Dot 30334 DS1

It
662 sport No. FHWA/RD-81/075

.A3
no
FF WA-
RD -
81-075
ROUNDWATER CONTROL IN TUNNELING
Vol. 3. Recommended Practice
April 1982
Final Report
Prepared for
U.S. Department of Transportation

Federal Highway Administration
Offices of Research & Development

Structures and Applied Mechanics Division
Washington, D.C. 20590
Document is available to the U.S. public through
the National Technical Information Service
Springfield, Virginia 22161
FOREWORD
This volume summarizes the authors' recommendations for controlling groundwater

during underground construction and thereafter during the life of the tunnel.
The use of example problems typical of a broad range of site and tunnel situa-
tions emphasizes the applicability of the alternate control methods.
Sufficient copies of the report are being distributed to provide two copies
to each regional office, one copy to each division office, and two copies to
each State highway agency. Direct distribution is being made to the division
offices.
Charles F. Scheffey"
Director, Office of Research
NOTICE
This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the Department of

Transportation in the interest of information exchange. The United States
Government a-ssumes no liability for its contents or use thereof.
The contents of this report reflect the views of the contractor, who is
responsible for the accuracy of the data presented herein. The contents
do not necessarily reflect the official policy of the Department of
Transportation.
This report does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation.
The United States Government does not endorse products or manufacturers.

Trade or manufacturers' names appear herein only because they are considered
essential to the object of this document.
Technical Report Documentation Page
I. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.
FHWA/RD-81/075
Ti.u and Report Date
4. subtitle
GROUNDWATER CONTROL IN. TUNNELING 5.
VOL. 3 - Recommended Practice April 1982

6. Performing Organization Code
8. Performing Organization Report No.

7. Author's)
J.D. Guertin, W.H. McTigue 2211

9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)
Goldberg-Zoino & Associates, Inc. 35B1-112

11. Contract or Grant No.
30 Tower Road
Newton Upper Falls, Massachusetts 02164 DOT-FH-11-9516
13. Type of Report ond Period Covered
12. Sponsoring Agency Nome ond Address FINAL

Department of Transportation September 1978 - June 1981
Office of Research, Structures and Applied Mechanics 14. Sponsoring Agency Code
Division, Washington, DC 20590
15. Supplementary Notes
1) Principal Subcontractors Ground/Water Technology, Inc. and
Jacobs Associates,
2) FHWA Contract Manager: J.R. Sallberg (HRS-11)
16. Abstroct
This volume summarizes Volumes 1 and 2 and presents guidelines for re-
commended best practice in a concise format. Design and construction
details not included in the more general descriptive nature of Volumes
1 and 2 are included herein.
The final chapter of this volume is a discussion and recommendations

for possible implementation of innovative methods and for further
research.
Three companion volumes include:
ume 1 : Groundwater Control Systems for Urban

Tunneling (FHWA/RD~81/073)
ume 2: Preventing Groundwater Intrusion into
Completed Transportation Tunnels
JUI b li5d -
'
(FHWA/RD-81/074)
E>ecutive Summary (FHWA/RD-81/076)
LIBRARY
17. Key Words 18. Distribution Statement
Groundwater Control No Restrictions. Document is available

Dewatering through the National Technical
Transportation Tunnels Information Services,
Tunnel Construction Springfield, VA 22161
19. Security Clossif. (of this report) 20. Security Clossif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price
Unclassified Unclassified 220
Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized

PREFACE
This is Volume 3 of a three-volume series devoted to ground-

water control during and after construction of transportation
tunnels in urban areas. The work presented herein is a compilation
of direct experience of the principal authors, along with that
of selected contractors and consultants familiar with groundwater
control methods.
Volume 1 discusses methods for controlling groundwater

during construction of tunnels.
Volume 2 discusses methods for controlling groundwater
during the life of the tunnel.
Volume 3 is a compilation of Volumes 1 and 2 into a concise

format, including example problems plus recommendations for
future investigations.
The work has been sponsored by the Federal Highway Adminis-

tration of the U.S. Department of Transportation, Office of
Research Structures and Applied Mechanics Division.
Individuals outside of the performing organizations who gave

freely of their time and expertise included:
Mr. Robert S. Mayo - Robert S. Mayo & Associates,

Washington, D.C.
Mr. Richard Redmond - MacLean Grove & Company,

Greenwich, Connecticut
Mr. Joseph Bhore - Perini Corporation,

_ Framingham, Massachusetts
Mr. John A. Shuster - Geofreeze,

Lorton, Virginia
Mr. Robert M. Snyder - Tekken Construction Co. Ltd.,

Walnut Creek, California
Mr. Joseph Welch - Hayward Baker Co.,

Odenton, Maryland
li
VOLUME 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
PREFACE ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
LIST OF FIGURES viii
LIST OF TABLES xiii
APPLICABLE SI UNIT CONVERSIONS xiv
1.00 INTRODUCTION
2.00 EVALUATION OF SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS 2

2.10 GENERAL 2
2.20 PRELIMINARY PHASE 2
2.30 DESIGN PHASE 7
2.40 CONSTRUCTION OBSERVATION PHASE 10
3.00 METHOD SELECTION 13

3.10 GENERAL 13
3.20 DURING CONSTRUCTION 20
3.30 SELECTION OF GROUNDWATER CONTROL 25
METHODS IN COMPLETED TUNNELS
3.31 Cast-in-Place Concrete 25
3.32 Waterproofing Membranes 25
3.33 Segmented Tunnel Linings 32
3.34 Grouting 32
3.35 Diaphragm Cutoff Walls 33
3.36 Permanent Groundwater Lowering 33
by Drainage
3.37 Sunken Tube Tunnels 33
4.00 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF GROUNDWATER 34

CONTROL METHODS FOR URBAN TUNNELING
4.10 DEWATERING SYSTEMS 34
4.11 General Design Considerations 34
4.12 Design of Well Systems 39
4.13 Design of Wellpoint Systems 42
4.14 Design of Ejector Systems 44
4.15 Construction of Dewatering Systems 46
4.20 RECHARGE SYSTEMS 47
4.21 Design 47
4.22 Construction 48
in
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd.)
Section Page
4.30 CUT OFFS 49

4.31 Steel Sheeting 49
4.32 Diaphragm Walls & Cutoff Trenches 51
4.33 Slurry Trenches 58
4.34 Thin Wall Cut Offs 58
4.35 Additional Construction 58
Considerations
4.4 GROUTING 61
4.41 Design 62
4.50 FREEZING 83
4.51 Design 83
4.60 COMPRESSED AIR 89
4.61 Design 89
4.70 SLURRY AND EARTH PRESSURE BALANCE (EPB) 92
SHIELDS
4.71 Design 92
4.80 ELECTRO-OSMOSIS 100
4.81 Design 100
4.90 EXAMPLES OF GROUNDWATER CONTROL DURING 103
CONSTRUCTION
4.90.1 EXAMPLE 1 - CUT-AND-COVER 104
TUNNEL IN UNIFORM GRANULAR SOIL
TUNNEL IN UNIFORM GRANULAR SOIL
OVERLAIN BY ORGANIC SILT
TUNNEL IN STRATIFIED SILT
AND SAND
"4.90.4 EXAMPLE 4 - CUT-AND-COVER 113
TUNNEL IN CLAYEY SILT UNDERLAIN
BY GRAVELLY SAND BELOW BOTTOM
OF EXCAVATION
TUNNEL IN STRATIFIED SILT AND
SAND AND FRACTURED BEDROCK
4.90.6 EXAMPLE 6 - BORED TUNNEL IN 120
UNIFORM GRANULAR SOIL
UNIFORM GRANULAR SOIL OVERLAIN
BY ORGANIC SILT
IV
Section Page

STRATIFIED SILT AND SAND
CLAYEY SILT UNDERLAIN BY
GRAVELLY SAND
4.90.10 EXAMPLE 10 - BORED TUNNEL 133
IN STRATIFIED SILT AND SAND
OVERLYING FRACTURED ROCK
FRACTURED ROCK
5.00 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF SYSTEMS TO PREVENT 139

INTRUSION OF GROUNDWATER INTO COMPLETED TUNNELS
5.10 GENERAL 139
5.20 CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE 139
5.21 Concrete Design 139
5.22 Concrete Construction 140
5.23 Construction Joints 143
5.24 Contraction Joints 143
5.25 Expansion Joints 150
5.26 Waterstops 150
5.30 APPLIED ENVELOPES 150
5.31 Built-up Membrane Waterproofing 152
Systems
5.32 Preformed Multi-Layered Board 153
5.33 Plastic and Synthetic Rubber 156
Sheeting
5.34 Cold, Liquid-Applied Waterproofing 159
5.35 Bentonite Panels and Spray 159
5.36 Cementitious Waterproof Coatings 163
5.40 SEGMENTED LININGS 164
5.50 GROUTING 167
5.51 Chemical Grouting for Cut-And-Cover 167
and Soft Ground Tunnels
5.52 Consolidation Grouting of Rock 167
Tunnels
5.53 Annular Space Grouting in Soft 172
Ground Tunnels
5.54 Contact Grouting of Concrete 172
Linings in Soft Ground Tunnels
5.55 Contact Grouting in Concrete 174
Linings in Rock Tunnels
5.60 CUT OFFS 174
5.70 SUNKEN TUBE TUNNELS 176
v
Section Page
6.00 MAINTENANCE, AND MONITORING CONSIDERATIONS 181

DURING CONSTRUCTION
6.10 MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS 181
6.20 MONITORING OF DEWATERING SYSTEMS 181
6.30 MONITORING OF RECHARGE SYSTEMS 183
6.40 MONITORING CUTOFFS 184
6.50 MONITORING OF GROUTING SYSTEMS 184
6.60 MONITORING FREEZING SYSTEMS
6.70 MONITORING COMPRESSED AIR, SLURRY 186
AND EARTH PRESSURE BALANCE SHIELD
METHODS
6.80 MONITORING ELECTRO-OSMOSIS 188
7.00 MAINTENANCE OF GROUNDWATER CONTROL SYSTEMS 189

IN COMPLETED TUNNELS
7.10 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES 189
TO REDUCE MAINTENANCE
7.20 NORMAL MAINTENANCE PROGRAM 189
7.21 Preventive Maintenance 189
7.22 Monitoring Leakage 190
7.23 Repair Methods 191
7.30 UNUSUAL MAINTENANCE 193
8.00 LEGAL AND CONTRACTUAL CONSIDERATIONS 195

8.10 CONTRACT DOCUMENT 195
8.11 Basic Elements 195
8.12 Executionl96
8.20 ALLOCATION OF RISK 198
8.21 Environmental 198
8.22 Communications 199
8.23 Procedural 199
8.30 _ SAMPLES OF CURRENT PRACTICE IN SPECIFYING 200
CONTROL METHODS FOR PERMANENT STRUCTURES
8.31 Cut-and-Cover Structures 201
8.32 Soft Ground Tunnel Structures 202
8.33 Rock Tunnel Structures 202
9.00 RECOMMENDED AREAS FOR ADDITIONAL STUDY 204

9.10 OVERVIEW 204
9.20 SPECIALTY CONTRACTOR INVOLVEMENT IN DESIGN 204
9.30 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION 205
9.40 PRE-QUALIFICATION 205
9.50 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION 205
9.60 IMPROVED GROUTING TECHNIQUES 205
VI
Section Page
9.70 APPLICABILITY OF SLURRY AND EARTH 206

PRESSURE BALANCE SHIELDS
9.80 SUITABILITY OF GROUNDWATER CONTROL 206
METHODS IN COMPLETED TUNNELS
Vll
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Title ; Page
1 Flow Chart for Use of Selection Matrices 14
2 Legend Applicable to Method Selection 15

Matrices
3 Notes Applicable to Method Selection 16

Matrices
4 Groundwater Control Method Selection 17

Matrices for Cut-and-Cover Tunnels
5 Groundwater Control Method Selection 18

Matrices for Bored Tunnels
6 Method Selection Matrices for Pressure 19

Relief
7a Typical Pumping Test Array 36
7b Field Permeability Test Methods 37
8 Typical Deep Well 40
9 Typical Wellpoint Installations 43
10 Typical Ejector System 45
11 Penetration of Sheeting Required to Prevent 50

Piping in Isotropic Sand
12 Sources of Leakage Associated with Steel 52
Sheet Cut-Offs
13 Schematic of Conventional Cast-in-Place 53
Slurry Wall
14 Slurry Trench Panel Sequence 54
15 Injection Beam Grouting 55
16 Cast-in-Place Slurry Walls - Typical 56

Joint Details
17 Pre-Cast Slurry Walls - Typical 57

Joint Details
vm
LIST OF FIGURES (Cont'd.)
Figure No. Title Page
18 Viscosities of Various Grouts 65
19 Effect of Setting Time on Viscosity 66

for Silica Gel
20 Operational Principal of Tube-a-Manchette 69
21 Drainage and Rock Grouting Pattern for 70

Rail Tunnel in Oslo
22 Rock Grouting Pattern for Tunnels in 71

Gothenberg, Sweden
23 Sequence of Grouting Operations Using 72

Pilot Tunnel to Advance Tunnel Face
24 Rock Grouting Pattern for Second 73

Dartfort Tunnel
25 Grouting for Groundwater Control in 74

Cut-and-Cover Excavations
26 Grouting for Groundwater Control in 75

Cut-and-Cover Excavations (cont'd.)
27 Grouting of Cuisen Sand in Tunnel . 76

Tube Bed, Paris Metro
28 Grouting Scheme, Karplatz Station, Vienna 77
29 Rock Grouting Pattern for Tunnels, 78

Stockholm Underground
30 Grouting from Galleries, Auber Station, 79
Paris Metro
31 Schematic of Split Spacing Surface 82

Application
32 Generalized Relationship Between Freeze 84
Pipe Size, Spacing and Time
33 Ground Freezing for Sewer Tunnel, 86

New York City
34 Ground Freezing Under Tokyo River 87
IX
35 Ground Freezing for Tunnels, 88

Helsinki Metro
36 Schematic of Slurry Shield 93
37 Schematics of Earth Pressure Balance 94

Shields
38 Japanese Tail Seals 95
39 A British Tail Seal 96
40 Soil Gradation Guidelines for Efficient 99

Operation of Slurry and Earth Pressure
Balance Shields
41a Electro-Osmotic Flow Versus Water Content 101

in Clay-Water-Electrolyte Svstems
41b Variations in Electro-Osmotic Permeability 101

with Water Content and Electrolyte Content
and Electrolyte Content for Illitic and
Silty Clay
42 Example 1, Cross Section 105
46 -Example 5, Cross Section 118
x
53 Thickness of Cover and Permeability 141
54 Repair of Wall Defects - Cracks 144
55 Repair of Wall Defects - Cold Joints 145
56 Repair of Wall Defects - Expansion Joints 146
57 Construction Details - Longitudinal Joints 147
58 Construction Details - Transverse Joints 148
59 Contraction Joint Details 149
60 Typical Waterstop Configurations 151
61 Typical Built-up Waterproofing 154

Membrane Systems
62 Typical Preformed Multi-Layered 155

Board Showing Types of Piles
63 Typical Membrane Splicing Details 158
64 Typical Bentonite Panel Installations 160
65 Typical Installations of Bentonite 162

Spray and Associated Products
66 Typical Channel Section Segments 165
67 Dungeness Tunnel Lining 166
68 Sample Concrete Segment Gaskets (Egypt, West 168

Germany) (From ClRIA Report 81, Ref.25)
69 Sample Concrete Segment Gaskets (W. Germany, 169
Japan) (From CIRIA Report 81, Ref.25)
70 Sample Concrete Segment Gaskets (W. Germany) l"70
(From CIRIA Report 81, Ref.25)
71 Sample Concrete Segment Gaskets (Duct Gaskets) ^71
(From CIRIA Report 81, Ref.25)
72 Isometric View of a Circular Steel-Shell 177
Unit and Joint
XI
LIST OF FIGURES (Cont'd .)
73 Joint Sealing Details for Concrete Box 179

Tubes (Waterstops) (From Janssen, Ref.73)
74 Joint Sealing Details for Concrete Box 180
Tubes (Gaskets) (From Jannsen. Ref.73)
75 Grouting Volume Required to Fill Pore 185
Space Radially Around Grout Point
76 Guidelines for Grouting Pressures 187

in Rock
XII
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Title Page
1 Summary of Site Investigation 3

Techniques for Evaluation of
Groundwater Control
2 Summary of Major Sources of 6

Available Geotechnical Data
3 Common Geophysical Methods 8

Employed from the Ground Surface
for Groundwater Studies
4 Common Geophysical Methods Employed 9

in Boreholes for Groundwater Studies
5 Summary of Groundwater Constituents 11

Affecting Dewatering Systems
6 Summary of Groundwater Control 12

Monitoring Instruments
7 Summary of Groundwater Control 22

Methods During Construction
8 Summary of Methods to Exclude 26

Water from Completed Tunnels
9 Properties of Bentonite Fluid 60

Pertinent to Slurry Wall Construction
10 Grout Applications in Soil 63
11 Grout Applications in Rock 64
12 Relative Costs of Grout Materials 68
13 Types of Injection Pipes 81
14 Selected Hours of Labor and 90

Decompression Times, U.S.
Department of Labor
15 Sample Tunnel Consolidation Grouting 173

Specifications
16 Sample Tunnel Contact Grouting 175

Specifications
xin
.
APPLICABLE SI UNIT CONVERSIONS
AREA
1 acre 4047 sq. m.

1 sq. in 6.4 5 sq. cm.
1 sq. ft 0.0929 sq. m,
1 sq. mi 2.59 sq. km.
DENSITY
1 lb. mass/cu. ft, 16.018 kg/cu. m,
FLOW
1 gallon/min. 0.06 3 l./sec.

1 gallon/min. 0.00379 cu. m./min
FORCE
1 lb. force 4.448 Newtons

1 kg. - force 9.807 Newtons
LENGTH
1 in. 25.4 mm.

1 ft. 0. 3048 m.
1 yd. 0.9144 m.
1 mi 1.609 km.
1 mil 0.0254 mm.
PRESSURE AND STRESS
1 lb. per sq. in. 6.895 x 10" Pa

1 atm. 1.013 x 10? Pa
1 kg-force/sq. cm. 9.807 x 10 Pa
1 bar 1 x 10 Pa,
1 kip/sq. in. 6.895 x 10 & Pa
1 lb-force/sq. ft, 47.88 Pa.
VOLUME
1 cu. in. = 16.4 cu. cm.

1 cu. ft. = 0.0283 cu. m.
1 cu. yd. = 0. 765 cu. m.
1 gal. = 0.00379 cu. m,
xiv
1.00 INTRODUCTION
This is Volume 3, entitled "Recommended Practice," of

a four-volume report of Groundwater Control in Tunneling.
The other volumes include:
Volume 1: Groundwater Control Systems for Urban Tunneling
Volume 2: Preventing Groundwater Intrusion into Completed

Transportation Tunnels
Executive Summary
In addition to being a condensation of key information

included in Volumes 1 and 2, this third document contains a
series of examples in Section 4.90 which illustrate application
of various groundwater control methods during construction as
well as design and construction details not included in the
more general descriptive nature of Volumes 1 and 2.
Section 9.00 presents recommendations for future work

on groundwater control methods both during and after construction
of transportation tunnels.
Reference numbers cited in Sections 4.00 and 6.00 are

found in Volume 1 and those cited in Section 5.00 and 7.00 are
found in Volume 2.
2.00 EVALUATION OF SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS
2.10 GENERAL
Improper control of groundwater is probably the greatest
hazard faced by tunnelers, yet subsurface exploration programs
undertaken for design of tunnels frequently consider groundwater
as a factor of secondary interest. Evaluation of subsurface
conditions pertinent to groundwater control is usually a multi-phased
process as follows:
Phase 1: Preliminary Investigations

Phase 2: Design Phase Investigations
Phase 3: Construction Observation
The Preliminary and Design phases are the truly investigatory

phases of the work. Major elements of these programs are summarized
in Table 1.
The Construction Observaton phase, by comparison, is not

an investigation per se. It is a fine tuning of the pre-construction
information based on observed conditions during construction.
2.20 PRELIMINARY PHASE

The preliminary Phase includes collection of all available
data from a variety of sources. Table 2 is a listing of commonly
referenced sources of subsurface data. It may also include
a program of widely spaced borings to identify major geologic
conditions. Piezometers or observation wells should be installed
in all borings in which groundwater is encountered or is anticipated.
These groundwater observation points should be monitored contin-
uously through the design and construction period as well as
any lapses _in between project phases in order to permit development
of seasonal groundwater data.
Limited laboratory testing of soil samples may be undertaken

for proper soil classification, but it is not essential to the
preliminary program. Laboratory testing of groundwater samples
if any, is normally undertaken at this time only if unusual
conditions are suspected such as high sulphate or hydrogen sulphide
content, the presence of unusual industrial waste, etc.
Preliminary data, while often lacking in detail, are very

significant because project feasibility and early cost estimates
are often based on this information.
T> "3
J) il U«l
1 -H
"h„ »H
m
1 «B to
•
p * a> xt -h a
-H 3 O VI rl
eS Vi a
•
ll
o <m m

3 4)
1
«S -p i-<
rH+j„-H a id « >, a o co p p
h oin o*ea cv>« co co o
CO
os 3 vi
Jihhh • 0<s-ivieJcoBpxi
'H»i Km p -p 4)
w 4> O
xi »h a p p «f p l, s p *» ih
E O C -O 3 O 1. •» Hi
Li
z l, -p os oj a p > p p > w o at-oso

03 H pO -n
-u
ra h»h«B
1 bi P
<\in
C p vi
p app np
4) -H 01
a)
!)'H»3u >-l CO O, CO C0PJ>e«P3y4)P
X 3.3X0} XI-HPScScrii-HP
0)
as 4)
4)
co co
OS
s ho«« o > n cr» is aau
H C* CO
co
El
CO «
e
e •
•o >
>. « o
*H
<J
fH
|P P
p a
W cS 3
a)
co
3 3" 0)
V) 9 4)
3 (4 CO
3 1
i • co i co co
•-let o> -a v> >, l, s a 3 -1
hp ipojOos-pipviop a >
08 cd 0) -O P S 3 -H O CS -H
o:
w > -a a >
es w a a p
-h li cr XI
fl
et
u
OHStllttOOCtOa
a a« o l
'H -h -p
It
09 CO < rl OlH P IS p
i<
-p p 3pp
a>
* 4>
IDJQM > 3 1) » O v c « o
W CO 3 iIh 4 d Cfa*4 it t) Sf a 41
CO
z H
H X a
OS OB 0)
o 1
co
1
a
1
l. p O £»
H «-. w a
i
ii
co *->
cSoih a u
CO
H < OcSO
i
bn oi
g p a
0)
O *1 L, 3
•
OS O •O rl -P
1
«W -PH -H >»P O O 4>

a
s § o>
p «
p y p •
1
i 0)
a
i- oi x <: r-. i*
rH P CO
O P
H
e» co i 4) x> o
h*
3 ^ P X! M y P 1 -P Q. LiQtaDcS c8 O P M 3
a ssii-hv)
P 3 O VI
< no o
C P
e a o t- p
a
30 IC O S*
3 ip p OM H
4> 03 Li 1>
o o
CO
JcinitJ
1
i u a y oS "d x) -o
OS 00 eS 4) 41
a l
< r> a
co 33 3
1 01 0)
OS •3 CO "3 M P O 4)
o >>ai p a co o> y a >

0. p p 03-hpO)© O
ttz a a
o >rie o 3 X 3 X)
0) oi
L,
* o> a-H a) bo
L,
oi o a)
0)
xi 0'
OS
as
B L, P O H
d eoocoitucLioai
4) 4)
O
0. m oivis « one CO
>- CO
z
as o a i at a
o •"»
O 1 CO a o 1 CO
o 1 3 (D -H o 3 CO
> a • xt a • o l, a l, h » o. •
1
O
E-i
OS
•H 8 W -MM i
1 34)0 •P ^ 4) O H 00 CO
1
1
Li
3 41 O
< w y es so oi i a n o B P X) -P 0) a n y
a p pn
i
CO ^ * a -H-Haipcojd
e« i-i i
-p -p N u tl O i -p -p
m -» o> b xi a
p M
-p
as
o H iDkrtB a O
co-HoaS oxo
1 iP •
ao -p
oj CO
co
a
MB IOXO
a u
i
i
to
o OS
N^T3i IB »
i
1 CJ CD P CO w3 cs
a -P
o*
(0
cs
CJZ H
CO 1
u
El
0. <
* 4)
rl
41 £1
a O
H 3-
CS
x>
B CO 4)
3 rP p p >
CO
o
3S
b 4) oi a
z £ •pa p p XI
w a c a p 4) el
•H 3 O 4) fi
OS Q s p a i-i > 09
8 •h 4> a 9
< N3 XI H CO
O o
z • p • CO
p p >
CJ
VI ^Vl '-•
< oaog
oooo
X)
03
co oeoH
-co -co
4)
O
rt ^N ~ ._ fo ,
co
oz
MO
O i-i
O 1 I 8 S O H
SSQ
°8
AHVNIRI13 H d
* 0. 3
on
soft to
)
be areas.
ex-
61.0m.
soil soft soil quali-
quired
identi-
ob- is
advis- unnel 5.m)
fica-
ble uld
from acing of of
s ed f r n d s
CO
w 3
O60
P
OP
-H iono
fflflfl-rj
t<
ft
104>—
In rH
'
— 41
fc
O
-H
01 a a rH
BUOOtS
rH
3 S*'*' * 3 tfl tfl 10 01 «S TJ • P H H H

•H -H
o
ft
c -h aj Ih p 01 0> c a ih t. • p 0) s) p *H P P P
z st o ft
fb st
plora
Conti
sampl
depth Undis soils obtai Close serva essen
sampl compr
able tion. each unit. 200 Full- fied
the 50 in
may
fy
2.*
1. 3.
•HI
(0 u£ ta) 1 i
>> 6 Q B H P M 43
1
i* c
oj-hhbis-h p
wo 0>
i
r-t
« h s
1
a
tco
h -h
a
p a 1 d 4)
O > P
1
O >
41 o
41
1
•
1
fH
P
'
Bi to <s »H be B
CO -o a f ii » on « o) a soiu O P O al I P Jh 3 a oi tn b
E-i
llhllBhSlllim I0W3 3 > -H *H B S 43 ft at "M Ih 43 <S -H •
CO •3«ion«iitiatia
aX3Q,tDT31HO>CO-H^l
p h & o.a<H h CO U111
41 P -H B 41
!~i o be ft to
tfl 8 -rl -H «t Es B O T) 41 al
(4 liniMft 34) 4) -r( » S Q • ft 10 3 P O B mHJ3 h «
p 4) p -h
bC B rH
o- p
OT3H . Jl a
p .-) >
-H
ho
p
41
uia
-rH f* rH
41 41 O
pP rH •
•H
10
CIS
B
r-t
-rt
H ABP « h
O -H O a)
>P H >,hH 1* p . p B)4) at at
J-l
be O to >. W 3 p be43 £
PH H P 43 P ti P • 41 • O tfl ICO <H •H 41 3 Ih 4) 43 4) <H at a to ii a
Hllll'HHOIl-HlllPO J4 X 0) P b0 P 4) -H O O rH 41 HP 3 ft3ftP-H T3aSol
rlB kHrl-n rH Vl ffl OO-'-ilfl a tfl P 3 4i a ca > a c CTrH B U P ffl rH 43
oiOO-HOtSH-HaJB-H 4 0X1 tl « A C ft > -h o -H 4) -H 41 41 O 3 t03 U
co fe oafl to s^.a o*j*j ft mop _] p bo a CO
cd
a 41 HP O B O B 43 S 43 43 3 O 3
• • • • •
•a >>
i* -p to to -a i
C4 4) M -H 41 0) to C 41 41 <H
43 Cn Z B 13 P 41 41-0 41> TJ
as -H P T3t0«! tVD'HC'Oi-ia
CO
w rH
rftotddcdoni-i
HHH •rt
IhB
at
OflO'H OJHJfl o
(J
hax>K»ibca>-HH
E-" iPHHH
GO CO
w * O.IB O O iH 43 3 -H 33 >» 3 -H -H X O O -H Ol
Eh b Eh Eh (J GO Z ft 33 10OT3Q OH CO
W Eh
-a! ffl ffl
z s •«««<»••• • • •
OS
M MP +
1 1
-H
8 o i u iip ki
-4 m
i be oi -o o a oi c 4i •&
w o « cdiOf-H a a « t<H grip u Ol (0
m y p -H
•rH(fl>,0
-H H 1 41 tO 43 S T3 HP M
1
< »H >> *H C3 6 rH >>-HB O-H 43 a

Q m oi s* to qj p o fci o a a u p o
3 01 u to o> -h
oi
1 •H p 0) 4)Li ba o -h • -h ol ft bfl o rHiha 41 fci

*"*
J IA > Jh • C 41 tfl tOIO « P » P -H P O O «+J

3 10B 4) O P -H ftP HI P 81 H P B y 3 3 rH to ft al
h S DH 9d tt
•
010 O-H O B <H 41 -H
4iH304iâ >> aO • aO
bfl 4i
o bs*4i-ho&hO
tfl
C3 CO UPO"Hoja
iH-H
B3 W ft P « to ft
O
tfl O -H (0 I* q) -ri H O -H 43
ffl
O 9 .
33 (-1
< "O "!H <h 1

0)
43
41 a O O u a
43
OS P P> O U ). 91 3
t) id ti. a o OT3XI
O N 4)rH
01
t04lp> 341 eo
o
ft
***
r-iatntiO'O'H^
h a Mci< •
g
hpo B3 -d
tdOB-rtOoa a u a -h
OS * PO-HO
tfl
OlO
(h«I4!00
-H
g o
P03
-n O
at
td
0. d a a o ft-B -co =s +j co
mtix) ioph^
r-i
«sj p to a ta
• •
tM
05 CO
rH 1)
z a
o o o tn too
ti
Eh Eh
• ~43 O 41 3 O
a to
• ft • -p o
n g cd
> mzo 341AJ
oi
< u'l
•
bo
in
a n o
« a. C« B
i
P rH -H
IS W •^-cn •H-ri a ii'-- pioh
-,H
GO Eh i<H B 1IM
rH • «t E
o co
o ft 3 W OXB
O ffl -ri
CO— •O45(fl0)w<a OZ-H
J
« • •
ft w
Eh ....
X < v
rH
* <M 43
H O oS
Q r-t 43
§ a 4i o
3 a u u
Ha a3 p
33 oi •
CO ft
Eh HP
o a, a p
oi * ^
z w •=i- a o oi
Q a oi a rH >
a -H tn a
<! O -O 43 -H
o
z <M ifi <M
UJ HJ
to No
<! (91. (152.
300 500
a,
CO
(See
z
oo
S30H dNV 1IOS
33
oz
wo
ao
X
M
CO
2 «! N I s a a
O
•
33
a,
4
"O B
1 >> +j • V 1 o
>. «p> aj • c t a i. co
<-> -O nf a >> HD+J-H -H
rtH
H 0)0)
ti h td
t<
Cj
0)
tHD
VID3«t
« ffP
«l
tlHU
H
fci
*J
<1> till
-H
ffl
a 4 k 3 H u (1
a a i) co co co
«apti4U(«H>
'-tii 3 O S -H
fci
IdCf P <JH Jl D O h tH fH O <D •

a
c
ti « c« p u W«1U«1»«|PIHU
ttja 4-wa > o mp
CO
t, a a -h <i)i-icijt< 11
p> t. 0) 0) b CO V >> i-i at a p>
k o a
an ae « •M-rtaarto'Mô'c
i) at
h S a Ea Htjinaauiiucj'H S
§
z
8
cr
w
<
§
O
hi
O
z
o
<
-J
<
>
W
CO
w
3
<y
z
oo
OH
ss
O2
X O H QNV 1 I S
w
ooo
M n o i s a a
bd co
OS <
oa 5
* 0.
TABLE 2. SUMMARY OF MAJOR SOURCES OF AVAILABLE GEOTECHNICAL DATA
Publ ished Data
1. U.S.G.S. Surficial Geology Maps

2. U.S.G.S. Bedrock Geology Maps
3. U.S.G.S. Hydrological Atlases
4. U.S.G.S. Basic Data Reports
5. State and County Geologic and Hydrologic maps
and reports.
6. National and Local Technical Journals,
Magazines and Conference Proceedings.
7. U.S.S.C.S. Soil Maps
Unpublished Data
1. Local test boring and well drilling firms

2. Local and State highway departments
3. Local water departments
4. State Well permit records
5. State and Local transportation departments
6. State and Federal Environmental Agencies
7. State and Federal Mining Agencies
8. Army Corps of Engineers
9. Local consulting, construction and mining
companies
10. Geologists, Hydroleogists, and Engineers at
local universities
11. Historical records
12. Interviews
Notes: U.S.G.S. - United States Geological Survey

U.S.S.C.S. - United States Soil Conservation
Service
2.30 DESIGN PHASE
The project design phase is typically done in multiple

stages of progressively increasing detail. The primary source
of information is typically a well documented test boring program.
Experienced field supervision and documentation is essential.
Piezometers and/or observation wells should be installed in
a representative number of the completed borings for proper
definition of the groundwater regime. It is suggested as a
first approximation that groundwater monitoring points be established
at an interval not to exceed 1,000 feet (305 m) along the alignment.
Actual spacing for any particular project will vary depending
on the geohydrologic setting, i.e. soil or rock permeability,
location of barrier boundaries, recharge sources, groundwater
divides, or surface conditions which could limit access to instrument
locations.
Geophysical surveys may be performed to supplement boring

information, but for design of transportation tunnels which
are typically at relatively shallow depths, they are of secondary
importance to boring and piezometeric data. Tables 3 and 4
summarize the more common geophysical techniques currently in
use for evaluating general subsurface conditions from the ground
surface and from borings, respectively.
Borehole permeability testing is useful to locate strata

with major differences in permeability, but there are many factors
which render these data questionable. Of greater value in evaluation
of field permeability is proper sample classification and limited
objective pumping tests. Reference 139 contains a thorough
discussion of borehole permeability test methods.
Packer tests in rock are similar to borehole permeability

tests in that they can be useful to locate zones of major differences
in permeability. Borehole permeability testing, whether in soil
or rock, should not be relied upon without other confirmatory
laboratory and field information. Refer to Reference 277 for
discussion of test details.
For evaluation of aquifer permeability, probably the best

laboratory tests are simple grain size analyses. Other tests
may be necessary if soft compressible soils are present. Such
tests include Atterberg Limit determinations, compressibility,
and shear strength to help in the evaluation of possible effects
of dewatering (such as settlement and lateral movement). A
more complete discussion of laboratory testing is included in
Section 3.40 of Volume 1.
^ .
1 0)
i oi x: co i 1 at
^ • H | H
c U U -p +J 01 XI cd >H G O 1
1 O
CJ 1 i oi oi be to h 4-i oi a 3 oi 0} -H CJ
>, 0> H H cd 01 +J >» c at 9 a cj o> bo 4-1 01 -H 01 XI C rH
t-H o ^ S ^ u G cd Oi U. 01 oi B co H c rH >, H U C O Oi
0) Ih 3 01 -a XI o oi tlHHHfl Cd 01 TJ -H Ih 01 3 at t-> 01 at h >
P 9 rt 'ri C t< XI 01 C 01 r>» 4J 01 C B a Ih O
at O Ol cd iH +J rH IH 0) B > C T3 O 0) bo Ol Cd rH x; CJ a;
6 to co to cd c u o « o > o o 4-1 O'f O CI O XI rH rH OI 4-1 C 01
•H ID -CJ H 01 oi c cd ±> u a H • tn Ol «t> 11 C a 3 rH
X S ri >> >i h <-> cm
xi h
c s >
visH o a cd 4-. O C rH
o o a
4J f OH >. Ctf CU HH 3
co
i-
3
s -
XI 4-1
h .
a 3
o o 3 01
o
H o H
CJ at
u o oi a
CJ
01
XI at
rH
h xi a
(-, 01 01 Cd
B.-H 01 T) o in H CJ 01 +J H 01 'H IfH 4-1 rH 3 01
4-1 rH 0) 0) O C
H a X CJ CD O 4J J cd xi 3 s c -a oi 01 01 T3 VH XI O 01 to 01 •
a cd at G 4-i rH CJ at 01 01 rH 01 CD rH c G W 0] O 01 at at 4J 01 H X! 01 01
a B cd h oi cd > 01 . >i +J H TJ >. bo 01 rH XJ (H Ih XI <4H 0) Ih 4J 4-1 -H rH
o
u
oi i-.
a "• >- 1- 01 >. oi cj oi cj xi x: Q.O 01 C 4-1 (0 Ih s 01 cd a 4-1 XI
xt hh oi -h ~- 4-> 0> > rH > at oi 01 -O 0) 01 > oi u Hh CD a I- 01 h cd
+J
a XI x>
-H rH ft
o ja u c
G 01 O -H tn
^
t. CB CCt. rH B -H a rH 0) O C 4-1 01 4-1 XI OH
<-> 3 >i cd O 01 at 01 01 H C •HO) O Ih
CD O o a at
01 Ml 01 0) XI -H XI 01 CJ O TJ Ol -H 01 XI C rH
D hh « h a B o r-l • >,-fJ H
rH
<M 01 — 01
XI XI 4-1 CO
0)
O 01
01
>
c aj d >> >>H H S ^- 0) T3 +-• cd C CJ 4-i !h *h 3 Oi bo to a HH at >
>>J3 O iXrH V -O ^ O +J O 0> H rH -H cd Oi 01 1 C HT! C at 4-1 0)
01 +-» J3 d 'H 01 -H rH CJ C XI t- •H -H
>
l<
1
01
an 01
> a
0) C 01
rH
c
cm
rH
Cd
0>
(H
OIH
U B
4-1 CJ
rH rH
H 3
t-1
C O
Ih
O
Ol
01
C*
C
Ih
0)
ct
-H
4-i
G rH
a
Ih
O
CJ
Ih
Ih
fOH
Ih
G C B
4-4 Ih
01
4^ rH
0)
01
01
"H
4-1
3 a 0> hh cd 0) •H H X! -h 01 -H Oi at Cj cj Xi cd cd -H E OJ 01 0) H G 3 H
CO bO o * xt •f-1 J3 01 CO O
<« -h > O B cd fH Ih & Ih 4J < Ih SH O 4J rH IH a CJ
o«
CJ 01
>< z > «
m > a
ow HQ XI
<a
a: ui
X X X K
m
Ol
3
oz
Ij, «
IT!
OX
rH
X
in
K
m O
rH O)
Ih
cd
OM +1 +1 +i +t +i +t >
<
01 01
r-i i xt 1 X! 01 0)
cc cd u *-» H 4-1 1 01 CJ
wa *-» *-» >» oi a 4-1 rH >, CD Q. 'H tH o 4-1 a 01
C C W 4-1 01 C at 4-1 +J 0) W O at c a) 4-J
w cc 01 -H C X! oi o -h c -a 4J 1H Ol 4-1 ^ G
a ce Ih N O -H rH "H CJ -H at 01 t- Ih 01 0] Ol
<w at -H 0> at O 4-i oi 0) 01 cd H g
cc u. fthrtÔ" at.H« ci'-'o 4-i
a oi x; CU 1
<z > Q > Q 4J3 a
a,
<a >— —
Q.
Ha wo
01 at 0> 01 cd o> 0)
0. >H i-i < > > ^r 14H ^-^ <t U CO CJ
XI 1 r*<
Hi <4H 0i 01 4-i
B to
*-• o o 4-1 CJ •o 0) 4J 0) -H S 01
•H -H •H -H oi cm CJ rH tO XI
oi in +> to 01 01 4J 01 o cd -"~ 01 3 C - 3
c oi oi oi a oi oi oi 3 V> a
rH Cd 01 4-1
cd e > cd B > O rH w *H a -h
laM
0.
Ih
E->
H
-M 0)
It
rH at
»
H
Eh
-H rH
4->
cd
01
Cd
* Ma o
>
3
0>
«w—
I-
4-1 •H rH
*H a
^ 1
i -a i 1 T3 0) >.rH >
i o a -h i o a 01 rH 4-1 Cd -H cd 1 1
M r"J cd <H 1h rH Cd CJ Xi -h oi bo 4-1 -H Ih Cd

CO 3 01 -H 3 01 Cd Cd > Ih G 01 4-1 CJ 3 - a
z 01 In > - CO 01 ,H > - <4H V "H Cd "H G bo 01 01 01 CO
o X iij
01
n
01 XI 01 01 Ih 4-i U 01 - oi cd XI Ih G O OJ
3 »j J4 cd 3 M XI
4-i
3 Ih 01 T) -H 01 tO 4-1 4-1 3 O cd cd -h
H 01 cd CJ 4-1 . r-l 01 cd CJ 4-1 • 01 01 -H H 01 Ih 4-1 O rH 01 4J <4H 4-1
< l> oaiia * o a oi xt -p oi a "h to a • CJ *H Ih -h
O
m
imn. t. Hi 41 >H ~~
rH O T3
rH OI 0) 3 cd oi cd oi cd > 01 <M 01 3 3
rH -O T3 01 01 01 01 * Ih O. O Ih bO C rH CO G
J H CD 01 rH H 01 01 >~ cd 4-i G Xt O <M G XI H
a, MOJ3 - 0i at 6JOB - 4) bfi rH ja bc^H C -H bO-H HO 01 3 4J
O. X q, C 01 ->. CO C -H a O -^
CO 01 c Q -rH CJ • Q Ih O XI -H 4J a u -h CO G
< •H U 01 Jd u h 01 01 M •h 01 h 3 cj a a cd H 4J
Q.
aoa
01 rH -H CJ 0) •H
H
0. 01 rH -H o a co h 4-i a xi co 3 Ih a oi (0 cd CJ
+» -h <j aO XI 4J -H a hh -o -h a >. O Ih 01 a cj 3 cj 10
at
IW+i
cd cd Ti Xt at cd
OV1 cd at cd -h xt at oi a cd 3 4-i
H
Ih O a cd o O -H
cd
o a *H 4J CJ 4-i a o xi 3 a oi W|*H O a <H rH rH XI
0) 01 01
oi >. a u X)
g VHa « t< 1 4J rH
CO
3 w
Cd 1 1 CJ
0)
O G
1
10
Ol
CJ bo
O" cd m cu -a o 01 cd <h t- XI 4-1 Q » a cd cd O Oi cd Xt B C
XI
a
B
(-.
at
*->
4-1
oi
4J
in a>
CD 10 a
a
B oi
h 3
3 co
3
co
-H
a bC
f a
Ih
oh
4-1 01 1
Vi
Ih 01
-rH
4-1
01
rH
HH xi
Ih 01
-fJ
bo
-H -H
4-1
01 -H cd 01 > 01 01 -h CJ CO 3 10 G >. 01 4-> Ih 3 4-1 01 •H 3 3 4-i Ih C 0) CJ
o u «- a i-c 01 o cd 4-1-10 01 o H£+JT3 4i 0) 01 H XI to a to CJ cd 01 Ih 4-1 01
u a - cd a oi c 3 -<h cd (0 0) a - T3 >> 4-1 01 Cd 4-1 XI G -H X) 01 OJ Ih rH
frn TJ 0> 01 - M O M a oi u 4J c a •H 01 3 Ih T3 cd 4-1a Gh 3 3 * a >. 3 rH G 4-1 4-1 XI HH
o a xi Oi cd u O
u
CJ 3 T3 -H B +> 4H
H
cd B a Ih to bO 01 *h 01 CJ 0> 01
b-. Ih cd -h oi *-> *h cd oi h oi -h 4-» Ih -h > 3 0) >. >.< 0> Ih 0> >> CD 4-1 PH
O H «H rH h a U ft 4-» *M C l-i 4-i oi a V • > 4-1 G 01 4-i XI OJ 01 U Ih XI rH 01 01
a m 3 -h 3 -» a tn 3E 3 4-> -h +j 4J 4-J >v Ih CO G -H Ih a -n o a xi 0) a 4H Ih 4J
z •h3 cd oi CO H 3 O (0 10 -H 11 cd rH bO 01 O > 01 H > Ih OJ 4J * > cd oj a 4-1 CJ
o 0} cd oi XI V 01lHOIcdO01T3>. S T3 CJ -H 4-1 B -H 01 4-i 01
H
01
CO T3 -M
0i
B B
01 3
10
•H
a •
o>
oi T3
hh rH
*h
oi
B
a a
at
4J •O
-H c
OOO
rH 4J Ih 01
4-14-1
01 Cd
Ih
01
4-1
01
01
01
CJ
01 H
ci o 3
4-1
0)
XI
01
G
Ih
In
B
Ih
01
4-1
XI
4-4
O
hQ
Q, rH a -H 3 01 rHa 01 01 0) rH 4-1 CJ cd 01 G4-i-HtH a+H-H OlrH 4-i a a +h 01 c a
3 3 Oi 01 4-> Oi Oi 3 3 -aa 4-i O CJ CO 0) 01 01 -rl 4-1 -H 0)
DC
o
o. o a oi
a w -h a -t-t
a
-h
•o
01 3
COB
B rH
o>
-h oi
in
a o
cd XI «m
T3 rH CO
01 01 o
t.
O
•r-l
XI rH
0) to
0)
01
Ih
>>T3
4-1
oi
U
01
a
M
01
*h
•
-o
01
G
boxl
S
o
CJ
01 4J <»H
4-4 cd
IH
OJ
XI Ih
CO "" -H MH-l -h a V 4-» rlHfO D. O 4-1 > 01 Oi Oi bo h o O O 01 Cd 01 Ih 0> anededcto cj 01

w
udiiaflii
J3 01 m •rt -H cd T) 01 10 v cj cd +h > 4-1 4-1 -H 3 BoihXI
a a 4-> o r- 4-i "h oi oi a H 01 Oi C 3 XI 4-1 G -H G J3 >» 3 cd • C HH -H G
-H at -H O Cd -M 3 4-1 •H cd H » TJ tlr. ao a CdXl OlrH 0J4->XI 0J4J+H 01 Ih XI G Si 0) bO Ih B O
(K B oi oi oi t. oi cd B oi oi 3 in o> U at M 4J rH O Ih 01 01 IH 01 H V Mu -n 3 H N
w ti) a a up-q >. oi c a oi o oi 4-i 0) VI CJ 01 Ih 0) > cd H 4J cd -P -H CJ Ih Cd Ih U 01 01 0) H
•H cd •t-i T3 H Cd XI CJ CJ 4-» 4J tH H G 4J s a 01 01 a-H Ih bO 01 4-> 01 3 XI 4-1 Ih
« 01 M H "H »H H C 0) rH r- 3 01 Cd Cd a 3 xt o c o in a oi in a G Cd c rH C C G HH 3 01
CO CO +J 4-i u cd CO O 4-1 01 lH <4H o, •H CO 4-> u h a o cd u a cd 3 t> -h W H -H 01 01 01 XI Xt
w +
wo ^-*
+ ^-v
£3 *-> rH
01
4-1
(H « Sh M •H 4:1
cj O 4-1 a (rl a
ws O H <M rl •H
fe H o a. J O X
fc.
uw
a, CM >> o m cd
*J o o
o— â
1 1
a CN z
"«.>.
t>.4J
a a +J -H
a o
H
•H >
2 > -H 1 cj
9 Ho
*> O 4-> •H +4 O -H
h O H O V O rl P
a cd CO 3 4-1 cu
a 01 1- grH •H XI CJ G
-H f-t
0i
rt >M 01 G 01 bo
Oi 01 01 01 r-i at
co a. CO cc CC CJ W B
10
01 u £
I -H 01 bo bo
H i
*J kl k> JC rt B 0> 1 1
m a "h 01 r-l rt 01 JS B rt 1 TJ CJ k. 1 0>

CO 01 rH O 01 3 k. rH k. •H E 01 Oi J M TJ
acdto B O d d rH d o E rH V. H
oi
^H X -H HH J >.D(( kl
to
0>
01
10 CO rt 0)
ki
rt 01
1
-n
CJ
r*
TJ
c U)
o oi k. a GOV. 3
jo JO O 3 rH rt a rt jo
Jrt
01
oi
O r-»
01
rt
rt E
01
V.
(0
rtOi J) O
HP rt
10
C 3
rt
ki 01
ki
rt
O rt
O TJ rt rH
cj
01 rH
rt
rf
kl
<o
C
O
rt
rt
- ^
i. j: c ts J) TJ« O » « TJ rt d 3 rt rt B rHOlOrtrt rtWG
jo
1
o n
OB« oi
S
•H rH
O E 01
01 0> k. bO
01
TJ
rt
d
k.
01
o-
Oi ki E CJ
a
S (0
w
O
to *~>
CJ
+>
rt
oi
rt
-n
v> »->
ttHH
o e CO ki ki a B oi -H a ki Oi
n OtOlalTJOikirtC
>t 1 01 O -rt 0) B r< 0> h S rt TJ TJ B E k. rt rt
co k. Ql U ** 3 CO -r*T3 v. O >» fl d o> CO d CO 3 >-* •* >. a u i/t > -H
H tj rn d d vi 3 rt i. y*. -> *> 01 » rt. B • 10 rt JO n rt O
Z o ace oi >>Vi 01 -H III rH > CO - a
to CJ *->
W U JO D M 01 rH *-» "O +J a oi oi k. 01 kl rH Oi O TJ rt 01 to 10 k,
a o CO T3 3 -a oi B 01 B k. rt J3 d rH bO LO - E rt bO
01 •
a Vt - -H -rH C B H *J 01 •H 3 3 0) Oi Oi o d .OrtÔCOrtTJ
E • O rt St co O k, TJ k, rH rt -rt kioa-Hoirtoiao)
8 rH <- > -H H VI 01 -rH cj d o o j) 01 01 > CJ rt ki ki
•< Vl a >.«+J o > 01 H 10 JO k, 01 CJ > 3 rt a H TJ rt
v> a -n rH >, 00 BE Ih 0) a J3 B rt d
I
rHrtOTJTJrtS
rt d O -HUh » f » O H k O. d TJ rt OB inv.C03E-H3cT
3 if)
-h B
i.
> -rH -H (0 CJ
<m 3 n
o a
CO S J-
N
01 rt >, HNCHtrO 3HJ|
.-HCOOlCJrHVlkl
oi d S m w 3 -h a k c
in
n
CJ 01
rt
k.
O — •
d aTJ d
111 C0
CJ O^ 01 to VI
k. > a fl ^ u o o v CO u o bo d oi ki r^ kl 01 Ol 01
oi o> co • o • rH B E 01 CO 01v. 01 E E ki rt rt rtEbO OrH -rHt,
rt S»rH A TJ oio oi a k> » a. tj rt a o 3 rt bO d rH OlOErHrtOtflOd
O k 11 It B k UTI O 10 •m oi ./> JO ki 3 1* -rl -rl 01 JO JO 01 JO
0)
o
01 > *>
o
3
o
H 0> 01
> c > >
01 0) > B
O bO
kH rt CO rt
3 O
3 OrtCJCjaOltOOlrH
CUdalrtrtkiCOkirH
-a in a: 10 bo rt a CO rt ki
O C 3 0) > u 03 E E CO -H COd k. o x rH J3 d O j=k.akik.ooiOrt
-J 3 10 a — CO X -H -rt ft T3 » s 0, rH 01 rt--
a vi a co vi H rt rt bOJO G JO
J] ft
a
Z (O O B >. E E
rH U O -H O d rt •H H
we-. h a o -o O S O ^B O B
CO rH rt rt *J rt *-»
o vi SH * t
" \
^
1
. >. kl
--. d -TJ
1 TJ — TJ 01 1 U -rt-
-o
Oi c
ki
TJ 01 10 C 1 TJ 01
TJ 01 TJ 10 TJ 01 T3 10 O rH TJ TJ 01 (0
rt rH Q> d rl rH • 01 d 8 •H r-l Pi
P
S8
3 rt (fl
rH rt d
h«03
O
E
3 rH >,
rl rt k.
ri*lTJ O 3
10
d E
O 1
O
O
>.
E
•JI
>,
C
<
kl
3
rH
vi
to
B O
B 3 rH
rt rt
b. v.
CJ
E
3
I &
0> t rt. bO 10
a i a 0> £ d d E JO t-i JO
rt d +j 4-> B «-> k. J3 ai rt cj oiB rt rt k. rt
u o f-i (o a bo b •3 o a oi 01 01 rt a xi -H o o bo o - a bo
rt
PPk>TK*giHg 01 Ol 01 fl 0) •k> -rt 01 rt v. o a. a. 
rH
rt
CJ rt
bO 01
rt CO k.
V. rH
3i CO
E
rt
rH
01
(fl
01 Oi rt 10
10
c
rt
ai
CO
01B bo
*J bO
e
(0
-i .c
- J3 rH rt
oi cj jo tx;
01
bo
E 3
rt
01
o
d
0)
rH rt
10
J3 Oi a rt rt jo oi
01 rH jo CJ rt rH
01 > > a aij -a os d > O a d to rt k< d c rt co o vi ajo rt o cj oi ajo
kvidrtSOidEOi d k. o> o oi
3 E E d
w> d
HH ja -H v. JO rt rH
HOi«a-ooc«a k.
krt O * »H rt CJ
oi
k. * rt wrH O > d rt
01
kl
0)
TJ o 0,
rt
01 01
CU
TJ CJ
Q <h 0) >» » 1 1 10 1 01 rt 0) CJ
W Oi o v» bfl oi o> i 1 : B -h TJ 01 to 01 O rt rH -H
a th • b > u c
d 3
a o rH d oi >,^ a 01 - B -ri rH d cj JO TJ
Vi o CO rt 3 rt via u ki cj vi dd CJ >. TJ JO Vl rt JO 0. - rt JO
t. >, C 1- * rt -rH co -a i a ki rt O 3 rt kl G rt N d ki Ih 0) 1 d >. 3 rH
03 3 rH rt Ol O +J >. 0. d to . 01 3 B *J t-< *J *J » d rt 01 01 3rt UrtkrtrtS
£ s Z loai-H-HiiSdd
llv OOko
10 k> kl rt rt O d O rH E rH N a Ort bO-HviJO
o o>
3 O U VI OS -H -H .
3 rt
o o
k,
oi
kl
d
a
01
co
10
01
rt
d
pt *
1
bo a rt
bOTJ
Oi CO
3
o
rt
a
d
*
01
CO
tj - bo
CO
01
kl
d
o>
-h
jo
fc,
d
oi
-ri
co
ki
oi
CO
JO
3
CJ
01
rt
JO d
k.
rt
rt
CO
- -
E-
<
(0
>
01 i-l
B 01
B
--H O
O bOVi Vi 3 O
E rH
vi
E bO S
+j
rt VI
O 6
r-t
rt CO
-H *J rt
3
B
;
01
rt >> a
JO d
a
A-u
d jo
CO B
a cooiertdki>.>.
rt CO h O rt rt
CJ «ld>Htiioig»''H rt 0) rt E O O vi (0 3 3 rt co o ajo d CO
rH rt - CJ CO Vl rt a rt rt
3 ft kl 01 E rt V> > rt k. O d o 3 O *^ d O CO d B rt 3 rH bO rH >
J o k o ti o 4
3O0>C00>rtrtTJO
vd C
O
» ki Vi rt fl
fl
rt O kl
*->
E JO kl rH ki 01 ki O 01
o 3 oi co be cj d oi ki bert
O d e
30irtrt -C0jOrt>.
CO
'-n -n .
a.
a.
<
o^h
H B
a k ii-H-rt o
-H Ih Ih S O
O O
01
rH 0)
01 01
(0
01
> H . .
bo -
w
•
bo O B kl O rt rt O Vi 3 *J - B<-Hrtk.>>OldCJrt
rtrtek.JObOOl3H
I" 1 1 d rt S Ih rt 0) (0 -rH a 1 rt O rt JO rt B rt (0 3 CO
rttOVirtOldOO) rt VI Vl rt Oi 01 d rH 0) CO 01 -n •n *j jo -H d a. CO rt CJ CO JO 01 rtViOlOiaaBTJCO
D'HOasHbti-Hat) B kl O bOrt > CJ JO C 01 > 10 B a rt d >, d rt B cCrtrtaJGSk.ee
OOlUOBdOlOB 01 3 kl B 01 d O d o -H oi d 01
ki
"M rt rt kl JO ki ki ki o OkiOCkiJOOiOOi
u<oau-Ha.>Nos co co a oi b * 5 rt N rH rH O COUOTJCObOartVibOrtN cj aa 'H boo aoTj
(0 k,
01 1 o a a bo
rH > 10 >> (0 ki 1 e •• rt 1
O C a! Vi ki V o oi a a co M» r^ U rt
O 1 0*0 1
rt »v>
O
o Q. CO
rt
01
kl • rt 01 B d
h 3 rt
ki
te E CO d
rtÔJOrt--tO
r-l
d •
CO
rt
lOal
.
-tJ
WO-h01 01
hOU
01-H o
3 <* o B O B 01
a b oi rt rt o -H
0) rH
-
CJ 01
CO
B ki
O >
k.
01
jo tj bo
be 01 o
rt rt rH
k,rtC0>.3t0Oirt
TJ0ia*rtrHOflkld
01
H MB
CO
»
>
OVH
3
B v> 01 O rt
rl a 0) co > rt
rt
CO CO TJ rt
B d
CJ
fl
0)
CO
d
•H JO CJ 01
U *J
JO >.
W + > B
01 3 O
>.*J
ki
co 10 rt JO 01 oi oi a -rl
z
o
jo a-a d
O B *
-a d 10
3
BT) k
>. O
SO
O 0" rt O
a d TJ 01 rt Ih kl O kl rH 010 rtrtrtrtJOlO
V rt rt d
0) 10 i-i Ih ki B CO 01 01 Vi ki ft i.
ki ki at B 0> O J3 O 01 rt rH d rH 0>- 0) rt VI a k. oi vi TJ rt O e rt TJ rH
H o a -a co 3 O O O rt 01 C k, CJ ki to a -. to ki rHartinOlOriOlrH
a £
VO (fl*M 0) ki B "o to ca m na > rt O 01 3 01 01 cj bOJO TJ dftrnaodtod
d rt
+J-P -H 0) 01 HH rt 10 CO ki CO k. ki e a a oi 10
OJTJWTJOlrt doj
CO > 3 ft
on fi vi +j rt > ki 0) 10 0) >. e d 3 >.rt d o a
o H jo 3 -H >> (fl a d rt 3 TJ > JO 01 01 0) vi rt JO rt k, k, rt TJ 11 U B k OlOTJ
GO rt CO (0 ki rt d to k, a o ca v bovi d ki TJ d VI bO -rl
w ki (h co g o • rt O k U S TJ 3 ki TJ rt O rt k 11 -Odtoto
Q B
wllidOfBa
01 (0 TJ rt 01 rt rH O O ^TJ 01 01 rt rt 01 Oi oi a rt co jo rt ft kl -r-l +* 01
P >HdW OB
fl Q, rt
* r-»m 01 k. to h d b bo a to CO 01 o OOrtt dCOrHTJe
(h x ki 3 ki 01 C B k. a jo be cuaortjikirtOOrt
H rt!SO+iOVl<0 CO >> >. o> rt rt d d a rt co rH CO 01 10 > ki
a ft jo oi -h <h a CO w
01
01
01
01 rH rH
01
J > d
ai
O.TJ J3
oi
V
0>
> ki a oi 01 01
01
rH 4^ -rl rt 10
cc CO 01 - -J B CO 0> B > O d co d k. B d cj d rt rt rt > B 11 -dCOVtoOl
m BTJkidOltOTJOl
«C Of TIC 111. > 01 rt k, J3 a kt 01 0) ki vi kt O d oio -rHeOoibo
rt B
CO CJ rt 3 0) d TJ rt a, rt bo a • rt cj Oi a ft ki bOCO
ki 3 a CO K « S k, co ki a B CO rt Ih O -BrHTJObeOld
*> o k. co k. oi oi 3 rt r~. d oi 0) oi oi a, a rH Oi a rt rt cj B 01 rt E E JO
CO JO -M rH +J kl rH O O rt 01 A CO rH rt > Ih 3 d rH O TJ rt rt rttobedbertaoo
a aobe co a rt CO B rH >,rH rt 3 rt rt CO 3 rt o e c
rt. a tj a
eu co s > - jo k, B CO o k. 01 d JZ k, rt rt TJ rt k JO d -rH CO OjOOlrt --n u -rt 01
B+JOHHHflJO) co oi b ja oi > a d d rH 3 • OllOObObOOlOO
HrHkHhOtlk •H > d CO, ki
ai oi
J3 rH
oi cj
B
oi
rt
01 kl
rt o a Ok. daceoea
3BCw SiliOOO
OPT.fi
01 rt kl 3 rt 3 rt
— o
ki
no rt 0)
k
kl
am vi3
0)
CO
d d
k.
O rH
3
co
01 O 3
a k,
ftocoaoooioid
kHjOdiOrHrtlkiCOrt
0. 1; CO 10 rt to to b 05 rt k,
Q o
s Jj CJ
H CO >.
H 3 kl *^
a a
co < o
0)
B *» >. H>
z rt rt k. rH rt
a d Oi d co
e 3 bt Brt
s a H « O ki o
H
> rHS
0) JJ3 01
3 CO CO fcrt Z CS
In addition to investigation of the hydraulic nature of
an aquifer, it is important that groundwater quality be studied.
Water quality has important influences on selection of equipment,
i.e., potential corrosion and encrustation problems, and on
the environmental concerns relative to water disposal. Table
5 is a summary of major water characteristics affecting groundwater
control systems.
Special investigations conducted as part of the design
phase work are normally made following thorough study of all
conventional data, i.e., test borings, geophysics and laboratory
data. Special investigations may include long term pumping
test, full scale test sections, and extensive environmental
analyses such as bio-assay testing to determine tolerance of
plant and aquatic life to proposed methods.
2.40 CONSTRUCTION OBSERVATION PHASE
The third phase of any subsurface investigation relative

to groundwater control is construction observation. Subsurface
investigations do not end when the contract is awarded. Data
are continually developed during the installation and monitoring
phases which must be reviewed to permit system modification
as necessary.
The number and spacing of dewatering extraction devices

can be varied from original pre-construction designs during
the installation process. Test pumping of the early wells,
wellpoints or ejectors, for instance, will indicate if the antici-
pated spacing is sufficient to achieve the desired results.
Similarly, the need for recharge can be determined during

construction based on observed water levels and ground movements.
Table 6 is a summary of common monitoring devices used for measuring
ground behavior.
10
TABLE 5 . SUMMARY OF GROUNDWATER CONSTITUENTS
AFFECTING DEWATERING SYSTEMS
CONSTITUENT EFFECT
Calcium Carbonate --Encrustation of screws and surrounding materials

due to precipitation as amount of dissolved carbon
dioxide decrease with decreased pressures.
Iron Compounds --Encrustation as with calcium

(>0.5 ppm) --Iron hydroxide deposited as jelly-like substance
due to increased velocities.
--Black ferrous oxide, red ferric oxide and white
ferrous hydroxide form due to increased velocity
and exposure to oxygen in dewatered voids.
--If water contains less iron than its capable of
sever corrosion can result.
Manganese Compounds --Similar to iron
Bacteria --Iron bacteria feed on carbon compounds including

bi-carbonates and carbon dioxide producing a well
clogging slime.
Hydrogen Sulphide --Corrodes steel and copper based alloys. Copper

sulphide encrustation can result.
Carbon Dioxide --Dissolved carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid

which is corrosive.
Oxygen --Dissolved oxygen accelerates corrosion.
Total Dissolved Solids --Accelerates corrosion due to increased electrical

conductivity.
Hydrogen Ions --A pH less than 7 results in an acid solution

which is corrosive.
Silica --Will combine with iron and manganese to form

encrusting silicates which are insoluble to acid.
11
TABLE 6. SUMMARY OF GROUNDWATER CONTROL MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
Instrument Use
Piezometers and Measurement of piezometric levels associated

Observation Wells with all groundwater control methods.
(See Figure 3)
Surficial Settlement Measurement of surface settlement resulting from

Measurement groundwater control. Usually monitored by
optical survey, but can be done with water level
devices and pneumatic settlement systems.
3. Deep Settlement Measurement of settlement at depth. Can be a

Devices single deep anchor device (Figure 8) or a multi-
point system (Figure 9).
4. Lateral Movement Measurement of lateral movement adjacent to

Devices open cuts and bored tunnels in soil and rock
(Figure 10).
5. Thermocouples/ Measurement of temperature in the ground for

Thermistors evaluation of freezing processes (Figure 30).
6. Accoustic Emission Measurement of grout travel in soil and rock.

Monitors A method still in research.
7. Resistivity Measurement of chemical grout travel in soil .
A method still in research.
12
3.00 METHOD SELECTION
3.10 GENERAL
Until recently the selection of dewatering systems has

largely been made without the benefit of detailed analytical
geohydrologic studies. This practice now appears to be changing.
Several of the factors bringing about this change are discussed
below.
One possible reason is a growing recognition that groundwater

is a valuable, limited resource. The need for aquifer protection
and groundwater management has become clearly evident. Added
awareness of available analytical methods is filtering into
the construction industry and is expected to result in their
common usage for civil construction applications.
A second reason is the expanding capabilities of both

programmable calculators and microcomputers. Hand-held programmable
calculators can be readily programmed to solve the well function,
making the evaluation of problems by image well theory a far
less time consuming task. Aquifer modeling by use of finite
difference or finite element techniques is now practical on
desk-top microcomputers. Numerical modeling technique are rapidly
replacing closed form solutions and graphical flow net solutions
in all but the simplest cases. White flow nets are still a
valuable analytical tool, they can be drawn quicker and more
accurately by a computer than by hand.
A third reason for the increased use of analytical methods

is the rising cost of energy. Recognizing that the operating
costs of a system will vary directly with efficiency, there
is now an added incentive to develop more effective systems.
However, it must be recognized that the cost of the system will
be controlled in part by the availability of construction equipment
and in part by local union practices. The final selection of
a dewatering system is therefore likely to remain somewhat of
an art for the foreseeable future.
Key elements in the process of selecting an appropriate

groundwater control method for use druing construction is described
in Section 3.00 of Volume 1 in generalized descriptive terms.
In this volume the selection process has been systemitized and
is presented in a series of matrices. Figure 1 is a flow chart
which illustrates the process followed by a series of selection
matrices (Figures 2 through 6). A series of example problems
are included in Section 4.90 which illustrate how selection
of technically feasible methods is accomplished.
13
(
(O
00 +-> E CD
< 2 •
CO
E
<D
O
=5
S- E
O v-
a: , O 4-> S- M- S-
+-> S- o
Ol 00 <D +J
CO >> E Q- •«-
fC O E
O Q_ Q_
e 2:
«o
CO
UJ
c
o
o
I—
*f- 00
-»-> -o l—
fO o «=£
E -E
+J
•r- -S«i
jo a> 00
E s: >> a •r™
o S- > s-
00 fO °F=
to
E "O X
oo fO
CD
00
"O
o
a>
E
•r—
+J
ai r—
• o
LU
UJ aj o «i- u_ o a. E S-
CO •r- fO E
+-> r— a. •i— CO
Meth Matr
F »_
O >
LL Probl CD ai
u +j S- o 4-> u_
CD
I— CO
Q_ O 00
o
T3
OO UJ
fjj
r— O CO
2 o cn_E
e +J
»- ? •r- CU
co s: o
UJ UJ
a:
(0 u
fa
CJ)
ai O
CD
> a)
o E
JD O
3: S-
• c_>
o
z
o
> b«
UJ
o
z
o
u O.
3 i— c_> ai
-a a> co ai E
 ZJ
b-
O I—
14
Ij - Interface between arch and 10' above
T
lrf
Arch
u 0>
D - Interface between arch and Invert
•^ c I
2
+»
^M O
s.
Invert
1 io*
i_lL
I, - Interface between Invert and 10' below
Surface
+
7T7-
H
T"
/3 - Interface between surface and H/3
l
l
li - Interface between H/3 and bottom of

excavation
I - Interface between bottom of Excavation

3
I and 10' below
NOTE: 10' = 3.05m
Figure 2 - Legend Applicable to Method

Selection Matrices
15
Method Ratings
1 - Very low
2 - Low
3 - Medium
4 - High
[*j - Groundwater control method typically not considered applicable but may
have some merit under unique geo-hydro conditions.
^- Groundwater control method usually not applicable.
No groundwater control required in soil type(s).
Notes
- Ratings are based on the technical feasibility of a single groundwater

control method being successful for groundwater control in the tunnel.
- The matrix reflects the use of wellpoints, ejectors, wells, and grouting
as applied externally to bored tunnels. The use of these methods
internally is considered to be site specific and not typically used as a
groundwater control
- Cutoff methods, slurry walls, steel sheeting, frozen earth walls, etc.,
are considered to be total water cutoffs and are technically rated as
4 when terminated at or into an impermeable layer. Freezing and cutoffs
are also not included because of insensitivity to soil conditions. When
a cutoff is not terminated at or into an impermeable layer the matrix is
used to determine a conjunctive method thereby forming a combined ground-
water control method.
- For mixed face conditions combine appropriate two-layer charts to determine

a rating.
- Minimal sumping may be required with any method chosen.
Assumed Soil Permeabilities
K-j - Medium-coarse sand > 2 x 10~ 2 cm/sec

K2 - Fine-Medium sand 3 x 10" 3 to 2 x 10~ 2 cm/sec
K
3
- Silt-fine sand 1 x 10" 4 to 3 x 10" 3 cm/sec
-4
K
4
- Clay to 1 x 10 cm/sec
10 -3 to > 2 x 10"
2 cm/sec
K
5
- Fractured rock 3 x
-2
Kg - Stratified sand and gravel 3 x 10" 3 to > 2 x 10 cm/sec
Figure 3 - Notes Applicable to

Method Selection Matrices
16
2 LAYER PROFILE: SAND/_
K d
X
SMIiV CO
CD
CO e
UNIFORM PROFILE i (A
© © CO fc
SOIL TYPE O Z z Ul
IN INTERFACE »- to p cc
a
O 0-
O Z
CRITICAL LOCATION Ul
d z3
CC ZONE bi CO 6 8
s 44
o m 4 * *
CRITICAL ZONE
IN
to
(-
Z © O UJ
a.
I|
4
3
2
1
* «
%
z Z 12 $'<
Si
Ul
o 1- CSL
SAND
t
Ul 3 0. 3 0.
s o s CC
SILT
h 4 3 3 1 i V/ 7/
-> 'jj
CE
© uo 3
ui CO (0 3 3 2 3
h 1
tv
*4
%% h
^
1 7/
MED. SAND OR LGRK,
FINE SAND
4 2 4
3
1
*
3
^ JAND
CLAY
h
3
3
3
3
2
2
2 2
VF. SAND 8 SILT

K2
K
4
4
3
4 1 *
1
*
6 /
Y/
h
2/" 2/ 2/
/2 /I 44 /2
1
2
1
1
3
X\ 2/ 2/
1
fe%
CLAY K4
m .SAND
I
2 /i /4 /l 7/
^4
FRACTURED ROCK K
g 7a //
4 4 4
1 '//>
FR
13
3/
4' /I 44
2/
yi •V :
* K 5< K 6 ( FINE ^
A *6 < K 5 ^COARSE '
2 LAYER PROFILE: SILT/__ 1 2 LAYER PROFILE: 1 CLAY/__

CO CO
o
-J
o
_i
Ul Ul
I
< CO Z z Ul >
cc C9 tr
SOIL TYPE 5
a.
o
1- CO
Z 1-
Ul
t£. cc
SOIL TYPE
f o CO cc
INTERFACE INTERFACE i-
IN _i o -J Q. 3 c_ CC IN o _j a. 3 cc
CRITICAL LOCATION _i Ul _J s O s 3 CRITICAL LOCATION -i Ul _i O d 3
ZONE
Ul -3
Ul
Ul 3
co
ce
19
o
o _l
CO ZONE
Ul •3
Ul
Ul 3 CC
© o CO
CO
V
1. 3 2 4 « 2 yY % I. 4 2 4
A
i Y/YA 2
h 4 *
y %
3 3 2 4 2 4 3
SILT '// CLAY
l 2
44 fa
7/ A ^
SAND * SAND
13 3 3 4
'//. V
13 3 2 4
^
//
%ty/
3
«
*4
1|
3
^
4
£ J< 'A 7/
//
JiiL
«3
h 4 4
.SILT
CLAY
l
2 3
y
4
# *
*
72 7/ CLAY
SILT
h 4 4
E^ iy<
Va ^
v// K
y ^
/< £
13 3 4 13 4 4
'/, '/, 'ti Y//,
4^/
!|
Afe ^ 4 3 2
'/,
1. 2 2 4
$•
4
'M
SJLT
FR
12
l 3
% *
%1
#^
'//.
4
1 4
2 2
CLAY
FR
h
«3
2
2
2
2
4
4
i
^
4
m
Figure 4 - Groundwater Control Method
Selection Matrices for
Cut-and-Cover Tunnels
17
2 LAYER PROFILE'- SAND/__
UNIFORM PROFILE
CRITICAL ZONE
IN
z
II
us
a. £
2 5
to 8
MED. SAND OR USR K 35
FINE SAND K2
V.F. SAND 6 SILT K3

FIX
CLAY
FRACTURED ROCK K,
COARSE i
* *B * "« * Fl NE '
2 LAYER 1 PROFILE: SILT/_ 2 LAYER PROFILE: CLAY/_

co
o
_i
K Ul
X
K 1X
SILT/. 4 CO CLAY/____ 4 to
6 m O
Ul
Q. a.
z V)
K z to
CO Ul
"^ z
fc- 10 © (0
(0
SOIL TYPE
2 O to
Z UJ
BE DC
SOIL TYPE o Vi z z Ul 1
IN INTERFACE b J a. % 0. tr IN INTERFACE 5 a t; 8:
CRITICAL LOCATION
_i ID d S o
tr
s CRITICAL LOCATION pj Ul
-»
_l z o 3. Jfc
_J
ZONE 2 CO 8 to ZONE s Ul * CO S 8 d
K3
K6
I.
$
&
2 4 X 2 4 4 1|
^ 2
^ 4 2 4 4
SILT
SAND
La
3 4 * 2
*
4
4
4
4
CLAY
SAND
h
h
1 2
1 4 3 4 4
Is
# A 3 4
^ 3
fe
4 3
«
2 2
I.
4 1 1
h % 4
%^ 4 4
SILT h
% ^ 4
?v\
* « 4 4 «3
CLAY \z
% 4
#
'/, # 4 4
CLAY
h %# 4 * M 4 4 liLT
h % 4
#%
'//. 1 1
Ii
6 4 3
*
4 V/<
# J5i.
«.
% 2 4 4 4 4
fe
I
2
fo
2 4 3 4
CLAY h % 2 4 4 4 4
^
•w- 13
% 2 4 * * 4
# FR
h % 2 4 1 4 2
#
Figure 5 - Groundwater Control Method
Selection Matrices for
Bored Tunnels
18
CO
9
UJ
<
CO a
uj
CD
h- 0.
z CO
<r © e>
Z i \ UJ
O UJ
or
-J
-J
<3
yj
J £
3 2
3 0.
O £ 3
UJ -D LU 3 QT o 3
£ UJ £ CO e> o CO
PRESSURE
SAND K6 3 2 4
^^^ %
RELIEF
IN
SILT
FR
K3
K5
4
2
4
2
*
4
^
#
^^%3
m
CO
9
UJ
or
X
< CO
CO o
UJ
GO
h- a.
— CO o CO UJ
O
cc
Z
CD (0
1 • 1
UJ \
2 1-
3 0. p
-1 o
CD 2
IE
2 or
8 3
UJ
UJ CO CO
* *
PRESSURE
SAND »<6
^ 2 4
^ '4
RELIEF
IN
SILT K3
^ 4 1
£ * *
Figure 6 -
FR K5
# 2 4 1 3 *
Method Selection Matrices for Pressure Relief
*
19
Such a systems approach is not applicable for selection
of methods applicable to completed tunnels and, therefore, key
elements of each method of water exclusion from completed tunnels
is presented in the descriptive format of Section 3.30.
3.20 DURING CONSTRUCTION
As shown in Figure 1, the selection process can be divided

into 3 phases:
Phase I Definition of given project conditions

Phase II Selection of optimum method
Phase III Development of contract provisions
and construction monitoring
Phase I is merely project definition, i.e. is it a bored

or cut-and-cover tunnel? What lateral support system for the
cut-and-cover situation or what primary liner for a bored tunnel
is contemplated? Once this basic information is developed,
the process proceeds into Phase II, which starts with definition
of the soil profile in the critical zone. Once this is done,
special problems at geologic interfaces are addressed as defined
in the matrices, whether it be a stratified or uniform profile.
The various interface situations are described in Figures 2
and 3 are used in the matrices in Figures 4 through 6.
Once the interface problems are defined, the selection

matrix is used as described in Figure 1 and technically feasible
methods are selected. These are only technically feasible methods.
No cost estimates have been prepared. Depending on assumptions
made with regard to the soil profile, one may wish to go back
through a feed-back loop, varying the assumptions of soil profile
and interface conditions to consider possible alternative methods.
After technically feasible methods are selected, site

specific considerations must be input into the selection process
and from this will come single or multiple feasible methods.
Preliminary cost estimates are then performed, which results

in select-ion of an optimum method or combination of methods.
A meaningful cost estimate includes not only the cost of the
dewatering system, but must also consider the impact of the
system on the entire project.
Once optimum methods have been selected, the process moves

into Phase III, which is development of contract provisions
and construction performance monitoring.
Cost estimates are not presented herein because the cheapest

groundwater control method is not always the most cost effective
when other factors are considered. Consideration must be given
20
to the effect of a given method on other construction processes
and on the environment. For instance, grouting may be a more
expensive option initially than dewatering, but the increased
face stability resulting from grouting could lead to a cheaper
total tunnel cost due to increased productivity. Similarly,
the installation of a pre-drainage system may be inexpensive
and reliable, yet may cause settlement in overlying compressible
soils which could cause building distress in urban areas. As
a result, each project must be considered individually and with
a full knowledge of the implications of the dewatering method
chosen. For a more through discussion of cost implications,
refer to Section 5.30 of Volume 1.
As an aid to the selection of technically feasible methods,

a series of selection matrices have been developed which account
for general geologic conditions, (i.e., permeability and strati-
fication), and construction procedure, (i.e., bored or cut-and-cover
methods). These matrices are presented in Figures 3 through
6.
Selection is based on subjective rating system varing

from 1 to 4 as follows:
l=very low
2=low
3=medium
4=very high
These ratings have been superimposed on the system of

ten matrices, i.e., 4 for cut-and-cover tunnels, 4 for bored
tunnels, and 2 for pressure relief considerations. These ratings
have been determined, as previously noted, based upon technical
criteria. For example, predrainage methods are feasible in
nearly all granular soils with the highest rating applying to
the drainage method which is most effective in that stratum.
Deep wells are rated highly for sands, whereas ejectors are
more effective in fine sands and silts. Wellpoints are feasible
in coarse sands as well as silts, but are limited in depth and
so may be useless in any deep (bored tunnel) scheme. None of
the ratings for predrainage methods take into account factors
such as adjacent settlement, recharge requirements, chemical
effects or water disposal. These are all site dependent variables
which cannot be quantified here.
Cutoff systems such as slurry walls and trenches, steel
sheeting and freezing are all considered "perfect" dewaterng
techniques when properly installed and thus are all rated "4."
These systems are, therefore, not included in the matrices.
Table 7 is a summary of groundwater control methods during con-
struction. A more thorough description of each method is included
in Section 4.00 herein and in a corresponding section of Volume 1.
21
1 t 1
«/)
(/I
to c C l/» «/> 0) r-
•0 1 CO CU C -*£ C f-
Cnj= (^ c on > O cn U CD O
CO C
•fm
4-> 1 3 •1— CD
r— Q.
«© •»- f- c
+J 1- r— f-
> w
i- ie S»
Ol >> en
c
-M J3 CD "O O •«-> i- "M to
o E -M ^— c <C CD 3 CD CD O 3
3 T- O
Q.-M
C «->
CD
O
•r—
10
E
4-*
(/>
c
«/t CU
J3
S- CU
4J£
i/> l/>
C^t
•*->
M- >
«r-
CU
c <a »-> 3 +J »-» J3 0) S-

00 1- 3 "O O • V) O 3 CU
CD
Qi z cr >> 
C
CD
1—
M O CD
3
(/> 3
CU
D)>-4J a
SZ 4-> J- +J
M 4-> CD E i- «e j= •"- 1
CO t— r- J- <e •r- -4-> CD JD "O l- © E ••-» E •£-

(— 3 CD CO E CD 1- -r- C r"" T3 3 cn+-» «o t- E
<c CO 4-> CO ..-
1—
a> O +>
Q.«i—
O 3 X
O CD
<a v)
1—
1/1 C U (A'O Olr- 0)
I— •r- r~ ^- ••- CD M +Jc r- >, «J C
</>
2 t- CD
c
«4- O « •4- Q.
c
O t.
a cu .0. <o a. 10 c
O t-
§
O E
•— >> cn *4- C\J 0) 00 •*-> **~ vi jQ
CD ••- CU
=>
_J id
£ •r-
_l
C 3
•—• CO O OO
•r" (0
O JZ
CO tJ
CD
CO
I— 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
oo
z
o
o
CJ
z
M
a: 00 c
CD CD CD CD
a 1
00
•f~
+J
j= cn
2 «o
r—
J3 "O
1
J-
CO O t-
0 ^ IO CD CD
a
o CO
Q. +->
C r—
••-
to
Wr-
3 •—
O.
10
CO CD 0) r— «0 CD t- CD tO C f—
UJ C E O 3 •r- "O CD
> fc +J «r- t-
•1- 3 i- CT >> «/) O
<£ O r— -0 •-> >> S •r- </) C CD </>
l— <o c CD "CJ -M O W r— 1- > -
o z
<t
O. > 0)
Q.
O
O
CD
1—
N CD
•1- a.
flj
I/)
«©>«/}
«r- r— ^
CU CD
Id
3
n- >>+J
*r~ l/>
az > </)
CD
CD E
Cn 3 +J
£3
•!-
E E
•r- 3
CD
S-
to
i- t/>
Q.I—
X Q.
l.r-00
••"
CU CD *r-
<£ -0 i- a. O 00 C Q. O OlT- CD E *J w> «- >
o •1-
3 -J «o c
CO
•r— c
1—
£ "p—
h-H CO
f0
S UJ UJ(JO ^-=
1 i 1 i 1 9 1 1
3:
Q
o
UL
O (A
3 00
O
Z 0 0>>
1 to
O 3
•i-O J3
CD
>-
Z HH
•— a:
^—
a
r—
CD
c
«o
c
10
S- 4->
CD <0
> T-
1- > J= c
az
1
UJ > > 00 w M S- CD i- CT TO
z< 1— (0 (0 *
5
!-> Q. CD 3 (J
«-•3 i.
cn
i-
cn
>>
+> 0 41 00
>,
0.
1 J- +J
r- UJ
0 f— c CD O) C T- SZ T-
00 <£ Q -0 •r— to r— C n)E^ c
O _J
l-H
c
(0
c
(O
00 IS)
4->
^3
f0
•("
£= >,
CD J= CD
CO r- U >
A >>>-
—1 UJ
a. z 0 "O TJ 4-> •!-
4->
(/)
ia
CD
r—
L. S.O£
'r- »r— «r-
t-
a. z c c C r— (/> J2 O in S"D
<c =
»—
«o
CO
ro
CO
<C
CO
•r™
CO
c
1— Z
fl
CD
CQ
1 1 1 1
cn
(/)
1
J=
c
••—
00 r- 4-> +j
00 !-> r-- •f— CD
0) r— c CD »•— CD
CT r— •r" to 2 CD SZ
«o cu O J- cn c
X
»—
e
•r"
2 a.
p E
3
c c
•1- 3 (/I
l/l
r*-
UJ (0 a. r— a 3 Q-h- «_ CD
E 0
s_ 
<J
to
E
3 c
M-
O
CD
-M
2
ai
2 UJ > Q_ -v-
3
CO
a. O
22
impervious pipes
grouts
pipes
CO concerns
<*- avoid
o
monitor
in
CM difficult
of
construction
CO to air
monitored
0)
Ol
z
o
operation
non-homogeneous
penetrate
to chemical
JZ •— excavate
CO »— cutoff
<C required
backfill be Environmental
I- stratum
Encrustation
•— Entrained Difficult
Boulders with
s: to
»— Proper
Messy Must Thin Must
-j
<_>
zo
cc - -
-
- - - - - - -
I—
CO
o
o
C9
z
*—>
OL as
ZD in un-
o structure
repair-
excava- settlement excavation

in flow
pressures
CO used
movements
to
Q
o CO
technique
withstand soils
UJ be due
CD be variations tunnel
<
I—
of to
o
effective
z can
can during
to •r* eliminating
o >
Q part
tion
basic
Inexpensive lateral
C
Minimizes
outside
into
Stabilize
stable seepage
Leaks
ed o
Wall Able
u
O
o
Many
UJ
Very
-
- - - - - 1 - -
o i.e.
C5 will to
can
IN
>- slurry,
sand
through
gravel
DEWATERING sandy
which
probe
driven to
CO APPLICATION
and
soil
contain
gravelly
o soil
to which
silt
clay
TUNNEL
>» be Gravel
<c
Sand
Any Any
CO -
1
- - -
<:
trench
walls
Q
O wall
JZ
cutoffs cutoffs Recharge
Slurry Slurry Grout

Thin
23
I i
11
psi
in problem
face problem
CO soils
of 12
in
O environment
shifts
a assess
over
mixed a requirements
CO losses
"blowout"
continuous
regulation
to soils
0)
z
o
pervious
work in cobbles
to
t—
CO 1— air
(gravels) conditions
pressures
<c
h- working power power
>— Expensive
Requires
Difficult
Possible Problems Cohesive

very Limited
Strict
f— Large Large
_l
c_>
a: - - - - - - - - - -
l—
CO
z
o
o and
open
or
too
CD cut
z
I—
out-
bearing
set-
increas-
is
hazards
align-
in or
a: silt
gravity
O soils and
near
CO
Q surface
runny
drainage
O CO
LU
settlement
water
tunnel
tunnel seepage
where
tunnel
CD effective sands
<£ in
strength
1—
z
<:
sloughing Consolidates
o >
o fine side
sands Minimizes
tlement
Minimal
Accurate ment Reverses cuts
Stabilizes
Useable
vacuum
slow
Limits Stable es
Very
o
- - - - - - - - - -
1
o
on
CD silty sand with
or
cobbles
IN grained
DEWATERING
soils silts
silty sandy
sands,
silt
large fine
CO APPLICATION and
silts,
clayey
sand Granular
Pervious
TUNNEL no
Sandy Silt
Very
-
CO - - - -
to
CO •1—
air -o CO
O
0J
•r—
E
CO
-E O
a
o CO
o
1
S-
Compressed
4->
LU u
3 CL>
CO LU
24
3.30 SELECTION OF GROUNDWATER CONTROL METHODS IN COMPLETED
TUNNELS
The main factors which control the choice of a permanent

groundwater control method are the type of tunnel and the method
of construction. Table 8 is a summary of available methods
of permanent groundwater control and the following paragraphs
concisely describe the advantages and limitations of each of
these methods. Volume 2 contains additional descriptive material.
3.31 Cast-in-Place Concrete
Cast-in-place concrete liners can be used in nearly all

tunnel types as either a primary or secondary method of groundwater
control. As a primary means of groundwater exclusion they are
most useful in cut-and-cover tunnels due to the room available
for formwork, concrete mixing and placement. In soft ground
tunnels the cast-in-place method is less applicable due to the
problems associated with concrete placement in a confined, wet
environment. Where the concrete can be placed, it has the advantages
of flexibility, i.e., the mix consistency, pour length, set
time and joint frequency can be modified to deal with special
construction conditions. Where the quality of the placed concrete
is doubtful, a secondary liner or membrane may be necessary
to insure watertightness.
Cast-in-place concrete may also be selected as a secondary

method behind pre-cast concrete or segmented steel liners in
bored tunnels. Concrete is used as secondary liner material
for steel shell sunken tube tunnels, although its effectiveness
in increasing watertightness is minimal. In either case, the
concrete provides an additional barrier to seepage and aids
the structural integrity of the tunnel.
3.32 Waterproofing Membranes
Membranes are applicable in nearly all types of tunnels

for excluding groundwater during the life of the structure.
A variety of membranes are currently available, including built-up
hot applied bituminous materials, pre-formed multilayered boards,
cold applied materials, plastic or synthetic rubber sheets,
bentonite panels or sprays, cementitious coating and thin metal
membranes.
Waterproofing membranes are often selected for cut-and-cover

tunnel sections and sunken tube tunnels because of the ease
of application. The membranes can be applied to the concrete
surface in cut-and-cover sections with little problem and with
a reasonable amount of flexibility. The membrane can be chosen
25
yu »,
1 S 3
1 •H y
>> a
h •H <rl
I cd
o o 73
o •o
h a TJ u
P y
cd XI
P
B •H
41
CO 4) ja rl
o a CO *j 41 a
•H
p P
O -H •a » bt
a X E
p *> a a
-H 4)
41 bo
a
c* c« 4)
1- o > M CO
41
a •H
H
CD -H >» cd
H i-H Ih a 4> u
co a cd 73 rH a. 41 o
<a o. a 4i O > u
CO
4) <a r( rH •»-> P p •H a
Ih rH 3 cd P CO
u •a u a<d 4) y r-l
&
a n » rH J3 73 4) 41 B
1 of > 41 CO av 41 •m a cd
«h a •rt -i-t CO <m a TJ
p y 'H X » 3 3 -
8 a
41
ja 4>
4)
p
» rH CO >> >> cd
ai -a 4>
-> s u <M 41 i^ rH (.
U cd a cd r. p rl 4) •o
•H 41 4) 3 a cd > 41
<M p CO CO J3'+J 4) rH O U
<M 3 3 r. y 3 3 y 41
41 U 4) •a 3 y •o
a a rH h 4) iH 73 •H
u~> 0) a 41 Tt 3 P H P B CO
U -rt +* rH O CO *H r! Cd a
<H XI a cd o
a O CO IH a u
10
41
p o
0) a cd
b3
» rH rH o VI
eg iH cd rl cd
U
a
h V 4) -H *• 3 (0 cd
O » P cd (0 73
a
cu
rH
3 a rH
p a
•o •a CO 41 rH rH » cd
0) 41 cd CO cd cd O P 4)
a O •p y 73 4i rH
o
o
•H
<H h
CO
41 CO
CO
4) CO
Ha
•H
p B
O
10
rH
y
a a. >> h 11 CO rl 41
o s p 3 U -h 41 In -H XI
CO
v -H 3 be > <rl O
s: CO
o
cm
g a
•H
a
4)
a
4)
bO
cd
-H
P
a)
r-l
-H
jQ
CO
4i
h
CO
co
4)
be
a
h
B
•H
H
a 41
bOP
CO p
10
3
(0
CO
cd e
41 J4 be cd
O. rl l< 3 a 41
1 4) U h
a 4i 4i a s a >> B 4)
CO o
a
on > o cd h a U o rt CO 41
cd rH h tth p y 73 bfl a 73 cd 41 >
i-i 0, J3 4) 4)
a rl -H 4) 4) a a •"->
y •H
P
co aj io co Cd 4-> r> Ih
3
th cd
p
T3
cd
cd
y
M o a
41
p p
o 4) 41 -9
41 cd 41 rH <M
41
Q 4) y 'H p 41 <H
rl
3 UN
•H -H 4) o a B <H rH -H <H
a l« -o co CO
v a y 4>
33 H t, O S M 41 p XI 41
H P
Q
ZD
9
O
o
fct
-H
a
O
U 3
fc.
-H a a
•H -H
3
co
C
to
41
U
-a
>>
J3
y
U
a.
4)
y
cd
A
>
rt
U
l-i
a
y
•H CO
P
a
41
y
41
p y
41 cd
73
41
_J rt > cr a e -h 41 £1 a H 41 li U P P
O
X
h
-H
a
41
73
O h
4)
i i i
p
co
3
co
cd
a
O
r.
a o
cd
M
a
X
41 <H
<M
•H
y o
CO
3
>M
y a
B-H
•H
9
DJ a 3 U H a CO U
IU
4) 41
r-l O 4) l-H
73 Cd iH y XI
o
o
4)
t<
tH
-H
u
4)
+J
rt CO
O M
73
a
cd
a
41
•H
>rl
Ul
in
>> c« a 73 4) h o
|H rH a to •• cd jd
H p 41 CO a rl
CO •H 4) 73 3 a CO
liJ P (0 bl J3 rH >><M y X 41 (0
5-: c Cd P 4) CO & 4) y n XI
41 4) 0) i-l -H 4) J3 B H CO
3
XI S <h •rt CO u rH
3 41 H CO C "H 3 a a Ih
A >> rH 4) «->•!-> -H »
C C
73 O
p
>. XI
In r-t Cd X) 41 •H a IN
>-
CO
w rt a t-i 4) P +> 4) 4) +J •H > rl >>
> Cd cd 73 4) CUJ.C C rH 41 rH •H XI
c£ o c a 3 a CO Cd V 41 a h •H P h
41 CO O -H bo a 0. a x> cd 01 73
•rt bo 3 P 73 41 a 4) cd rH XI 4)
>
o
p
U
p
cd
a
•H
o 73
a
CO
>>
P
CO
a
O
4)
f
cd
nm
>
no
4)
+j
y
O
cd
>>X)
rH
CO 41
rH
XI
p
CO
rH
cd
p
I
a
H-
r-t
a
3 P cd 4) O iH -H rH a CO IH rt -r? cd CO a
to a
cd
-h
(i
aw
(0 CO CO
rH
-H
P
CO
3
max
cd a
-h
CO
u
h
4)
1
41
a
H
4) cd
+j
10
a)
p
9
J -n *
U
A3
HH P
4>
M
-H X
41 8
41
r.
cd
4> 4)
>
o
<H
P
Jd
•-I
a
cd
>.
rH >,
a Tj H H hH (fl
Hy
-H 4) 01 X 4-> CO bS
CO 0) -o H CO <H 41 10 1 1 1 1 co y a a U CO t.
o
a3 « a
4) 4> rH cd cd
OS *s Q ft. a u 2 > CO
_)
CO
01
y a CO
a •H 41 3
tH p H
H
a CO
cd
4)
>> Ha
J CO
10
rH
a
41
cd
<-* I
Q 0> 4) a) p a p
O *-> a •rt rH cd HI
H
3> 01 al Ih cd h P XI
h u 4> XI XI IH
e- y XI !-> a a 3 o
3 a a cd 10 a
O 4) a cd
4)
a H4) rH
U a rH Cd
a a a-H
y
a
01
r-l
no
a
H
<*H ••
(0
3
O
•H
H
M
y
3
P
rH
n
41
H
cd
a
cO
73
Ih
41
P
cd
a rH •rl rl 41
C
A rH a
i cd 1 M 3
a
H
h h «•> BO A a o
* 4) tH
1 I-. a
p 0) 41
m
at
4->
CO
O 1
1
O «
26
—
CO hi
• 41
s
a)
HQ »
•-i
O CO at
H 4) H
+J > TJ CO
4) •H 41 a
a S V a CD
e *t H 4) <->
a TJ hi CO
+» 0) >> TJ t»
ea a CO al hi CO
>» 0)
eo VI 4J
CO
*
a
tj
4)
H
**
TJ
a
§ hi
cv «->
CO
3 » CD
4)
a
i >t CO > o
o It
H>> > t*l hi a
o 1—4 |H hi 01 a
V> a) CO
to
CD a a > 41 o
r-H 4) hi
M 3 CO 60 o
a «> a* 4) >> a »
C\J
H e H rH -H i->
CO hi +» r-t VI
at VI hi Ol h,
a
HO
iH 41
41 H » a hi
0) «->
Ha
CO o aa 4)
VI hi >> a
c O CO a a H o
•I
+->
o 0)
o
u v> at
a >t VI
0) hi hi TJ
o u
al
*•> >>
a)
CO
CO
>>
XI
3 a
co al
•a |H CD XI CD
al a O a hi *•> 60
CD 4) al
>i a H 4->
0}
HI
A >.
V
VI
H
*> al
S
§!
O
< •O H a
0)
XI
al
TJ TJ
TJ
CO
4) > 3 al a a a
c 60H >> h> 3
2 a) *> >> al 60 O hi
> r-l a 4) hi TJ VI
3 al a >> TJ 60 CD
TJ
a
an
al CD
60
o a
rH TJ
i-t 4)
CO
4) V H MH 01 V
a .a -h al *> 4-> O
3
o >.
ol
v>
O
3 4)
>•
•M
4->
o*
41
01 0)
rH rH
X> a)
CO
H
CO
a
01
+j 4i
hi
a h> rHTJ •H o hi 3
v> •H 3 al 4) *-> H oi av>
01 CO CO O r-l a a XI CO
o
en
•m
o>
a
o
a
a
CD
H
Vi
TJ
a Ha
4) 4)
O X! »»
TJ
a o
H
4) o vi al V CO o CO at a
XI X H 3 3 3
CO H Q a CO a
en
LU 01 CO
I— u 01 60
3
Ha
-H JO CO
J *> o 0)
u +J CO o
a 4i * 4) hi ol
3 a |H •H 0) TJ CJ VI
a o Oi al 3 XI 0) *** hi
h hi H CO CO r-l co 3
a m3
C_5
X
HO©
t*
a
60
at
-h
-m
a*
h. 0>
co
o
H
V
0)
3
a
hi
*->
a
cv
hi
4)
V
TJ
a
a)
XI
«•>
IH
hi
«
TJ
H
>
CD
M
3
<J
CO
hi
01
rH
LU (0 bo 0> 60 a VI CD TJ 01 rH 01 3
• 01 41 a al CO v 41 VI
H h |H 4) o rH
H
hi 60
CO rH TJ al oi a hi 0> al >> 01 CD 41
iH 01 4) S3 XI H TJ >» TJ V Ol iH VI a h>
a ocp a V *J 41 10 VI r-l H hi a a (h
H a H
CO CO
Ho -a a a
a) hi »
O
V> H VI
hi
41
4)
XI 60
4) al 6
O CO *>
CD
•(->
v a a ih o
o
o O
a
4)
a
o
U
•HO
CO
to >•
vaoiift
H
a
hi
al
CD
X>
a
o 4)
4-1
a *» >> *»
< O fllBU
4)
hs amV>41 hi CO CO
HO rH XI -H CD a
HN 3 a »
0) ol TJ
<-> 0) H VI -H >i > TJ al >.TJ 4)
O -H hi 60 a XI H 60 rH H CO al a O 0) rt 4) a ** H
LU > *» <> » a H -W O H > 4> 60 al hi rH rH CD at rH
ja ih -h >. X H CO hi CO hi DP V CO 01 4) XI a
3 4-> 60
h 4) u <9
* a) iH a 4) r-l al 01 O CO CI 4) XI a
HO » » CD a
a a a Hfl « H O
H>
a) •H *> a) 4) 01
al4> iH H 4) vi o o
oi a oi +j a *> <-» >> a hi CO
f»jOhi3 EK Oflrl 01-d H 4) hi iH >•••-> TJ * 41
W U -H J-> |H ** 10 4-> 4> » > 4) 0) r-l ** a X)
h ja x o vi
1 1
>-
hi 0) CO VI A 4) » 60 O a xi a) h at CD
CO 60 4) 4) rH al 4) 4) rH hi 4) CO hi a a *> 3 a o a VI >>
en 4) -H iH rH 4) 4> O XI XI 81 u ol M VI Ol
< £6 J
b, (d CO 2
hi
oa
4>
co < wa JO 01
a, s
CO
u H H a
60
CO fl
H
4->
CD
u 4)
co 8 A 60 CO
x> CO a >,
x> CO H al
3 v> 4) V TJ hi
cc CD tj 4) 60 0) a
CO a o
0)
A
•H
hi
CD
XI
60
a Ha •H
r-l
CO
^-
s •H
» CO o co H +* a CO
H rH +* CD a 60 l-<
W CD
a
0)
a
J3 hi 0) CD oi a
H
CD
a 4-> CD
CJ 4)
X)
0)
XI
X!
CO TJ VI
a
01
a iH iH XI co H O a
>> 6C >> >. 3 CD 3 O
co a H a
Ha d a
XI OS hi CD
^* -H
O 4-1
01
hi
*»
0) > rH
CD •h
>H
a *>
H CO >>
H 4) 4) >> »> S>>
r-l
al
hi
a
hi
4> a
r^
CD
ol
4-> 4) a »H IH J a o » « o a
hi
a
CO £1 CO 3 (* CD TJ CO v at CO
IS
fH
CO o a 0. a » K H & a a
o CD
P< o ea
1 1
. 1 —~-
27
CO
0)
o
•H
rl
>> 01
> •0 rl *->
Oi od cd h
M rH -a t* CD
a r-l a XI
a o pt OS
*-> y o •H
CO CO 01 rH XI cd I
+J a co hi
a •H h Ih CO 01
01 XI cd 4->
a *-> <w <M cd
1 01 -H 413
01 oi s 4) CO a
CO 3 r-l rH o u
JO cd u o
in
a 0) 0) cd 01 3 *<
01 XI CO 01 CO w
01 3 CO >
EC
*»
•a 3 M a a
0) 0) 01 rl 01
3 0) CO XI CO M a
o J3 bo 3 rl CO TJ *-•
o e C CD cd
' CD cd
bO-H bO oj rH bo CO 4)
<H c y cd 3 h.
•H O •H 41 CO Ih CO r>
J« J4 CO CO 01 CD >. bO
r-l U rH «J rl u rH >, a
3 a
U
3 a 01 3 cm 3 +* hi -rt
"O 0) cd 0) > CO a co a cd <<h
O 01 •H H a o
Z3
+j °H CO
CO
01 Jd
CO
oi
oi
3-rt o
•O oi •O 41 01 u rH hi C hi hi
ed
 J rH «e O Ch
o
u hi
41
XI
i a a
CO rt
•-> +J
4) hi -r* VI
a •-> •H CO Oi**
> U •t-> r-l 3 4) y
•a A 3 • CO a 3 t»*> > 41 CD CO
01 u O co 3 •H y CO hi rH a CO Vi CO
hi o a CO o
a CD H cd cd co •rt o a 41
3 X) o s CO 4-> <H oi a 0) a o -^ y
CO
O CI* •H (0 •o X 41 <H CO TJ TJ a y
3
Ha a M a y -
rH 4-> cd •H tj •H rH 3
<-> cd o <d oi y TJ a cd O *->
41 41 CO
0) tj tj hi CO r-l a cd hi 4J -H •rt o a
1-1 a cd 0) 4-> >. a 01 •u TJ <M 4-1 -r* u
cd h « € a +j o h y hi CD >> a 4->
e J3 CUJi— 3 -H rl •r( O rl bt 4-> O
§ 0) cd c o t-t TJ
cd
+> a a H y
CD
>
CD 4->
H
CO
>
a
a> tj a o
•w 01
o H
XI
CO
o to oi
bo
CO *->
H
-H o
hi -H 01
rH
-H TJ
-rt
CO 4->
rl CD a oi
o y
CO
5 r-l o a u *> d
rl
e-i ^3
01
y cd
•(->
a hi 3 V > XI 0)
CO
a
4-> CO
hi S
CO 4J 01 O O 01 O "H 4->
o s
4->
CO
3
»-l
•^
3 4>
A
O
B
cd
CO
rH
•H
0)
y
o
•(->
Si
TJ
41
B 41
XI TJ
0) CD
cd
rH
rH
i)
od
K
cd
<S
a
«->
CD
X
01
a
x
•
oi
a
o
4->
hi
a
S i-H a jd > o oi CO 01 r-( hi bO cd r-l -H CD 01 >> 41 bo
a
a
X) a •rt cd el *j
<-> rl CO TJ cd cd v co <m y 4-1 hi 4J a
> •H -H o a a m -H a 3
o CO
EB-rH
a co
oi
b
4->
a*j
at CO r-4
4->
4)
•o
0)
M rl
y a,
rH
X)
41
bi
hi
01
cd
X!
•u
a
3 a
tj -h
V
0)
o
TJ
oi
-r>
a
co
41
hi -rt
CO
CD
hi
4->
3
CO
CO
rH
3 4J
y 3
-rt
h a •H a> b. i-H u v> to •H O •rH 41 a +> c« ^1 *J •rt O CD rt O

+J Q) 3 O 01 3 O H i-j 01 CO > o a o u •H O 3 cd 3 hi hi VI Ih
a o. o*
«
in
3
u W Vl S XI XI co a cd *> ba*j o 4i a 3 O" bO y bo a Vi bO
X 01 •H 3 01 01 01 -H 41 4) rl
OW OS CO as _) CO 0. as CO CO -3 OS OS a
r-l
r-l 4)
CD a
>> a a
CO •o r-l u +j i a 3
(H a a 01 a hi 3 4->
4-1 a) tj a) XI 01 v> 4-1 01 v bO
CD •H C 01 R 4J CD *-> bO a a vi a
X 3 tj hi a a rH s g 01 <-> CO c 0) a bo rt
01 4) a) o 01 rH B cd -H a ri a VI
liJ a hi
•^
V *> O y r< CO xi oi y hi cd H bO
u a
n O
cd •H 4) cd a 1 a CO TJ a
04 S o -* S e « > o rH bO 01 XI Ih cd a hi
>, a a 01 bo V •rf 01 h> 41 3 bo a
r-l 9) CD a e J3 -H c cd co Q,H a rH O hi hi
3
H> O >
4-> hi 0) CO •H CO +J 01 rH hi cd Oi
IS)
y (0 4-> o <H bO y cd a boa CO CD hi r-l *i
CD >» CO CO r. a co 41 01 a c cd 3 3 a cd
a u h H 3
o co
w
o
H
hi
tj
r-l
•rl
CO
9
a
TJ >>
0)
c
CO
<-i
4-> O
r<
a
> a
cd H
bo a,
CO
CD CO
CO
rH
Cd
0)
3
4-1
CO
3
V> rH
r-l
10
Cd
CO
rH
01
01
3
41
< cd X •h bo c h co a hi a Oi 01 XI 41 rt hi 4->
tj oi 01 A a a) U 01 • •H o co a CO <J 3 a o h cd
UJ a B -h *J -rt <-> GO (H r^ XI -H CO -H 3 TJ
H CD H o vi CO +-> cd • O 4-> *> <W «H 01 3 CO «h
CD
XI
CO
O" O
> >H A y o •H >, » 3 SH TJ •H cd hi cd O 4-> CD a
a co Ss CO rH CD B h, o bo co co O bO 14
41
hi g rH
Ll_ a, a o a 3 O a * O
o 9 cd
a>
o
Cd
at
y
l-l
OJ
>
>>
r-i
r-l
hi
a
hi
oi
rl M
VI H
oi
> -H
r-l
cd
-H
V>
a
01
41 bO
rH -H
>>
- a
CD
hi
hi
hi
a
-u 0)
a c
oi •h
>>
hi
cd
hi
a
hi
4)
hi -rt
r^ 4J
o y
y
cd
-rt
hi
0) Vl rl 05 01 >. y (-> "O XI <H •H 41 BX! 4J X! a
A J Q
hi 41 cd o>
HO y
hi or -1-1 rH 01 oi a •h a hi *-> tj bo y O -T> CO cd 4->
C/' 3 JH a) cd X! r-l 01 CO 01 01 x o cd cd •rt oi cd a cd 9 co cd
a co at |H a, 3 bfl « <M 3 4-> CO oi y > » a co a a a a a oi 4-> a
cd 4i 01 >> •H <H r-l cd 41 cd o
u >J as H a w a Cm «« a H o Q
CO
bo
•H
CO
+J M
CO My
CO
CO
Ha
<-(
a
01
a
CD
O
Ih
UJ bo CO g g hi
_1 a be T) 0) 4) o
CO Q a 01 CO CO
*-> bo •H 4->
CO
§ e a a l-t 4)
H o H 01 CO
Oil
a
y «
W 4-»
0) g
41
*->
•rt
a DC
(0
3
01 r-4 01 CO y
X) 01 CO a r-l rt
CO a o
a a 4) o TJ CO 3
H 3 o 0) rH O
§ Eh cd *» +j CD
4-»
a
a H y CO a a
Ih
o
tj f-1 -H cd oi a rrt
0) y rH at
B 1 4J CO X) 01 bo «-> cd
a u
Hy
01 <d
o 01 a o rH a,
01
CO
01
a
s 0)
a
1 1 be
01
o 1 1 i i 41
41
o
x:
CO
o
28
to
• cot
U CO
•
(0 r^* CD CD
3 r-l O O
1 CD a a
a s CD 4)
CO •rl -H •H
to to Ih u
4> 4) al r-l 4) 41
to •H
O
a a
o 3 be X X
u
Ha
CO 4) CD
CO
a •-t
a
al a 4) 4)
E-> a (4 4) 4) rH rH
z o 4) a XI r> *->
w rl a *> •T> r> <J
a *> . « be be be rt •H
a O 00 be a a a r-i r-t
o 0) • 4) -H CD
o •--)3 a Ih VI rl
a iH *> o P TJ TJ
•h a CO CO 4) CD
H h rl CO CO
r> CD u a O
3 3
«3- o a be O r.
A a Vi 4) a a a
4-> o
?!
« o
t-t T3 al
4) 5
to
4)
TJ
r-i
TJ
i-t
-a a « to O CD 4)
O z 3 a CQ CO
c
o
u
CO be
I/O rH o a a
H •H -H o o
X rH *-• V tH
to 4) r> u
be CD <-> O
o to to rH 41
l-> 4) o to 3 H-J
rl 4) 4) o a
00
w ja al O U H •H
«-> be to O VI >>
Q
LU
< as
a
a
•H
*>
o M
CO
HI
U,
a
<H
4i
VI
•rl
41
t.
*»
•H
E-» 41 VI 4) a TJ xi TJ O to a
a o a o
Ho
I— I M VI 4) 41 VI
iH O « 4) VI a a O CO a 4) o
t> u « o
Ho
0) •rl to O rl *J XI to l-l
9 IV X a a a TJ *-> a -rl OS
CO
h 4) M 4> 4) U B -rl O 4) +J TJ >
0) +J iH 4) tH > -H O o 0) -H 0) •H
o a c w
u
*->
h •H K o al TO i-i
al
4-1 rH
CD
B r-t
a
o >l
10 H
CO
iH
-rl
al
B
4)
a
x
to
a
4)
<m rH
al 3
a
H
4i
U
be cd
3
be
Ol rH XI
at
4)
4)
0* -rl
H
*->
*J a
oS
4) W h 4) a 4> 3 M C > O > -H U
o i— e co O X rH o « O •H -rl U Ih 4> •h a 4> TJ
A al w VI 41 4) £>
H
-H Ih ss in •M X) CO H to 4)
Cxi 1-4 4-> (4 r-t > »H to u a «-> a a u
to O al >> •U >v 10 H 3 1 -rl CD 3 •u 4) xs be -H
cc
(0
0.
al
4)
OS
a
S
i-i
rH
a
O
4->
H
J
b
4)
>a
CO
O
TJ
M
a
cr
4)
as
SOXa
o x
o
o o
rl
a
to
3
a
X H o
was j
be a a
rl
J
LU
f—
to
0) TJ TJ
LU
Q bo
C
4)
M
OS
*J
3
O
CD
CO
al
a
al
to
be
a rl
-
•H fc. u ja tH 41
*J +» bB 4) » r>
J s a o
X 0)
a
4>
a
4)
(H
cd
to
4)
3
4)
•H
VI
rH
H
OS
3
TJ
Q. u a rH a
* •H rl 3
o >.
* rH
|H
s
4)
J
4)
4)
Hs
Ih
+->
>. SH
*J *J
fH rH TH
be
a
rl
— 1 CO H J3 be > M 4) rH -H rH be
10 £ «J O C -H a H CO rH
I/O O U to •rt tOfl TJ TJ M *-• TJ X) O XS
o
o CO
w
U
to
t>D
C a
VI M C
J 4)
4)
tfl
4)
to
4)
to
CD
to
a CO
o
4)
to
to
rl
OS
i->
TJ
a •»->
rl 
•H
o H CD at uaoj 05 al a o al 4) 10 al a »
> b O 4> to x a a jQ T3 XI VI o
*->
a
>
H 4)
p
CD •« 9 e cd CJ >
vi to vi c s >> Q rH >, >, O h e rH
z o 3 3 w r^l a
ho •H 3 ** -n •U
to CO v> •-<
< tj tj a -H O -H H rl
a
CD
U VI hH o
> « a m a 4) 4) rM-H
4)
CO
4)
rH
4>
r^ U CO to >>rH
41
rl 4)
9 be eS 3 « a Mrt o o O <-> rH O 4) o be a CD rl
h
o C
al IB
U 4>
•H
o
to
10
4)
X
4)
a 4) t» o
al > v CO
(h -rl 4) -H
t.
*->
4>
U
P
4)
C O
O
O
CO
-rl
o
CO
rl H
4)
>
b
U
4)
l->
at
»
•h
X
O
a
rH rH
H>
4->
•rl
TJ
>- 8 a •»» <-> a > O, a > > *-> a *J 3 o <->
cc
4>-rl Jd -H CO CD a) | rH at •o TJ VI CD O
TJ «> «( VI OS TJ r-l Q 9 a a rH S » r^ e o a o 4) VI OS
H 4) 4> •H 4) 4) O 4> o o o to VI 4)
* * J * as zj z z * -J J as z o ZO3 Id as
(/>
CO a
*j a
3 •M to
a O 3 CO v
fct
rH CO
g H «-> 1 eg rH
*H
t* 3 CO CO o X) •H
tj
J o J 4-> VI a O
4) rl c CO CO to
(0 O be a rH 01 eg CD OS CD
at 3 a] CJ CO rH rH a r-*
A •a a -a h CD a a al CO XI
•
I •H
a
a 3 •a o a CO 3 cd to
»
»H «H •* a a *» a O N
«=> a be r* (H 4) tI CD a rl a
4 i •H
J o 3 a) X3 u n •H a OS
O
H
*->
a
o b. rH a a 1 3 to al *J
>> -H >> rH i O o
rl a 1 1 1 (h CO 1 rH 3 +J i-t OS
rl fH o o>
1
O H 3 CD
oo < PS a £ ffl > as
i 1 1 1 i 1 1
29
b
3 9
9 at •H b
b b V
^B 3
rf 4->
9 60 4> eS b +J
> a u at at
* & a! CO ab 43 *
rH cS b bo 9
3HO UH a
9
b in Q.
HO 43 O O
d> a)
I "w a 0) 4J » b
J «J a & -H at -H 3
t.
at
a
9 at
3
*»
*•
O
* »
at
W
as a>
t)
•Hb
43 0)
b »->
4->
a
*
60 U O 4 09 a> ip a
e > rH •0 8 V a St
•H 9 h t-t •0 St
0)
fc.
O a
w a
OH
> u
n
ti
rH
at > a 9
a
b a
3
*4 hi 3 >»
a 9 O O at u *» *-> O
o o TJ <-> •O 9 u O
•o b 9 a 60 a > 3 a 9
a-H
>.
be
ha O
O c
b
f> b
W
3
r-l +1 ItJ h 9 h w 01 1
a
r-l a« rH (0 Tj at H
ata> M •H a b ©, u y 9
U S ** O <H TJ a) O 43 b
H 4> 3 at -w a a at *>
ay
>i b
O. U
at
OS V
3
a
9
>>£>
at
09
O
H O a H a a
E
O
u a a 60
1 © o a
b a o o
43 O at rH
_l V » S ffl at
LU •H a) b B
» o » 0) O rH
S3 >.
J b
a O -H * 09
0> rH 09 0) O c
a 0) 0) 3 O J3 09 01 rH O
B
HO 9
*» at -h
0) 60 >. 0) 9 *>
9 rH > B
O
LU «-> a
rH
43
a
E
b
«
•H
rH
at
s o
09
o
T3 -H
O B
•H » at O a a)
>4)
rH v O
<-> •0 H CJ B 0) 9
at O rH iH 09 a> 43 b H 9 >>
t* •a <** b -w B >
9 0) O -H a •H ©
b 0) b *» b a » o rH *J
60 a <h •H o o •H a)
O 0)
n 09
41
*>
at
at
01
O
O
at
b
V 3
«r
o-o
**
09
43
9
a jQ
•H -H
a
9 » >>b o> b <-> si « X X w
0)
pi
b-O
3 a
at
* b
a. Si
IP «J
b
09
O at
a 09 9
a
9
9 o>~>
r* *>
o a
•H
(0
V 3
HX b
rH
at
0>
-w
a)
a
<->
at
b
«J
09
*>
e
a
O
<->
09
B
rH
rH
Ot-H
b B
u 5
9 60
rH at
-h ju
O
a
9 •h B
09
at
B
(0
S" *»
O
» 09
3
09 •H 09 as 3 w a at
9
rH D» Id
9
3
K rH at at
on 0. «s S5 a l w 00 >J »a J
t.u
09
9
t>
LU H a
Q •M
•H
O fH
at
O
09
O 09 9 9 Si 43 9
-a >
H> a
at 09 09
9 9
X O 9
e a
•H 60
09
B
B
-H
09
a
60
a
-h
T*
9-1
•H
43
9
•H
w b
at
4>
at 9
J
<H 4) <w >v h y
43 * *» rHb rH B
9
09
r^
O
-r-)
X O
9 b
X
9 b
a
•ri
•Hb
O 3 9
1HU
43
>.
-H
at
*V a a 09 rH •W Ol 01 rH
B b b b b o 09 ^h -h
9 b 9 O 9 O 9 9 >> b 60 9 43
•H 9 9 *4 *> «-l <J +> a >> y a a at
O
XT
b
9
a
f B
at •a»
at
a
9
at
s
at
b
at
B
43 e -H at
ox
y o
ane
B O 9 O fl
X *> 9 b 9 b a H 0> o -a -h
9 «H B O e b a >. b c <w
O 9 O 9 •0 *• a-H o
H> a rH 9 60 9 60
u e
O «.! 9 *H b 4: o
U B a ••a rH 9 9 b
H 3 o
at >>43 o
09 9 w at 3 -H 3-h 4-> O rH O O at +j 43 a
a b 9 rH O *» 0 *> O 3 9 b b 3 at b
9 a •H -H 9 3 9 3 9 3 b43 a a a* » >> 9
a 09 b at b O b O 43 b +» b b b w
>- X
9
9 at >
> at
b b 4-> 09 9
B43
9 a> O -O b at
•O >> 60 >> 60 S» 09 O O 3 »
e H at at at O O OrH
a a a O OO 0Q
00
9
«»
CO 9
b
y
9 B
<M u
03 9
b H9 y
y 13 9
B rH -H
O O B 9
y 09 9 «->
b 9
9 9 4-> b
y y y
at at -a B
t-* rH 8 O
a a at y
a a 09 »
•H -H 9 09
1 rH
1 at
•M ** -H y
09 09 a 9
at at b
U a
5 3
30
cd
>> a
hi a
a) CO
•o et
a
o hi
o « O
CB O
CO (0 r-l CO
•A
3 V *J
a> CB
CO 4> h> Jd
*J X) 0) CO
Ha
c4
»s J3 bO
o <a »
•n B H J3
« *J
73 hi •rt
3<j> o o *
a CB
(0 O V r-l »* hi a
3 a a> 4) r-l CB
>
4>
» r-l
a u • 9 O V et
D CU CO tx*» o a 0)
« r-i 4) £3 CO
a o r-lU >> hi
30 d u
u a
r-l
r-l
a
H
CO
*>
O) •H o
Ha
el a
a o 3 i
>>
E- 3
(A
»o
+->
c
o
o
hi
co 3
+*
y
3 a
hi
«-> CD hi
ca O 4-1
a hi >>
+> a) a> •o *->
a C *-> 4> iH
Q
LU o
CU
+->
M
c
at
»
*>
o
rH
09
et a •H hi 01 3
i-> •w *< 4> u c
•3 TJ
at 1 a hi abo
hi
a
3 a
CS e Ft
i-i
hi hi •3 <o • n
o iH
<->
y *->
» i->
1
*
«->
m
a>
r-l
ft
.o
t->
y
*^
0> 4)
as
h.
y M
a
8 4>
CO
CO
3 m
ca
a
>
hi
nj
a>
hi rH -H
o
a>
TJ 4>
»
CO hi CO cd a> co CO 4)
>. 4> CU K> co CU 4) hi
H Vi hi co a>
JCO <J h. hi
h U
H h T-l o ca hi e
3 >>
Ha o 3
0)
LU cd
3
CU
> rr hi a « y o- o
CO TJ 01 0) A 4)
= < cc > -s H as
o
X
hi
a>
LU »
o >>
hi
cd
B 4)
•h a
Q
O
hi
ah.
n)
-a ee A
4> a CO s
\— CB CB
LU a vi 3 B
o H
ca o > 60
« hi o a
*> a a ca
v
h. -H
a>M
61 hi
HO o
a o
•h«-> Ha rH O
>- B at >> o 4> hi
•H £t hi «-> 4> a
CB *» o
> m
LO
00
LU
_J Q ®
ca M hi
<c H o
a
1— W o
o
TJ
U
hi
31
based upon construction or site variables such as concrete condition,
extreme weather or water conditions, frequency of joints in
the concrete, possible shrinkage conditions, possibility of
puncture, magnitude of expected movements and economics.
Waterproofing membranes may be used as secondary liners

in bored tunnels but usually require a smooth outer liner upon
which the membrane can be placed.
3.33 Segmented Tunnel Linings
Segmented linings are used in bored soil or rock tunnels

as combined structural and waterproofing systems. The segments
can be fabricated of cast iron, structural steel or pre-cast
concrete
Precast concrete segments are flexible with respect to

segment size and configurations but are heavier and more difficult
to handle than steel sections.
Segmented tunnel liners are used frequently in soft ground

tunnel construction and to a lesser degree in rock tunnels.
A disadvantage to the method is the frequency of joints associated
with the large number of segments required. However, leaks
are easily repaired by re-caulking the joints or grouting behind
the liner.
3.34 Grouting
Grouting adjacent to the excavation is a dewatering technique

applicable in both cut-and-cover and bored tunnels. The type
of grout used depends upon a number of variables discussed in
the companion volumes of this report. The available materials
most commonly used are cement, cement-bentonite silicates,
,
lignin-based acrylamides, resins and emulsions. An advantage

,
of grouting is that it can be used as a dewatering method both

durng constuction and over the life of the tunnel. Its use
is limited in fine grained cohesionless or stratified soils
where the-viscosity of most grouts is too high to effectively
permeate the stratum and form the impervious barrier. Good
knowledge of the soil conditions is required prior to selection
of a grouting system.
Consolidation grouting of rock is a widely used and inexpensive

technique for limiting water flows through rock fractures and
seams. This method is commonly used in conjunction with other
techniques to form an impervious barrier around the tunnel,
and as such may be termed a secondary treatment. The grouting
is carried out using various mixes of particulate grouts (cement,
clay, sand) injected from the surface or directly into rock
seams as the tunneling proceeds.
32
Contact grouting and annular space grouting are simply
the filling of voids which may exist behind the tunnel lining
with a particulate mix of grout or wet concrete. The grout
is pumped into predetermined hole patterns to insure adequate
backfilling and minimize segregation or trapped pockets of air.
This technique is usually a secondary defense against water
intrusion and ground movement above the structural liner.
3.35 Diaphragm Cutoff Walls

Diaphragm walls are used exclusively in cut and cover
tunnel sections because they can be incorporated into the final
structure. The type of wall may be cast-in-place solder pile
,
and tremie concrete, or pre-cast concrete. Leakage can occur

through the many joints associated with the wall construction,
but is usually easily remedied if it occurs above excavation
levels. The concrete cutoffs must penetrate an impervious stratum
to be effective and the construction procedure must be good
to insure high quality concrete.
3.36 Permanent Groundwater Lowering by Drainage
This method has never been attempted on a transit tunnel

but is technically feasible. The main objection to its use
is the possible adverse affect on adjacent structures in urban
areas.
3.37 Sunken Tube Tunnels
Such tunnels are used primarily in tunnel construction

beneath large bodies of water such as harbors, channels, or
rivers. The waterproofing capabilities of these sections are
high because they are fabricated under controlled conditions
and have joints at spacings of 100 feet (30.5m) or greater.
33
4,00 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF GROUNDWATER
CONTROL METHODS FOR URBAN TUNNELING
The design and construction of groundwater control methods for

use during construction of tunnels in urban areas are so closely
interrelated that it is often difficult to determine where design
ends and construction begins. This is particularly true of
dewatering and recharge methods, grouting and freezing. Cut-offs,
compressed air and specialty shields, i.e., slurry or earth
pressure balance shields, are less subject to modification during
construction than the previously listed methods. That is not
to say that there are no construction difficulties with these
methods, but the basic concept or layout is less likely to change.
4.10 DEWATERING SYSTEMS
4.11 General Design Considerations
The following factors should be evaluated for design of

predrainage systems.
1») Permeability - Soil permeability can be estimated

based on grain size analyses, laboratory permeability
tests and borehole permeability tests. Rock mass permeability
is usually estimated based on borehole packer tests and
pumping tests. Grain size tests and borehole pumping
tests are the most reliable methods for evaluation of
soil permeability and are described below.
Grain Size Analyses

- Grain size analysis using Hazen's relationship
K = IOOD^-^q cm/sec, is useful for uniform sands.
The relationship is not as well suited to well graded
granular soils and in such situations qualitative
estimates based on general soil classifications
-are often used. Some typical values are listed
below.
SOIL Permeability (cm/sec.)

Coarse Gravel 1J . x ; L0-2
Sandy Gravel 1. 6 X 10"-2
Fine Gravel 0. 7 X 10" -2
Silty Gravel 4. 6 X 10" -4
Coarse Sand 1. 1 X 10" -4
Medium Sand 2. 9 X io- -3
Fine Sand 1. X 10' -3
Silt 1.5 x 10" 5
34
Pumping Tests
- Pumping tests are probably the most reliable way

to estimate aquifer permeability. Two simple closed
form solutions for steady state pumping are;
Unconfined Aquifers
K = 458 Q In r 2 /r r in gpd/ft 2
(h 2 2 - h x z
)
Confined aquifers
K = 229_Q_ln_r 2 /r_l in gpd/ft 2

m (h 2 - hj)
where
K = Coefficient of permeability in gpd/ft 2
Q = Flow in gpm
r2 = Distance to farthest observation

well in ft.
r^ = Distance to closest observation

well in ft.
h2 , h^ = Saturated thickness in ft. at

furthest and closest wells, respectively
m = Thickness of confined aquifer in ft.
These are unique mathematical solutions which must

be used with considerable judgement. Somewhat more
realistic methods of interpreting pumping test data
are illustrated conceptually in Figure 7a. For
a thorough discussion of methods such as shown in
Figure 7a, the reader is referred to anyone of several
tests such as Groundwater Resource Evaluation by ,
William Walton ana published in 1970 by McGraw-Hill

Publishing Co., Nev/ York.
Variable and constant head borehole permeability

tests, although less accurate than pumping tests,
are inexpensive indicators of permeability and are
therefore frequently run. Figure 7b presents the
basis for two common borehole tests.
Note:
gpd/ft 2 = 4.716 X 10- 7 m 3/S/m2
= 0.040747 m3/day/m2
35
PUMPED
WELL
OW-i OW-2 OW-3 M FT.
—
I
3SST 7^k T°
g STATIC 6WT
10
DRAWDOWN DUE
TO PUMPING
I.
20
Q.
U
I 30°
i(*
GROUNDWATER
TABLE DUE TO
PUMPING 40
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
,5 -*.50
(a) TYPICAL PUMP AND OBSERVATION WELL SETUP

FOR PUMPING TEST
I ft = . 305 m.
10 100 1000 10 100 1000

TIME FROM START OF PUMPING (MIN.) DISTANCE FROM PUMPED WELL (FT.)
(b) DRAWDOWN VS. TIME (c) DRAWDOWN VS. DISTANCE FROM WELL
FIGURE 7a - Typical Pumping Test Array and Data
36
"3KC355 /»v\/W\ ?*s\/»\ "/W^.*K
r
+4 D +
V
I I
I I
L L
CASED HOLE; SOIL FLUSH WITH BOTTOM CASED HOLE; UNCASED OR PERFORATED
EXTENSION OF LENGTH, L
CONSTANT
HEAD
TEST =
q i B
fc+^, + (.Jfr)']
2 75DH C ^h
2 7TLH C
VARIABLE f2mL \
HEAD TTd
ln-i Kh In
TEST MD(t 2 - t,) 8L(t 2 - t.)
notation:
Km = MEAN PERMEABILITY =^K n K, He = CONSTANT PIEZOMETRIC HEAD

Kn = HORIZONTAL PERMEABILITY H,,H 2 = PIEZOMETRIC HEAD AT t,,t 2
Kv = VERTICAL PERMEABILITY d = DIAMETER OF STANDPIPE OR CASING
q = FLOW OF WATER D = DIAMETER OF INTAKE ZONE
L = LENGTH OF INTAKE ZONE m =

V K h/ K v >
t r T,ME
FIGURE 7b - Tym'cal Field Permeability Test Methods
37
2.) Water Bearing Zone - The thickness of the water bearing
zone is normally estimated from boring logs and piezometer
measurements
3.) Storage Coefficient S - The storage coefficient is

estimated from pumping tests. As a rule of thumb
for a confined aquifer S = m x 10~6
Ranges of S values are typically 0.0001 to 0.001

for a confined aquifer and 0.01 to 0.35 for an unconfined
aquifer.
4.) Radius of Influence _ The radius of influence

can be estimated from pumping test data.
As an estimate, RQ = / . 3 Tt
V S~~
where:
R = Radius of influence in feet
T = Transmissivity in gpd/ft.
t = Time of pumping in days.
5.) Estimated Pumping Quantity - The total quantity of

water to be pumped, Q, during steady-state conditions
is given by;
QT K (H 2 - h 2 ) + X K (H 2 - h 2 ) for an
458 In R /r w 1440 RQ unconfined
aquifer
or
"Q Km (H - h) + X Km (H-h) for a
T =
229 In R /r w 720 R confined
aquifer
where:
Q-p = Pumping rate; gpm
K = Coefficient of permeability, gpd/ft
H = Saturated thickness of aquifer before

pumping (unconfined aquifer) or
38
H = Static head at bottom of aquifer before
pumping (confined aquifer)
h = Saturated thickness of aquifer after pumping

(unconfined aquifer) or static head at bottom
of aquifer after pumping (confined aquifer)
R = Radius of influence in ft.
rw = Radius of well in ft.
X = Required length of dry tunnel
m = thickness of confined aquifer,

in ft.
The pumping rate for a single well can be conservatively

estimated based on:
Q w = .035 ls rw >/k7
where
Q w = Pumping rate in gpm
ls = Length of wetted screen after drawdown,

in ft.
r w = Well radius in inches
K = Coefficient of permeability in gpd/ft.
4.12 Design of Well Systems
A typical deep well is illustrated in Figure 8. A preliminary

estimate of the number of wells can be made by:
Nw = Qip
Qw
where
N w = Number of wells
Q T = Total flow to dewater the tunnel
Q w = Flow per well
39
' f
OUTER 1
CASING
' •"
WELL CASING
'
•>'
; !'•>" •:":':'::
>
i * ;.
:
>Y; FILTER MATERIAL
j i feVj;/-;
.
-
i
:
i v.-. AQUIFER
'»:::&. well SCREEN
»1»
o -Q. O
a
C> A P -v *Q CMÔ -ofto *
FIGURE 8 - Typical Deep Well
40
The preliminary system design is checked by making a cumulative
drawdown analysis at points of required maxiumum drawdown.
Also checks at critical well locations are made to assure adequate
wetted screen length, l s The well and formation head losses
.
will reduce the available l s calculated. Individual well flows

and/or well spacing and number are adjusted until the desired
drawdown requirements are met. When l s available is much greater
than l s required, it is probable that fewer wells with higher
individual flows may be adequate. When l s available is much
less than l s required, more wells with lower individual flows
may be adequate. An estimate of cumulative drawdown can be
made using the following:
n
(H-h) x -> n = I [H - y/*H2 - Q n 458 In R /r n ] in ft. for
1 K unconfined
aquifer
(H-h) 1 -y n = I
.
Q n 229 In R /r n in ft. for confined
1 Km aquifer
Filter material is selected based on compatibility with

formation soil type. A compromise on filter material may be
required if pumping is to be undertaken in varying soil types.
It is also based on compatibility with the wellscreen. Generally,
the gradation of filter material should be within the following
limits:
Filter to aquifer relationship:
DlS (filter) < 4 to 5 < Pj.5 (filter)

Dg5 (aquifer) D^5 (aquifer)
Filter to well screen relationship:
D RS(filter)
> 1 to 2
screen slot or hole
If water quality data indicate a corrosive or encrusting

environment, modification in slot size or screen material may
be necessary.
The collection system is sized and the discharge is located

based on normal hydraulic principles or pipe capacities. The
pumps are sized based on total flow, total dynamic head, net
positive suction head and pump efficiency.
41
If pretreatment of discharge is required, the system should
be designed in accordance with common sanitary engineering practices
Power requirements and selection of backup power systems

are selected after selection of pumps/
4.13 Design of Wellpoint Systems
Typical wellpoint installations are illustrated in Figure

9. The design procedure for a wellpoint system first involves
distribution of the calculated total flow, Qrp, to the perimeter
of the well point system, to get an estimated required flow
per foot of system. The wellpoint size, and spacing between
wellpoints are than chosen to be compatible with the material
and flow rates anticipated.
Friction losses in wellpoints should be kept to a minimum.

A perfect vacuum at sea level has the theoretical potential
to lift water 34 feet (10.4m). The actual lift available below
pump suction elevation at a wellpoint is determined by deducting
the following head losses in feet from 34 feet (10.4m):
Friction loss through screens
Friction loss through piping
Pump losses (efficiency)
Reduction in barometric pressure above sea level
Typically these effects reduce the available lift at the

wellpoint to about 24 feet (7.3m) at sea level. As a rule of
thumb, 15-foot (4.6m) drawdown in the center of the excavation
is the maximum drawdown that shuld be anticipated for a single
stage wellpoint system.
If sufficient drawdown is not produced by a single stage

of wellpoin-ts, a second stage must be provided at the lower
elevation. The drawdown elevation of the first stage is then
used as the static water level of the second stage. When multiple
wellpoint stages are required, the headers are usually connected
to a common vacuum source.
Typically commercial wellpoints are designed with screen

openings that will retain a washed concrete sand. If the aquifer
soil is so fine that it may clog a concrete sand filter, a specific
screen opening and filter material may have to be provided in
accordance with filter guidelines discussed for wells.
The size and location of discharge lines and pre-treatment
facilities, if required, should be as discussed for wells.
42
STATIC WATER
LEVEL
HEADER PIPE WATER BEARING

AQUIFER
DRAWDOWN DURING
PUMPING
CROWN
WELL SCREEN
a) SINGLE STAGE
ximum
"CROWN"
b) TWO STAGE
FIGURE 9 ~ Typical Well point Installations
43
Determine power requirements and backup power system.
If a diesel powered pump is used, some flexibility in pumping
rates is possible by running the pump at higher speeds. Electric
pumps run only at one speed, but require less fuel.
4.14 Design of Ejector Systems
A typical ejector is illustrated in Figure 10. The design

procedure for ejector systems first involves making an estimate
of Qip. Then determine the head between screen and discharge
line and chose an ejector spacing. Spacing is normally between
7.5 and 20 feet (2.3m to 6.0m). In stratified soils where only
a moderate amount of seepage can be tolerated, spacing closer
than 7.5 feet (2.3m) may be necessary.
The number of ejectors to be used can be calculated by

dividing Q T by the yield per ejector, Q 2
.
The nozzle size, supply flow Qj_, and supply pump pressure
required to obtain Q 2 are obtained from ejector manufactures'
rating charts. Based on the required values of Q 2 and discharge
head, a nozzle size is specified with appropriate values of
Qj_, and supply pressure. If Q 2 is beyond the limits of nozzle
ratings, the ejector spacing must be adjusted accordingly.
The size of the supply pump is determined based on required

supply pressures and total supply flow, Qii>. Friction in both
supply side and return side piping must be accounted for.
The supply header is sized based on a total supply flow

and discharge header is sized based on total return flow, as
double the normal value, to allow for flow of air and water.
Since the proper operation of the ejector is sensitive to back
pressure, efforts should be taken to minimize friction losses
in the return and discharge lines. This can be acheived by
the installation of air vents in the header and, when possible,
providing multiple discharge points in the system.
Filter material and ejector screens are selected as described

for design of wells.
The ejector pump is very sensitive to encrustation in

the nozzle and venturi. It may therefore be necessary to design
pre-treatment facilities.
Power requirements and backup power systems can be designed

as described in normal design of mechancial systems.
44
WHTCW
KCTUMM
NOZZLE 8 VENTURI
SYSTEM
MAXIMUM PUMPING CAPACITY

1500 TO 2000 gpm
(95 - 125 l/s )
FIGURE 10 - Typical Ejector System
45
4.15 Construction of Dewatering Systems
Successful operation of dewatering systems requires careful
attention to details of construction. Some of the more important
considerations include:
1. The filter material and screen slot sizes must be

compatible with soil conditions as discussed in Section
4.12.
2. The filter must be placed over the top of the screen

to allow for settlement and volume loss during well
development. If the well is sealed, a pipe is sometimes
installed to the top of the filter for the purpose
of adding additional material, if necessary.
3. The well should be thoroughly developed to minimize

pumping of fines and to maximize capacity.
4. Standby equipment should be available, particularly

in pressure relief situations. This consideration
is less critical in unconfined aquifers which respond
much more slowly to changes in pumping rates. Equipment
should be available in such a case, but does not
need immediate response time.
5. Areas susceptible to freezing such as low flow areas

or "dead ends" on discharge headers, should be insulated.
6. Deterioration due to screen encrustation can usually

be corrected by acid treatment and re-development.
7. Wellpoints should be installed as close to groundwater

level as possible to permit maximum drawdown.
8. Header pipes should be kept level to avoid high spots

-where air can accumulate. Air separation chambers
may be required if high points are unavoidable.
9. All pipe joints should be tight to avoid air leaks.
10. Wellpoints and ejectors should be sealed at ground

surface, if possible, to aid in development of a
vacuum.
11. Header corrections should be vacuum tight. When

wellpoints are shutoff, the vacuum at the end of
the system should be nearly the same as at the pumping
station.
46
,
12. Dual pumping units are desirable so that routine

maintenance can be performed without interupting
pumping. When electric pumps are being used a standby
diesel pump or diesel generator should be provided.
13. Initial wellpoints should be tested at varying depths

to locate zones of highest yield. Subsequent wellpoints
should be spot-tested to verify that they are installed
in that zone.
14. Ejector pipes must be sized to limit friction losses.
15. Strainers should be provided on the supply side of

each ejector to prevent clogging of nozzles.
4.20 RECHARGE SYSTEMS
A recharge well is always less efficient than a pumping

well of the same design. For example, a vacuum is often produced
at the well head as the water drops in the well inlet pipe.
This drop in pressure allows gases to come out of solution
forming bubbles entrained in the water, which can clog the screen
and filter. Therefore, even for the best designed recharge
wells, two to three times as many recharge wells are typically
needed as compared to the number of pumping wells required for
a dewatering system. Additional considerations in the design
of a recharge systems are described below.
4.21 Design
A filter is usually required in a recharge well. In addition,

the screen slot size should be such that more than 90% of the
filter material is retained by the screen.
The recharge head (the opposite of drawdown for the pumping

well) is limited to the distance from the static water level
to the ground surface, or the bottom of the lowest basement.
If this head limit is less than that required, as calculated
in the initial design, additional wells will be needed in the
system.
To minimize well loss, the screen section should be as

long as possible. To minimize air entrainment, the conductor
pipe outlet must be below the static water level in the well,
yet above the screen section. It may not always be possible
to satisfy requirements, perhaps leading to a reduction in screen
length and a subsequent reduction in well capacity.
It is preferable to use municipal water for recharge because

the quality is typically more consistent and chlorination inhibits
the growth of bacteria. When using municipal water thought
47
the possibility exists that an upset in the system, such as
increased demand due to fire fighting needs, can flush iron
and other particulate matter into the system. Whatever the
source of recharge water, steps should be taken to minimize
screen clogging by:
1. Reducing the amount of particulate matter in the

water by settlement ponds or tanks, or possibly rapid
sand filtration.
2. Reducing the potential for air entrainment and precipi-

tation of dissolved solids by minimizing extremes
in pressures and allowing for air to be vented at
elevated positive pressure points (the header line
and well casing) and assuring air does not enter
at negative pressure points (at the well head).
3. Reducing the potential for bacterial growth by chemical

treatment. Bacterial growth is enhanced when the
injection water is warmer than the groundwater.
Each recharge well should have the capacity to operate

as a pumping well to allow for the periodic backflushing of
the screen and filter to remove clogging air bubbles and particu-
lates.
4.22 Construction
Some considerations in construction of recharge systems

follow:
1. The recharge well should have a screen size and filter

size compatible with the natural formation material
present (see Section 4.12).
2. The length of the well screen should be such that high
exit velocities are not developed.
3. The wells should be provided with pumping capability

so that periodic flow reversal can be performed to
clear the screens and filter.
4. Installation of the recharge system at any distance

less than twice the expected radius of influence will
necessarily have an effect on the dewatering system
design.
48
4.30 CUTOFF
Cutoff systems are typically not subject to design for
purposes of water exclusion. Other criteria, such as lateral
earth pressures or protection of adjacent structures, typically
govern the selection process of a particular system. If however,
groundwater exclusion is a controlling factor in the cutoff
system design, the following items should be considered.
4.31 Steel Sheeting
While steel sheet pile walls are infrequently used purely

for cutoff purposes, they are commonly used as part of a cofferdam
structure to facilitate cut-and-cover construction. The effec-
tiveness of steel sheet piling as a cut off is dependent primarily
on soil conditions and water tightness of interlocks. The sheeting
is most efficient in relatively coarse granular soils with high
permeabilities where the flows through the sheet wall system
are small with respect to the unimpeded flows through the soil
mass. However, in these situations provisions may have to be
made to handle the residual leakage which will develop through
the sheeting interlocks and under the wall. In extreme cases,
the gradient beneath the sheetpile wall may be great enough
to cause instability at the base of the excavation.
Other practical construction considerations are listed

below:
1. A sheetpile wall system may not be an effective cut-

off in a fine grained, low permeability strata.
2. To be most effective, the sections should be driven

into an impervious stratum such as clay, glacial till,
or weathered rock.
3. If the system cannot economically be installed to

intercept an impervious stratum, a partially penetrating
system can be used provided that there is an adequate
factor of safety against bottom instability (see Figure
11).
4. Sheeting cannot be driven through obstructions such

as utilities, old foundations, or boulders. In urban
areas a 10 to 15 foot (3 to 4.6m) deep trench is often
dug along the sheeting line to eliminate obstructions.
The trench is usually backfilled with loose sand prior
to driving.
5. Access for the sheeting installation rig is required

at the surface.
49
0.5 1.0 1.5
RATIO W/H„ m HATIO Of HALF WIOTM OF UCAVATIOH TO KIT MAO

Figure 11 - Penetration of Sheeting Required to Prevent Piping
in Isotropic Sand (Ref. 195)
50
6. Noise restriction may govern the method of pile instal-
lation in urban environments. A vibratory hammer
may be required to reduce noise levels.
7. If leakage through sheetpile walls becomes too great

(Figure 12;), as often happens after initial drawdown,
measures may be required to reduce the flow. These
may include "cindering" with fine-grained particles
to clog the interlocks or stressing of the wall to
induce tension at the interlocks. Over a period of
time, water flows may be reduced entirely due to the
corrosion of steel or natural migration of soil particles
into the interlocks under flow conditions. The results
of experimental and empirical work on the seepage
through intact interlocks indicates that, as an approxi-
mation, it may be assumed to be on the order of .01
gallons per minute per square foot of wall per foot
of differential head.
8. The steel sections will be subject to corrosion, especially

in adverse chemical environments. Since the sheeting
is often reuseable it may be protected in long term
jobs by painting or coating, thus prolonging the life
of the steel.
9. When driving into a dense impervious stratum, large

penetrations to prevent underseepage may be difficult
to achieve. Over-driving in tills, or weathered rock,
can result in sheeting buckling and interlock damage.
4.32 Diaphragm Walls & Cutoff Trenches
The use of bentonite slurry is an innovative method for

providing continuous impervious barriers within soil or rock.
Precautions to insure wall impermeability depend greatly upon
design variables as well as a number of construction related
parameters. The basic sequence used in the construction of
typical slurry walls, slurry trenches, and thin wall cutoffs
are depicted schematically in Figures 13 through 15.
Waterproofing capabilities of diaphragm walls, are controlled

by panel joint details which are the most likely sources for
seepage. Figures 16 and 17 illustrate several possible joint
details for reduction of seepage through cast-in-place and pre-cast
slurry walls. The treatment of panel joints can often be accom-
plished using keyed joints, tongue-in-groove joints (pre-cast
panels), waterstop joints or joint grouting. Since the concrete
wall itself is relatively impervious if properly constructed,
the design of the slurry wall system may be based upon minimizing
joint spacing. The choice of joint treatment will depend greatly
upon the local experience of the engineer and/or contractor.
51
o) OPENINGS AT INTERLOCKS
IMPERVIOUS
STRATUM
T~(b) DAMAGED DURING

DRIVING
'
-
r " (c) IMPROPER PENETRATION
FIGURE 12 - Sources of Leakage Associated

with Steel Sheet Cutoffs
52
3
3 '*iy A 7 *-** WW tt • •
(E
I
, •
<
Q
Z
UI
o
as
o
i- UJ
UI
o UJ
z
UJ
0. O *~i'f i i' l
'
i
' '
i < C
'
Y
'
i
' *
'
» rV i
•'. •'••••.. 5 ui
05
z
i i i i i
o
or
" HUJ'I." BlitVU.LUii'liii' iM o
\J
'
'--J*1J
UJ oo
.1 F ^*>^ «' »*»«»'»
a>
•
-
•
- J ;
i i -
•
. '•/ '' '" ^- " *

o
^ U^
i
fc i.-*^*.h *»** '

;
z
*,*»+, >-'-.« ;»«*>' «.*»'» V)
o
!-Wg3 .UI a: h-
" " ~
v - r! -: .".-.-. - -
,'.'•
'
', •
"
m a. o
7?' r
* . i > I
• ! -r — i
— —t I
3 (T i
«.«. )'»'*» M .'f ' r'»'T*^ I- +j

i I i '
i ;- > !> :
-- ?. :
'
i\
O UI
z z
10
z
to
<o
o
'
ii
UJ <
vvitiiii !- *
->
1
i :
i s
i Q. o
,.^».,Uj!y..i»f^^ kU." LM l
a <
l
?
'
o o o A3
H UI
(O H
•
2
o
o o
u.5
o < UJ
< o to
u
_l
a
X
uj
\6^ - ;c
o
a>
>
E
RT?W',^ ***^*?f? ^ ^,ffT?^9' i l i
O
o
1
l
O
+->
UI
< >
or o 0)
or
3 2 u
UI
o _j r _l oo
o ul " to
i
,-uj UI
H >
a.
a. CO
Z i
3
'
o
I-
1
LU
z
Q
iS
UJ UI
m <A"*~t«li.«.
o
| '
< C3
ml 'i i I 1 i
_l
a.
to
UJ i»i —•*- ^
o ^
}Wt V-*WV*V>; •
'
> JH -ft ?.- ••. ?
' a.
UJ
L »* './ , . UJ .
or ui
ac
o u
z
o w
Wj. * <•• .. • .-.
. , . . .
<
o
en
<w*>p<^p UJ o
i .'« ii i i
>.r'i !i
gP^fciP a. z
-P^^v^^^^ <
o a.
3 o a.
X O I-
UJ a to
53
^^^^^Z^^^^^^S^^^
l ^mm -
LAMSHELL
PRIMARY PANELS (A,B,C S D)
SECONDARY PANELS (E,F & G)
Reprinted from Underground Construction in Fluid

Trenches by P. Xanthakos with permission of the Author,
FIGURE 14 - Slurry Trench Panel Sequence
54
f in
n
GROUTED n
i:
SECTIONS vvVjvvvvvv^
(shaded)
1
4"-6"(1ypi)
^rTftMSsSA
im>ermea6le^^C,Z .,
z^zzttZv'
vQr^t ^^Cfc?SSw
I0-I2cm.
rt
(a) INSERTION OF SINGLE INJECTION BEAM
EXTRACTING INSERTING
LAST BEAM LEAD BEAM
GROUT TUBES
GROUTED
ZONE
r~ 3' r r r r r I
(shaded) GROUTED INSERTED CLUTCH

ZONE OF PILES
-U-V.r i""! ""*"*"

'
.'r
'
HMPERMEABLE5;S?.:iy
5gS^^&*iP&
r<5TRATUMô •^•«*^-âS^^ô0^c>l.vdPr
(b) USE OF MULTIPLE INJECTION BEAMS
FIGURE 15 - Injection Beam Grouting (Ref. 57)
55
A. BUTT JOINT
- .'CD '
V
' ^-» O
o -. o •CD
* . O 4 •
-
,
v v °.;•«»
'']',« ° -a
B. INTERLOCKING PIPE JOINT

"-O
<
ô-^.'^.

0.
h-
cr
S/NGL£ /<£/ JO/A/
o:\ •<
<^«W« . o -V "
^ c5
.<.#'
£. DOUBLE KEY JOINT

 <.
<d>. . . -A
F. WATERSTOP JOINT
'•/V-'o. 'S'^'o v> * V,o< 7 ;
<?> . .

CONCRETING OF CONCRETING OF
PR/MARY PANEL SECONDARY PANEL
Figure 16 - CAST-IN-PLACE SLURRY WALLS - TYPICAL JOINT DETAILS
56
/— auiu
SOIL siot OF wall
SIDE ur WALL
x:
5
PANELS
GROUT FLEXIBLE WATER STOP
DE OF WALL
SOIL SIDE —
i
,
i
. . .
,
i
j. ,
'<M-;j'.:'-'^'- ;
i li ii i I ii I—-M±m-, t *<•• if.
\ PANELS
GROUT REMAINING IN PLACE

TIE BACK
" ?. >.,
'
. : }}-\\. ,
i
'
-
>
f.K i
' '} '
•
'
.,, <,
I
'-.-, » . . .
'
-
5
- •* - •
•
ri
''--
' '
'' '"*'' i
GROUT REMOVED DURING EXCAVATION
Figure 17 - Pre-Cast Slurry Walls - Typical Joint Details
57
4.33 Slurry Trenches
Slurry trenches of bentonite or bentonite/earth are typically

continuous and thus not susceptible to, seepage through joints
as are slurry walls. Although feasible, they have not been
used in connection with construction of tunnels in urban areas
in the United States. Due to the limited experience with slurry
trenches in the United States, the design may be based upon
experience or trial and error. Reported thicknesses of slurry
trench seepage barriers have varied from 1.5 feet (0.5m) (cement-
bentonite cutoffs to 10 feet (3m) (soil-bentonite cutoff
below embankment dams).
4.34 Thin Wall Cutoffs
Thin-wall cutoffs are constructed by grouting in voids

created by driving wide-flange injection beams, (Figure 15).
They are typically less than 1 foot (0.3m) thick. Design considera-
tions include the grout consistency, injection pressure and
beam spacing. Again, these may be chosen from experience or
tr ial -and -error
4.35 Additional Construction Considerations
Construction considerations relative to diaphragm walls,

slurry trenches, and thin cutoffs are itemized below:
Diaphragm Walls and Slurry Walls
1. Access is required at the surface for the large panel

excavation rig. In addition, a slurry storage area,
mixing plant and de-sanding unit must be accessible
to the trench.
2. A 2 to 5 foot (0.6m to 1.6m) thick guide wall must

be constructed along the panel length to allow for
excavation and alignment of the trench.
3. The bentonite slurry must be well mixed and of proper

consistency, viscosity, and density to maintain trench
stability and insure proper slurry displacement by
the concrete. Precast panels require a special slurry
mix which can be scraped from the inside wall face
after excavation.
4. Provisions must be made to test the properties of

the slurry throughout the panel depth. Test measurements
include density, viscosity, shear strength, and pH.
The contractor must be sure that the slurry has not
53
been contaminated by caving soil, calcium, salt, or
other ground chemicals which may affect its performance.
Table 9 summarizes properties of the bentonite slurry
pertinent to slurry wall construction.
5. The slurry must be maintained at a level of 4 to 6

feet (1.2 to 1.8m) above the groundwater levels to
provide a factor of safety against cave-ins and trench
instability. High or perched groundwater levels may
require dewatering in conjunction with the slurry
head. The high head inside the panel also helps in
the formation of the filter cake along the trench
sides which is thought to be a major factor controlling
permeability and stability of the slurry trench. Slurry
loss in a very pervious layer must be compensated
for by continued replenishing to fill the trench to
required levels.
6. The area adjacent to the bentonite-f illed trench must

be capable of supporting heavy machinery such as cranes,
compressors, and concrete trucks.
7. The finished panel typically includes a pre-f abricated

cage of reinforcing steel which is usually fabricated
on-site. This process requires extensive ground space
and head room near the trench.
8. The excavated trench must be cleaned of debris trapped

in the slurry or at the trench bottom. If the wall
is to be keyed into an impervious rock stratum, the
base must be cleaned out by compressed air or suction.
9. The tremie concreting method must be carefully controlled

to insure proper slurry displacement and bond of concrete
to reinforcing steel.
10. The panel joints must be carefully formed to reduce

seepage. Grout, special joint configurations or waterstops
may be required to control leakage.
11. Concreting of any panel should be continuous to avoid

the formation of "cold joints" in the panel.
Slurry Trenches
1. Access at the ground surface is required for the excavating

unit and slurry mixing plant. A separate mixing plant
may be required to mix the excavated soil with additional
bentonite or cement and bentonite for placement into
the trench.
59
1i 1(
i 1 * 1 —^ —— — ^ — —— —
*
00
o
i— CD
LU i
i-
ZD «3- 1
+J
_1 </) A
"O CD
<c
> e
o
^
r-l
CM ^:
—E
+->
"e
_l o o
E CD CD 2: CM o
o
<=C
—
CD co en
o
i—i -M
1
D-
>-
I—
•
o o
CD CDOJ i
1 -a
CD
— E LO
h-
O^ vt-
1
V
O I
CO M2 "
1 I
cr> ex
CL
to
^ — ^ oo CD •i—
73
>> s- E c^
i— CD O S-
E -4-> *-~. +J
O CD .e to a CD
E -»-> Q. CD 4->
>> o CD •r- l
t— +->
•1-
u E +->
S- LU
---»
^. to CD
LU to -I- S- oo to S-
s:
LU
o
o
> +->
(O +J lO-P
tO CD
CD
d: to cd — CD
JJOZto i J3
LU ^> •i- E 1
1— ^^
co
<c.
LU
—> T-
+->
03 *.
CD
CD
—
-M
CO
CD s —
o <4-
S_
o
s: r— O to O -r-
cd CD •— S- (O E •i- S- to
u_ u E -O CD CD CD s- +-> CD
o e
fC
E
Z3
E
i—
+->
CD CI-
j_ CD
S-
-l->
CD
CD
E i
3
UJ
1—
O
=>
Q
O 03
LL.
-M
E
O S-
o
to
E O
•r- S-
03
>
—
I
s
cc
\—
^ 1—
CQ sz
CO
o
CD
s-
fO +->
CD
oE 1 S- +->
o o XJ
o
I—
co
z LU
S "O
3
S-
fD
S-
T- -E
CD ^~
•r™ fO
i—
O r—
CD
"O
CD
^r
LU
o
c_>
s: s: a CO U_ CO C_) LU E
CD
CO fc
_1 E
o
Ll_ _l E
o 3 <c i
S-
to
to
o
•r-
o
CD
jc CD o 4-> s-
c/>
LU
—
>-
Od
o
E CD
o
•-
1— >>
4J
(0
CD
i
I— C£. s: CD -»-> co "O — CD >^ co

cc
LjJ
ZD
_1
o
—
S_
+J
CD
s-
E
o
•i — r—
•
Z3 •!-
>>
S-
S-
CD
S-
S-
Q_
U_
Q.
O CO
i
I— u
c
to
o r— _Q
<+- to
s-
13
CD
to •
3
— to
Q£
D_
O
h-
o
<=C
t—
O +->
CD
N O C
>>
to
+->
to
1
(O CD
C/> CD
-M
to
_J •r- 
•r— p >,<— to
*I
-(-> to
D.
Q_
r- 4-> E
•i- O CD
— toE
i
•i-
E JZ
CD O
to +-> JC1
S- •1 — —
•) •!—
X +->
U
s-
CD
•r—
i
CD e? -O CD U .a o > E CD to to E CD Q. (O •
03 M- 05 to •— CD CD +-> E
to M- O •i to
-M M- i— •4-> +j S- S- 1— CD O E H- S- o E
CQ
io< a CO OJ Q. 1— eC -O D. -r- <: d.
c CD O
•i—
CO +->
•j—
D1X
E E
•r— o
r— a
"r—
D-
• r—
CD +-> 4- o
CJ3 E O to
E CD
>> O +-> E CD
>- 4-> SZ "f— E O CD
\— >^ •i- -M +-> O •r— 03
S-
cc »-> lO CD fO CJ> -(->
LU O E s- 03 a>
Q_
O
•r-
to
E
U CD
(O S-
+->
1
aE S-
CD
>
03
C£ CD •i- 4-> •1 n3 nr T3
D_ a > CO u_ CO a.
U_
CD
•r—
E
i mm
60
2. The slurry and slurry/earth backfill should have properties
adequate to maintain trench stability and impermeability
of the final product. Field measurement of slurry
properties may be required to meet job specifications
(viscosity/ density, shear strength, etc.).
3. The slurry must be maintained at a level of 4 to 6

feet (1.2 -1.8m) above the outside groundwater levels
(see Note (5) above).
4. The set time of the backfill should be regulated to

allow for continuous panel construcion without significant
flowing of the previous day's backfill. Problems
may arise with the use of a weak mix of soil-bentonite
backfill
5. The mixture and placement of soil-bentonite backfill

for a cutoff must be well controlled to avoid the
formation of "windows" of soil which will result in
undesired seepage.
Thin Wall Cutoffs
1. Access is required for the crane, beam, and cement-

bentonite mixing plant at the surface.
2. Adequate overlapping of the injection beam is required

to reduce the possibility of windows of untreated
soil in the cut off wall. This requires strict quality
control and careful construction practice.
In general, considerations other than those listed may

become important due to regional variations in equipment and
material availability and local anomalies such as noise or dust
restrictions, limitations of disposal of excavated soil and
slurry, and availability of water and power. These considera-
tions must be accounted for on a job-to-job basis.
4.40 GROUTING
Grouting is usually performed by specialty contractors.

Grouting is a flexible process which permits effective response
to variable and unforeseen conditions. The contractor must
provide careful field control of the injection procedure including
monitoring and interpretation of the rates, volumes and pressures
within his grout system.
Once it has been determined that grouting may be required,

the engineer or contractor must make a number of decisions including:
61
1. Choice of grout type
2. Determination of the zone to be stabilized
3. Available access to the area to be grouted
4. Choice of injection method
5. Verification and monitoring of the grouted zone
Most of these decisions are usually made by the specialty

contractor. A "performance" specification is usually provided
by the engineer for the contractor to meet. Flexibility in
design and specification of grouting systems may be the key
to successful utilization of the grouting process.
4.41 Design
The following paragraphs detail some of the major issues

which should be considered in the design of the grouting systems
for groundwater control.
Choice of Grout Type
The grout should be compatible with the soil or rock to

be stabilized. Among the major factors governing grout
selection are:
1. The grout should be capable of permeating the soil

mass to form an impervious barrier. A detailed discussion
of the penetrating abilities of various grouts is
contained in Volume 1 and summarized in Tables 10
and 11 for various soil and rock types. Figure 18
illustrates the ranges of viscosity which may be expected
for some chemical and bentonite grouts.
2. _ The durability of the grouted zone may become important

if a grout is intended to waterproof for the life
of the tunnel. Certain grouts are susceptible to
long-term degradation, the rate of which depends upon
environmental factors such as temperature, soil pH,
groundwater chemcials, etc. Each case must be considered
separately.
3. Proper adjustment of grout set time may required to

insure adequate placement, especially under flowing
groundwater conditions. Figure 19 summarizes setting
times for chemical grouts.
62
1
OJ
CO
+J
CO
+J
CO >
+> -F- CO
E U -M +-»
O) QJ O) CD O 3
CD
S-
E E «4- ««- O) ai oj <+- cn
1— O 4-> 0)
co E cu
z
o •!- 
-r->
S- S- +J
e O Om •i- X $- fO
t— a> a> CO O O
h- _E -l-> <D !—• *r +J E -M E t-
e£ 2 <o co 4-> OJ r-
1— 5 e o. JO 03 J3 a; jo 3
+J 3 C
t—
_1 •1- > CO
E s- s- CO 0) CO J- CO +-> JZ
O
> Q. Ô
•1— cn to T3 
_i D_ a.
C E -0
4->
O OJ 3 OJ a>
•r" r— -t-> E O E CO > a)
•M
O O O
-r- «4- fO S- -r- J- 0) *r~ E
CO cn-i-> E CO •r- ,
E CO >— >1 «+- 1— E +-> E >,-M
3 10 to -M r— +J +-> OJ •r- +?-r-
4- M- +J U •(- co to a> >) co CL+J 4-> -r- 1— >,
O E •r" f~~ CO O CO -M CO +J -0 X CO -r- 4->
o
to CO
03 a>
OJ E
E •<-
a> jo
-M
cu
a; t-
e a> >>f—
t- 
MO ai
E
> >>
+J
CD
O
O
JO
03 1—
-r-
i<£ >> N +-> -E 03 CO O 0) 1— -t-> >r- O •!- <1J +J

4-> CO CO +-> -i—
a: +> !- 03 O +> s- x: ja -r- .a s- tj ai r— T— t— •(— CO JO
<
s:
•r-
1—
CO
1

Q. U
>—
fO CO
O <D
to Q. •r—
Q.
•r-j
E
>,JD
r— fO
CO
O
r—
'1-
O OJ
>
Ed)
03
CO UJ •1- E +J as a; to •M +J 1— O E -M »a •r- JD r— O JD 1— 2 s- E
o o: JO t-
03 to >> rEO CO S-
IO 0) £O CO
qi
O
s.
CO
t-
>
i-
ai rO s-
>>
(T3 r—
c O •!- O)
CO tO ^-
O
O O) C
r— +J 0)
i~ s- s.
O L OU
<l)r- CO CL+J Q. CO >•, r— O S- > E J- CL
4-> cn to "O tO E J- •r- CO 4-) S_ +-> >> cn
< 0)
E
E a> E O U
O E O
1
a>
E J=
ai 2
O O 2
O)
2 >
O 1—
1
CO <o E 2 OJ
0) O O Q.
E S- E 2
CJ
Q.
M- •1-
i-
O.
co
3 O «r- 03
LU
00 _J _l
tO
LU DC O _J a;
> _i _i
Q.
Q.
1
4->
4->E >>
O 3
O E
<1> to
1—
co
o I—
5- <V
CD U T3
O
-r->
3
O
*
cn
—
I z
LU 0)
1 E
<0
+j
3
+-> 4->
3 3 4->
S_
cn
1
o
I
SI MO) +->
•*"" +J i.
O O
S_ t-
3 2:
<sC
t— •r~ -a
<
LU
E E
O O
3
O
C7l cn cn s-
cn
a>
CO <D
ac +J -M S- r— ou .— to T3
CO \— E E C7> 03 +-> 03 0) JO •r—
0) U •r- u E
JO -O
<L>
M3 E E
+J
r— •
E •!-
-t->
fO E 03
1 1 O E u •r—
E
>> >> O OJ at 4-> 0) •r— >)
03 to
r— r— cn
s- E sz
at
E JZ
a)
r—
•f—
cn
•r-
V
U
OO CO CO _i <:
O 0CO
a> E
to to
«* Q,
co"^
T5E OJ O CO
EU E -M *>^
LU
Q.
>-
h-
^03
<y 1
*•""
•J-.—
E '
1
E
COO §oro
H
_J S-r- •r-
*"
1
•—
O 2A "O .. O
CO °^ ^^
oj " z_
»-
-
63
i '
N —
OJ
s-
ro
C c
O
••-
-—
CU o '
>>
s- •r—
00 +-> W •-
+->
CU -M
z: <o -c 2 rO
o
i—
CD-M O i—
OJ 1 •!-
CD
CU
i— s- a» >*- ja s-
<
t—
CD S-
S--P
rO CD
w (U
to
01
.G CU tfl
CU
to
s:
»—i
5 -M
OJ rO +-> CU
_i i— "O 2 CL r—
J3 Q)TJ Q) Jd
•i- C U-M •r-
(A 'i-3 X to
CO E O (!) to
O ••- S- — o
Q 1 CD Q.
3
O
O O
s-
+J
CU
+J >,
s-
CU
Csl to CD t/> • tO •> fO
•—a >> >, -o
rO C M- +->+-> -M -M C C
u ai o co ••— (/>•!— O CU
•r- a. 3 i— 3 r— O -t->
OO E CD CU •i->t- •r-j-r- CU M-
Si 00
^ O "O N T3 -Q "D -Q O
o C
O c to
t- m HJ rO ro
to
ct S «/> 3 "O V)
«a: O O +-> V) O >> i— to o
>> c +->
2: a» -r- c c cu r— +j IOllr-4J IB C
Ul 4-> 1- CU S- M— t— O S- <4- «i- CU
cc >) « (O C 3 i •r-3 r- >, E
i— S- S- O +J "t- E «>.,- S_ +J
.|_>
i— +-> CD O. X CU -Q O X CU .O ro ro TJ
r0 CU E *r- E <0 C -i- •!-
E ro E CU CU
< 3 C C O E •!- +->
to CU O U "O +-> to
O E -M -r- S- to
UT3+J W 1.+J 3
DO. <C uj >sC Q.
o
cr:
+->
c
CU
CO +-> .C
1
CU
E
CU
< 3
O
•+->
T-
+>
T-
O)
o +->
•r-
-o
C +->
s- S c CU C ro 3
h- CD O +-> 4-> O O
zr +-> 4-> 3 •r- +J +J S-
LU
s:
t—
CO3
+>
(US-
4-> C O
r- 01 J.
(DU cn
C
O
4->
C
CU
J3
3
O
J-
CD
i—
«c E CD to .C C CD ro
Lul CU
U
S- Q. S- -M CU S_ O
cc -t-> CU 10 O C -Q +-> O 4-» -M •!-
l—
-O
i c
CU
i—
r-
ra cu
>, E
13O >>
3 C E
O CU CU
>i
C E -i- ra CU
-»-> ra S- ro S- E -C
ra CU 4- O r— U
IU i— CDi — CD CU O
O0 C_> (_> O O
</>

•r" r—
U. CU p—
CD ra
J^
U
S-
<o
E
to
O r— 1
cc 1
64
10 20 30 50
CONCENTRATION OR PER CENT SOLIDS
Courtesy: Am. Cyanamid
Figure 18 - Viscosities of Various Grouts
65
- ars
X
QSO
025
25 90 25 50 75
SETTING TIME.MINUTES SETTING TIME, MINUTES
3
a) SAND No. I b) CLAYEY SAND WITH k = 4.7 x IO" cm/tec
Figure 19 - Effect of Setting Time on Viscosity for Silica Gel (Ref. 256)
66
4. Components of some grouts are toxic. The existence
of nearby water supply aquifers may preclude the use
of these grouts due to possible contamination.
5. The relative cost of various grouts in-situ will vary

according to geographical location, handling and injection
costs, relative quantities required, and experience
of local contractors. Table 12 summarizes some available
data on the relative costs of various grouts in the
United States and Europe.
Determination of the Zone to be Grouted
Some of the practical considerations which should be addressed

prior to grout injection are:
1. The grout must be placed in the proper locations around

the tunnel or excavation. In non-homogeneous profiles,
the use of packer grouting or the "tube-a-manchette"
(Figure 20) process will increase the accuracy of
grout injection.
2. The treated zone must withstand high groundwater gradients,

potential grout deterioration, and ground movement.
The thickness of the treated zone may be specified
arbitrarily or from experience with particular types
of grout.
3. Provisions should be made for remedial grouting if

seepage should occur during excavation, particularly
in areas with erratic soil conditions.
Figures 21 through 30 illustrate grouting schemes utilized

on several European projects, as well as some hypothetical
excavations. If the grouted zone is to serve any purpose
other than water exclusion, (such as underpinning or soil
strengthening), the thickness of the treated zone will
be governed by other criteria.
4.42 Construction
Access
Considerations relative to how the zone is to be grouted

is to be physically reached include:
1. Space is required for grout storage, mixing, and pumping

equipment. The size of this space will vary from
something as small as a few square feet to areas of
several thousand square feet.
67
CO
LO
(Si
1^
CO
CM
Lf)
CO
CO
CM
CD
cc
CO
cc
LU
o
cc
CD
CO
h-
co
o
o
cc
0Q
<
68
DOUBLE PACKER
WALL OF GROUT HOLE
SEMI- PLASTIC SEALING

SHEATH
PIPE SEALED INTO HOLE
RUBBER "MANCHETTE"
GROUTING ORIFICE
GROUTING PIPE
DOUBLE-PACKER
©
m\
4
4 o
V.
".'
BORING 8 INSERTING THE SEALING-INOF INJECTION BY

CASING TUBE a TUBE a MANCHETTES MEANS OF
MANCHETTES AND WITHDRAWL DOUBLE -PACKER
OF CASING
(b)
Figure 20 - Operational Principle of Tube-

a-Manchette (Ref.133)
69
Surfoce Settlement Dtpth
ft m
OtO
Grannulor Drop In
Soil Water Level
33-10
66-20
Shole
Woter
Seepage
Into Tunnel
99-30
Sm (36 ft)
Transverse Cross- Section
Grouted
Grout Holes
Zone
Max. Advance
9m Before Grouting
(29.5 ft)
|jBm
(19.7ft)
b) Longitudinal View
Figure 21 - Drainage and Rock Grouting Pattern for

Rail Tunnel in Oslo (Ref\ 201)
70
9m (30ft)
Cross- Sect ion Profile
a) Tunnel Area I 5-8 m e (54-86 ft

2
)
I2m (39ft)
Grout Holes
Cross -Section^ Profile
b) Tunnel Area! 9-17 m* (97-l29ft 2 )
Note 1 A * Bottom Grouting

8 = Full Front Grouting
Figure 22 - Rock Grouting Pattern for Tunnels in

Gothenberg, Sweden (Ref. 201)
71
LIMIT OF PREVIOUS ADVANCE
3m PILOT TUNNEL
SECTION
5m PILOT TUNNEL
PLAN VIEW
a) GROUTING OPERATION FROM FACE OF PILOT TUNNEL
GROUT
ZONE
GROUTING FROM BOTTOM

OF PILOT TUNNEL TO L
ALLOW FULL SECTION
EXCAVATION
b) SEQUENTIAL ADVANCE OF FULL TUNNEL SECTION
Figure 23 - Sequence of Grouting Operations Using

Pilot Tunnel to Advance Tunnel Face (Ret*. 71)
72
Depth of Cover
High Water Level _V
m
O-rO
ft
of Thames — i
Radially
Grouted Zone 25m 7
10- -33 (82 ftp
Fissured
Chalk
20- -66
Pilot
Tunnel
A-*-»
SO-^S
a) Longitudinal View
Radiol Limit
of Grouting Pilot Tunnel
Outline of
Grout Main Tunnel
Hole
(65 ft)
b) Cross-Section A-A
Figure 24 - Rock Grouting Pattern for Second Dartfort Tunnel
(Ref. 201)
73
<
CLAYEY SAND SOLDIER PILE

(IMPERMEABLE)
•ROUTED ZONE
CLAY
(IMPERMEABLE)
-- «S*£S5
CLAY
a) PERVIOUS LAYERS WITHIN DEPTH OF CUT
DIAPHRAM
WALL
SAND a GRAVEL
(PERVIOUS)
(NOTE! Xym >Zx w )
HARDPAN (IMPERVIOUS)
b) DEEP PERVIOUS DEPOSITS

Fiqure 25 - Grouting for Groundwater Control in Cut-and-Cover
Excavations
74
STEEL SHEETING
GROUT SOIL
STRATUM 8
ROCK
ROCK -BADLY
JOINTED a
FRACTURED
SHEETING
PENETRATION
UNCERTAIN
c) BOULDERS OR SHATTERED ROCK
Figure 26 - Grouting for Groundwater Control in

Cut-and-Cover Excavations (cont'd)
75
TUNNEL TUBE
v.Vl;'.-:-.'-.'
'•ALLUVIUM
WAS.
GROUTED ZONES
Figure 27 - Groutinq of Cuisen Sand in Tunnel Tube

Bed, Paris Metro (Ref. 72)
76
o 8 s x Eo
+- -h I"
Q * o 1
8 s a s
<
o
i
<
4-
or
o
Ul
(A
o a>
oc
u
c
o
I/)
MN
(O
C
S-
E
ai
.c
o
av
c
-M
3
O
i-
00
C\J
a:
77
Type H B f a
Station Tunnel 6.75 S20 >l.40 3.50
Double Track Tunnel 6.00 8.10 >l.60 3,50
Single Track Tunnel 5.60 4.30 >l.00 3.00
Note ! All Dimensions

In Meters
Im. = 3.28 ft
Grouted
Zone
Grout Hole
4 -Probe Hole
>l5m (49 ft)
a) Transversa Cross-Section
(8.2-a8ft) (6.6 ft)
b) Longitudinal View
Figure 29 - Rock Grouting Pattern for Tunnels Stockholm Underground ( Ref. 201)
78
EXISTING BUILDING
BUILDING AUBER STREET EXISTING
r»30 EXISTING METRO LINE
to SANDS
a
GRAVELS
20
eoH
EL 16
x
O CALCAREOUS
10
£ 30 MARL
HI
-i
HI
o --o
FISSURED
LIMESTONE
GROUTED ZONE-
-30
ft m
MM PRIMARY GROUT TREATMENT FROM CENTER ADDIT
SECONDARY GROUT TREATMENT FROM ADDITS
FIGURE 30 - Grouting from Galleries

Auber Station, Paris Metro (Ref. 133 ]
79
2. If grouting from the surface (primarily shallow tunnels),
room must be made available for work crews, drilling
rigs, and auxiliary equipment. This may prove to
be a challenge in congested urban environments. Figure
28 illustrates a surface grouting scheme in Vienna,
Austria.
3. Grouting from the tunnel face may pose unique problems

due to limited space and difficult accessibility for
machines and supplies. More importantly, actual excavation
work may be held up by the grouting process, as two
crews cannot work at the face simultaneously. Neverthe-
less, this approach is frequently used in urban areas
as illustrated in the actual schemes of Figures 21
through 24.
4. On very large jobs, where grouting is impractical

from both the surface and from the heading, special
pilot tunnels or adits may be constructed and used
for the injection of grout. Figure 30 illustrates
a situation of this type used for construction of
a portion of the Paris Metro.
5. If the point of injection is located at a significant

distance from the grout mixing and batching plant,
good communication lines must be established to allow
for proper control.
Injection Method
The method of grout injection will vary with subsurface

conditions and local experience. Table 13 summarizes
some of the major techniques currently used, noting their
advantages and limitations. A detailed description of
these methods is included in Volume 1. Some other items
to be considered include:
1. If "stabilization is required to depths in excess of

40-50 feet (12. 2-15. 3m) or in very dense soil, a driven
lance technique may not work.
2. The presence of stratified soils may mandate the use

of a well controlled injection technique such as a
packer or "tube-a-manchette" device (see figure 20).
3. In areas where re-grouting of a zone may be required

(such as for a secondary treatment) it is advantageous
to leave primary grouting holes accessible to avoid
additional drilling costs. Figure 31 depicts a typical
"split-spacing" layout for grout holes.
80
m
W '*— 3 c
u
'0
o r- on
•
i' on <D ja
r— Ol r— CD >> 03 T3 fi3 OJ
3 oo J2 *-' j3 a. c f^ C )-> J-5
O
-O
UPC
i- r—
03 >»
-»J
OJ
r—
rt3
i.
C c
O o
03 ^3
O
t3
+->
• i— (J-> '*— fO u •r" S- OO
oo ""5i 03 fS •f— c -t-> • 0) O
z
o otra
+J 0) ••-
>
0>
X)
Ol
> u
id Ol
s.
o
OJ
o I-)
<1)
-1^
u
^^
u
4->-0
OJ
— OIL 3 •(-> a.-t-> •y> •J— OS • -D *J
U
1— CO O" OJ •1^ 00 ia £ Q. 01
•1—
<
I—
£
*J •
0) j=] c
Z5
5 <-
J3 "O
• OJ +->
c m
o
$-
03
J= =>
c
a.-t-> oi +J •4-» • =f— 0) o s_ 0) 3
£
»—
o> ai
o oj
c
<- Ol •
O
C £
4) O
c
00
•
> u
•I— M *-<
CLI (-
•r-
o
on
01
-O ^c
0.1
_ j <*- > CD +J :=> +- 3 3 3 (->

i- •- C C >l >» C cr 1 O" i. >.
O
U.
O T3
If)
S- OJ o
l_> rsi £
0> C
.— £
03 c
•r- g
0) £
t. Ol l—
01 •<-
OC 03
OJ
s:
c
•f-
Q.
•o
"O N 3 3
01 CTT3 03 c
> c ai tU o
o» -i- t. >>*-> u to O) •
L*J
i— 3 OJ "O
oo ifl OJ 3 +-> 01 O if- J= 4-> • 01 Ol <->
3 >
Ol
UJ +J 3 Ol •^ cr 3 > S_ . -r~ C T3 O) s-
=J a> o ai o o •.- oix) 03 -f-
<
H-
s- s_
OH->
os 0)
a.
CD
s_ i.
o>
+j
o
oi
J-
oi
J-
01
r—
o
+->
HZ
a. !-
*j in
on oi
ex;
o> u
2 a>
C
oo i/i
c
4->
C
Oi •-
m
Q. u r- 3
3 O" c
o C
o>
f—
I/) ct Q. i— -o E OJ
=» •r- t- o Ol Ol C O -
OJ on OJ
o Ol
a
<:
Q-
OJ
<_J O z. E U 03
Id 10
Ol
D cî ^S-
0)
01
$- O 03 on
•-> -o - J3 S.
XJ 4-> r— c c 01 O
C 0) 3 0) *-» 01 O • Ol .—
— O Ol 3 Q->»- If.
3 i— O i— 3 Q.*J in 0) <-> E O •i- 4-
u O O S- O O •>- Ol <-> 03 OJ s- Q. O 4)
QJ -c o> .c s_ a. v> i on E O) .— Ol
a; oi ai i. o on in UJ 0) j= on -t—
i- oO i- J- Ol J= r^ o c +J J^ a.
o O
J3 r- ja
-*:
03
0)
c u
-*
oi
03
•^
x: -C
*-> •
•f—
co r-
2 O
L)
ui ai
01 01 C OJ i— O -r- u Ol 4-> Ol c 01 tz
<+- c C > C J -r- Q.XJ Oi 2 I— V >+- <_ on ^^ ui -r-
o o> i- 03 •i- XJ a. +J 03 0)
m
o f— 3 <-J
> S_ on oi 0^ .— c 3
+J 4-i CD 4-> i_ JD fvi 1_ r- OJ T3 O
00 Z 0) ^~ Oi •<— m •(- *J >» 3 r— 3 in S- J= C S-
ai Q oo 3 OO 2 Z3 3 on CQ +-> Q- on •!- Q »-> fD Ol
c.
>>
Ol
Ol C s_
oo > T-
o> C Ol OJ s Ol
a. 3 01 01 -r- •
E £Z
•— > S-'-* x: o^ o OJ r—
i— Q. m -t- o oi E T3 ' s •!-» O *J 4-> +J
oj o> a. 01 Ol 1/1 00 3
CO •r- 0) -C j=o ^- t- -o 2 XI OJ >i O
U .— 4-> +-> o s- Oi Ol c c c 1/1 t-
01 -Q •i- OJ C 3 > <o Ol Oi o Ol
Q. 03 2 Ol UJ c o ! N Ol
o c
o -r- c
to XI
3 0) Oi
in
oi
i_
u_ c ô s-
0) x: CD • f—
s-
o
JZ
M S-
4->
a.
i-
Q.r—
o
*-^-v- Uo Ol
>
-C
*-> •o !->
>
O
r"
p—
<f-
•i- X a. Q-jr in oi Oi 01 ai 01 0) -Q 'r- T3 <—

2 0)
u O J3
on oi z m on OJ
-a
t.
m
Ol ^z
on
"O OJ 03 T3
x> s- •^ Ol > OJ oi on o J- Ol 0) 3 -i-
o o
ce
M J- fc. r- r—
OJJ=
on 01 c •jj
3
^— =
o
T3
(/) Ol 0) •<- il> on j*. •r— CD o>
OJ 03 > +-> 03 c •»-> (— Ol o in o ai on 2
i— O •!-
C > r™ 'i- O on 03 a s. i- i— oo
—
UJ 0) c7 Q- (J 03 oo 2 -c =3 Q. O ai UO OJ
c
Oi CO o
-C O)
u -u J3
c • o s- 3
X> «3 Ol Ol *-> o 1—
O— s •I'- c
•f-J -SJ
oi
at
u
x>
01 iq
LL.
01
—C OlOlE O
3:
Ol
ô p—
ra 0»
>
> c +J f— C OJ ja OJ
•i- 03 o J 01
on uj Oi O- fO >
QL. _l o Ql
GO o
81
20'- 40' (typ)
< 6 - 12 m)
o o o
o o o
Q PRIMARY GROUT HOLE
Q SECONDARY GROUT HOLE
A TERTIARY GROUT HOLE
FIGURE 31 - Schematic of Split Spacing

Surface Application
(Ref. 76, 88, 89, 91, 104, 133, 140)
82
4.50 FREEZING
Ground freezing is a highly specialized process performed

by relatively few contractors throughout the world. The design
process is therefore, not unlike that for grouting, i.e. a specialty
contractor is usually consulted. Description of some general
design concepts follows.
4.51 Design
To design a ground freezing system, requires knowledge

of:
1. Soil Permeability
2. Groundwater gradient
3. Frozen soil strength
4. Ground temperature
5. Freeze probe temperature
6. Soil Dry unit weight
7. Soil Moisture content
8. Frozen and unfrozen soil shear strength
9. Loading on the frozen structure
A minimum freeze probe spacing (typically 3-6 feet) (l-2m)

is assumed which is equivalent to the design frozen soil wall
thickness. Evaluation of the adequacy of the frozen thickness
is based on the frozen strength of the soil and loading due
to non-frozen soils using classical structural and geotechnical
design methods. If the frozen structure is potentially unstable,
the spacing may be adjusted to obtain an adequate factor of
safety.
The required time for complete closure of a frozen section

can be calculated based on maximum probe spacing (size of zone
to be frozen) and coolant type as illustrated in Figure 32.
Deviation from the design spacing of probe should be estimated
based on local experience. Deviations of up to 5 to 10 percent
of the hole depth are not uncommon. If freeze time is excessive
and it is expected that the maxiumum spacing cannot be reduced,
more efficient coolant types (liquid nitrogen, freon) can be
used to reduce the freeze time, but at increased cost.
83
R
RELATIVE SIZE OF ZONE TO BE :n(r'« ™~)
NO UNITS
FIGURE 32 - Generalized Relationship

Between Freeze Pipe Size,
Spacing, and Time (Ref. 152)
84
For efficient subsurface heat transfer the velocity of
the coolant through the annular space between the inner and
outer pipes of the probe should be in the turbulent range.
Therefore, select inner and outer pipe sizes such that coolant
velocity at the selected flow rate will produce turbulent flow.
Typical flow rates are 25-30 gpm (1.6 to 1.9 1/s).
The number of probes to be coupled in series and parallel

to yield an acceptable system total flow rate and pumping pressure
must be determined. In a series system, the return flow from
a probe is used as the supply flow to the adjacent probe. Therefore,
coolant temperature increases with each additional probe in
the system, with a proportional drop in efficiency. Coolant
pump requirements are for a low flow-rate, high pressure pump.
In a parallel system, the flow through each probe is independent
of the adjacent probes in that they are connected to a separate
supply and return header. The input coolant temperature remains
relatively constant to each probe. Pump requirements are therefore
high flow-rate, low pressure.
In practice, a system is made up of a group of probes

in series coupled to an overall layout operating in parallel.
This allows for a more efficient pump system, operating within
the extremes noted above, with minimal variation in coolant
temperature in the series sections.
Finally mechanical design considerations are designed

including the size of supply and return piping, coolant pump,
freeze plant and power requirements (including an emergency
standby system.
Figures 33 through 35 illustrated several examples of

ground freezing for tunnels.
4.52 Construction
Some relevant construction considerations include:
1. Measurement of distance between adjacent probes should

be made at time of installation. If spacing is beyond
the maximum used in design, redrilling or the installation
of additional probes may be required.
2. Couplings or welded joints of the outer freeze pipe

should be pressure tested by air or water to assure
that coolant leakage into the aquifer will not occur.
3. The inner freeze pipe should also have properly sealed

joints, though no pressure testing is required. The
bottom of the inner pipe should be approximately one
foot (3.0m) above the bottom of the probe.
85
IOO(ft.)±
(30.5m.)
» « e o * * » a« »«>o»«8e > » o • • • •
Ind FREEZING SECTION

TUNNEL
CAST MON TUNNEL LINING

PLAN VIEW
8R0UND
/ FREEZING ELEMENT
SHAFT
TYR ROCK LINE

^r^r. SHIELD
o.w
•—A
ELEVATION VIEW
FIGURE 33 - Ground Freezing for Sewer

Tunnel, New York City (Ref. 101)
86
NOTE: 1' w 0.305m
FIGURE 34 - Ground Freezing Under Tokyo

River (Ref. 31)
87
—
o o
o
• o '
1

Ts o +*
o
-¥' 1 CO
°
»-
u
UJ
£ 1r
E v>
\o " o <6 &

CM o
\ c
\
o o
,E
^
*
° 1
o
C\J
M-
CD
CC
'
o
S-
4->
O)
s:
•r—
j*:
c
•r—
CO
^—
CD
zc
#v
CO
1
O)
UJ
13
> h-
_)
< S-
Z <+-
o
o
3
1- cr>
cz
O •1—
z M
o CD
QJ
1«k 1_
< Lu
T3
e
3
o
i_
o
LT>
CO
QJ
S-
Cr>
oc
a >
il > c
«/5 o
(75 ^ 6
8 s
8 J8 s
88
4. Adequate surface pipe insulation should be installed
in accordance with ambient temperature range and surplus
freeze plant capacity. Drape open excavations with
heat reflective material where necessary to reduce
solar effects on frozen soil surfaces.
4.60 COMPRESSED AIR
Compressed air tunneling is a highly specialized construction

method that requires greater attention to details of construction
and system maintenance for successful application than design
principles.
4.61 Design
Design of a compressed air system for groundwater control,

as opposed to maintenance of face stability in soft compressible
soils, is relatively simple. Normally, the air pressure corres-
ponds to the head at mid-height of the tunnel face. Design
of the air locks and shield is a construction detail of which
tunnel designers do not need to fully understand.
Location of air locks, whether in a shaft or the tunnel,

is an important consideration to the planning of any compressed
air tunnel. In general, tunneling is simplified with the lock
located in the tunnel rather than a shaft, because movement
of men and materials is easier on the horizontal than vertical.
Placement of the lock in a shaft should be done only when all
other groundwater control methods have proved to be infeasible.
4.62 Construction
Construction considerations for compressed air tunneling

include
1. Tunneling under compressed air is a more flexible

procedure than other specialized shield techniques,
i.e., slurry or earth pressure balance, because excavation
is done by hand or mechanical excavator shield which
can accommodate variable ground conditions more success-
fully than the complex specialty shields.
2. Productivity is reduced in compressed air tunnels

because of reduced allowable working times. Table
14 is a summary of OSHA regulations concerning allowable
working and decompression times versus operating air
pressure. This is probably the single most significant
construcion consideration relative to compressed air
tunneling, particularly at pressures above 12 psi
(83 k Pa).
89
TABLE 14— SELECTED HOURS OF LABOR AND DECOMPRESSION TIMES
,U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

SAFETY AND HEALTH REGULATIONS FOR CONSTRUCTION
DATED JUNE 24, 1974
Hours of Decompression
Pressure
psi kPa Labor Time: Min.
0-12 0-83 8 3
16 no 6 33
4 7
20 138 4 43
3 15
24 166 4 92*
3 52
28 193 3 98*
2 41
32 221 2 85*
1-1/2 43
Decompression times in excess of 75 minutes require a special decompression

facil ity
90
3. Muck handling is less efficient in compressed air
tunnels than in free air, because materials must be
passed through a locking system.
4. Although modern compressors are muffled quite effectively,

their use in urban areas can still present problems
as a result of 24 hour a day operation. Considerations
must be made for noise control at the shaft area.
5. Care must be taken to control operating air pressures

to prevent surface heave which commonly occurs, particu-
larly in urban areas. Surface movements should be
monitored to insure that surface disturbance, whether
heave or settlement, is minimized.
6. In pervious granular soils there may be a need for

back-up air compressors because of air loss.
7. It is essential to maintain backup equipment ready

for immediate use to maintain air pressure in the
event of compressor breakdown. Compressor breakdown
could result in loss of the tunnel.
8. Compressed air tunneling in silt can be difficult

because excess air pressure at the crown will drive
water from the voids, thereby drying the silt until
it cracks and may slough. Silt is very susceptible
to unbalanced air pressures. It is frequently necessary
to vary air pressure, such that when the arch is being
mined a lower pressure can be used, and when the invert
is being mined a higher pressure can be used.
9. Sand typically behaves in a similar manner to silt.

However, it is more resistant to seepage pressures
than silt and will remain more stable than will silt.
10. Compressed air tunneling through gravel is extremely

difficult and it is often necessary to use clay to
create an impervious zone within the tunnel to minimize
air loss.
11. To conserve air in pervious ground, the lining should

be kept as close to the heading as possible. It is
often necessary to caulk or gasket, liner plated tunnels,
to minimize air loss.
91
12. If a blow should occur, the normal procedure is to
use any available material, whether it be a board
or bag of cement, to plug the vent hole until the
escape of air is checked. The hole may then be plugged
to re-establish air pressure in the tunnel.
13. Blows can be fought from the outside on subaqueous

work by dumping barge loads of clay. Sometimes it
is necessary to place a blanket of clay along a river
bottom over the projected route of a compressed air
tunnel to minimize the possibility of a blow. Blows
are more hazardous in short tunnels than long tunnels
because a greater volume of air can escape from a
long tunnel before pressure is lowered to dangerous
levels.
14. Mayo, (Ref. 177) suggests the following rule in estimating

the probable number and size of compressors. Provide
20 cubic feet (0.6 m^) of free air per minute for
every man in the heading. To these totals, must be
added the amount of air which is lost with each passage
of the lock. The above rules assume that the tunnel
is practically air tight and that the lining is kept
close to the tail of the shield as possible.
4.70 SLURRY AND EARTH PRESSURE BALANCE (EPB) SHIELDS
4.71 Design
The design of a slurry or earth pressure balance (EPB)

shield is not a major consideration for a tunnel designer per
se. The tunnel designer must understand what the shield will
do and some significant limitations, however, he does not need
to understand all of the structural and mechanical details of
the system to arrive at a successful tunnel design. Therefore,
discussion of details of design of slurry or EPB shields are
not presented herein. Schematic illustrations of both types
of shields are included as Figures 36 and 37.
A major consideraton relating to design of slurry shields

is the maximum water pressure which can be withstood by the
shield and successfully control ground movement. It is reported
that maximum pressures are on the order to 2.0 atmospheres (202
kPa) This limiting pressure is not so much a matter of structural
.
integrity of the shield as the ability of tail seals to withstand

the necessary pressures to counteract external head. Tail seal
details are illustrated in Figures 38 and 39.
92
VIBRATING SCREEN
CYCLONE
SLURRY
EXTRACTION-
DEVICE. ^— SHIELD
FIGURE 36 - Schematic of Slurry Shield (Ref. 201)
93
Cutter motor
Screw motor
Bel' conveyor
SIMM PC*
0) SOIL PRESSURE TYPE
Cutter tn>m# Cutter moto' Screw conveyor
Goie lock
Water feet!
Muck oHcnorgt
Mucking od juste-
Erector
Shield jack
b) WATER PRESSURE TYPE
FIGURE 37 - Schematics of Earth Pressure

Balance Shields (Ref. 142)
94
>>SS3 E^^ SSSSSSSSSmg
OVERLAPPING PIECES OF SPRING STEEL
SPRING STEEL AND RUBBER
r fF — | |
~f \\ !
! ! lining \x
U U
y '
W-TYPE TAIL PACKING
LINING
DOUBLE WIRE BRUSH TAIL PACKING
FIGURE 38 - Japanese Tail Seals (Ref. 281)
95
AIR FEED TO PNEUMATIC SHIELD TAIL
PNEUMATIC RING: RING
^ft^^V^ VV-V
^MZ^l
t-
FIGURE 39 - A British Tail Seal (Ref. 50)
96
4.72 Construction
Successful use and application of a specialty shield is

more related to an understanding of its behavior and use under
a given set of conditions than details of the shield design.
Both slurry and EPB shields are highly specialized pieces

of construction equipment that require careful attention to
details of construction and maintenance for successful application.
Because of their relatively complex design, they are relatively
inflexible with regard to changes in subsurface conditions and
therefore thorough subsurface investigation and careful planning
of construction procedures is perhaps more important with this
equipment than with other less complicated and more flexible
methods
Some key construction and maintenance considerations include:
1. Slurry shields require a substantial surface work

site to accommodate the slurry cleanup equipment.
In urban areas this can present problems because of
space restrictions. Some contractors have attempted
to reduce the size of required surface area by installing
protions of the equipment in the shaft itself.
2. EPB shields handle muck disposal using conventional

equipment. There is no recirculated slurry and therefore
no large treatment facility is required at the surface.
3. Techniques for launching both types of shields are

similar to those for compressed air. It is usually
necessary to employ some alternate groundwater control
method such as grouting, freezing or pre-drainage
to permit launching of the shield. The ground must
be stabilized while the shield is being readied for
normal operation.
4. Intermediate shafts may be required at a closer spacing

for slurry shields than EPB shields or other conventional
shields because of slurry pumping considerations.
Although the distance between tunneling machine and
surface treatment plant can theoretically be extended
an unlimited distance by adding pumps, it is normal
practice to move the treatment facility to new working
sites every 1 to 2 miles (1.6 to 3.2km) of tunnel
advance
5. Slurry and EPB shields work most efficiently in sand,

silt and clays of low plasticity. Cobbles and boulders
greater than 20 to 24 inches (50 - 60cm) present problems
requiring special crushing and separation equipment.
97
.
Highly plastic clays create clogging problems and

difficulty of separation from slurry. Figure 40 presents
soil gradation guidelines for efficient shield operation.
Different excavating heads are required for different
ground, e.g., open face with picks for stiff clay,
closed face with small openings and picks for sand
and gravel and plated face with grillages, picks and
discs for boulders. If changed conditions are encountered
between shafts, it is extremely difficult to change
machine excavating heads. It is a relatively simple
operation to change the head at intermediate shafts.
6. Pervious sands and gravels can result in substantial

loss of slurry.
7. The tail seal between the shield and tunnel liner

has presented major construction problems due to slurry
leakage into the working area. This problem has largely
been solved through use of several types of seals
including wire brushes and comibinations of rubber
and spring steel as previously illustrated in Figures
38 and 39.
8. Whenever possible, it is preferable to use a native

slurry due to the high cost of bentonite as well as
potential environmental difficulties with disposal
of used slurry.
9. Use of slurry and EPB shields eliminate the difficulties

and reduced productivity associated with compressed
air tunneling. Both types of shields work at deeper
and shallower depths than is normally possible with
compressed air. Shields can operate with as little
as 3 to 7 ft (1 - 2m) of cover and at pressures up
to 35 psi (242 kPa.). The effectiveness of tail seals
is a limiting factor on the maximum head which can
be~withstood
10. It is reported that surface settlement associated
with slurry and EPB shields is typically one half
of that associated with other tunneling. The British
report (Ref. 50) that the volume of the settlement
trough can be kept within the range of 0.5 to 1.4
percent of the total excavated cross-section.
11. A more accurate alignment can be maintained with slurry

shields than is possible with other mechanical shields
because the slurry in the heading reduces soil drag
on the shield.
90
100 10 I 0.1 0.01 o.ooi
PARTICLE SIZE (mm)
FIGURE 40 - Soil Gradation Guidelines for

Efficient Operation of Slurry
and Earth Pressure Balance
Shields (Ref. 146)
99
:
4.80 ELECTRO-OSMOSTS
4.81 Design ;
Numerous studies have revealed that electro-osmotic transport

can be related to water content, electrolyte concentration and
soil minerology. Figure 41a is a useful summary which illustrates
electro-osmotic flow versus water content for several clay-water-
electrolyte systems. Electro-osmotic flow can be seen to vary
over a little more than two orders of magnitude.
Key factors in the design of an electro-osmosis system

include
1. Quantity of water to be removed
2. Available time
3. Quantity of electrical power
4. Electrode type and spacing
The quantity of water removed at the cathode can be estimated

for a one dimensional case by;
Q = Drainage ratio in cubic centimeters per second
k e = electro-osmatic permeability in centimeters per second

per volt per centimeter
A e = applied voltage in volts
AL = electrode spacing in centimeter
A = cross sectional area in square centimeters
For two or three dimensional flow patterns, this equation

must be modified by shape factors derived from flow nets.
A good first approximation for electro-osmotic permeability,

ke , 5 x 10~5 cm per sec. per volt per cm. although it can
is
vary significantly from this value as illustrated in Figure
41b.
100
100
20 30 40 50 60 80 100
Water Content -percent
Figure 41a - Electro-Osmotic Flow Versus Water Content

in Clay-Water-Electrolyte Systems (Ref. 112)
9
1
lllll ! 1
I
'
NoCI
" Dolo
~>
NoCI Ooto Symbol Mottnoi Cone Sourct

Symbol Mot«noi Cone Sourct Silt, Cloy .001 Groy(l966)
Koolinite .0001 0lt*n(l96l) X SiltyCloy .01 Groy(l966)
8 X Koolimtt -001 0U«n(l96l) §
t
BliticCloy OOI Groy(l966)
& KocJimlt .1 0I»«MI96I)
t 01 Groy( 96G)
* Mitt .0001 0tMxll96l) a untie C lay
V Utile -1 0lMn(l96l)
,/ f
1 ^
§
O l a
/
X r
t
o
> t
I
c S 6
t
s t
9 "e
£ $
u
>• 1
X
1
1
—
3.1on< 0.00 OINNoCI,-~ 1 N An LOIN •*oOr\
2 Sodiur n lllitl L Mht C Cloy
m I *>
6 4 I «
f 1 /
0.
1
/
u .000 lond.OOIN 40 CI. 1
/ l
1 E /
4
Sodi jm Koolmitt /
E
5 3
/ 1 ° 3 '
r
/ •OOlNNot :i.^ •
O /
/ Silly Cloy
" 2 Ll '
V .IN 4a CI.
Sodium Kaolmiti L
/
/ /y *X
/
V
i
/ )INNa
A * ! illy Cl
CI,
i
/' s
.p 4
^.W
20 30 40 90 GO 70 80 90 100 10 20 30 40 50 €0 70 90
Woter Content- percent Water Content- percent
Figure 41b - Variations in Electro-Osmotic Permeability with Water Content

and Electrolyte Content and Electrolyte Content for Illitic and
Silty Clay (Ref. 112)
101
: . .
The electrical energy requirements per gallon discharged

can be estimated from;
— t-
Ki
x 10 °
where
€ = electrical power in kilowatt hours
AE = voltage
ki = electro-osmotic flow in gallons per ampere-hour
Using the above expressions one can perform an estimate

of the economic and technical feasibility of electro-osmosis.
The values calculated using Figure 41 and expressions above
represent an upper limit of flows to be expected under field
conditions because of flow interference due to gas generation
at the electrodes, consolidation and fissuring of the soil,
electrode decomposition and other retardation effects.
4.82 Construction
Once a tentative design has been developed, it is recommended

that full scale test be conducted to verify anticipated electrical
power consumption, electrode spacing and quantities of water
removed. Some construction considerations include:
1. Portable DC power supplies such as welding machines

are commonly used with applied voltages on the order
of 100 volts.
2. Typical electrode spacings are on the order of 6 to

10 feet (1.8 to 3.0m). Wellpoints are commonly used
as cathodes to facilitate water extraction. Simple
concrete reinforcing steel may also be used as on
electrode
3. Typical energy consumption for past case histories

is reported to vary from 0.5 kw hr per cu. of stabilized
soil to 17.0 kwhr per cu. yd.
4. Electrode corrosion is to be anticipated and can be

estimated using Faraday's laws. Electrode corrossion
of 2.25 kg per cu. m. of treated soil is reported
by Mitchell (Ref 186)
102
4.90 EXAMPLES OF GROUNDWATER CONTROL DURING CONSTRUCTION
This section contains a series of eleven examples illustrating

technically feasible methods for groundwater control during
construction. Five cut-and-cover and six bored tunnel examples
are presented. They include:
Cut-and-Cover Tunnels
1. Uniform granular soils
2. Uniform granular soils overlain by organic silt and

fill
3. Stratified silt and sand
4. Clayey silt underlain by gravelly sand below invert
5. Stratified silt and sand and fractured rock
Bored Tunnels
6. Uniform granular soils
7. Uniform granular soils overlain by organic silt and

fill
8. Stratified silt and sand
9. Clayey silt underlain by gravelly sand
10. Stratifed silt and sand and fractured rock
11. Fractured rock
A description of each follows:
103
4.90.1 EXAMPLE 1 - CUT-AND-COVER TUNNEL IN UNIFORM GRANULAR
SOIL
A. Project Conditions; (Figure 42)
Cut-and-Cover Tunnel, Urban Area
Depth of excavation = 40 feet (12.2m)
Soils: 10 feet (3.0m) Miscellaneous FILL

110 feet (33.5m) Medium dense, fine to coarse,
gravelly SAND
Depth to groundwater = 10 feet (3.0m)
B. Feasible Methods (Figure 4)
Primary Secondary
1. Wells 1. Grouting
2. Wellpoints 2. Partial Cut-Off
3. Full Cut-Off 3. Freezing
C. Comments
1. Dewatering: - Required drawdown = 30 + feet (9.1m)
- Relatively pervious soils, therefore

large volumes to be pumped
Probably no effect on adjacent structures

(dense granular soils)
• Wellpoints - Lift limitations require multi stages

which may clutter the excavation.
•
Electors - Inefficient when large volumes must
be pumped
•
Wells - The best way to handle large volumes
of water with widely spaced installations
2. Cufoffs: - Positive waterproofing, cutoff should intercept

deep impervious stratum. Probably not economi-
cally justified in this situation.
104
"
*' ^
UJ
CO
ca
< ,) u
o
o c\J oj
u~,
I I
o O CO
I I t- a CO
I I
I O
I- S-
? co- Q.
1
o
oj Is I I
il. UJ
O *N
I
'-
IS
1
x '
I
Ul > QJ
UJ I I Q < 1
tr CL
O p E
O (T3
I I
a ce X
I UJ
Q
UJ
LxJ
UJ
> CD
UJ
C\J
"^
LlJ
tx.
< ZD
CT>
o —
p
z U_
=3
o
ce I
to
v>
ui
<
(Si»4*uj)
105
.
For partial waterproofing, cutoff must extend

deep enough to reduce piping and heave into
excavation base; Secondary sumping required
in excavation
3. Grouting: - Cement grout can be used if soil matrix

is coarse. Silicate grouts feasible in
finer portions.
Grouting may be erratic if soil is stratified

with layers of varying permeability
4. Freezing: - Expensive, but technically feasible. Complete

cut-off if bottom frozen. Hydrostatic
uplift must be considered
5 Summary Discussions
In this relatively simple soil profile the usual method

chosen would be dewatering by deep wells. The ability
to handle large quantities of water from a few, relatively
widely spaced locations usually gives wells an economic
advantage over other dewatering methods. Special consider-
ations such as union restrictions on the number of pumps
per operator or environmental limitations on the allowable
quantity of water to be pumped may lessen this economic
advantage to where a lesser rated method may become
economically competitive. Recharge is probably unnecessary
except for special environmental considerations.
The use of any of the cutoff methods is possible if

the soil does not contain boulders or other obstructions
such as utility lines. Diaphragm walls or sheeting
can also act as a lateral support system for the excavation.
The cutoff methods would be more attractive if an impervious
stratum existed at a shallower depth.
Both grouting and freezing techniques could provide

positive waterproofing for this type of excavation.
The final choice may depend primarily on relative costs
and local experience.
106
4.90.2 EXAMPLE 2 - CUT-AND-COVER TUNNEL IN UNIFORM GRANULAR
SOIL OVERLAIN BY ORGANIC SILT
A. Project Conditions (Figure 43)
Depth of Excavation = 40 feet (12.2m)
- Soils: 10 feet (3.0m) Miscellaneous Fill

10 feet (3.0m) Soft, Organic SILT
gravelly SAND, overlying bedrock
Depth to Groundwater = 10 feet (3.0m)
Primary Secondary
2. Wellpoints 2. Partial Cut-Off
3. Full Cut-Off 3. Freezing
C. Comments
- Relatively pervious soils, therefore large

volumes to be pumped
- Adjacent structures founded on granular
material however, utility lines, roads,
and sidewalk vaults may be affected by
some settlement due to compression of
organic silt.
- Recharge may be required to minimize
consolidation of organic silt.
• Wellpoints - Lift limitations require multi stage
system which may clutter the excavation,
• Ejectors - Are inefficient when large volumes are
to be pumped.
• Wells - The best way to handle the large volume

of with widely spaced installation.
107
.1
\
UJ* o
CO •r—
•
6
** +->
tr
< o O
o
o CM dJ
oo
o
H Q ^ OF
CO
o
Z <
UJ
S-
CO EPTH
C 1
ui-3
<5 UJ
1/ •
< ,
CXJ
' cu
S3
° <£
O * Q-
s o E
3 .
'
o
Q cr x
UJ UJ
ui
S
,
> to 1
UJ p CO
Q /
UJ
CtL
s* •
V '
CD
Q
3
O
a.
o
CO
Ui
s\\\\\\V
|Q
Hld3Q
o O O
CM B OD
i ,i
«n O tf>
8
108
2. Full Cut-Off
- See Example 1
3. Grouting
- See Example 1
- Grout penetration of organic silt very unlikely

even though a very low viscosity grout.
4. Freezing
- Could effectively stabilize the entire stratum;

heave may be a factor in the silt layer
The advantages of wells are essentially the same as

indicated in the previous example. Possible compression
of the organic silt is a special concern. A shallow
recharge system may be required as a contingency. However,
the economics must be weighed in repairing damages due
to settlement of these shallow installations versus
the cost of recharge to prevent consolidation.
A cutoff could be feasible if it could be installed

without encountering obstructions or boulders during
driving (steel sheeting) or trench excavation (slurry
walls, slurry trenches). The cutoff would be even more
desirable if an impervious stratum existed at a shallower
depth. Sheeting or slurry walls can also act as components
of the lateral support systems.
Grouting is probably not feasible for stabilizing the

entire profile and so would have to be used in conjunction
with another waterproofing technique in the silt such
as a cut-off. Freezing is possible, though probably
more expensive than other methods. Possible heave of
the organic silt could cause damage to adjacent structures
and utilities and should be monitored.
109
4.90.3 EXAMPLE 3 - CUT-AND-COVER TUNNEL IN STRATIFIED SILT
AND SAND
A. Project Conditions: (Figure 44)


110 feet (33.5m) Medium dense, stratified, SAND,
silty SAND and SILT overlying bedrock
Depth to groundwater = 10 feet (3.0 m)
Primary Secondary
1. Wellpoints or 1. Grouting if relatively
ejectors if sand sandy
overlies silt 2. Partial Cut-Off
2. Wells if silt 3. Freezing
overlies sand
3. Full Cut-Off
C. Comments
- Depending on the permeability and frequency

of sand strata, large volumes of water
may be pumped
- Recharge is probably not required, since
compressible soils are not indicated
• Wellpoints - Lift limitations require a multi-stage
system which may clutter excavation;
however, vacuum may have a tremendous
affect in stabilizing the finer grained
strata
• Ejectors - If large pumping volumes are not required,
this method has the advantage of creating
vacuum in the soils as do wellpoints;
however, only a single stage installation
is required.
110
o
•I
+->
u
(1)
IT)
CO
(/>
o
s_
C_5
CD
<D
O-
E
fO
X
>
UJ
53"
s
* CD
o
O
tn
hi
Hidaq
° o
2
i
—m
I
«
L-_J? 8
'
<0
o
'
CSJ
111
• Wells - Highly stratified soils are difficult to
drain by gravity. Depending on the required
pumping volume, wells become more competitive
at greater spacings. Vacuum may be applied
to the well to enhance the drainage.
2. Cutoffs: - See Example 1
3. Grouting: - Probably not very effective if the soil

is highly stratified. A low viscosity grout
would be required to insure proper penetration
into all strata.
4. Freezing: - An effective alternative for the stabilization

of the entire profile. Heave may occur
in low permeability silt layers
5. Summary Discussions
Depending on the degree of stratification and relative

permeabilities of the different layers, a number of
dewatering methods may be appliable. Predrainage may
be difficult if the low permeability strata are relatively
continuous. This would retard the vertical drainage
and possibly cause a number of perched water conditions
to exist. The creation of a vacuum in the soils usually
has a tremendous effect in stabilizing fine sands and
silts. Ejectors, having this capability would be the
preferred dewatering method. However, if large volumes
must be handled, vacuum enhanced deep wells may be compet-
itive.
All cutoff and freezing techniques are well suited to

this type of soil profile if they can be constucted
deep enough to effectively reduce flows and resulting
gradients into the excavation bottom. Grouting is possible
if the grout is of a viscosity low enough to permeate
the finest grained soil in the profile. This requirement
may necessitate an expensive resin grout.
112
.
4.90.4 EXAMPLE 4 - CUT-AND-CQVER TUNNEL IN CLAYEY SILT UNDERLAIN

BY GRAVELLY SAND BELOW BOTTOM OF EXCAVATION
Depth of Excavation - 40 feet (12.2m)

35 feet (10.7m) Medium stiff clayey SILT
25 feet (7.6m) Medium dense, fine to coarse
gravelly SAND
50 feet (15.2m) Stiff CLAY
Depth to Goundwater - 10 feet (3.0m)
B. Feasible Methods (Figures 4 and 6)
Primary Secondary
1. Wells 1. Freezing
2. Wellpoints* 2. Partial Cut-Off
3. Ejectors*
4. Full Cut-Off
* If drainage required after pressure relief.
C Comments
1. Dewatering - Require pressure relief at excavation

base = 30 + feet (9.1m)
- Depending on the amount of cohesion of

the silt, predrainage may not be necessary,
or may be handled using only sumping after
pressure relief.
- If the silt has little to no cohesion,
predrainage may be required to prevent
running or sloughing due to residual seepage
- If the silt is very clayey and therefore
compressible, recharge may be required.
• Wellpoints - Not applicable to pressure relief.
Multistage system required if silt
must be predrained.
113
'///////A
c
o
•r-
U
O)
LT.
CO
CO
O
S-
t*J
a»
o.
E
TO
X
UJ
>
UJ
25
»-
<
CD
o
z
o
a:
UJ
u
wsT^
Hld30
o
§ 8 ? 8 8 B 00
T i i
(ftJ»49Ul) O 8
114
Ejectors - Volume for pressure relief makes method
inefficient. May be helpful in stabilizing
a noncohesive runny silt.
Wells - Most effective tool for pressure relief,

probably ineffective in stabilizing silt.
2. Cutoffs
- See Example 1
- If carried through the underlying gravelly sand,

it could be an effective protection against bottom
blow.
3. Freezing
- Can be used to create vertical impermeable cutoff
down to an impervious layer, or to create a frozen
zone beneath the base of the excavation only.
4. Grouting
- Not applicable in clayey silt
- May be used to stabilize base of excavation against

bottom blow
5. Electro-Osmosis
- Can effectively stabilize silt stratum during construc-
tion if it is fine enough.
This profile provides a number of problems with respect

to dewatering due to the large differences in permeabilities
and compressibilities of the two strata. Gravity drainage
of the clayey silt would be very slow and difficult
and could result in intolerable settlements. The highly
pervious sand and gravel stratum is a potential source
for large flows into the base of the excavation and
thus requires pressure relief to prevent bottom blows.
Deep wells would normally be used to reduce hydrostatic

pressure on the subgrade of the excavation. Depending
on the permeability and plasticity of the silt, predrainage
of the upper soils may not be required. If predrainage
of the silt is required, ejectors would be a suitable
115
method. Recharge to prevent settlements outside the
excavation may be required, but tight cutoffs or underpinning
may be easier and more economical.
Structural cutoff walls or vertical freeze walls could

intercept a deep impervious stratum to reduce underseepage
Steel sheeting has an inherent permeability near that
of the silt and so would not be very effective in maintaining
water levels outside of the excavation*. In either case,
the cutoff would have to be watertight to resist the
high gradients which would develop as the excavation
was dewatered.
Grouting or freezing of the excavation base could provide

a partical cutoff from the sand layer. Other methds
would then be required to stabilize the overlying silt.
116
4.90.5 EXAMPLE 5 - CUT-AND-COVER TUNNEL IN STRATIFIED SILT
AND SAND AND FRACTURED BEDROCK

- Cut-and-Cover Tunnel, Urban Area
Soil and Rock: 10 feet (3.0m) Miscellaneous FILL

20 feet (6.1m) Stratifed SILT AND SAND
overlying fractured BEDROCK which is
more pervious than the overlying soils.
Depths to groundwater = 10 feet (3.0m)
Primary Secondary
2. Wellpoints 2. Freezing
3. Partial Cut-Off
C. Comments
1. Dewatering: - Required drawdown = 30 feet (9.1m)
- Fractured rock could supply a large volume

of water
- Stratified upper soils may be difficult

to predrain by gravity
- Possibly separate systems to dewater soil

and rock
• Wellpoints - Multiple stages required to predrain

to top of rock. Very expensiveto drill
closely spaced holes in rock
• Ejectors - A single stage could predrain to top
of rock depending on the volume required
to be pumped. The ability to create
a vacuum may stabilize silt layers.
Very expensive to drill closely spaced
holes in rock
117
'///////A
c
o
•r"
o
CO
to
to
o
s-
C_)
LO

U3
5
<
C3
Q
Z
o
Ul
(»j«1»uj)
118
• Wells - Depending on amount of water to be pumped
from rock, wells would be the mostly likely
method. If flow from rock is small, then
open sumping may be sufficient
3. Grouting: - Very difficult to insure adequate penetration
into stratified soils
- Coarse particulate grout required to seal
off large seams in the rock
4. Freezing: - Possible, but likely to be expensive because

of drilling costs in rock
Two separate groundwater conditions must be addressed.

The soils above rock require predrainage unless they
can be cutoff at the rock surface. Any irregular rock
surface could produce openings which must be sealed
to prevent loss of ground. Residual seepage along the
rock surface will probably require local sumping. Depending
on the permeabilities of the sands and continuity of
the low permeability strata, predrainage may be accomplished
with either ejectors or wells. The rock may produce
large groundwater flows. The rock precludes most cutoff
methods due to the inherent difficulty of penetrating
far enough to intercept sound rock and stop seepage.
Grouting of the rock is possible, yet difficult if it
is highly decomposed. Grouting of the overlying sands
and silts may be feasible with an low viscosity chemical
grouts.
Dewatering using deep wells appears to be the only reasonable

approach to handle the large volumes of water and large
lift capacities which would undoubltedly be necessary.
Freezing the entire excavation is feasible, but probably
much more expensive than dewatering methods.
119
4.90.6 EXAMPLE 6 - BORED TUNNEL IN UNIFORM GRANUALR SOIL
20 foot (6.1m) Diameter Bored Tunnel, Urban Area
- Depth of invert = 70 feet (21.3m)
Soils: 10 feet (3.0m) Miscellaneous fill overlying bedrock

at a depth of 120 feet (36.6m)
gravelly SAND
Depth of groundwater - 10 feet (3.0m)
Primary Secondary
2. Full-Cut-Off 2. Freezing
3. Slurry on EPB Shields,
Compressed Air
4. Partial Cut-Off
C. Comments
1. Dewatering: - Required drawdown = 60 + feet (18. 3m).
Pervious soils, therefore large volumes

to be pumped.
Recharge not required unless for special

considerations.
• Wellpoints - Not applicable in bored tunnels except
in special problem cases.
• Ejectors - Not efficient due to large required pumping

volume.
• Wells - The usual method for groundwater control
in uniform relatively permeable soils.
2. Cutoffs
- Typically not used in bored tunnel construction, though
slurry trench cutoffs or thin wall cutoffs may prove
economical
120
,
C
o
H- +j
o o
CM O)
oo
U.
o
I o
1- S-
0. C_)
-'1 UJ
1 Q #\
*£>
<
O)
1-
< D.
Y E
O (O
X
O LU
cr
O
hi 1
CO
•*^
> I--
vl-
UJ
cc
m ZD
a o
o
z
O
cr
o
c/>
UJ
i-
<
o
o
\\\\\\\
z \
QL z
o -
I- o
,/
4 to _j
2g
HXd30
o o o o o
laaj) CM s (0 09
(
i
lA
t
«ft
JL. T i
8
121
- Cutoff should penetrate to an impervious layer for
positive dewatering; partial penetration combined
with sumping inside excavation may also be adequate.
3. Grouting
- Inexpensive cement grout may be used if sand stratum
is coarse.
- May not be effective if sand is highly stratified.
4. Freezing
- Freezing can be conducted from surface or at tunnel

level to create impervious frozen zone
5. Compressed Air/Slurry/EPB Shields

- Large air or slurry losses probable in coarse granular
soils
- High air pressures would severely limit working times.
- Slurry and EPB Shields have difficulty handling cobbles.
Traditionally, predrainage or limited predrainage in

conjunction with compressed air has been used. Deep
wells have been the usual tool for groundwater control
in uniform pervious soils. Large quantities of water
can thus be handled from relatively widely spaced locations.
Assuming the primary lining and waterproofing follow
close behind the tunnel heading, wells can be systematically
turned on in advance of the heading and shut off after
the waterproofing and lining is placed. Therefore,
restrictions on union operation of a specified number
of pumps is less likely to become a problem. If compressed
air use is anticipated, partial lowering of the water
level with deep wells can reduce the required air pressure
in the tunnel.
Grouting or freezing to create an impervious zone surrounding

the tunnel are also possible solutions. Cutoffs see
limited use in bored tunnel schemes. They have traditionally
been used an combined dewatering/support systems in
cut and cover construction.
122
Slurry shields or EPB Shields are well suited for granular
water bearing strata as long as numerous cobbles or
boulders are not present. Just as air losses may pose
a problem with compressed air, slurry and water losses
may be a concern in highly pervious soils.
123
4.90.7 EXAMPLE 7 - BORED TUNNEL IN UNIFORM GRANULAR SOIL OVERLAIN
BY ORGANIC SILT

- 20 feet (6.1m) Diameter Bored Tunnel, Urban Area
- Depth to Invert = 70 feet (21.3m)
- Soils: 10 feet (3*Qm) Miscellaneous Fill

10 feet (3.0m) Soft, Organic SILT
gravelly SAND, overlying bedrock
- Depth to Groundwater = 10 feet (3.0m)
Primary Secondary
2. Full Cut-Off 2. Slurry or EPB Shields
3. Ejectors
4. Freezing
5. Compressed Air
C. Comments
1. Dewatering: Required drawdown = 60 + feet (18.3m)
Large volumes to be pumped in the pervious

sand stratum
Recharge may be required because of possible

compression of the organic silt due to
groundwater lowering.
• Wellpoints - Not applicable in bored tunnels
• Ejectors - Volume to be pumped makes use of ejectors
inefficient
• Wells - Best tool to handle the large quantities
to water to be pumped
2. Cutoffs: - See Example 6
3. Grouting - See Example 6
4. Freezing - See Example 6
124
O
to
o o
<M
o
o
I
t-
U Gi-
Q
ro
<
CO
O
o
ce
o
UJ
UJ OD
ZD
> CD
UJ
_l
a:
UJ
o
z
O
O
IT
O
in
UJ
i-
<
o
HldJQ
o O o o O
( *aaj) o CM
t
a 8 '
OD
_
ID o rA
8
125
5. Compressed Air/Slurry/EPB Shields - See Example 6
This profile is very similar to the uniform granular

profile of Example 6. The only new factor to consider
is the compression of the overlying silt layer using
a predrainage scheme. The resulting settlement may
be prohibitive and require recharge to maintain groundwater
levels in the silt for protection of utilities. Buildings
bearing on granular soil should not be in danger of
significant damage.
126
4.90.8 EXAMPLE 8 - BORED TUNNEL IN STRATIFED SILT AND SAND
20 feet (6.1m) Diameter Bored Tunnel, Urban Area

- Soils: 10 feet (3.0m) Miscellaneous FILL
110 feet (33.5m) Medium Dense, stratified SAND,
silty SAND and SILT overlying bedrock
Depth to Groundwater = 10 feet (3.0m)
Primary Secondary
1. Compressed Air, 1. Grouting

Slurry or Earth 2. Freezing
Pressure Balance
Shields
2. Wells if primarily
sand
3. Ejectors if primarily
silt
C. Comments
- Recharge probably not requried since soil

is granular
- Stratification may prohibit gravity drainage

and result in perched conditions.
• Wellpoints - Not applicable in bored tunnels.

• Ejectors - May be used if volumes not too great.
The effect of vacuum may enhance the
stabilization of the silts.
• Wells - If large volumes are expected, i.e. primarily
a sand.
- Should be vacuum enhanced to aid stabilization

of finer materials.
127
>
Id
_)
a:
UJ
a
z
z>
o
cc
o
c/>
UJ
<
o
a
z
Hid 30
o
CM s o
* q o o O
CO
55 a> r-
t « 1 .1
-r I l
ID O o
CM
128
2. Cutoffs
- See Example 6
3. Grouting
- Probably not applicable in stratified soil, especially
if silty. Low viscosity grouts would be required
to insure proper penetration of all strata.

- Limited practical working pressures in compressed
air shields. Possible combination with a dewatering
method to reduce air pressures.
- Very useful in silty granular soil due to small air
and slurry losses
- Limited use of slurry and EPB shields in the United

States
5. Freezing
- See Example 6. Some danger of frost heave in silty

soils
D. Summary Discussions
Dewatering or dewatering in conjunction with compressed

air are both well suited to this profile. Slurry or EPB
shields are also applicable due to the nature of the existing
sands and silts. Provisions should be made to reduce seepage
into the tunnel if the sands and silts are susceptible to
running or sloughing.' Depending on the type of construction
method chosen, minor flows of water at the heading may be
disasterous. It is doubtful that complete drainage can
be acheived by any dewatering method. Both freezing and
cutoff methods are technically feasible but probably not
economically competitive with the above mentioned techniques.
Grouting in a finer grained stratified soil is very difficult
to control and expensive due to the need for low viscosity
chemical grouts.
129
4,90.9 EXAMPLE 9 - BORED TUNNEL IN CLAYEY SILT UNDERLAIN BY
GRAVELLY SAND

- Soils: 10 feet (3.0m) Miscellaneous FILL
60 feet (18.2m) Medium stiff, clayey SILT
20 feet (6.1m) Medium dense, gravelly, medium

to coarse SAND
50 feet (15.2m) Stiff, silty CLAY
B. Feasible Methods (Figures 5 and 6)
Primary Secondary
1. Wells 1. Freezing
2. Compressed air, 2. Ejectors if groundwater
slurry or EPB control in silt required
shield
3. Full Cut-Off
C. Comments
1. Dewatering: - Pressure relief is required at invert
- If the silt has low cohesion predrainage

may be required. If piezometric head
is lowered for enough time to initiate
consolidation, recharge may have to be
considered.
• Wellpoints - Not applicable in bored tunnel
• Ejectors - Inefficient for pressure relief due to
high volume to be pumped. May be useful
in stabilizing running silt.
• Wells - Most effective tool for pressure relief.

Probably inefficient in stabilizing silt.
130
O
o
cu
in
in
o
s-
o
ID
O.
E
ro
X
-J
UJ o
LO
UJ CD
o
z
O
<r
(9
Q
o
2. Cutoffs
- Not normally used in tunnels, but could be effective
in cutting off recharge to gravelly sand below the
tunnel invert.
3. Grouting
- See Example 4
4. Freezing
- Like cutoffs, can be used to create a vertical seepage
barrier if keyed into an impervious stratum
- Horizontal freezing can create an impervious zone
surrounding the tunnel

- Well suited to low permeability soils
- Pressure relief may be required in the underlying

gravels to prevent bottom instability
The main concern in this situation is pressure relief

in the gravelly sand stratum which lies just beneath
the tunnel invert. Since total predrainage of the entire
profile would be very difficult due to the low permeabilty
of the silt, a combined system of pressure relief along
with a second groundwater control method may be required.
Deep wells would normally be used to accomplish pressure
relief. Compressed air or slurry shield would be the
recommended tunneling method. Ejectors may be useful
in reducing air pressure requirements, but may require
considerable lead time to produce drainage. In such
a case consolidation may be a problem.
Grouting is probably only possible in the sand and gravel

layer to prevent bottom blows. Cutoffs or freezing
are, of course, technically feasible but probably not
economical compared to compressed air and/or dewatering.
Similarly, electro-osmosis is capable of stabilizing
the silt but may be an extreme measure not required
except in unusual instances.
132
4.90.10 EXAMPLE 10 - BORED TUNNEL IN STRATIFIED SILT AND SAND
OVERLYING FRACTURED ROCK

- Soil and Rock: 10 feet (3.0m) Miscellaneous FILL

50 feet (15.2m) Medium dense silty SAND
stratified with loose SILT overlying
fractured dolomite.
Primary Secondary
1. Wells 1. Grout
2. Compressed Air 2. Freezing
C. Comments
1. Dewatering: - Required drawdown = 60 + feet (18.3m).
- Fractured rock could supply a large volume

of water
- Stratified silt and sand may be difficult

to predrain
• Wellpoints - Not applicable in bored tunnel.

• Ejectors - could be used to predrain to top of rock
if volume to be pumped is not excessive.
Would aid in stabilizing silt layers.
Would not be cost effective to use in
rock if tight spacing required.
• Wells - If a large volume is to be pumped from the
rock, wells would be the best tool. May
also be effective in predraining silt and
sand. If volume is small then open sumping
would probably be sufficient.
- Possible problems excavating mixed face conditions
under air pressure.
133
1
u
CD
u~>
t Q .^-' on
7. '
< 7
to
O
CO
s_
.
f O
z * o
< /
o
-
c b 1
CO
, .
( ^,.
1
a Q.
UJ /> E
u. /
1
H /,
X
{'
<
1 cc •
-"s-
1-
/' co
Ill 'J*-
> / ^N
UJ
~ ,
'
.-
tr
UJ
/ 1 I
.v y /.
.''
C3
'
i i
; .
o
z 7
'
o *
./ "
ru'<
cc
o
to
UJ
Si
o
K o
£
o z
-
^S >J
\ /
4 »- o
(0 _J \ s.
o| N /
Hid3a
o o o O
wi) o CM 8 ? 8 (0 P CO
(
(sjdidiu) o lO
JL
o tf)
TO -X.
csj
134
- Slurry or EPB shields not feasible because of rock
in lower half of face.
3. Grouting
- See Example 5
4. Cutoffs
- See Example 5
5. Freezing
- See Example 5
- May not be able to freeze water in rock seams effectively

if seepage velocities to high.
The use of a shield in mixed face conditions is difficult

becuase of the different excavation techniques in soil and
rock. This is particularly true if pressure relief is required
for bottom stability. Deep wells can probably effectively
drain the fractured rock zone. Depending on the permeability
of the stratified sands and silts, wells or ejectors may
be required to drain the stratum, with secondary pumping
as necessary to handle residual seepage.
Grouting of the tunnel perimeter is possible if a particulate

grout is used in the large rock seams and a low viscosity
chemical grout is injected into the stratifed layers above
the tunnel arch. Both freezing or cutoff methods are feasible
but probably very expensive.
Compressed air with pressure reduction due to partial dewatering

is also a feasible method. The compressibility and extent
of the silt should be reviewed to determine recharge require-
ments.
135
4.90.11 EXAMPLE 11 - BORED TUNNEL IN FRACTURED ROCK

- 20 feet (6.1m) Diameter Bored Tunnel, in Urban Area
- Soil and Rock: 10 feet (3.0m) Miscellaneous Fill
10 feet (3.0m) Dense, gravelly sand
100 feet (30.5m) Fractured Dolomite
Primary Secondary
2. Sumping
C. Comments
1. Dewatering: - Required drawdown = 60 + feet (18.3).
- Depending on size, frequency and continuity

of fracture pattern, volume of water
could be large.
• Wellpoints - Not applicable in bored tunnels
•
Ejectors - Not able to handle large pumping volumes
• Wells - If large volumes are to be pumped, wells
would be the best tool. If volume is small,
sumping is suitable.
2. Grouting
- Cement grout can be used in larger joints. Low viscosity
chemicals grout can be used as a secondary treatment,
but only in extreme cases.
3. Sumping
- Possible if the rock is not badly fractured and flows
are small.
- Washing of joint filling material may cause instability.
136
—
o
u
CD
OO
00
CO
O
i-
o
CU
I
E
ro
X
LiJ
UJ C\J
>
UJ
Del
Ul CD
5
o
z
=>
o
CE
o
CO
UJ
I-
<
o
z ,W*^^
4
HldBQ
o o
Q g 8 ? 8 09
4T"
1.1 ,l
Ift
I
-L.
(SJ04©uj «r>
8
137
- Possible as a secondary drainage technique
4. Cutoffs/Freezing
- Only justified in extreme circumstances
Wells, sumping or grouting are all feasible methods. Which

will work best in a function of expected flow rate, degree
of rock deterioration and fracture pattern.
138
.
5.00 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF SYSTEMS TO PREVENT

INTRUSION OF GROUNDWATER INTO COMPLETED TUNNELS
5.10 GENERAL
This section summarizes methods of design and construction

of systems to prevent groundwater intrusion into completed tunnels
included is discussion of:
Cast-in-place Concrete
Applied Waterproofing Envelopes
Segmented Linings
Grouting
- Cut-off Walls
Sunken Tube Tunnels
5.20 CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE
The creation of impervious concrete requires rigid control

of all materials and processes which can add greatly to the
cost and is usually difficult to achieve in adverse tunnel environ-
ments. Water will readily pass through joints, cracks, honeycombs,
and the pores of the intact concrete. To produce impervious
concrete, all joints must be carefully and permanently made
watertight. Designs must be such that cracks do not develop;
honeycombing must be prevented by careful concrete placement;
and all pores capable of transmitting water must be filled or
isolated
If settlement is anticipated, elastic membranes can be

used to effectively bridge cracks. Use of at least twice the
minimum longitudinal reinforcing steel required by ACI for shrinkage
is recommended to minimize cracking.
5.21 Concrete Design
The design of watertight concrete should follow the best

practices for high quality structural concrete.
The aggregate should be clean, sound, not reactive with

the cement, free from organic and other deleterious materials
and sized appropriately for the section to be placed. It should
be well graded to minimize voids. Portland cement should be
finely ground and of the type best suited to project conditions.
139
Water should be free from deleterious amounts of akalies,
acids, chlorides, oils, and organic materials. The water-cement
ratio should be as low as possible consistent with good workability
to reduce permeability and to increase shrinkage resistance.
Admixtures should be compatible with the other constituents
of the mix. Careful attention to shrinkage resistance is especially
important if waterproof concrete is desired. Shrinkage decreases
with decreasing water-cement ratio, which can be reduced by
the addition of chemical admixtures such as Plastocrete by Sika
or, the addition of finely divided materials. Shrinkage can
be controlled by the use of an expansive cement or admixtures
such as finely divided aluminum filings. Thermal shrinkage
can be reduced by chilling constituent materials of the plastic
concrete before placing; by replacing a portion of the Portland
cement with a material such as pozzolan which will act as a
cement but does not produce as much heat during its hydration
or by spraying cooling water on the forms after concrete placement
and curing with cool water sprays.
Improvement of chemical resistance requires determination

of the environment, both external and internal, to which the
concrete will be exposed. The mix can be made resistant to
many aggressive chemicals by altering constituents such as the
use of Type II or V cement for sulfate resistance.
Concrete must be compatible with other materials embedded

in it such as aluminum, which reacts with the alkali hydroxides
in the cement forming a compound which occupies more space than
its constituents and therefore, cracks or spalls the concrete.
Iron oxides are also expansive in concrete. Aluminum items
must be coated, but iron need not be unless oxygen will be available
to it.
Adequate impervious cover of reinforcing steel is required

to prevent corrosion. The relationship between the thickness
of cover over reinforcing steel and permeability of concrete
is -illustrated in Figure 53.
To minimize the effects of stress corrosion, and to reduce

shrinkage cracks intermediate grade steel should be used with
higher than the theoretical design area. Cathodic protection
may be necessary if ground conditions are particularly corrosive.
5.22 Concrete Construction
Some key practical considerations include:
140
(1) 1/2 3/4 (2) (3) 1 1/2 (5) 2
THICKNESS OF COVER-IN (CM)
Figure 53- THICKNESS OF COVER AND PERMEABILITY

(From Birkmyer, Ref. 14)
141
1. Thorough mixing improves plasticity, resulting in
better placement and uniform distribution of the constit-
uent materials. The fine and coarse aggregates must
be mixed to produce as compact a mass as possible
with the cement particles.
2. If there is a delay in placing the concrete, aggregates

may settle out, causing segregation and producing
permeable concrete. Placement delays will also reduce
the plasticity of the mix. Addition of water to restore
the plasticity will produce a more permeable concrete.
3. Pumping concrete long distances tends to dry out the

mix and thus an admixture may be required to aid the
flow.
4. If concrete is placed against the ground surface,

there should be no debris or projections into the
design volume.
5. There should be no standing water present prior to

concrete placement. Running water should be controlled
so that it will not mix with the concrete.
6. If pouring against hardened concrete, the hardened

concrete shuld be well roughened, cleaned, moistened,
and treated with cement mortar just before placement.
7. Deposit concrete as nearly as practical in its final

position and place it in shallow lifts so that they
can be well compacted. It should be possible to reach
the top portion of the plastic lift below by the internal
vibrators.
8. Vibrate the concrete to compact it thoroughly using

internal vibrators or vibrators attached to the forms
or both. Use special care in compaction along joints
and around the reinforcing steel, and other embedded
items.
9. Once pouring has begun on a section, it should be

completed without interruption.
10. Moist curing is essential to obtain watertight concrete.

If the concrete dries before sufficient hydration
has taken place, drying shrinkage will occur. A minimum
of seven days of water or fog curing should be required.
After moist curing, the concrete should be protected
from excessive drying conditions such as those caused
by dry air draughts.
142
11. To ensure watertightness of the finished structure,
all defects such as honeycombing, bolt holes, pop-outs,
and cracks must be repaired. Repairs to damaged or
defective concrete should be performed within 24 hours
since the bond with green concrete is generally stronger
than that with fully hardened concrete. Tie holes
and pop-outs must be filled and sealed; all porous
concrete (due to honeycombing, aggregate segregation,
etc.) must be removed and replaced with sound concrete,
and all cracks must be sealed. The American Concrete
Institute and the Bureau of Reclamation have published
procedures for the repair of surface defects which
are quite comprehensive. Several approaches to repair
of defects are illustrated in Figures 54 through 56.
12. Various resins such as epoxy and polyester, as well

as synthetic rubber and bituminous materials have
proved helpful in bonding and sealing defective concrete.
5.23 Construction Joints
Construction joints are required due to placing limitations,

such as between slabs and walls and are intended to function
as though no joint were there.
Reinforced construction joints require that the fresh

concrete bond perfectly with the hardened concrete so that the
joint will be watertight. Extra precautions are usually required
such as the installation of a waterstop across the joint or
bentonite backing outside the joint. With slight modification
a bentonite sealed joint can be used when concrete is placed
against the excavation or excavation support. Bentonite applications
are simpler to apply than waterstops and have the advantage
of being self-healing. Typical construction joint details are
shown in Figures 57 and 58.
5.24 Contraction Joints
Contraction joints are designed to open when the concrete

shrinks. They control the location of shrinkage cracks which
may have to be bridged with an elastic membrane, or waterstop
to prevent leakage.
Reinforcing steel crossing a contraction joint is treated

with a bond breaker so that as contraction occurs there is less
tensile strength at the joint making it a favorable location
for a crack to occur. The weakness of this plane may be further
enhanced by chases along each face of the concrete as shown
in Figure 59, which are then waterproofed.
143
DRILL HOLE DIAGONALLY
— CRACK
:
Repair of crack
PIPE PENETRATION
THRU WALL
LEAK
DRILL HOLE BENEATH

PENETRATION TO
INTERCEPT AT CENTER
OF. WALL
Figure 54 - Repair of Wall Defects - Cracks

(Ref. 59) (From Birkmeyer, Ref. 14)
144
COLD JOINT

TO INTERSECT JOINT (N
CENTER OF WALL
Repair of cold joint
LEAK
WALL
FLOOR
DRILL HOLE TO INTERSECT JOINT

BETWEEN FLOOR & FOOTING.
(HOLE CAN BE DRILLED DIAGONALLY
TO INTERSECT JOINT BETWEEN
FLOOR &WALL)
FOOTING
Figure 55 - Repair of Wall Defects - Cold Joints (Ref.69)
14!
LEAK RUBBER OR PLASTIC
WAT ERST OP
##W#WW'
S3S
DRILL HOLE DIAGONALLY TO
TO INTERSECT WATERSTOP
INTERSECT EXPANSION JOINT "AT JOINT.
AT CENTER OR BELOW IN FLOOR.
DRILL THROUGH JOINT MATERIAL.
(SIMILAR TREATMENT FOR WALL
JOINT)
Repair of expansion joint and waterstop in concrete structure
ADDITIONAL HOLES
GROUT MAY BE REQUIRED
Figure 56 - Repair of Wall Defects Expansion Joints

(Ref. 69)
146
PVC WATER STOP
<8-IN. WIDE TYPICAL)
DETAIL A
SIN. PVC WATER STOP
DETAIL B
TT^TT
BENTONITESEAL
BENTONITE COMPOUND
DETAIL C
(1" = 25.4 mm.)
Figure 57 - Construction Details - Longitudinal

Joints
147
3 ii[,:Uf7i?>.
-r
f=4 4^ 30 IN. TYP.
1 11
a
0&^V&V/^dM*^^/^^<Vî '
TYP.
PVC WATER STOP

/ EARTH
'
DETAIL A - INVERT JOINT
EARTH
18 IN. TYP.
PVC WATER STOP
DETAIL B - ROOF JOINT
4 IN. TYP.
1t
7t.
_M 2/3
18 IN. TYP
t
PVC WATER STOP' (1" = 25.4 mm.)
DETAIL C WALL JOINT
Figure 58 - Construction Details - Transverse Joints
148
APPLY BOND BREAKER
TO THESE BARS
•BENTONITE PANEL
BENTONITE COMPOUND
3 IN DEEP
2 LAYERS 3/8 IN. EXPANSIVE

CAULKING YARN
18 IN
1 LAYER 3/8 IN.

KEEPER YARN
5/16
IF CONCRETE IS PLACED DI-

RECTLY AGAINST FORMING, 1-1/4 IN.
CONCRETE COVERSHOULD BE
INCREASED FROM 2 IN. TO
2-1/2 IN. TO ALLOW SPACE FOR DETAIL 1
BENTONITE PANEL
(1" = 25,4 mm.)
Figure 59 - CONTRACTION JOINT DETAIL

149
5.25 Expansion Joints
Expansion joints are seldom necessary in tunnels except

near entrances where temperature variations may be substantial .They
prevent excessive compressive stress in the concrete by allowing
unrestricted movement as temperatures increase.
No reinforcing steel crosses expansion joints. Usually

a premolded compressible joint filler is placed against the
hardened concrete and fresh concrete is placed against the joint
filler. When completed, a joint sealer may be applied at the
surfaces. As the concrete expands the joint filler is compressed
reducing the compression stresses that would otherwise develop
in the concrete.
If an expansion joint is required below the water table,

a waterstop should be used to prevent leakage. It is very important
to be sure the center bulb is not bonded to the concrete and
is centered in the joint.
5.26 Waterstops
Waterstops are metal (rarely used), rubber, or plastic

strips placed in joints to prevent the flow of water when the
joint opens. Waterstop materials must be able to withstand
extensive elongation and return essentially to the original
configuration. Various cross sections have been developed so
that the strip holds in the concrete when the joint opens.
Waterstops are typically between 3 and 12 inches (75 and 300mm)
wide and 3/32 to 1/22 inch (2 to 13mm) thick. The dumbbell
configurations are customarily used for rubber waterstops.
If considerable differential movement is anticipated, a waterstop
having a thin, weak, longitudinal section can be used. This
will split when movement occurs, thereby allowing a differential
movement of approximately the bulb circumference without rupture.
Typical configurations of metal, rubber, and PVC waterstops
are shown in Figure 60.
5.30 APPLIED ENVELOPES

Waterproofing envelopes may consist of any of a number
of materials or combinations of materials. The most common
are
1. Built-up membrane consisting of hot-applied bituminous

cementing materials alternating with fabrics or felts
saturated with similar bituminous material.
2. Preformed multi-layered boards.
3. Plastic and synthetic rubber sheets.
150
Rigid Metals Copper Waterstop
1st POUR 2nd POUR
U.'* ..-•.
» .. •
CAST-IN- PLACE
=BSSB
1
ggg *
M
a
SECONDARY
SEALANT
•.
»
.
A
Rubber Waterstops Polyvinylchloride Waterstops
c o p_n_n_n_
iru-iru-
_n_n_n_n
-Lru-u-J
y^N /o\
o==co>=o p n n n
Lr-u-ij-u-u
«•>
—WL//—
Y^y n_n_n_n_n
ir-j-Ln-nJ
Sealtight DUO-PVC Waterstops Sealtight "Nail-On" DUO-PVC Waterstop
n_n_n_n_n_ jT_n_n_n_n
Lf-Lnj-Lnr -u-Lnj-LnJ
Figure 60- TYPICAL WATERSTOP CONFIGURATIONS

(From Stilling - Ref. 119)
151
. . .
4. Bentonite clay applied in sheets or sprayed on.
5. Cold, liquid-applied membranes, especially the elastomers.
6. Cementitious coatings applied to the inside of the

structure by the plaster-coat method or the iron-coat
method
7. Brick set in asphalt mastic.
8. Corrugated aluminum sheeting.
Membrane waterproofing systems must accommodate any cracks

in the concrete. If earth is to be placed against a surface
to be waterproofed, the membrane must also resist damage due
to backfilling, either by itself or by the addition of a protective
covering
5.31 Built-up Membrane Waterproofing Systems
Built-up membrane waterproofing consists of a series of

alternating applications of a cementing material and plies (sheets
of woven fabric or felt, or a mat). As the plying cement for
hot-applied bituminous-based built-up waterproofing the choice
is generally between properly prepared natural asphalt, asphalt
derived from asphaltic petroleum, coal tar pitch, and coal tar
enamel. Coal tar pitch and coal tar enamel with mineral fibers
(
added to make the material more stable) have performed well

buried in soils for 50 to 100 years and are preferred to asphalt
products.
The plies may be of woven organic or inorganic fibers,

felted organic or inorganic fibers, or mats of uniformly distributed
glass fibers. These sheets are then impregnated with bituminous
material compatible with the plying cement used. Recently other
types of plies have been developed for tunnel work such as the
copper foils "and jute burlap strips bituminized on both sides.
A 3-ply membrane system is frequently used. This system

consists of a layer of hot bituminous material mopped on the
surface to be waterproofed and followed immediately by the appli-
cation of a "ply" of bituminous material; this is followed by
a second layer of cementing material and another "ply", followed
by another mopping with hot bituminous material completely covering
the third "ply." The successive plies are so arranged that
no two seams are coincidental and within each layer the sheeting
is lapped a minimum of 1 inch (25mm)
152
The surface to which the membrane is attached must be clean,
dry and reasonably flat. Figure 61 shows typical multi-ply
systems specified by the American Railway Engineering Association.
Sagging of hot asphalt or coal tar on vertical surfaces

can be partially overcome by performing the applications in
sections and backfilling the section promptly to support the
membrane. Another means of keeping it in place is to secure
the plies to the wall so that they help to hold the hot tar
in place.
Frequently, after the membrane is in place, a thin concrete

layer is placed over the membrane to protect it from damage
and then backfilling is accomplished.
To avoid stripping the membrane off due to soil settlement

relative to the structure, the waterproofing membrane can be
sprayed with a bituminous anti-friction layer having a thickness
of 8 to 10 mm (0.3 to 0.4 in.) which allows the soil to slip
easily along the wall without damaging the waterproofing.
5.32 Preformed Multi-Layered Board
Preformed multi-layered vapor and waterproofing materials

are available as semi-rigid boards, usually 4 feet by 8 feet,
(1.2m by 2.4m) and in rolls.
The material consists of a minimum of one sheet of reinforcing

material embedded in an elastomeric material composed of bituminous
and synthetic resin materials. An example of a multi-layered
board is shown in Figure 62. The welding together of the various
constituents is superior to that in the built-up membranes.
It is necessary to make sure the concrete is free of all

foreign substances and loose surface material, any cracks have
been repaired, any honeycombing has been chipped out and replaced
by sound concrete, and all construction joints are tight.
The prepared concrete substrate is coated with the primer

or a bonding agent. If the membrane is not the self-bonding
type it is usually also coated with a bonding agent. Then the
material is placed in position and rolled to make a good, complete
bond with the substrate. The sealing of the joints in the membrane
must be carefully done. Backfilling can usually be done immediately,
though under certain conditions a protective course is recommended.
153
^
2" 2" ALU LAPS
I— FULL WIDTH *
Ke WIOTH -LOW POINT OF STRUCTURE
FULL WIDTH
TYPE A -2 PLY
ft ft ,ff,
"L LAPS
FULL WIDTH — .OW POINT OF STRUCTURE

IftwiDT
Vs WIDTH
FULL WIDTH
TYPE B-3PLY
ALL LAPS
"-LOW POINT OF STRUCTURE
TYPE C-3PLY
2' Z' 2" ALL LAPS

[I II
« .io:ii>i. i.i > >';—"— -n .
-FULL w,oTH_i-/ -LOW POINT OF STRUCTURE

I..
8
, ft tea
OTH
a t
/s witTm
FULL WIOTH
TYPE D - 5 PLY
naaam denotes felt
n luiii DENOTES FABRIC
(1 in. = 25.4 mm.)
Figure 61- TYPICAL BUILT-UP WATERPROOFING MEMBRANE SYSTEMS

(From American Railway Engineering Association
Manual, Ref. 4)
154
PROTECTIVE WEATHERCOATING
INERT REINFORCING PLY
FORTIFIED BITUMEN
PLASMATIC MATRIX
FORTIFIED BITUMEN
REINFORCING CARRIER SHEET
62.5 MIL ELASTOMERIC WATERPROOFING
RELEASE PAPER
Figure 62 - TYPICAL PREFORMED MULTI-LAYERED BOARD

SHOWING TYPES OF PLIES
(From W. R. Meadows, Melnar product
data sheet)
155
5.33 Plastic and Synthetic Rubber Sheeting
The materials which are most promising both in cost and

properties are polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, butyl rubber,
Hypalon, and Neoprene. Their advantages over built-up membranes
include
1. Resistance to many chemicals
2. Resistance to bacteria
3. Superior elasticity and elongation before rupture
4. Resistance to aging
5. Wide temperature range of usefulness
6. Electrical resistance
7. Lightweight
8. Application possible without use of hot mastics
9. Resistance to puncture
10. Self-healing to some degree, especially the rubbers
11. Flexibility
Polyethylene Sheeting
Polyethylene sheets can be joined by heat fusion and by

epoxy or other adhesives which makes it possible to attach
the sheets to almost any surface.
The sheets may be applied to the outside of cut-and-cover

structures, but must be protected. On walls this may be
asbestos cement board, concrete plank, insulation board,
concrete blocks, or common brick in mortar, or similar
material. On inverts a 2-inch (50 mm) layer of concrete
is usually sufficient and on the roof a minimum of 3 inches
(75 mm) of concrete. If the roof will be subject to damage,
other suitable protection should be employed.
If no space is available between the excavation support
and the wall, the sheeting is placed against the form before
the concrete is placed. All joints in the sheeting must
be completely sealed and tested before backfilling or concrete
placing is undertaken.
156
In tunneled structures the sheeting is usually placed between
the primary lining, whether it be segmented lining, cast-in-
place concrete, or shotcrete, and the secondary liner.
Polyvinyl Chloride Sheeting
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheeting can be used similarly

to polyethylene. Specially designed types of sheeting
are available which can be fastened to the forms before
placing the concrete. These have T-shaped projections
which interlock with the plastic concrete and which are
then integral with the concrete when it has hardened. An
example of this type of material is B. F. Goodrich's Koroseal
Lok-Rib.
PVC sheeting is expensive and is, therefore, infrequently

used in tunnels except under extremely difficult conditions
which require a mechanical bond with the concrete.
Adhesive and welding techniques are used for sealing the

sheets of material to one another.
Butyl Rubber Sheeting
Of the synthetic materials, butyl rubber is the most impervious

and frequently used product in the United States. It adapts
well to surface irregularities due to to cold flow and
will self-heal small holes such as those around puncturing
nails or projections.
Butyl rubber is easily cut and fitted around openings,

penetrations and other irregularities and can be spliced
with cold self-vulcanizing butyl cement and/or unvulcanized
butyl gum tape. Typical membrane splices recommended by
the American Railway Engineering Association are shown
in Figure 63.
The application of butyl rubber is accomplished in much

the same way as plastic waterproofing sheeting, but the
rubber is highly abrasion resistant and rarely needs protection
during backfilling or concrete placement.
Hypalon Sheeting
Hypalon is a chlorosulfonated polyethylene manufactured

by DuPont which can be vulcanized at room temperature into
a tough, chemically resistant rubber. Hypalon has the
greatest elongation at break of the synthetic materials
157
,
(1" = 25.4 mm)
BUTYL MEMBRANE SPLICES

RECOMMENDED IN ORDER LISTED FOR FIELD ASSEMBLY
NO. I
FACTORY MADE MEAT

VULCANIZED SCAM ' BUTYL SUM EXTENDED
g» ^j , AT VTAPE
L,
' LEAST BEYOND

.EDGE OF SPLICE
.0&25" GAU&E
.sX^SvNW M^K^
^2
m 3^5
JZZZ&Z2ZJZZZE222Z22Z2ZZZZZZZZZZZZZ2ZL - 7ZL
0.0^25" Oft HEAVIER 0.OG23" OR HEAVIER

TONGUE AND GROOVE SPLICE
NO. 2
BUTYL GUM TAPE

EXTENDED AT LEAST
&"- J\'%" BEYOn© ED&E
OF SPLICE
.0425 GAU6E •
X 12 TOP PIECE -> A

i
{= »
'
^Mm&iîii^m^=^=i 12" BASE PIECE w*
25" OR HEAVIER
O.0G25"OR 0.0&25" OR
0.0425" HEAVIER I
BUTT SPLICE
N0.3
.BUTYL GUM TAPE EXTENDED AT LEAST V BEYOND EfcGE OF SPLICE-
4/ 4" <o •<
0425 GWJGE
ZZZZ2ZZZZZZZZ2Z2ZZ2S,
f
. £Z~
/-ft
.J/lf,, ,
1 r
0iOG25'O« HEAVIER 0.0425' OR HEA. iER
TONGUE AND GROOVE - - COMPLETE FIELD SPLICE
NO. 4
4" M
BUTYL GUM TAPE EXTENDED
AT LEAST *&- BEYOND 2" WIDE STRIP OF BUTYl. GUM
EDGE OF SPLICE TAPE-0.02O"T6 0.O25" GAUGE
1~
10425 OR HEAVIER O.CH.ZS OR HEAVIER
LAP SPLICE
ALL CONTACT SURFACES TO BE THOROUGHLY CLEANED AND CEMENTED
Figure 63 - TYPICAL MEMBRANE SPLICING DETAILS

(From American Railway Engineering
Association Manual, Ref. 4)
158
commonly used in waterproofing and, therefore, can successfully
accommodate more differential structural movement than
the other materials. It is, however, one of the most expensive
sheetings currently available.
Neoprene Sheeting
Neoprene, the DuPont trademark for a chloroprene rubber,

has properties similar to natural rubber, but can resist
burning and biodegradation. It can be vulcanized in-place,
or the sheets may be prevulcanized to obtain the required
,
properties.
5.34 Cold, Liquid-Applied Waterproofing
If leakage occurs through slightly porous concrete and

the head of water is low, a coating on the inside of the structure
may be sufficient to stop the leak. This is not good practice
for complete watertightness but is rather a remedial measure.
,
Used as a membrane on the outside of a concrete structure

or sandwiched between two lining layers, many of these materials
can do an effective job. Sprayed or rolled onto the surface
they are less expensive and faster to apply than sheet materials
and can much more readily be applied to irregular surfaces.
A disadvantage of cold, liquid-applied waterproofing is

the difficulty in obtaining a uniform thickness throughout the
coating and preventing pinholes. Several separate applications
may be required which defeats some of the advantage of rapid
placement.
5.35 Bentonite Panels and Spray
Bentonite is an excellent waterproofing barrier, applied

either in panels or sprayed on the surface. There are two manufac-
tures of bentonite waterproofing materials in the United States;
American Colloidal Company, manufacturers of bentonite panels;
and Effective Building Products, Inc., manufacturers of a spray
applied bentonite material.
Bentonite Panels
Bentonite panels consist of granular bentonite sealed inside

a smooth face sheet of biodegradable corrugated kraft paper.
These panels are usually 4 feet (1.2 m.) square and 3/16 inch
(0.5 cm) thick. The panels may be installed at any temperature
on the finished concrete, on lagging, or on any other reasonably
smooth surface against which the concrete will be placed. Typical
bentonite panel installations are shown in Figure 64.
159
O
VOLCLAY TYPE I
vw FOUNDATION POURED AGAINST
TIE BACK SHORING WALL
t-A ) SOLDIER
J BEAM
PANELS
VlS" THICK
WOOD
LAGGING
VOLCLAY
HYDROBAR TUBE
TIE BACK
ROD
aA-
VOLCLAY TYPE PANELS
I 3/16" THICK
aA"T
PROTECTION AGAINST
VOLCLAY TYPE I PANELS COURSE BACKFILL
3/16" THICK ON SIDEWALLS
AND UNOER-SLAB V
HYDROSTATIC STRUCTURE VOLCLAY TYPE 1 PANELS

3/16" THICK
ON WALLS
PROTECTION
BOARD
V^
VOLCLAY PANELS
UNDER 8"
3 uiucn
3/16" THICK (SLABS
THICK USE TYPE 3--SLABS e"o
J CONCRETE WALL PLAN
PANELS RECEIVE BACKFILL
OR THICKER USE TYPE
fPEl)I X VOLCLAY PANELS-DOUBLE VOLCLAY JOINT- PAK
LAYER OVER JOINTS IN FORMED CAVITY
EARTH COVERED TUNNELS
+
FIRST POUR WATERSTOP SECOND POUR
PRlKTtD IN U S *
Figure 64 - TYPICAL BENTONITE PANEL INSTALLATIONS

(From American Colloid Company's
Volclay Panels brochure)
160
.
If the invert slab is to be waterproofed using these panels,

special precautions such as a lean concrete working mat will
be necessary to prevent tears. If the invert is wet or very
damp, one or more layers of 4-mil (0.1-mm.) polyvinyl sheeting
should be placed between the ground and the panels to prevent
premature swelling of the bentonite.
The panels should be stapled together or secured in some

manner so that subsequent placing of concrete will not dislocate
them. If concrete cannot be placed immediately, the panels
must be protected from moisture, foot traffic, and construction
operations
Backfilling must be done with care to protect the kraft

paper from damage and movement. If the backfill contains coarse
or irregular gravel, 1/4-inch (0.6 cm) hardboard or similar
material may be needed to preserve the integrity of the panels
during the backfilling operation.
When applied to the roof of a structure the panels must

be covered with a minimum of two feet of compacted backfill
or an equivalent layer of concrete or other material to prevent
movement of the bentonite by heavy traffic. The panels should
be secured to the roof so that there will be no movement during
the backfilling operation.
It is usual to place a 6-inch (15 cm) layer of sand as

a drain channel over the panels before placing and compacting
the backfill.
Bentonite Spray
An advantage of the spray-applied product is that the

bentonite may be applied to irregular surfaces such as block
masonry and spalled, honeycombed, or oozed concrete surfaces.
Bentonite spray is typically applied in a 1/4 to 3/8 inch

(0.6 to 0.9cm) layer. Typical applications of the sprayed-on
bentonite and associated products are illustrated in Figure
65.
Care should be taken in placing concrete and backfill
against the waterproofing to prevent these materials from striking
the surface and scouring the waterproofing off. Ideally, backfill
or placing of concrete should follow application immediately.
If this is not possible, the spray applied product requires
the same sort of protection as do the panels.
161
WOOD OR METAL LAGGING
COMPLETE VERTICAL AND

HORIZONTAL WATERPROOFING
The Bentonize" Waterproofing System may be used on
1
horizontal, vertical, or tunnel applications, including pro-

Poured Concrete jects that require complete envelope sealing.
6 mil black polyethylene

{Top layer of poly creates dead air
v^P
space JSSE6KS.
Benconize
between Insulation sheets)
The Bentonize™ Waterproofing System used on

• lagging type operation.
Bentonize " waterproofing

(Spray or trowel applied)
Footing
TUNNEL PLAZA OR
FLOOR SLAB UNDERGROUND ROOF SLAB
Wearing Surface
Waterproof Floor
Membrane
Waterproof
Membrane
Leak LocalizerIs placed over the waterproof membrane In Leak Localizer placed in a manner which will isolate and
a square grid pattern to Isolate any water leak coming stop the horizontal migration of water under the water-
through the waterproof membrane. proof membrane, facilitating easy repair.
Figure 65 - TYPICAL INSTALLATIONS OF BENTONITE SPRAY AND

ASSOCIATED PRODUCTS
(From Effective Building Products, Inc. Data
Sheets)
162
5.36 Cementitious Waterproof Coatings
Plaster coat waterproofing and a variation of it, iron
coat method, can be applied on the inside of concrete structures.
They can be applied on wet surfaces and localized leaks can
be repaired by a reapplication of the waterproofing coating.
The concrete surface to which the coating is to be applied must
be clean and well roughened so that there is good adhesion.
The coatings must be moist cured and require skilled workers
for proper application.
Plaster Coat Method
The plaster coat usually consists of a mixture of cement,

sand, and possibly a waterproofing admixture which is trowled
on the prepared surface to a depth of 3/4 to 1 inch (20 to 25
mm). If leaks occur, the coating may be removed and replaced
or greater thicknesses used.
Iron Coat Method
Solvin's iron coat method of waterproofing consists of

a mixture of Portland cement, fine aggregate, water, pulverized
iron, and a chemical oxidizing agent. Recesses, cracks, and
intersections of vertical and horizontal surfaces should be
packed with a grout containing the pulverized iron.
Three brush or sprayed coatings are applied and must be

moist cured or the iron coat can be troweled on. Usually a
protective coating is applied consisting of cement, water, and
sand, to cover the "rusty" coat. In some applications, alternate
brusnings of the pulverized iron with the oxidizing agent and
the iron-cement slurry are used.
If done well, the iron coat method can withstand a water

head of 70 feet (21.3 m. )
Non-Metallic, Nonshrink, Cementitious Coating
The United States Grout Corporation has developed a non-

metallic, nonshrink, cementitious coating which can be troweled,
brushed, or sprayed on interior surfaces. It is a fast-setting,
hydraulic cement-based mortar and is said to be superior to
the iron coat method. It does not require skilled labor and
a single 1/8 inch (0.3 cm.) thick coat (0.3 cm.) is recommended.
The manufacturer's published data states that this 1/8-inch
thickness will resist a 50-foot (15.2m) head of water.
163
5.40 SEGMENTED LININGS
Segmented linings of many types, shapes, and materials

have been used, but the construction procedure is similar.
A continuous complete lining is erected in the tail of a shield,
or TBM one ring at a time. Historically, rings have been fabricated
from one of three materials; cast-iron, steel, or concrete.
Figure 66 depicts typical tunnel channel segments of each of
these materials.
Cast iron is used infrequently, if at all, in the United

States today. A detailed description of cast-iron segments
is presented in Volume 2.
Fabricated steel segments are generally manufactured to

close tolerances and are therefore reasonably water tight when
bolted together. Caulking grooves and grommeted bolt holes
are usually provided to improve water tightness as illustrated
in Figure 67.
In a situation where a secondary cast-in-place concrete

lining is required, the sealing of segments can be less stringent.
In a compressed air driven tunnel where the secondary

lining is to be placed behind the face while the tunnel is still
pressurized, no special precautions are needed (unless there
is considerable air leakage).
There is a greater variety of configurations and sealing

methods available for precast concrete segments than for cast
iron or steel. Concrete segments are susceptible to leakage
through cracks caused by improper handling, shield shove loads,
and ground loads.
Although the concrete in precast segments is generally

superior to cast-in-place concrete and the art of casting with
steel forms and controlled materials results in very accurately
dimensioned segments, they cannot match that achieved by machined
metal plates. To compensate for this, designers of concrete
segments often specify a sealing strip or gasket on all flange
faces in addition to caulking. Other designers have come up
with composite segments, basically of concrete, but with embedded
steel plate or angles for flange or bolt bearing surfaces.
Various types of adhesive sealers have proven effective

for low heads of water, whereas higher pressures require caulking
and/or gasket seals on joints that are rigidly bolted (as with
steel and cast iron). Asbestos-cement or epoxy-elastomerics
are most commonly used.
164
JACKING STRUT
i/2" SKIN PLATE

LEAD CAULKING
GROUT PLUG V4 Ur Vl" WA. M.T. BOLT
\4) FLANGE
BOLT HOLES -WASHER

GROMMET
WELDED STEEL SEGMENT
t=i M
TYPICAL BOLT ASSEMBLY AND
CAULKING STEEL SEGMENTS
7/8" SKIN PLATE
GROUT PLUG
1/4 FLANGE CAULKING
BOLT HOLES I D«A H.T. BOLT
GROMMET
CAST IRON SEGMENT
SEALANT GROOVE
4 OUTSIDE SLAB
TYPICAL BOLT ASSEMBLY AND
GROUT PLUG CAULKING CONCRETE SEGMENTS
4 FLANGE
(1" = 25.4 mm.)
PRECAST CONCRETE SEGMENT
Figure 66 - TYPICAL CHANNEL SECTION SEGMENTS

165
—
Detail of Dungeness'A' tunnel lining
Equal 190.5 190.5 Equal
28.6 thickness 101.6 x 28.6 curved rib

plate prepared as shown.
(3.1 min.
__E
CO
— _M
E -J
\ CO
\/
54.9 dia. bolt holes
\\T Taper
TaDer plug
dIuq 31.75 dia
B.S.pipe thread
Equal Equal
0.61
28.6^*j^3.1
~TS
Note: All dimensions

in millimetres
Detail of Dungeness 'B' tunnel lining
Figure 67 - DUNGENESS TUNNEL LINING

(From TRRL Report 3 35,
Ref. 34)
166
Gasket seals may be fairly firm and preformed or soft
with adhesive qualities. Preformed gaskets of butyl rubber,
cellular neoprene and polysulfide have been used. Gasket seals,
whether formed or plastic, are usually considered a primary
sealant to be followed by caulking. The soft plastic seals
are more subject to damage and contamination by dirt under adverse
tunneling conditions. A variety of current and proposed preformed
gasket seals are illustrated in Figure 68 through 71.
5.50 GROUTING
5.51 Chemical Grouting for Cut-And-Cover and Soft Ground Tunnels
In the fluid state chemical grouts can penetrate into

very fine voids and cracks in soil and rock where particulate
grouts cannot enter.
In addition to controlling groundwater, chemical grout

changes the engineering properties of the ground mass with little
disturbance to existing structures. This, is of particular
importance when excavating in urban areas.
In Europe a careful soil investigation followed by a well-

planned grouting program is the most common primary means of
groundwater control during tunneling in soft grounds; compressed
air is used as a last resort. The grouting programs envisioned
during design are left sufficiently flexible to allow the grouting
contractor to plan the actual procedures to be used. In the
United States, grouting is usually used only in problem areas
where water cannot be controlled by other more conventional
means.
If the voids in the soil are sufficiently large, an initial

grouting is performed using particulate grouts such as cement
or bentonite. Then a second grouting with non-particulate chemical
grout is used to seal the small voids so that the resulting
product is essentially impervious. Grouting after excavation
is not considered as effective as grouting ahead of the tunnel
face.
The grout selection should be done by an expert in grouting.

Field testing is important because of the numerous factors
which influence the effectiveness of a grout. In fact, the
gel time for a grout is frequently determined at the project
site after field testing, so all influencing factors are included.
5.52 Consolidation Grouting of Rock Tunnels
Cement grout is the most inexpensive and most commonly

used material for grout sealing of leaks through rock fissures
(consolidation grouting) and filling voids between a cast-in-place
167
Proposed flexible joint
gasket between bolted
concrete segments, Ahmed
Hamdi Tunnel, Egypt
f Courtesy Sir William
Halcrow and Partners)
NOTE Units in mm.
/
/ <-
/ ^
/
\
Joint gasket between
\ 'v
bolted concrete segments,
Isar River Tunnel, Munich,
West Germany
Figure 68 - Sample Concrete Segment Gaskets (Egypt, West

Germany) (From CIRIA Report 81. Ref. 25)
168
Proposed joint gasket for
concrete segments, West
Germany ('Courtesy
STUVA)
NOTE: Units in mm.
7*.
Proposed flexible joint Direction of
gasket between concrete tunnelling
segments, Japan (a) Before installation (b) Compressed (c) Re-opened
Japan)
Figure 69 - Sample Concrete Segment Gaskets (W. Germany,
(From CIRIA Report 81, Ref. 25)
16 9
14.5 2.5
Joint gasket between

/
bolted concrete segments,
with improved corner
detail, West Germany *L i
J.
1
f Courtesy STUVA) Section A-A
NOTE: Units in mm.
(^ Gasket without T-joint
®— 1(— Gasket with T-joint
©and@ Gaskets with improved T-joints
(2/ —j[— Gasket with misaligned T-joint
O Limit of expansion before leakage

occurred
© Slight leakage in T-joint
x Heavy leakage
-*x-
Unloaded joint gasket

**V..
2 3 4 5
Joint expansion (mm)
4 6^
k 1 I
7 5 ~W
Profile compression (mml
JL JL JL
30 27 24 21 18 15 12
^ Profile displacement (%)
Results of tests on joint gaskets. West Germany fCourtesy STUVA)
Figure 70 - Sample Concrete Segment Gaskets (W. Germany) (From CIRIA

Report 81. Ref. ?5)
170
Leakage duct
gasket, UK
^Courtesy
Colebrand Ltd)
Experimental leakage
duct gaskets, West
Germany f Courtesy
STUVA) (a) (b) (d)
NOTE: Units in mm,
M |k' % 2
Leakage duct
*5 gasket
Hard rubber
wedge
'
Proposed leakage duct 10 10

gasket, West Germany Leakage duct/caulking groove
I
(Courtesy STUVA)
Figure 71 - Sample Concrete Segment Gaskets (Duct Gaskets)
171
lining and the excavated rock (contact grouting). In most rock
tunnels the concrete lining and grout are the only measures
taken to prevent water inflow. In unlined railroad tunnels,
powerhouses or underground storage caverns, consolidation grouting
may be the sole deterrent to water inflow.
Sample rock tunnels constructed for various agencies in

the last decade, showing the project specifications for grout
mixes and grouting equipment, are listed in Table 15. All of
the sample tunnel specifications listed call for cement grouts
as is common in most rock tunnels.
5.53 Annular Space Grouting in Soft Ground Tunnels
Most bolted linings are not expandable and consequently,

a void of at least 2 to 3 inches (50 to 75 mm) remains around
the circumference. To prevent settlement of the lining and
the ground above, it is imperative that this void be filled.
Traditionally, this has been done by blowing pea gravel (3/8
inch or 10 mm maximum) through the lining under the invert up
the sides and over the arch. This is done with a gravel pan
and air hose attached to threaded holes in the lining. Back
from the heading 50 to 100 feet (15 to 30m) cement grout is
pumped out into the void through the same holes.
Any sealing of water flows is a secondary benefit to the

pea-gravel and grout and cannot be reliably controlled. Any
grout that is taken by voids around the tunnel will reduce the
permeability of the surrounding grounds, but it cannot be considered
a trustworthy waterproofing method.
5.54 Contact Grouting of Concrete Linings in Soft Ground Tunnels
After the concrete lining is in place, it is necessary

to grout any remaining voids between the primary and secondary
linings
The primary lining, whether it be ribs and lagging, liner

plates, or segments, is not a smooth inside surface against
which to place concrete. Therefore, no matter how conscientious
the contractor may be, it is difficult to fill all voids when
pumping concrete into a long steel form, even with form doors
and vibrators. The most difficult area to seal is the arch
where air can become trapped above the concrete between ribs
or segment flanges. These voids must later be filled with a
sand-cement grout. Eliminating these voids by filling them
with grout is a definite aid to promoting watertightness of
the final lining.
172
i I
_
water.
,...
proportions
some
o
01
or
TJ
a
TJ
a
AJ and 4J 0J
u b U u
in
01 01 a a
t*
cement,
b b directed.
sawdust,
•H
•o » TJ TJ
with Sand
TJ
Engineer. oaterial
a a
u * • C
•
a a aa
b t b b
a
b
a
b
a
c 01 a Portland
a
Of water C u b> bi bi
a a 01 by a a • aand
» 01 e chloride,
» > » s
approved. 01 approved
o and
TJ
B C
V u of TJ
C
T>
B
TJ
B
TJ
C and
K only. SI TJ approved a • • a
Ww E
z E
a 4J
E
bi
E
b)
E
«j
B
be 0) TJ bl Mixture calcium a
Cement
cases e c b other B i . Cenent
01 a a V a
to
o co 0.
As
u U o
•H > a
a tj 00 -H
a a b a
b a a
O
O
-H
3 o
a -* CT b
O
O a
01 u a
ww
a
b ww
ia
a
b m b
3 1) 3 " u
•H -— a a a •b «j a
CO a C a fi- . a a a
s: 01 O.X tj 0. ll TJ TJ •o M a a a
b b O a a a >h a —
o a. o
en
«*-
o
01
0J
u
o
o
ao
a
4J
u
a
b
u
a
0>
w
u
B a
a
a o
o
>~
—
a
i— DC 01 *-
o
bi
o
m
ova
blu
<
O
E K **
n o a
b
a
4J
Q.
TJ
a
<
TJ
a
•o
<
a
a
o a
a
a b
a o
a
a. x u a CO 3 • ww
H
Pn
M
O « a
fi. 4J
w •H
6 >
Q, 01
a o
o B •"
a
a
00
01
a
>% b b
PL. tO 9 4J H X •« a AJ a a
CO >
c
£
oc
a a a
«j o. a.
o a
M C
a
B
a
B
a 3 bl B a E o •H
« •w u o
o
a a a
H
u 00
B
OO
E
CD o •* V a b "H a
inn
a
a
-H
P
BB
u u
O e
a X
a>
a OS
a
a
so
b <—
3 •w X
b
o r
a.
>.
H c
a
E
a
0;
.w
B
X
01 O b
•w o
*A
u a
a a
a
6 a
a
b u
- • o a ^-
E
bl cs
—
tt
a.
K
oi •
JO £
FH *-> a. • .— C b <S TJ j: b. TJ TJ
H- a Os « b O O Cl *J a a
D 3 u>
B
3
u
*j
O Q
a.
3
z
X b
01
b a
4J
o
0J
x a
±J
O
Z <
»w O 3 UJ
Q
>
O u
o
o
c to
-
tl
-
O •• z
a •H
ry
a
3 a a
i ww
z a
-
cs
•4X •< a
a
b b
a
a
05 • - E l, a .. b tU a -h ^* - a b a
• • • u
CL- <H 01 a
• a ai e> b ? a -» a.a a D- 01 a a
CD 6 K 00 K S S K b *J K B
era> B K a K B K
3 O •-* « « 3 3 •* O a a o 3 »H • 3 -^ a a
a. *j x o Z 0- a. z it- < a E 1 o. tv Z X r a. x •< <
O a o
r— a ^r
En 4J a
CO w
<
•
X. O
a M u
Q a u CO
a w
H X 00 •
4J
I «s
1
1
3
O •H
TJ
01
bl
b
01
•H
a a
•H
•
.
o
c»*
•*^
fx
CO
0)
N O u
01
c o a a tj — 1
bl
01 b i CN
CO b 00 o S CO <
o 01 TJ
c
Id
cs
~- a z
— an
bl —
—
CS »w
a
o a
t
<
• Os
to
t
z
E
— CO
— a. <
1
X
c
a
a — i
a
b
CO
bj ao wr>
w o
Oil
a a*
SO
o 0*
»ri
•o
J-
SO
or
c-l
WP
CT> ON
m iTi
0>
c
V bi
u b a c
a •H bi a
01
0) "E — E O a
- —c c
.- % a
c b <— a b a b u
a 3 a a a
W o
01
c
E w
•W
a.
O bl -W
* WW
o TJ
B E
a -w
oo
•-4 •.«*-*
o
•>
b B
bi 3
"S
u
b
JJ
01 V
3 ua
0)
a s
4J
• WO"—
6 " a
b
a B.
(J
•H
c h a
4J
U t-i si
o o
CO JS
b
b
Pu
S b
Z js
b O VJ
o « Z ua
3 b U b CO
b
iia u •
B
a
u
-
u >
a
a »
<
01
5
e
a.
-0
Oi
3 «
can a - o.o a
•-
OHO
U Q U <
3
a
TJ O
bl
o -H
Q bl
bi
•-
B 3 a
z
CO 6 t- E
b O
WW U
Sub c01 b
u u b
E *J E
>.
E
OJ ww
b O
TJ
E E
• o a Ww
OJ
o — a S g a a
u 3 *J b
b D «*4
a-h o
Z b XJ
B
a
bi
-w
E
a O b 8.- 9 O 'b TJ
TJ
en
£
~-
b
B
a o
a. a
-h
•-< a a f-i
b
U
^-
-w
b
u U
OsU »w M *-* b
O >b O t I
b
a
9s
bi
CL.
01 O 0) a fi •* a a *j a •b Ww O a b a a o w -is:
Z M Q
o>
os O H Q O SO E> SO U o co a co Z o to u
w • b to
35 a u a a.
U s a — a
-i
E a
B bi
c a
01 o a E 3 bl
0) e a b a E
3
b
0,
H aa
J. a. a. <r*
a — B AJ £00 £3 a
j 01 p-" •
— b
o
b
a
B
3
b
a 3 U bl a
(D C 01 4J
c > — U >. >• a
Bob> . a *j
baa E
LT>
ia 3 0> 3 u <-* -w u a a a
e
B H Q b TJ C
< — a os
a E ow bi as
£ a 3 13
a S b a) —
01
3 O
3
« 01
b a
01 u E E CO E -H
C Jl<
e35
a
— Z £
a u b
It <
*-< >.__> b 01 3 01 CTU 3 E Tl 3 a s b - a
a o
b
a • a
U
b a 3
4J b < C 
B a - 3 a a • w » H •-< a u TJ -b
w
• » Z £00 aa a os
a o a
C U 3 «
* 5- OS 3 a a a H u. a js b a Ph a w a 1 co
>H 3
-
01 H -rJ W -Hc o a -h a jo o a -h
3 OS j B
bi 3 a
o X ^ a
a a M
LO
aO O
u C c c c C 01 a *- a I B JS TJ O bi
i- O b a b 00 b b .- oo OS > sw
C B -h E B £ a •.< .h E b a -w a a (j 4, 01 .w
— £O -*
<
bi
ba a
FH — oo — a — o a J«b a b a .- »
—a
c C c c •>* B o Q.
3 o o • E a o a o o jc a a o a o a u Q. e a a co a a a a
H 3 to to u (5 (S3 < o _> u O tt. -J 3 => u X -J O a < a (J 3 z a 3 o a z
173
Two common methods of providing grout holes through the
lining are placement of short sections of pipe behind the forms
prior to concreting, or drilling of grout holes through the
concrete. Grout holes are staggered with one hole per 50 to
150 sq. ft. (5 to 15 m 2)
Grout is pumped into a hole with just enough pressure

to make it flow. When it reaches the next open grout pipe,
the first is closed and the grout hose moved to the second.
If a hole does not take any grout at the maximum pressure, usually
under 30 psi (207 kPa), it is considered full. Care must be
taken not to use too high a pressue to avoid cracking the concrete
lining.
A low pressure grout pump, either a positive displacement

position pump or a progressive helical cavity (Moyno) pump,
can be used to place the grout.
5.55 Contact Grouting of Concrete Linings in Rock Tunnels
Contact (or backfill) grouting of concrete linings in

rock tunnels is similar to that described for soft ground tunnels.
Where lagging, blocking or cribbing are required with steel
ribs, the probability for leaving voids increases. In such cases,
it is advisable to place a grout pipe from the area to the form
to insure that the area is not missed during grouting. In extremely
bad ground where continuous lagging is required, it is important
to place grout pipes through the lagging to insure grouting
any voids between lagging and rock as well as between concrete
and lagging.
The location of potential problem areas should be carefully

recorded to aid in the subsequent placement of drill holes through
the lining. As in the case of soft ground tunnels, it is important
to fill all voids with grout to eliminate possible water courses
behind the lining.
Table 16 summarizes contact grouting specifications for

several tunnels in the United States and in Australia.
5.60 CUT OFFS
While steel sheet piling and diaphragm cutoff walls are

often used for temporarily controlling groundwater during con-
struction, they remain in the ground for the life of the structure.
It is appropriate, therefore, to review the effects of such
walls on the permanent structure in terms of groundwater control.
Key factors to consider with respect to cut off walls are summarized
in Section 4.30.
174
Add Add
21 wt. to wt. to
be wt
and and and
cement parts cement.
cement
water. water water and
to to
mineral
to
by as
by
approved). by
water.
of
water.
of
2 possible:
aand
contain
of
sand
proportion
Engineer-
sand proportion
Engineer.
u and and above and above
4J water
H and and
.
and
sand,
and
proportion
Engineer.
Bentonite Bentonite
Pozzolan
Bentonite
wt. wt be to wt.
water water
of of
C not
H to
cement cement, cement cement,
of by and
cement cement,
by
sand
by sand
by cement
and water ash) by Mix
above
of of
and 21 and 21 by 2%
o sand
Mix
Either
2Z
Mix
sand
Either
21
cement,
(fly
M of: of: of: filler of: of of: determined of: determined
part (proportions
Bentonite
with
X Portland Portland Portland Portland Portland Portland
L
Cement Cement, Cement Cement, when Cement, cement. cement
determined
Bentonite Bentonite
Either Either Either

1 filler Either
water.
Either Either
water.
contain
cement. Cement,
directed.
Either
water.
contain
Water,
sand
1. 2. 2. 1. min. And 2. 1. 2. of 1. 2. be 1. 2. of be of
I.
a a
01 0. a. a
k* V a
3 o o B psi psi psi
CD
CO
<n n .* 01
not not u not
• H
Oi c E B r- by by % by a
u a a a. o 50 50 50 0.
X X X but but but
o
DC
u o
en nw u cn
C/} c OJ OJ TJ than
S
than directed than directed
iM directed
4) 1*4
a u H 4J
o E
3
a i
K —
a Engineer Engineer
(0
a
U
o>
Engineer
M z
o
z
U
Z
a o
o As
more
As
more
CM TJ
u
As
more
Z
K
a
Eh
<
psi
01
OJ
E Engineer
300
Type, capacity
Type,
Type
GPM
Valves,
u
Type, 0J 00
OJ E
15 E bl
w a Piston Piston psi
capacity. •H
00
E X
0J o01
Oi
> the
Krough
to
P-. to Rotor psi

u
Rotor
press
Hoses, u IJ >
CO o u
driven
ss >. M O,
c 150
X X a a
a
by 250
01 a.
CD B Screw
psi
Screw slurry •o o « Harris
a Duplex Duplex
capacity etc. 01 01 CD Moyno
Air Sump, > > at
H 3
a
u
150
with
a
M u
a.
approved
Eh , more
a. a •• u GPM
a
D Helical Helical
press Gauges,
a B oi
O
Mixer:
Mixer,
with
etc. Pump: B B 3-3 As Pump: 50
Pump: Pump:
or
< < a. z
CD
u 40)
OJ 0J
Eh u u Black Black
O HH
Wt. Wt.
<
Eh
1*4
o
1*4
o
Steel (Sch.
OJ
a
M 00 00 Dia. Std. Dia. Std.
E E 0.
09 •H
O 01 u
4J
U a
Black
Wt.
120-69 2" 120-65 •O r-
Oi OJ
2" u
01
O a a
u
«j
a
h
«J
a Std.
& Pipe,
40)
4J
(J
OJ
OJ
4J
C/l
& Pipe,
40)
120
01
B
B E A- A- 00
J u
O
u
o CM
**~
Dia.
A-
•o u 1-1/2" bl
E
w
1-1/2"
Steel (Sch. e Steel (Sch.
2" Pipe ASTM ASTM

B ^4 ASTM
>N
s m
>•
S3
1
09
vO hO
D Oll
4J|
col on ON ON on
ON 00
%o
ON ON
VO
ON
Eh
W a
u
E
B
JJ
B 01
cu —W '-4
0J
E
Water Water
o
Water
of
a
S OJ
4j a
*4
Interior
00 Water
<
CO
B B
>-t a
Reclamation
bl
E
Southern Southern
4i
0> QJ
Southern
State
i*4 u of
144 Z .* of
u O *4 rc
01 of
OJ
of of
« o of o_
B Metropolitan Metropolitan
0J
3 Metropolitan
5 of CL
o Q. O (4 E *4
OJ
Dept.
o tc O
a B9 u California California
3
T>
California
Department
Resources,
California
a.
OJ
District District
X h District
Ui u Bureau
W *-<
OJ
B
• 9 The The The
=> os
U.S.
s z to
ii
2 2 CO
USA USA USA
a.
Tunnels
No.
2 No.
Tunnel &
Lake
Reach Project
1 Development
Castaic
Project
& California, California, Tunnel California,
Works
No. Tunnel
MD -
Dam
Feeder
Australia Placerita
Aqueduct
County
USA Mountains USA

1, USA
Feeder Feeder
Yarra River
Arizona Tunnel
Tunnel
Tunnels
Valley USA
Outlet
CO Springa
County
Linda
No.
and LD
1
Fernando Angeles, Angeles
Angeles, Angeles,
J—
California California,
California,
California,
1
Melbourne,
0J Foothill Thompson Thompson
Foothill
Angeles
B Pacheco Central
Buckskin
Central Arizona,
Sonoma Sonoma Tonner
Castaic
Saugus
E Warm
Yorba
Los Los Los

San
Eh 9 Loa
i !
175
5.70 SUNKEN TUBE TUNNELS
Present-day steel shells are machine welded construction

which constitute a continuous membrane that is the primary water-
proofing. A concrete lining is placed inside the steel shell
under adverse conditions similar to lining a driven tunnel,
which can result in a concrete lining of questionable waterproofing
value
The most common method for sealing the joints between

the units is for divers to place a U-plate cofferdam spanning
the joint as shown in Figure 72. Tremie concrete is placed between
the cofferdam and steel shell completely encassing the joint.
The space between bulkheads is then dewatered and steel plates
are welded across the joint gap to make the shell/membrane con-
tinuous; concrete is then placed to make the lining continuous.
Rubber gaskets have also been used as primary seals on some
recent sunken tube tunnels.
Reinforced concrete tube units are usually covered with

a steel or multi-ply asphaltic membrane, or a combination of
the two.
If a steel membrane is used, it consists of a relatively

thin welded plate, about 1/4 inch (6 mm), and is used as the
base slab and outer wallform. After the roof is poured, the
steel membrane can be continued across the top or a multi-ply
membrane may be used for the roof and covered with a thin layer,
3 inches (75 mm), of protective concrete.
If ply membrane is used on the outer walls, timber protection

will most likely be used.
In addition to the outer membrane, considerable care is

exercised to make the structural concrete as dense and impervious
as possible. In the Netherlands, where a number of such tunnels
have been constructed, the procedures for producing impervious
concrete have been sufficiently perfected that for several recent
tunnels, the outer membrane has been eliminated.
Many special procedures are required including embedment

of cooling water pipes, using low heat of hydration cement and
use of wood as an insulator on forms to control heat shrinkage
cracking
To insure watertightness of the joint between slab and

walls, a waterstop is used and the cold joint is rough chipped
and grouted with cement mortar.
176
Treslt concrete
Cap concrete
Ballast tremie
concrete
Outer steel box
Carriageway-
Figure 72 - ISOMETRIC VIEW OF A CIRCULAR STEEL-

SHELL UNIT AND JOINT
(From Culverwell, Ref. 38)
177
See Figure 13, Details A and B, for joint sealing techniques
The joints between the sunken tube units are usually sealed
with gaskets as shown in Detail D of Figure 74.
178
Thiokol , Airex
Ruberold Heat resisting Watertight

PVC sheet
vitrlx foam plastic cover
Detail A - EXPANSION JOINT WITH DUBBELDAM

RUBBER STRIP
Polyu re thane
putty
Steel angle
foam
Glued butyl
Detail B - EXPANSION JOINT WITH
'
strip RUBBER/METAL WATERSTOP
AND POLYURETHANE PUTTY
8
o
Rubber/metal Note: All dimensions are in millimetres

Airex strip waters top
Figure 73 - Joint Sealing Details for Concrete Box Tubes

(WaterstoDs) (From..,]3nssen, Ref. 73)
179
Tempex Top of
Polystyrene
Polystyrene bottom slab
L
7A
Bar diam. 50
Sleeve diam
100/80——
!
Second part N First part
to be poured \ to be poured
Foam rubber
Rubber -metal
waterstop type W 90
Detail C - DETAIL OF INJECTION TUBES TO RUBBER/

METAL WATERSTOP
JOOj
Outside tunnel y * K^H
Steel plate
Detail D - DETAIL OF UNIT JOINT SEAL SHOWING

GINA GASKET AND OMEGA GASKET
Note: All dimensions are in milliinetres
Figure 74 - Joint Sealing Details for Concrete Box Tubes

(Gaskets) (From Janssen,Ref. 73)
180
6.00 MAINTENANCE, AND MONITORING CONSIDERATIONS DURING
CONSTRUCTION
6.10 MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS
Maintenance during construction is a significant consideration

primarily for the active control methods, i.e., dewatering,
recharge, freezing, compressed air and slurry and earth pressure
balance shields. These all involve electro-mechanical and hydraulic
systems which require routine preventive maintenance. Such
preventive maintenance is provided by contractors and discussion
of details is therefore not included in this report.
Encrustation is often a problem in dewatering systems

that requires continuous maintenance to control. Maintenance
techniques include; simple back flushing of the system, acid
treatment, and removal of screens, wellpoints or ejectors for
cleaning or replacement.
6.20 MONITORING OF DEWATERING SYSTEMS
With nearly all groundwater control methods some physical

changes may occur in the adjacent soil mass. These changes
may be obvious and desired as in the case of pre-drainage grouting
,
or freezing. On the other hand, unanticipated changes may occur

such as surface settlement or heave, lateral movement (during
construction of slurry walls or trenches), or ground loss and
subsequent settlement (from compressed air of slurry shields).
In either case, it is quite important that the engineer and/or
contractor be aware of the conditions existing adjacent to the
excavation. The knowledge obtained from monitoring these conditions
is useful in determining the effectiveness of the dewatering
scheme and detecting small problems before they become critical.
The majority of monitoring schemes associated with tunneling

are designed to measure ground movements and stresses associates
with the physical construction of the tunnel. Where dewatering
has a significant impact on the success of the project, the
important parameters to monitor may be groundwater levels as
well as ground movements. In special cases, instrumentation
of unique ground conditions may become necessary to determine
the performance of the dewatering scheme (e.g., thermistors
in ground freezing).
It becomes apparent that monitoring systems can become

a vital part of the success of a dewatering system in sensitive
urban environments. A well-planned system can reinforce the
engineer's confidence with respect to the dewatering system
design or identify its' shortcomings. In extreme instances
potential problems can be averted before they develop.
181
The removal of groundwater from the soil mass along the
sides of the excavation is accomplished by pre-drainage using
wells, wellpoints, ejectors or drainage from within using sump
pumps. The parameters critical to successful dewatering are
obviously the amount and rate of drawdown. In urban areas the
settlements associated with changes in effective stress may
also be important.
Groundwater levels are easily measured using observation

wells installed at predetermined distances from the tunnel.
The rate of drawdown is verified by time-drawdown measurements
in the observation wells and pumping rates in the extraction
well. Excess pore pressures which develop due to construction
activities can be monitored using piezometers. Groundwater
observation wells are especially critical in areas where recharge
systems are needed to protect adjacent structures.
Ground movements associated with pre-drainage techniques

are a result of changes in effective stresses as pore pressures
are reduced. In extreme instances these movements may be compounded
by soil migration toward the wells or into the excavation (when
sumping is used). Ground movements at the surface are easily
measured by optical surveys. Deep movements are measured using
deep settlement anchors (vertical movements) or inclinometers
(lateral movements). Table 6 is a summary of commonly used
monitoring instruments.
Some monitoring considerations relative to specific dewatering
systems are:
Wells
1. A detailed construction log of each hole, showing

depths to top of screen, bottom of seal, bottom of
pump, etc., should be maintained.
2. For analyzing future problems, it is good practice

to install a piezometer in the filter column and place
a -small (1" (25 mm) diameter) tube inside the well
to measure operating levels. Flow meters are useful
in monitoring system performance and detecting any
slow deterioration.
3. Piezometers and observation wells should be installed

along the alignment to indicate potential water problems
before the tunnel reaches that point.
4. Records should be kept of all pumping rates, operating

levels, and piezometer readings for both performance
monitoring and detection of possible deterioration.
182
Wellpoints and Ejectors
1. All header connections should be vacuum tight. Vacuum

gages should be installed along the header to help
find air leaks. When all well-points are shutoff,
the vacuum reading at the end of the system should
be nearly the same as at the pump station.
2. A valve should be installed immediately in front of

the pump station to check the pumps. In cases where
a vacuum tank is used, the valves should be on each
header that comes into the tank and vacuum gages installed
both on top of the can and at the junction with each
header line.
3. Valves should be installed along the wellpoint header,

in order to isolate sections of the system if they
become damaged.
4. Piezometers should be installed in the center of open

excavations to indicate when drawdown is sufficient
to allow excavation to begin.
5. Pressure gages should be installed along both header

lines for both performance monitoring and to give
clues to system deterioration.
6. Ejector systems should be checked to insure that each

ejector is capable of pumping the flow available or
that required to obtain drawdown.
7. Check ejectors to insure that the return flow is greater

than the supply flow.
8. A flowmeter in the discharge is useful for detecting

a slow deterioration of the systems.
9. Drawdown should be monitored by piezometers and the

readings recorded for reference in detecting possible
problems.
6.30 MONITORING OF RECHARGE SYSTEMS
Factors to be monitored during operation of a recharge

system include:
1. Air bubbles can reduce soil permeability, therefore

care should be taken to avoid aeration of the recharge
water. Air should be vented at positive pressure
points, where it will tend to accumulate. The conductor
pipe should extend below water level to prevent turbulance,
183
2. The recharge water should be free of particulate matter.
Sedimentation tanks are often used for this purpose.
3. The recharge water may have to be treated to prevent

excessive encrustation. See Table 5.
4. Flowmeters, adjustment values, and pressure gages

should be installed on each well to regulate inflows.
5. Excessive well head pressures should be avoided so

that surface leakage and boils do not occur.
6. Piezometers should be installed to monitor system

performance against operating criteria such as maximum
allowable groundwater levels.
6.40 MONITORING CUTOFFS
When impervious cutoffs are used to exclude groundwater,

piezometers are used to insure that water levels are maintained
outside of the excavation and those within the excavation are
maintained below tunnel invert. In addition, wells and piezometers
can be used to indicate zones of cutoff leakage. Lateral ground
movement and settlement associated with cutoff methods are monitored
most commonly by optical survey, however, the instrument systems
listed in Table 6 are also commonly used. While ground movement
is a significant concern, groundwater level information is the
most important data for evaluation of cutoff effectiveness.
6.50 MONITORING OF GROUTING SYSTEMS
Prior to the start of grouting, guidelines must be set

which would indicate that the grouting program is successful.
Factors which should be monitored include:
1. Accurate records of grouting pressures, quantities

and pumping rates to evaluate the progress of the
program. Correlations can be made with theoretical
estimates of soil voids to determine the extent of
the grout penetration (see Figure 75). Several techniques
for monitoring grout migration have been experimented
with in recent years including seismic refraction,
electrical resistivity, and accoustic emission monitoring.
All of these indirect methods are still in developmental
stages.
2. Grouting migration is also monitored by direct observation

including test borings and test pits.
184
100
pone isiTr 10 0% 5
/ /I
i
2
60- / i
' 4
j
/ A / /
/
A
//
/
i
1 j j
f
/
>
/ /
/ f
i
i
c/>
/ J
7 /
2 / / V/ /
U
I S0 /
/
j
V
/
(
\ /
Z
<
to // /
O 9. 7 / '
J
h- (ft-
T _/_! /
8 ! - 7\-
// /
ft /
"-
c _ / >
i///
UJ
a
n-
' --/-
TL
r~ / /
M
Z 4. ' /
'
o
3
*
l ' * /
/- / / /
/
'
/1 /
/
/
/
/ ft
1 I
/ /
2 3 4 6 6 7 6 » 10 20 50 40 B0 60 eo too
PENETRATION IN INCHES BEYOND GROUT POINT
(1 in. = 25.4mm.)
(1 gal /ft = 0.01242 m 3 /m)
Fi gure 75- Grouting Volume Required to Fill Pore Space
Radially Around Grout Point
185
3. Pressure testing of grouted zones can be used to evaluate
the effectiveness of the program. These tests can
also be used to provide in-situ permeability after
grouting is completed. ;
4. Adjacent structures may be monitored to insure that

the grouting process does not cause heave or lateral
movement in foundations. Significant movement should
serve as a warning to reduce grout pressures or terminate
grouting altogether. Figure 76 illustrates guidelines
for grouting pressures in rock.
6.60 MONITORING FREEZING SYSTEMS
1. Freezing is a specialized dewatering method and thus

requires a unique monitoring approach. Prior to design
of the freezing system, it is necessary to know if
groundwater flows exist and, if so, how fast and extensive
the flows are. This can be determined from observation
wells or possibly acoustic emission techniques.
2. Soil temperature within the developing and completed

freeze should be monitored to determine when the frozen
structure is "closed" and excavation can begin, and
to assure that the system is maintaining an adequate
frozen zone during excavation.
3. Changes in groundwater levels inside and outside the

developing frozen structure must be monitored for
a proper elevation of performance. In shafts requiring
frozen bottoms, a piezometer inside of the frozen
shaft will rise as the bottom is frozen and thickens.
4. Surface and subsurface ground movements should be

monitored for early warning of potential distress
to adjacent structures from heave during freezing
and settlement during thaw.
5. The coolant pressure, volume and flow should be monitored

to assure that piping is unobstructed, leaks have
not formed in the system and pumps are operating properly.
6.70 MONITORING COMPRESSED AIR, SLURRY AND EARTH PRESSURE BALANCE

SHIELD METHODS
1. Monitoring techniques for compressed air shields,

slurry and earch pressure balance shields typically
involve measurement of ground movements associated
186
ISO
/
140
130
RULE OF THUMB- — *y
t
t
fc
U-
120 l
t
SOUND STRATIFIED ROCK -
z no
f
H
a
too
90 /
£
51 80 /
'
70 / ^^v
* ^MASSIVE ROCK
60 /
§
_i 50
/
a / \
X 40 /
1- •SOUND STRATIFIED ROCK
a SO GROUTED ABOVE GIVEN
LU
O * '
y^^ ELEVATION
20
10
I 10 25 SO 75 100 ISO 200 300 400 900 800 700 600

APPROXIMATE PRESSURE IN LBS PER SQ IN AT GIVEN DEPTH
(I psi = 6.9 KPa )
(I ft. = 0.305 m.)
Reprinted from E ngineering for Dams by Creager, Justin & Hinds

by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
FIGURE 76 - Guidelines for Grouting

Pressure in Rock (Ref. 81)
187
with the tunneling procedure rather than the dewatering
technique. Water levels should be monitored along
the tunnel alignment to determine compressed air or
slurry pressure requirements. These measurements
are very important where pre-drainage is used in conjunc-
tion with tunneling methods to reduce required air
or slurry pressures.
2. When working under compressed air, safety is a major

concern and therefore, it is very important to monitor
air pressure, air loss and general operation of the
compressor. A standby compressor is normally maintained
so that in the event of any malfunction of the primary
unit, tunnel stability can be maintained.
3. Slurry and earth pressure balance shields have some

of the most sophisticated monitoring equipment of
any groundwater control method. Most of it, however,
has to do with system operation rather than evaluation
of groundwater control effectiveness. Slurry pressures
and densities are now commonly monitored with electronic
process control equipment. For evaluation of tunnel
method effectiveness. Groundwater levels and ground
movement are still the most meaningful parameters
to measure.
6.80 MONITORING ELECTRO-OSMOSIS
1. Monitoring of electro-osmotic flow can be accomplished

using strategically placed piezometers to verify that
the direction of seepage has been reversed. Pumping
rates at the cathode wellpoints can also be monitored.
Since electro-osmosis is typically employed in finer
grained soils which have moderate to high compressibil-
ities, settlements due to consolidation should be
considered in the system design; the settlement can
be monitored using conventional techniques previously
described
2. System operation is also observed including power

consumption and electrode corrosion.
188
7.00 MAINTENANCE OF GROUNDWATER CONTROL SYSTEMS
IN COMPLETED TUNNELS
7.10 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES TO REDUCE MAINTENANCE
Any of the waterproofing systems previusly discussed in

this report could be successfully used alone if appropriate
for the underground conditions and construction methods, and
if ideally applied. "Ideal" application is usually not achieved
because working conditions underground are not ideal, materials
do not always meet specifications, and supervision of the work
is less than perfect. Therefore, for a "completely dry" tunnel,
a backup waterproofing system should be included in the design.
This is particularly advisable if the structure will be at consider-
able depth, in a highly pervius aquifer, or covered with surface
structures.
Providing two waterproofing barriers to the groundwater

increases the cost and the time of construction. Rigid specifica-
tions and capable supervision also increase cost and construction
time. Therefore, the consideration of less stringent construction
controls with a backup waterproofing system added should be
examined
7.20 NORMAL MAINTENANCE PROGRAM
The heart of the normal maintenance program for the water-

tightness of a tunnel is efficient monitoring procedures based
on regular inspection. If no program is established, workers
inspecting or maintaining track, will probably not report water
until it inconveniences them in their work.
7.21 Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance is particularly valuable and necessary

in bolted segmented linings. Bolts are not corrosion-resistant
except in unusual circumstances. They are expected to corrode
and replacement will be necessary. The routine inspection reports
should include comments on the conditions of the bolts, nuts,
washers, and grommets. This should be done by spot checking
with special comment on those items near areas where leakage
is occurring. Then, at the convenient time, a work crew could
replace the bolts, nuts, washers, and grommets in the deteriorating
areas and reseat the caulking, if necessary, preventing water
infiltration.
Caulking in the joints may also be monitored in a similar

way.
189
If monitoring is not done, a regular maintenance crew
should periodically patrol the tunnel correcting sealant deficiencies
as they are noticed.
Another item for preventive maintenance inspection is

the interior coating of fabricated steel segments, if exposed.
If this coating deteriorates, the steel is exposed to the corrosive
environment of the tunnel and over a period of many years could
deteriorate to the point of failure. Re-coating need not be
done frequently, but when large areas show damage to the interior
protective coating, the coating should be restored.
7.22 Monitoring Leakage
In general, it is impractical to repair every small moisture

intrusion or minor drip when first observed. It is usually
more economical to wait until a number of small leaks or a major
leak is noted. Frequently, small leaks heal by solidification
of material carried by the seeping water.
Transportation tunnels are customarily inspected routinely

for general condition and operational adequacy. During these
routine inspections, any sign of water leakage should be described
in the insepction report. Of course, if the flow is large,
immediate notification of the maintenance manager should be
made. Also noted in the report should be the absence or presence
of soil in the water.
The amount of flow in litres/day or gallons per hour is

difficult to estimate without considerable experience. The
inspectors who would observe leakage while performing their
other inspecting duties may not be trained for that sort of
determination. For this reason, a scale of descriptive leakage
should be established to give a certain uniformity to the reports
of all inspectors. This could be similar to that prepared by
CIRIA and quoted in Section 1 of Volume 2. These should be
keyed to common experience. A suggested list is given.
1. Visible shiny water film, possibly dripping slightly,

affecting an area less than lm
2. Constant seepage from a narrow crack
3. Sheet flow from area less than lm
4. Sheet flow from area more than lm
5. Flow more than a faucet leak but less than garden

hose flow
190
6. Crack or joint flow equivalent to moderate garden
hose flow or more. Notify maintenance manager immediately
Particular attention should be paid to leaks that increase

since this indicates increasing deterioration of the waterproofing
system and the possibility of imminent structural damage. Any
indication of soil in the flow indicates loss of ground and
possible strength decreases. This decrease in strength may
result in a shift in load distribution on the tunnel lining
producing stresses unanticipated at the time of design. A decrease
in flow may indicate that the groundwater was depositing soil
particles or precipitated chemicals in the cracks and pores
and the integrity of the watertightness might eventually be
restored
Consecutive inspection reports should be compared as they

are received and if an individual leak becomes significantly
larger, a new large leak appears, or if leaks in one area are
becoming more numerous or have remained about the same size
for a long period of time, maintenance procedures should be
started and all significant leaks and leaks of long duration
should be repaired. Of coarse, if a large leak is reported
that needs immediate attention, consideration should be given
to repairing all leaks at that time.
Another means of determining the presence of significant

leakage into a tunnel is to maintain a record of the output
of the sump pumps. If dry weather output is significant, it
is obvious that water is flowing into the area of the tunnel
that feeds the pump. If no washing or other water producing
work is being done in that area, it must be checked for leaks.
This program is likely to flag only large individual leaks or
numerous smaller ones. The drainage system, including the sump
pumps, has been designed for anticipated maximum flows from
water entering through stations and tunnel entrances during
inclement weather. If pump output exceeds this appreciably,
the tunnel should be checked for leakage.
7.23 Repair Methods
One repair method that is useful in many situations is

to inject particulate or chemical grout into the ground surrounding
the tunnel. The characteristics of the soil determine the most
useful type of grout, as discussed in Section 5.50. A grouting
system is then chosen, holes are drilled through the leaking
areas into the ground mass, and grout is injected until the
leaking stops as described in Section 5.22. Usually there will
be enough information from the tunnel construction phase that
191
a group of grouting systems for routine maintenance can be estab-
lished for the major formations surrounding the tunnel. These
would be used unless leakage is catastrophic or cannot be controlled
by the specified system. Then it would be necessary to resort
to the assistance of a grouting expert and a soil investigation.
The applied waterproofing membranes that are in sheet

form cannot normally be replaced or repaired under wet conditions.
For these materials, it is generally best to inject grout behind
the waterproofing if soil conditions permit. Unfortunately,
the location of the leak in the membrane may be some distance
from the appearance of water within the tunnel. The water may
travel long distances between the waterproofing membrane and
the structural or inner tunnel lining before leaking through
a porous place in the inner lining. Therefore, several injections
may be needed before the leakage is eliminated.
The maintenance of bentonite envelope waterproofing is

usually not difficult. Small leaks heal themselves by the movement
of the bentonite gel into the cracks through which the water
flows. For major leaks, bentonite slurry is injected through
as hole drilled at the location of the leak. Then the drilled
hole can be sealed with a hydraulic cement plug and the tunnel
will again be leak-free.
One of the advantages of cementitious waterproof coatings

is that leaks, if they occur, are localized right where they
come through. They can be repaired easily by a reapplication
of the waterproofing coating on the cleaned and roughened existing
surface even though wet.
Where chemical or particulate grouting of the ground mass

has been used as the primary groundwater control method, regrouting
will usually suffice to stop the leak.
If the means of controlling groundwater is permanent lowering

of the groundwater table by drainage, and leakage occurs, the
drainage system must be checked and if flow is lower than its
capacity -any clogging of the system must be cleaned out.
,
If
the flow is near full capacity, a source of unanticipated water
supply must be sought and controlled by some other means.
If the interior caulking between segments loosens, all

that is required is that it be reinstalled. Since this caulking
is most frequently lead, a small air hammer does the job. Some
additional lead may be required to make the joint completely
watertight again.
192
In sunken tubes, the section joints are the most probable
locations for leaks. These are usually inaccessible since the
exterior is usually covered by a clay or concrete blanket and
the interior by concrete lining or architectural finish, and
the grouting of the blanket is the most usable means of restoring
water tightness.
7.30 UNUSUAL MAINTENANCE
Unusual maintenance is required when neglect has caused

major deterioration of the tunnel, differential settlement has
occurred, the lining has been damaged by a major fire in the
tunnel, or there has been some other occurrence which jeopardizes
the integrity of the tunnel.
When a fire occurs in a tunnel, it may produce cracks

or porosity in the tunnel lining material; warp or crack metal
segmented linings, open the seams or destroy the integrity of
the waterproofing over an extensive area without a collapse
of the tunnel. Portions of the tunnel linings that have been
damaged must be replaced. If the integrity of the waterproofing
has been breached, it would probably be difficult or impractical
to replace. Extensive grouting of the soil outside may be necessary.
If deterioration of the tunnel lining has progressed until

there is such strength loss that the lining fails structurally
or if earth movements cause major cracks or breaks in the lining,
water inflow will be the maximum which can flow through the
exposed ground formation. "Maintenance" then becomes major
structural repair. To accomplish this work, the tunnel must
be dewatered. This can frequently be done using the same methods
as were used during the construction period.
If the means of preventing water infiltration during con-

struction was compressed air, the damaged section can be cut
off from the rest of the tunnel with temporary bulkheads and
pressurized until the restoration work has been completed.
If slurry walls were used as water control, it is sometimes
possible to box the area around the damaged tunnel with slurry
walls or slurry cutoff walls, dewater, replace the original
slurry wall with formed concrete, and replace the interior tunnel
finish. Sheet piles, especially if grouted, can be used in
lieu of slurry wall. If the tunnel had been built by cut-and-cover
methods it may be possible to reach the affected area from ground
level. Local ground freezing may be employed under appropriate
conditions even though it may not have been used in the original
construction.
193
A versatile tool for stopping the flow of groundwater
into a damaged tunnel is quick-setting injection grout.
Construction procedures for rebuilding the damaged section

would be similar to the construction procedures used for the
original tunnel.
194
8.00 LEGAL AND CONTRACTUAL CONSIDERATIONS
8.10 CONTRACT DOCUMENT

The objective of contract documents for a tunneling project
should be to achieve a desired result at minimum cost for the
project through the proper sharing of the risks associated with
groundwater control.
8.11 Basic Elements
The documents provide the contractual framework for tunnel

construction, set the context for price determination as well
as for the execution of the work. The contract documents are
the primary tool for control of contingency costs, especially
with regard to groundwater control. The means by which this
control can be effected through contract documents include the
following
1. Disclosure of all subsurface exploration data, both

factual and interpretive. This should be done, whatever
the scope of the exploratory and testing programs.
The contractor's ability to anticipate groundwater
control problems is directly related to the amount
of information available to him. Further, the cost
of the project is only increased if the contractor
must gather his own information in order to duplicate
data already obtained, but withheld from bidders,
by the Owner.
2. A clear statement of the responsibility of the contractor

for groundwater control should be couched in terms
of practical, realistic results to be achieved. Further,
there should be a clear definition of the means of
measurement by which the achievement of these results
will be determined.
3. There should be a minimum limitation placed on the

bidders' ingenuity to produce the specified results.
There should be procedural provisions to exclude unskilled
or inadequate consideration of groundwater problems
in bidding and to demonstrate in advance of the tunneling
that system designs are competent, that systems performance
is adequate, and that appropriate monitoring will
be done as the work progresses.
195
—
4. Payment provisions should allow for fair compensation

for groundwater control activities, but without an
incentive to unnecessarily expand this element of
the work, such as through unit prices for quantity
of water or grout pumped or for additional wells.
5. There should be a change mechanism for accomodating

unanticipated aspects of groundwater control Because
.
monitoring of the dewatering activity can provide

early warning of such conditions, it is an important
consideration in controlling the adverse effects of
changed groundwater circumstances. For these reasons,
an owner designed and operated groundwater monitoring
system may prove to be a good investment in minimizing
these effects.
6. Whether the change mechanism is through a changed

condition clause, or some other procedural feature
of the contract, the contract documents should clearly
describe its features. The amount of price increase
in bids caused by contingencies will be directly influenced
by how well the bidders understand how unanticipated
groundwater conditions will be identified and how
the costs of their resolution will be compensated.
8.12 Execution
Once it is decided how much of a groundwater control design

will be specified and how much will be left to the option of
the contractor, it is necessary to accurately convey this information
in the contract documents. The specif icatons must be written
in a way which clearly state what is required of the contractor
for performing groundwater control. The specifications should
also convey how the performance of this groundwater control
system will be measured. By knowing what is exactly required
of him and also upon what basis the performance of the groundwater
control system will be measured, the contractor will have the
best chance of designing a system which will perform as specified.
Sometimes such a partial specification takes the form

of the Owner soliciting a lump sum price bid for additional
wells as they may be required. The procedure has some merit,
but in practice difficulties often developed. In variable soils
the number of wells required is often a function of the contractor's
skill in conditions encountered, and in selecting the most favorable
sites for wells. It is not in the Owner's interest to have
given the contractor an incentive to construct as many wells
as possible.
196
An alternative procedure is for the Owner to design and
specify a minimum dewatering system that the contractor must
install. The responsibility for the adequacy of the system,
and the cost of any supplementary effort required, remains with
the contractor. The advantages claimed for the method are several.
It assures that a reasonable dewatering effort will be made
in advance of excavation. In the course of installing the minimum
system, an experienced contractor can develop data to help him
gage the necessity of supplemental work. The minimum system
approach avoids the confusing division of responsibility for
groundwater control and it also reduces the possibility that
an inexperienced contractor will attempt the work with unsuitable
methods.
If part of the groundwater control system is specified,

it is necessary that the anticipated performance of the system
is accurately spelled out, e.g. definition of groundwater levels
to be acheived or working conditions. The contractor must know
the extent of groundwater control to be provided by the design
system, and how much additional control he is responsible for
maintaining. By eliminating any ambiguity and overlap of responsi-
bility, contingencies supporting this uncertainy can be eliminated
from the bid price.
When conditions indicate that more than one groundwater

control method is capable of providing the satisfactory result,
a groundwater control method should not be specified in the
contract documents. If a groundwater control method is specified,
a statement to the effect that alternate methods of groundwater
control are allowed should be included. This allows for ingenuity
in groundwater control and also produces the lowest competitive
bid. In this case, it is necessary to state exactly what the
groundwater control system is required to do and also how its
performance will be measured. If the contractor is allowed
to design his own groundwater control system, full disclosure
of all technical information should be contained in the contract
documents.
One of the objectives of specifications is to protect

the Owner from unrealistic pricing of bids as a result of inadequate
or unskilled approaches to groundwater control. A procedure
which has proven successful in this regard is the two-stage
submittal. Prior to beginning work, the contractor submits
to the engineer for review a detailed plan of his proposed dewatering
system. Review by the engineer does not relieve the contractor
of his responsibility for the adequacy of the system, but it
does provide the engineer with an indication of the thoroughness
with which the contractor is anticipating the control of groundwater.
During the construction of the dewatering system the contractor,
in accordance with good practice, will be making observations
and conducting tests to evaluate the underground conditions.
197
This information will be much more complete than that available
at the bid and may suggest substantial design modification of
the final design. Hence, a second submittal is more meaningful.
After completion of the dewatering system installation and prior
to the start of tunneling, the ocntractor again submits a detailed
plan of the dewatering system as constructed, together with
test data and computations demonstrating that the system is
capable of achieving the specified results. This second submittal
therefore forces the discovery of pertinent supplementary information
and through the demonstration of results in advance of tunneling,
minimizes the risks of interrupted production and other costs
associated with unanticipated groundwater problems.
8.20 ALLOCATION OF RISK
For the purpose of this discussion, risk is defined as

the potential for harm, damage, or other adverse effect, all
of which may be measured in terms of added cost of the toal
tunneling projected. Avoidance of risk has, in the recent years,
become an increaingly popular concept throughout our society
and commerce. But some level of risks resides in any undertaking.
Construction has been described as the most complex activity
routinely undertaken by man. Risk is embodied in the natural
environment of the construction activity and in the human procresses
involved (principally communications). The complexity of the
construction activity accentuates the risk inherent in communication
(disputes, claims, etc.).
Tunneling is perhaps the most complex construction activity

occurring in the underground, a high-risk environment. This
peculiar concentration of risk potential is a forceful background
for considering how to allocate equitable shares of the risk
to the participants in a tunneling project.
A summation of the elements of current practice can be

organized from this perspective, considering three principals
in the tunneling enterprise (Owner, Engineer, Contractor) and
dividing the potential risks into three topical categories (environ-
mental or site^related communications-related, and procedural)
,
as follows:
8.21 Environmental
The site-related risks are generally considered to be

the responsibility of the Owner. In othe words, the Owner assumes
these risks when the tunnel alignment was determined. In groundwater
terms, the risks involve the adverse effects of groundwater
control problems and from the adverse effects of groundwater
control upon third parties. The risk control techniques that
have been found to be most effective are as follows:
198
1. A technically adequate investment in subsurface exploration
prior to design and bidding;
2. Full disclosure of the results of subsurface explora-

tions in the bidding documents
3. The provision of a change mechanism, such as a changed-

conditions clause in the contract documents, perhaps
with its effectiveness enhanced by an owner-designed
monitoring system.
8.22 Communcations
Most of the risks associated with disputes over division

of responsibility, interpretation of contractual provision,
appropriateness of changes in procedure, etc., are fundamentally
manifestations of communication deficiencies. After he has
completed his technical design tasks, the Engineer's primary
role is that of communicator. Hence this category of risks
is best controlled by the Engineer through such devices as:
1. Disclosure of basic design intent and concepts.
2. Proper definitive specifications, as discussed in

earlier sections of this report.
3. Review of the technical aspects of the Contractor's

groundwater control program so as to insure not only
technical adequacy but the thoroughness of consideration
as we 1 1
4. An effective program of continuous monitoring throughout

the project.
8.23 Procedural
This category of risks is mostly closely related to the

Contractor, whose proper role is to assess the groundwater problem
and effect solutions within the limits of the data available,
and hence to monitor groundwater conditions so as to anticipate
the need for modifications before tunneling progress is affected.
Accordingly, the risks generally fall into the category of increased
costs associated with delays, and unreimbursable costs. These
cost elements are often a second layer of cost added to the
contingency prices already included in the bid items in order
to accomodate uncertainty in the basic informaiton available
at the time of bidding. The techniques available to the Contractor
for the control of these risks are as follows:
199
1. A competent program of exploraton, testing and design
so as to develop the least expensive and most flexible
groundwater control system.
2. The conscientious pursuit of an adequate program of

groundwater moritoring after the intial system has
been installed.
3. The utilization of the contact provisions for changes

in compensation in connection with unanticipated ground-
water conditions.
From this perspective, it is evident that the concept

of allocating risks must be based on two equally important concepts;
who is in the most effective position to mitigate a particular
variety of risk, as well as who is equitably responsible for
the costs involved? The advantage of considering the concept
from this viewpoint is to make more evident the fact that the
process of risk allocation involves responsibility for action
(mitigation) as well as reaction (compensation). Much has been
done in consideration of the reactive aspects of the concept.
However, it is likely that the total cost of the project would
be significantly reduced if equal attention were addressed to
the responsibility of the various parties to take action to
control risk and to concentrate on providing incentives for
such action.
8.30 SAMPLES OF CURRENT PRACTICE IN SPECIFYING CONTROL METHODS

FOR PERMANENT STRUCTURES
To sample current practice of tunnel groundwater protection

methods several dozen individual transportation and other tunnel
contract specif iciat ions were reviewed. Three tables have been
prepared showing the basic type of structure, waterproofing
and other control methods specified, maximum allowable leakage
(where specified) and specified treatment of tunnel leakage.
There is one table each for cut-and-cover structures, (Table
17) soft groumd tunnel structures, (Table 18) and rock tunnel
structures (Table 19). Tunnels from seven rapid transit systems
comprise most of the entries, but tunnels from four other local
and federal agencies are also presented. Each table is presented
in reverse chronological order with the more recent projects
listed first. Because of the amount of data and variety of
water protection methods used, it was impractical to list all
data in a single page format. Tunnel linings, water protection
methods, and joint treatments are detailed on a second sheet
of each table and letter-coded for use in the table, as applicable
to each tunnel project. Where alternate protection methods are
>00
allowed by specification, all are listed. Most agencies will
permit substitution of contractor-proposed alternate protection
methods provided the contractor and/or the material manufacturer
can prove, through tests or performance records of previous
installations, that it is equivalent to the method specified.
8.31 Cut-and-Cover Structures
Sample specification summaries of methods for controlling

groundwater in cut-and-cover underground structures are given
in Table 17. Although not specifically listed as a waterproofing
method, many of the structures listed rely to a large extent
on thick, good quality concrete walls and slabs as a primary
deterrent to water intrusion. The required membrances are more
of a secondary defense to keep water from any shrinkage cracks
or other cracks that might develop. The concrete box structures
are highly stable, water resistant structures if the concrete
is placed properly and any minor defects are corrected.
The exception to this, as mentioned in Section 3, is the

line section of the New York City Transit Authority. Built
as a composite structure of structural steel bents at 5-foot
(1.5 m) centers with unreinforced concrete between, this structure
specification requires a stringent waterproofing membrane of
brick in asphaltic mastic and built-up asphalt ply membrane
Although the concrete specifications are as exacting as other
agencies, the steel-concrete interfaces are difficult to bond
completely and allow possible leakage. Thus, it is necessary
to rely on more severe waterproofing measures, which, though
relatively expensive, have proved effective over many years
of use.
The other waterproofing methods specified cover a range

of membrane materials including built-up asphalt membrances,
with or without reinforcing, butyl rubber, and bentonite panels.
There is no apparent trend in the use of materials for the years
covered and they more likely reflect the preference of the designers
and the locations of the project. One WMATA specification requires
merely damproofing, and one on MARTA requires no waterproofing
except at joints. Most require membranes on the roof or roof
and sides only, relying on a heavy base slab, needed to counteract
buoyancy to be sufficiently water resistant.
Most structures require PVC waterstop at joints, but some

specify bentonite in niches with bentonite panels covering the
outer concrete face at the joint. The Edmonton station specifica-
tions required a metal waterstop.
201
Only on the BART system were specific allowable leakage
requirements given. All specifications called for leakage repair
but only a few designated specific remedies of injecting bentonite
slurry or epoxy.
8.32 Soft Ground Tunnel Structures
Sample soft ground tunnel specifications on groundwater

control methods are given in Table 18. While the majority of
cut-and-cover structures are cast-in-place reinforced concrete,
this is not necessarily so in soft ground tunnels. There are
a number of possible ground support/lining combinations, which
may affect the type of waterproofing or sealing methods that
can be used. Specified primary and secondary lining (and possible
alternates) are listed in code as are the specified waterproofing
measures. A list of code definitions is given on the second
sheet of Table 18.
Of the seven tunnels listed five are rapid transit line

tunnels and two are sewer main tunnels. Three have cast-in-place
concrete linings specified, three have segmented linings specified,
and the seventh has several alternate possible linings. The
three tunnels with segmented linings are transit tunnels and
have a partial concrete lining of invert and walkway only.
In general, grouting is required outside the lining, and between
the primary lining and concrete on projects where there is a
full concrete lining.
Cast-in-place linings require PVC or copper waterstop

at the joints although the contractor on the New York Subway
project received approval to omit the copper waterstop and provide
remedial grouting where required instead. Those projects calling
for steel segmented linings required protective coatings inside
and outside. Most segmented linings additionally required plastic
grommets for connecting bolts and caulking between segments.
On the Baltimore tunnel a joint sealant was specified in lieu
of caulking.
Where the -allowable leakage permitted in the transit tunnels

was specified, it was comparable to those given for cut-and-cover
structures in Table 17. The allowable leakage given for the
San Francisco sewer tunnel was about eight times that allowed
for transit tunnels. Leakage treatment requirements were also
comparable to those for cut-and-cover tunnels, consisting of
pressure grouting, bentonite slurry, or epoxy injection.
8.33 Rock Tunnel Structures
Table 19 gives sample specifications for groundwater control

in completed rock tunnel structures. As in the case of driven
soft ground tunnels, the primary and secondary linings of rock
202
tunnels may have an effect on the choice of groundwater control
measures. While a number of the tunnels researched has alternate
primary lining choices, they all specified cast-in-place concrete
secondary linings. Though some segmented linings have been
built in rock tunnels, there are very few and these have been
discussed in Section 4 of this report.
All tunnels specified consolidation grouting of rock (where

required) and contact grouting of the secondary lining. Most
required waterstops for joints although some called for bituminous,
sponge rubber, or paraplastic fillers. The Melbourne Underground
Rail Loop Authority (MURLA) rapid transit projects required
plastic grommets for bolts and caulking for those sections using
steel liner plastes as a primary lining. The New York Subway
tunnels in rock did not required any waterproofing for the inverts
which were relatively thin slabs. Weep holes in the invert were
specified with the tunnel drainage system designed to take the
anticipated leakage.
The only tunnel specification in this group to designate

an allowable leakage was the MURLA rapid transit. It is interesting
to note that this requirement was considerably more severe than
those given in U.S. rapid transit tunnels in the previous tables.
Those specifications that gave particular requirements for leakage
treatment mentioned grouting, repairing or replacing portions
not watertight.
203
9.00 RECOMMENDED AREAS FOR ADDITIONAL STUDY
9.10 OVERVIEW
Most groundwater control methods employed during construction
have been practiced for many years and are well understood.
Possible exceptions to this general statement include the newer
specialized soft ground shields, certain grouting techniques,
and ground freezing. For groundwater control in completed tunnels,
the basic methods, i.e. high quality concrete, grouting and
some of the older applied membrane methods are well understood,
however, certain technical details do require further study,
such as use of the newer membrane materials and certain gasketing
materials and details.
Groundwater control, both during construction and in completed

structures, continues to be much of an art and this situation
will probably continue for the foreseeable future. Advances
will probably be made in small steps through method variations
on individual projects and case history information will, therefore,
be invaluable to the advancement of the state of practice.
Engineers must be encouraged to publish detailed, yet concise,
case histories of successful and unsuccessful applications of
groundwater control methods. It is particularly important to
publish those case histories where significant problems were
encountered, and it could be said that first attempts at groundwater
control failed.
During the course of this investigation, numerous individuals

involved with groundwater control in the tunneling were interviewed.
Based on these discussions plus the experience of the principal
authors, areas for potentially fruitful additional study were
identified
9.20 SPECIALTY CONTRACTOR INVOLVEMENT IN DESIGN
Much groundwater control is practiced by specialty contractors

who are not generally consulted in detail during the design
process because of potential conflicts due to vested interests
in a particular method. Detailed consultation with specialty
contractors during the design process, including the development
of project specifications and contract provisions, can be extremely
helpful. It is believed that with the proper use of available
expertise, significant savings and smoother running contracts
can be realized. Detailed study of fair contractual mechanisms
which permit a specialty contractor to participate in design,
yet not be excluded from bidding, needs to be conducted, supplemented
with case studies.
204
9.30 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
There also needs to be continuing study to make both designers

and contractors aware of new, innovative groundwater control
methods and what they can accomplish. Many smaller tunnel projects,
i.e. tunnels on the order of 8 to 12 feet (2.4 to 3.6m) in diameter,
are built by medium sized to small contractors who, rather than
trying an innovative method, will fight the water with resultant
loss of ground and surface settlement. Designers should identify
anticipated groundwater problems in the contract documents and
require the contractor to take a positive approach to the problem
rather than just allowing him to fight it.
9.40 PRE-QUALIFICATION
There needs to be additional studies of the advisability

of developing specification language which would prevent unqualified
contractors from attempting tunnel constuction under difficult
groundwater conditions, and which would also prevent unqualified
subcontractors from attempting specialty techniques. Development
of fair and equitable prequalif ication provisions can be difficult
to achieve. It is felt that publication of case studies of
where it has been attempted plus discussion with both engineers
and contactors would prove enlightening in this regard.
9.50 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
Improved subsurface exploration is a continuing area of

study in the tunnel industry. It is recommended that a study
be considered to identify that information which is most meaningful
to contractors for evaluation of groundwater control. It is
not believed that major new exploratory techniques need to be
studied, but rather the information which it typically provided
to contractors can be reviewed and contractors interviewed in
a systematic manner to identify a general perception of what
information is most useful and whether or not there needs to
be additional information of a particular kind provided.
9.60 IMPROVED GROUTING TECHNIQUES
Areas which are being studied in some detail in the grouting

industry include development of more economical chemical grouts
such as economical silica grouts plus monitoring of grout migration
and the effectiveness of grouting programs. Several techniques
have been tried, including various geophysical methods. One
of the most promising at this time is the accoustic emission
technique. It is suggested that this work continue and that
it is an area for fruitful additional research.
205
9.70 APPLICABILITY OF SLURRY AND EARTH PRESSURE BALANCE SHIELDS
The new soft ground shields, i.e. slurry and earth pressure
balance shields, have been used extensively in Japan and to
a lesser degree in Germany, England, and the United States.
While there has been considerable work done primarily by the
Japanese on the development of this equipment, there is still
some concern relative to evaluation of proper ground conditions
under which each type of shield works most effectively. In
particular, the optimum conditions for slurry or earth pressure
balance shields are different and additional work is required
to more clearly define these optimum conditions. This is an
area for further study with much of it again being involved
through case history information.
9.80 SUITABILITY OF GROUNDWATER CONTROL METHODS IN COMPLETED

TUNNELS
This is an area where there is probably not a need for

major new research or development of new techniques. Rather,
the most productive area of study would be to conduct a systematic
evaluation of these methods in common use today and their effective-
ness. It is suggested that case studies of groundwater control
methods commonly used in the United States be prepared and that
the information be presented in a very concise format with proper
references to allow readers to obtain specific details on each
method if desired.
206
«U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1982 522-046/8509 1-3
o ,__
rt-^ m
C O 3 >
3 c -J >
D 3 LTi ro
co a •
h- X < >
m. ai • U:
3 ct UJ
O CD D
_J >. \l^ _ ^ O
FEDERALLY COORDINATED PROGRAM (FCP) OF HIGHWAY
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
The Offices of Research and Development (R&D) of the quality of the human environment. The goals
the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) are are reduction of adverse highway and traffic
responsible for a broad program of staff and contract impacts, and protection and enhancement of the
research and development and a Federal-aid environment.
program, conducted by or through the State highway
transportation agencies, that includes the Highway 4. Improved Materials Utilization and
Planning and Research (HP&R) program and the Durability
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Materials R&D is concerned with expanding the
(NCHRP) managed by the Transportation Research knowledge and technology of materials properties,
Board. The FCP is a carefully selected group of proj- using available natural materials, improving struc-
ects that uses research and development resources to
tural foundation materials, recycling highway
obtain timely solutions to urgent national highway materials, converting industrial wastes into useful
engineering problems.* highway products, developing extender or
The diagonal double stripe on the cover of this report substitute materials for those in short supply, and
represents a highway and is color-coded to identify developing more rapid and reliable testing
the FCP category that the report falls under. A red procedures. The goals are lower highway con-
stripe is used for category 1, dark blue for category 2, struction costs and extended maintenance-free
light blue for category 3, brown for category 4, gray operation.
for category 5, green for categories 6 and 7, and an 5. Improved Design to Reduce Costs, Extend
orange stripe identifies category 0.
Life Expectancy, and Insure Structural
FCP Category Descriptions Safety
1. Improved Highway Design and Operation Structural R&D is concerned with furthering the
for Safety
latest technological advances in structural and
hydraulic designs, fabrication processes, and
Safety R&D addresses problems associated with
construction techniques to provide safe, efficient
the responsibilities of the FHWA under the
highways at reasonable costs.
Highway Safety Act and includes investigation of
appropriate design standards, roadside hardware, 6. Improved Technology for Highway
signing, and physical and scientific data for the Construction
formulation of improved safety regulations. This category is concerned with the research,
development, and implementation of highway
2. Reduction of Traffic Congestion, and
construction technology to increase productivity,
Improved Operational Efficiency
reduce energy consumption, conserve dwindling
Traffic R&D is concerned with increasing the
resources, and reduce costs while improving the
operational efficiency of existing highways by
quality and methods of construction.
advancing technology, by improving designs for
existing as well as new facilities, and by balancing 7. Improved Technology for Highway
the demand-capacity relationship through traffic Maintenance
management techniques such as bus and carpool This category addresses problems in preserving
preferential treatment, motorist information, and the Nation's highways and includes activities in
rerouting of traffic. physical maintenance, traffic services, manage-
3. Environmental Considerations in Highway ment, and equipment. The goal is to maximize
Design, Location, Construction, and Opera- operational efficiency and safety to the traveling
tion public while conserving resources.
Environmental R&D is directed toward identify- 0. Other New Studies

ing and evaluating highway elements that affect This category, not included in the seven-volume
* The complete seven-volume official statement of the FCP is available from
official statement of the FCP, is concerned with
the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va. 22161. Single HP&R and NCHRP studies not specifically related
copies of the introductory volume are available without charge from Program
Analysis (HRD-3), Offices of Research and Development, Federal Highway to FCP projects. These studies involve R&D
Administration, Washington, D.C. 20590. support of other FHWA program office research.
DOT LIBRARY

Dot 30334 DS1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Dot 30334 DS1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dot 30334 DS1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

It

662 sport No. FHWA/RD-81/075

Vol. 3. Recommended Practice

U.S. Department of Transportation

Offices of Research & Development

This volume summarizes the authors' recommendations for controlling groundwater

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the Department of

This report does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation.

The United States Government does not endorse products or manufacturers.

I. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.

VOL. 3 - Recommended Practice April 1982

8. Performing Organization Report No.

J.D. Guertin, W.H. McTigue 2211

Goldberg-Zoino & Associates, Inc. 35B1-112

12. Sponsoring Agency Nome ond Address FINAL

The final chapter of this volume is a discussion and recommendations

Three companion volumes include:

ume 1 : Groundwater Control Systems for Urban

17. Key Words 18. Distribution Statement

Groundwater Control No Restrictions. Document is available

Unclassified Unclassified 220

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized

This is Volume 3 of a three-volume series devoted to ground-

Volume 1 discusses methods for controlling groundwater

Volume 3 is a compilation of Volumes 1 and 2 into a concise

The work has been sponsored by the Federal Highway Adminis-

Individuals outside of the performing organizations who gave

Mr. Robert S. Mayo - Robert S. Mayo & Associates,

Mr. Richard Redmond - MacLean Grove & Company,

Mr. Joseph Bhore - Perini Corporation,

Mr. John A. Shuster - Geofreeze,

Mr. Robert M. Snyder - Tekken Construction Co. Ltd.,

Mr. Joseph Welch - Hayward Baker Co.,

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

LIST OF TABLES xiii

APPLICABLE SI UNIT CONVERSIONS xiv

2.00 EVALUATION OF SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS 2

3.00 METHOD SELECTION 13

4.00 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF GROUNDWATER 34

4.30 CUT OFFS 49

4.90.8 EXAMPLE 8 - BORED TUNNEL IN 127

5.00 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF SYSTEMS TO PREVENT 139

6.00 MAINTENANCE, AND MONITORING CONSIDERATIONS 181

7.00 MAINTENANCE OF GROUNDWATER CONTROL SYSTEMS 189

8.00 LEGAL AND CONTRACTUAL CONSIDERATIONS 195

9.00 RECOMMENDED AREAS FOR ADDITIONAL STUDY 204

9.70 APPLICABILITY OF SLURRY AND EARTH 206

Figure No. Title ; Page

1 Flow Chart for Use of Selection Matrices 14

2 Legend Applicable to Method Selection 15

3 Notes Applicable to Method Selection 16

4 Groundwater Control Method Selection 17

5 Groundwater Control Method Selection 18

6 Method Selection Matrices for Pressure 19

7a Typical Pumping Test Array 36

7b Field Permeability Test Methods 37

8 Typical Deep Well 40