Anatomy and Physiology 2.
Spongy Bone- has spiky, open appearance
Midterm Reviewer
CHAPTER 5: The Skeletal System
5.1 BONES, AN OVERVIEW
Skeleton- comes from the Greek word meaning
“dried-up body”.
The Skeleton is composed of:
1. Bones
2. Joints
3. Cartilages
4. Ligaments
LIGAMENTS- fibrous cords that bind the
bones together at joints.
Two parts of Skeleton:
1. Axial Skeleton- bones from longitudinal
axis of the body.
2. Appendicular Skeleton- the bones of the
limbs and girdles that attach them to the
axial skeleton.
5.1a Functions of the Bones
1. SUPPORT- bones, the “steel frame” of the
body, form the internal framework that
supports the body and cradles its soft
organs.
2. PROTECTION- bones protect soft body
organs.
3. ALLOW MOVEMENT- skeletal muscles,
attached to bones by tendons, use the
bones as levers to move the body and its
parts.
4. STORAGE- fat is stored in the internal
(marrow) cavities of bones.
5. BLOOD CELL FORMATION- blood cell
formation, or hematopoiesis, occurs within
the marrow cavities of certain bones.
5.1b Classification of Bones
The adult skeleton is composed of 206 bones.
Two basic types of osseous or bones, tissue:
1. Compact Bone- is dense and looks smooth,
and homogenous.
like a sponge.
Classification of bones according to shape:
 LONG BONES- longer than they are wide.
They have shaft with enlarged ends.
 FLAT BONES- are thin, flattened, and
usually curved. They have two thin layers
of compact bone sandwiching a layer of
spongy bone between them.
 SHORT BONES- cube-shaped and contain
mostly spongy bone with an outer layer of
compact bone.
 Sesamoid Bone- form within
tendons, are a special type of short
bone.
 IRREGULAR BONE- bones that do not fit
one of the preceding categories. Vertebrae,
which make up the spinal column fall into
the group.
IN A LONG BONE…
o DIAPHYSIS- or shaft, makes up most of the
bone’s length and is composed of compact
bone.
o PERIOSTEUM- a fibrous connective tissue
membrane that protects the diaphysis.
o PERFORATING FIBERS or SHARPEY’S
FIBERS- secure the periosteum to the
underlying bone.
o EPIHYSES- are the ends of the long bone.
o ARTICULAR CARTILAGE- a glassy hyaline
cartilage that covers the external surface of
the epiphyses and provides a smooth
surface that decreases friction at the joint
when covered by lubricating fluid.
IN ADULT BONES…
o EPIPHYSEAL LINE- a thin line of bony
tissue spanning the epiphysis that looks a
bit different from the rest of the bone in
that area.
o EPIPHYSEAL PLATE- remnant from
epiphyseal line. A flat plate of hyaline
cartilage seen in young, growing bone.
o ENDOSTEUM- a delicate connective tissue
that covers the inner bony surface of the
shaft.

IN INFANTS…
o MEDULLARLY CAVITY- the cavity of the
shaft that is a storage area for red marrow,
which produces blood cells.
o Yellow Marrow- stores adipose (fat)
tissue and appear upon the
children’s bone age of 6 & 7.
BONE MARKINGS
-reveal where muscles, tendons, and
ligaments attach and where blood vessels and
nerves pass.
Two Categories of Bone Markings:
1. Projections or Processes- which grow out
form the bone surface.
2. Depression or Cavities- which are
indentations in the bone.
Projections that are sites of muscle and
ligaments attachment:
 TUBEROSITY- large, rounded projection;
may be roughened.
 CREST- narrow ridge of bone; usually
prominent.
 TROCHANTER- very large, blunt irregularly
shaped process.
 LINE- narrow ridge of bone; less prominent
than a crest.
 TUBERCLE- small, rounded projection or
process.
 EPICONDYLE- raised area on or above the
condyle.
 SPINE- sharp, slender, often pointed
projection.
 PROCESS- any bone prominence.
Projections that help to form joints:
 HEAD- bone expansion carried on a
narrow neck.
 FACET- smooth, nearly flat articular
surface.
 CONDYLE- rounded articular projection.
 RAMUS- armlike bar of bone.
Depressions and openings:
 GROOVE- furrow.
 FISSURE- narrow, slit like opening.
 FORAMEN- round or oval opening through
a bone.
 NOTCH- indentation at the edge of a
structure.
Others…
 MEATUS- canal or tunnel like passageway.
 SINUS- cavity within a bone, filled with air
and lined with mucous membrane.
 FOSSA- shallow, basin like depression in a
bone, often serving as an articular surface.
Microscopic Anatomy
TRABECULAE- a small needlelike pieces of
bone that is present in spongy bone. It has
lots of “open space” and is filled by marrow,
blood vessels and nerves.
IN COMPACT BONE…
 OSTEOCYTES- a mature bone cells.
 LACUNAE- tiny cavities in the bone matrix.
 LAMELLAE- a concentric circle when
lacunae are arranged around a central
canal or Haversian canal.
 OSTEON or HAVERSIAN SYSTEM-
consisting of a central canals and matrix
rings. It is the structural and functional
unit of compact bone.
 CANALICULI- tiny canals that radiate
outward from the central canals to all
lacunae.
 PERFORATING CANALS (VOLKMANN’S
CANALS)- completes the communication
pathway from the outside of the bone to its
interior and run in the compact bone at
right angles to the shaft (diaphysis) and
central canals.
 5.1d Bone Formation, Growth, and
Remodeling
BONE FORMATION AND GROWTH
 OSSIFICATION- the process of bone
formation.
 OSTEOBLASTS- bone-building cells.
 APPOSITIONAL GROWTH- a process by
which bones increase in diameter.
 GROWTH HORMONE- the most important
hormones.
 SEX HORMONES- occur during puberty
and ends during adolescence.
BONE REMODELING
NOTE: Bone is a dynamic and active tissue.
Two factors of bone remodeling:
1. Calcium ion level in the blood.
2. The pull of gravity and muscles on the
skeleton.
 OSTEOCLASTS- giant bone-destroying
cells in bones, to break down bone matrix
and release calcium ions into the blood.
 HYPERCALCEMIA- when the blood ion
level is too high.
 BONE REMODELING- retaining normal
proportions and strength during long bone
growth as the body increases in size and
weight.
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
o RICKETS- is a disease of children in which
the bones fail to calcify.
5.1e Bone Fractures
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
o FRACTURE- where bones are susceptible.
It results from exceptional trauma that
twists or smashes the bones.
REDUCTION- a process where a fractur can be
treated through the realignment of the broken
bone ends, followed by immobilizations.
CLOSED REDUCTION- the bone ends are
coaxed back into their normal position by the
physician’s hands.
OPEN REDUCTION- surgery is performed, and
the bone ends are secured together with pins
or wires.
Common Types of Fractures:
1. Comminuted- bone breaks into three or
more fragments.
2. Compression- bone is crushed.
3. Depressed- broken bone is pressed inward.
4. Impacted- broken bone ends are forced
into each other.
5. Spiral- ragged break occurs when excessive
twisting forces are applied to a bone.
6. Greenstick- bone breaks incompletely,
much in the way a green twig breaks.
Four Major Events of Repair of Bone
Fractures:
1. A Hematoma forms- blood vessels are
ruptured when the bone breaks.
2. A Fibrocartilage callus forms- two early
events of tissue repair are the growth of
new capillaries (granulation tissue) into the
clotted blood at the site of the damage and
disposal of dead tissue by phagocytes.
o Fibrocartilage Callus- form from the
connective tissue cells of various types
form internal and external masses of repair
tissue.
3. The Bone Callus forms- as more
osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate into
the area and multiply, the fibrocartilage
callus is gradually replaced by the bony
callus made of spongy bone.
4. Bone Remodeling occurs- the bonny callus
is remodeled in response to the mechanical
stresses placed on it, so that it forms a
strong, permanent “patch” at the fracture
site.
 5.2 AXIAL SKELETON
The skeleton is divided into two parts, the
axial and appendicular skeletons.
AXIAL SKELETON- forms the longitudinal
axis of the body.
Three Parts of Axial Skeleton:
 Skull
 Vertebral Column
 Thoracic Cage
5.2a Skull
SKULL- is formed into two sets of bones.
o Cranium- encloses and protects the
fragile brain tissue.
o Facial Bones- form a cradle for the
eyes that is open to the anterior and
allow the facial muscles to show our
feelings through smiles or frowns.
SUTURES- joined the bone of the skulls
together, which are interlocking, immovable
joints.
MANDIBLE- (jawbone) that is attached to the
rest of the skull by a freely movable joint.
CRANIUM
The boxlike cranium is composed of eight
large flat bones. Except for two sets of paired
bones (the parietal and temporal), they are all
single bones.
FRONTAL BONE- The frontal bone forms the
forehead, the bony projections under the
eyebrows, and the superior part of each eye’s
orbit.
PARIETAL BONE- he paired parietal bones
form most of the superior and lateral walls of
the cranium.
 Sagittal Suture- formed at the midline
where the two parietal bones meet.
 Coronal Suture- is formed where the
paired parietal bones meet the frontal
bone.
TEMPORAL BONE- The temporal bones lie
inferior to the parietal bones and join them at
the squamous sutures.
Bone Markings Appear on the Temporal
Bones:
1. External Acoustic Meatus- is a canal that
leads to the eardrum and the middle ear.
2. Styloid Process- a sharp, needlelike
projection, is just inferior to the external
auditory meatus.
3. Zygomatic Process- is a thin bridge of bone
that joins with the cheekbone (zygomatic
bone) anteriorly.
4. Mastoid Process- which is full of air cavities
(the mastoid sinuses), is a rough projection
posterior and inferior to the external
acoustic meatus.
o Mastoiditis- a condition where the
mastoid sinuses are so close to the
middle ear—a high-risk spot for
infections—that they may become
infected too.
5. Jugular Foramen- at the junction of the
occipital and temporal bones, allows
passage of the jugular vein, the largest vein
of the head, which drains blood from the
brain.
o Internal Acoustic Meatus- which
transmits cranial nerves VII and VIII
(the facial and vestibulocochlear
nerves).
o Carotid Canal- anterior to the
jugular foramen on the skull’s
inferior aspect, through which the
internal carotid artery runs,
supplying blood to most of the
brain.
OCCIPITAL BONE- bone is the most posterior
bone of the cranium. It forms the base and
back wall of the skull.
o Lambdoid Suture- where the occipital
bone joins the parietal bones anteriorly.
 o Foramen Magnum- “large hole”, a large
opening in the base of the occipital
bone.
o Occipital Condyles- a rocker like which
is Lateral to the foramen magnum on
each side.
SPHENOID BONE- The butterfly-shaped
sphenoid bone spans the width of the skull
and forms part of the floor of the cranial
cavity.
o Sella Turcica- or Turk’s Saddle, a small
depression in the midline of the
sphenoid that forms a snug enclosure
for the pituitary gland.
o Foramen Ovale- a large oval opening in
line with the posterior end of the Sella
turcica.
o Optic Canal- an opening which allows
the optic nerve to pass to the eye.
o Superior Orbital Fissure- a slit like
opening through which the cranial
nerves controlling eye movements pass.
o Sphenoidal Sinuses- the central part of
the sphenoid bone is riddled with air
cavities.
ETHMOID BONE- is very irregularly shaped
and lies anterior to the sphenoid.
o Crista Galli- literally a “cock’s comb”
which is projecting from its superior
surface.
o Cribriform Plate- holey areas on each
side of the Crista Galli. It also allows
nerve fibers carrying impulses from the
olfactory (smell) receptors of the nose to
reach the brain.
o Superior Nasal Conchae and Middle
Nasal Conchae- are the extensions of
the ethmoid bone that form part of the
lateral walls of the nasal cavity.
FACIAL BONES
Fourteen bones make up the face. Twelve are
paired; only the mandible and vomer are
single.
MAXILLAE- The two maxillae, or maxillary
bones, fuse to form the upper jaw. They are
the main, or “keystone,” bones of the face.
o Alveolar Process- where the maxillae
carry the upper teeth.
o Palatine Process- extensions of the
maxillae that form he anterior part of
the hard palate of the mouth.
o Sinuses- it is present in the maxillae,
which drain into the nasal passages.
o Paranasal Sinuses- whose naming
reveals their position surrounding the
nasal cavity, lighten the skull bones
and amplify the sounds we make as we
speak.
PALATINE BONES- the paired palatine bones
lie posterior to the palatine processes of the
maxillae.
o Cleft Palate- results from failure of
these or the palatine processes to fuse
medially.
ZYGOMATIC BONES- the zygomatic bones are
commonly referred to as the cheekbones.
LACRIMAL BONES- are fingernail-sized bones
forming part of the medial wall of each orbit.
Each lacrimal bone has a groove that serves
as a passageway for tears.
NASAL BONES- the small rectangular bones
forming the bridge of the nose are the nasal
bones.
VOMER BONE- The single bone in the median
line of the nasal cavity is the vomer. It
separates the two nostrils.
INFERIOR NASAL CONCHAE- The inferior
nasal conchae are thin, curved bones
projecting medially from the lateral walls of
the nasal cavity.
MANDIBLE- the mandible, or lower jaw, is the
largest and strongest bone of the face. It joins
the temporal bones on each side of the face,
forming the only freely movable joints in the
skull.
o Body- the horizontal part of the
mandible, which forms the chin.
o Rami- two upright bars of bone, which
extend from the body to connect the
mandible with the temporal bone.
 o Alveoli (Sockets)- where the lower teeth
are located in the alveolar process at
the superior edge of the mandibular
body.
THE HYOID BONE- is closely related to the
mandible and temporal bones. The hyoid bone
is unique in that it is the only bone of the
body that does not articulate (form a joint)
with any other bone.
5.2b Vertebral Column (Spine)
Serving as the axial support of the body, the
vertebral column, or spine, extends from the
skull, which it supports, to the pelvis, where it
transmits the weight of the body to the lower
limbs.
Before birth, the spine consists of 33
separate bones called vertebrae, but 9 of
these eventually fuse to form the two
composite bones, the sacrum and
the coccyx.
OF THE 24 SINGLE BONES…
7 vertebrae of the neck are CERVICAL
VERTEBRAE
12 are THORACIC VERTEBRAE
5 supporting the lower back are LUMBAR
VERTEBRAE
 INTERVERTEBRAL DISCIS- a pads of
flexible fibrocartilage that separates the
individual vertebrae. It cushions the
vertebrae and absorb shock while allowing
the spine flexibility.
 PRIMARY CURVATURES- the spinal
curvatures in the thoracic and sacral
regions.
 SECONDARY CURVATURES- the
curvatures in the cervical and lumbar
regions.
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE: Abnormal
Spinal Curvature
o SCOLIOSIS
o KYPHOSIS
o LORDOSIS
Common Features of Vertebrae (Structural
Pattern)
 Body, or Centrum- disclike, weight-
bearing part of the vertebra facing
anteriorly in the vertebral column.
 Vertebral Arch- arch formed from the
joining of all posterior extensions, the
laminae and pedicles, from the vertebral
body.
 Vertebral Foramen- canal through which
the spinal cord passes.
 Transverse Processes- two lateral
projections from the vertebral arch.
 Spinous Processes- single projection
arising from the posterior aspect of the
vertebral arch (actually the fused laminae).
 Superior Articular Process and Inferior
Articular Process- paired projections
lateral to the vertebral foramen, allowing a
vertebra to form joints with adjacent
vertebrae.
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
The seven cervical vertebrae (identified as C1
to C7) form the neck region of the spine.
 ATLAS- (C1) has no body. This joint allows
you to nod “yes.”
 AXIS- (C2) acts as a pivot for the rotation
of the atlas (and skull) above. It has a large
upright process.
 DENS- which acts as the pivot point. The
joint between C1 and C2 allows you to
rotate your head from side to side to
indicate “no.”
 TYPICAL CERVICAL VERTEBRAE- are C3
through C7. They are the smallest, lightest
vertebrae, and most often their spinous
processes are short and divided into two
branches.
THORACIC VERTEBRAE
The 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1 to T12) are all
typical. They are larger than the cervical
vertebrae and are distinguished by the fact
that they are the only vertebrae to articulate
with the ribs.
 COSTAL FACETS- an articulating surface
which receive the head of the ribs.
LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
The five lumbar vertebrae (L1 to L5) have
massive, blocklike bodies that are shaped
somewhat like a kidney bean. These are the
sturdiest of the vertebrae.
SACRUM
It is formed by the fusion of five vertebrae.
Superiorly it articulates with L5, and inferiorly
it connects with the coccyx.
 ALA- a winglike that articulates laterally
with the hip bone, forming a sacroiliac
joint.
 MEDIAN SACRAL CREST- roughened the
posterior midline surface, which is the
fused spinous processes of the sacral
vertebrae. This is flanked laterally by the
posterior sacral foramina.
 SACRAL CANAL- where the vertebral canal
continues inside the sacrum.
 SACRAL HIATUS- where it terminates in a
large inferior opening.
COCCYX
Is formed from the fusion of three to five tiny,
irregularly shaped vertebrae. It is the human
“tailbone,” a remnant of the tail that other
vertebrate animals have.
5.2 Thoracic Cage
The bony thorax is routinely called the
thoracic cage because it forms a protective
cage of slender bones and cartilages around
the organs of the thoracic cavity (heart, lungs,
and major blood vessels).
Make Up the Bony Thorax…
 Sternum
 Ribs
STERNUM
The sternum (breastbone) is a typical flat bone
and the result of the fusion of three bones:
1. Manubrium
2. Body
3. Xiphoid Process
It is attached directly to the first seven pairs
of ribs via costal cartilages.
Three Important Bony Landmarks of Sternum:
1. Jugular Notch- (concave upper border of
the manubrium) can be palpated easily;
generally, it is at the level of the third
thoracic vertebra.
2. Sternal Angle- results where the
manubrium and body meet at a slight
angle to each other, so that a transverse
ridge is formed at the level of the second
ribs.
3. Xiphisternal Joint- the point where the
sternal body and xiphoid process fuse, lies
at the level of the ninth thoracic vertebra.
o Sternal Puncture- a procedure where a
needle is inserted into the marrow of the
sternum, and the sample is withdrawn.
RIBS
Twelve pairs of ribs form the walls of the
bony thorax.
o TRUE RIBS- the first seven pairs, attach
directly to the sternum by costal cartilages.
o FALSE RIBS- the next five pairs, either
attach indirectly to the sternum or are not
attached to the sternum at all.
 FLOATING RIBS- are the last two pairs
of false ribs that lack the sternal
attachments.
o INTERCOSTAL SPACES- spaces between
the ribs that are filled with the intercostal
muscles, which aid in breathing.