory of u~~ralion of

Research in the field of control devices is continuing under

. 1. PARTICULATK EMISSIONS AND CONTR.OL

1.1 SOURCES OF FLY ASH

Fly ash is largely produced by the combustion of coal.

The particle-size range and the average particle diameter

Figure 1.1 Estimated size distribution of fly ash particles

0.01~ _______________.________________ ~--------------~

Figure 1.2 Particle size distribution range of fly ash particles

Heating Value, Btu/lb 12,000 12,000 10,000

The chemical composition ot coal, specifically its contents

In comparison with eastern and midwestern coals, western

Coal rank is defined by ranges of values for properties

Although the western coals vary considerably in chemical

Calcium and magnesium contents of western coals may be

Sulfur is generally low in western coals and where it is,,

A recent forecast of the production of bituminous and

The shift from eastern coal to western low-sulfur coal

0.01~ _.__ ~--------------~